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best_zeroshot_oasum_chunk

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Cauchy elastic material

F o r m a l l y , a m a t e r i a l i s s a i d t o b e C a u c h y - e l a s t i c i f t h e C a u c h y s t r e s s t e n s o r f o r m u l a _ 1 i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s t r a i n t e n s o r ( d e f o r m a t i o n g r a d i e n t ) f o r m u l a _ 2 a l o n e : f o r m u l a _ 3 T h i s d e f i n i t i o n a s s u m e s t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e c a n b e i g n o r e d , a n d t h e b o d y i s h o m o g e n e o u s . T h i s i s t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e e q u a t i o n f o r a C a u c h y - e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l . N o t e t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n f o r m u l a _ 4 d e p e n d s o n t h e c h o i c e o f r e f e r e n c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n . T y p i c a l l y , t h e r e f e r e n c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s t a k e n a s t h e r e l a x e d ( z e r o - s t r e s s ) c o n f i g u r a t i o n , b u t n e e d n o t b e . M a t e r i a l f r a m e - i n d i f f e r e n c e r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n f o r m u l a _ 4 s h o u l d n o t c h a n g e w h e n t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e o b s e r v e r c h a n g e s . T h e r e f o r e t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e e q u a t i o n f o r a n o t h e r a r b i t r a r y o b s e r v e r c a n b e w r i t t e n f o r m u l a _ 6 . K n o w i n g t h a t t h e C a u c h y s t r e s s t e n s o r f o r m u l a _ 7 a n d t h e d e f o r m a t i o n g r a d i e n t f o r m u l a _ 8 a r e o b j e c t i v e q u a n t i t i e s , o n e c a n w r i t e : f o r m u l a _ 9 w h e r e f o r m u l a _ 1 0 i s a p r o p e r o r t h o g o n a l t e n s o r . T h e a b o v e i s a c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e l a w f o r m u l a _ 1 1 h a s t o r e s p e c t t o m a k e s u r e t h a t t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e m a t e r i a l w i l l b e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e o b s e r v e r . S i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s c a n b e d e r i v e d f o r c o n s t i t u t i v e l a w s r e l a t i n g t h e d e f o r m a t i o n g r a d i e n t t o t h e f i r s t o r s e c o n d P i o l a - K i r c h h o f f s t r e s s t e n s o r . F o r a n i s o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l t h e C a u c h y s t r e s s t e n s o r f o r m u l a _ 1 c a n b e e x p r e s s e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e l e f t C a u c h y - G r e e n t e n s o r f o r m u l a _ 1 3 . T h e c o n s t i t u t i v e e q u a t i o n m a y t h e n b e w r i t t e n : f o r m u l a _ 1 4 I n o r d e r t o f i n d t h e r e s t r i c t i o n o n f o r m u l a _ 1 5 w h i c h w i l l e n s u r e t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m a t e r i a l f r a m e - i n d i f f e r e n c e , o n e c a n w r i t e : f o r m u l a _ 1 6 A c o n s t i t u t i v e e q u a t i o n t h a t r e s p e c t s t h e a b o v e c o n d i t i o n i s s a i d t o b e i s o t r o p i c . E v e n t h o u g h t h e s t r e s s i n a C a u c h y - e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l d e p e n d s o n l y o n t h e s t a t e o f d e f o r m a t i o n , t h e w o r k d o n e b y s t r e s s e s m a y d e p e n d o n t h e p a t h o f d e f o r m a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e a C a u c h y e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l i n g e n e r a l h a s a n o n - c o n s e r v a t i v e s t r u c t u r e , a n d t h e s t r e s s c a n n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e d e r i v e d f r o m a s c a l a r " e l a s t i c p o t e n t i a l " f u n c t i o n . M a t e r i a l s t h a t a r e c o n s e r v a t i v e i n t h i s s e n s e a r e c a l l e d h y p e r e l a s t i c o r " G r e e n - e l a s t i c " .

Mathematical definition

A material is considered Cauchy-elastic if its Cauchy stress tensor is solely dependent on the strain tensor (deformation gradient). This definition assumes homogeneity and ignores temperature effects. The constitutive equation must respect material frame-indifference, meaning it remains unchanged under different observer perspectives. Isotropic materials have a specific form of the constitutive equation, ensuring independence from observer orientation. Cauchy-elastic materials generally exhibit non-conservative behavior, unlike hyperelastic materials which derive stress from an elastic potential function.

Formally, a material is said to be Cauchy-elastic if the Cauchy stress tensor formula_1 is a function of the strain tensor (deformation gradient) formula_2 alone: formula_3 This definition assumes that the effect of temperature can be ignored, and the body is homogeneous. This is the constitutive equation for a Cauchy-elastic material. Note that the function formula_4 depends on the choice of reference configuration. Typically, the reference configuration is taken as the relaxed (zero-stress) configuration, but need not be. Material frame-indifference requires that the constitutive relation formula_4 should not change when the location of the observer changes. Therefore the constitutive equation for another arbitrary observer can be written formula_6. Knowing that the Cauchy stress tensor formula_7 and the deformation gradient formula_8 are objective quantities, one can write: formula_9 where formula_10 is a proper orthogonal tensor. The above is a condition that the constitutive law formula_11 has to respect to make sure that the response of the material will be independent of the observer. Similar conditions can be derived for constitutive laws relating the deformation gradient to the first or second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor. For an isotropic material the Cauchy stress tensor formula_1 can be expressed as a function of the left Cauchy-Green tensor formula_13. The constitutive equation may then be written: formula_14 In order to find the restriction on formula_15 which will ensure the principle of material frame-indifference, one can write: formula_16 A constitutive equation that respects the above condition is said to be isotropic. Even though the stress in a Cauchy-elastic material depends only on the state of deformation, the work done by stresses may depend on the path of deformation. Therefore a Cauchy elastic material in general has a non-conservative structure, and the stress cannot necessarily be derived from a scalar "elastic potential" function. Materials that are conservative in this sense are called hyperelastic or "Green-elastic".

Cauchy elastic material

F o r m a l l y , a m a t e r i a l i s s a i d t o b e C a u c h y - e l a s t i c i f t h e C a u c h y s t r e s s t e n s o r f o r m u l a _ 1 i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s t r a i n t e n s o r ( d e f o r m a t i o n g r a d i e n t ) f o r m u l a _ 2 a l o n e : f o r m u l a _ 3 T h i s d e f i n i t i o n a s s u m e s t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e c a n b e i g n o r e d , a n d t h e b o d y i s h o m o g e n e o u s . T h i s i s t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e e q u a t i o n f o r a C a u c h y - e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l . N o t e t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n f o r m u l a _ 4 d e p e n d s o n t h e c h o i c e o f r e f e r e n c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n . T y p i c a l l y , t h e r e f e r e n c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s t a k e n a s t h e r e l a x e d ( z e r o - s t r e s s ) c o n f i g u r a t i o n , b u t n e e d n o t b e . M a t e r i a l f r a m e - i n d i f f e r e n c e r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n f o r m u l a _ 4 s h o u l d n o t c h a n g e w h e n t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e o b s e r v e r c h a n g e s . T h e r e f o r e t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e e q u a t i o n f o r a n o t h e r a r b i t r a r y o b s e r v e r c a n b e w r i t t e n f o r m u l a _ 6 . K n o w i n g t h a t t h e C a u c h y s t r e s s t e n s o r f o r m u l a _ 7 a n d t h e d e f o r m a t i o n g r a d i e n t f o r m u l a _ 8 a r e o b j e c t i v e q u a n t i t i e s , o n e c a n w r i t e : f o r m u l a _ 9 w h e r e f o r m u l a _ 1 0 i s a p r o p e r o r t h o g o n a l t e n s o r . T h e a b o v e i s a c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e l a w f o r m u l a _ 1 1 h a s t o r e s p e c t t o m a k e s u r e t h a t t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e m a t e r i a l w i l l b e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e o b s e r v e r . S i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s c a n b e d e r i v e d f o r c o n s t i t u t i v e l a w s r e l a t i n g t h e d e f o r m a t i o n g r a d i e n t t o t h e f i r s t o r s e c o n d P i o l a - K i r c h h o f f s t r e s s t e n s o r . F o r a n i s o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l t h e C a u c h y s t r e s s t e n s o r f o r m u l a _ 1 c a n b e e x p r e s s e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e l e f t C a u c h y - G r e e n t e n s o r f o r m u l a _ 1 3 . T h e c o n s t i t u t i v e e q u a t i o n m a y t h e n b e w r i t t e n : f o r m u l a _ 1 4 I n o r d e r t o f i n d t h e r e s t r i c t i o n o n f o r m u l a _ 1 5 w h i c h w i l l e n s u r e t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m a t e r i a l f r a m e - i n d i f f e r e n c e , o n e c a n w r i t e : f o r m u l a _ 1 6 A c o n s t i t u t i v e e q u a t i o n t h a t r e s p e c t s t h e a b o v e c o n d i t i o n i s s a i d t o b e i s o t r o p i c . E v e n t h o u g h t h e s t r e s s i n a C a u c h y - e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l d e p e n d s o n l y o n t h e s t a t e o f d e f o r m a t i o n , t h e w o r k d o n e b y s t r e s s e s m a y d e p e n d o n t h e p a t h o f d e f o r m a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e a C a u c h y e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l i n g e n e r a l h a s a n o n - c o n s e r v a t i v e s t r u c t u r e , a n d t h e s t r e s s c a n n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e d e r i v e d f r o m a s c a l a r " e l a s t i c p o t e n t i a l " f u n c t i o n . M a t e r i a l s t h a t a r e c o n s e r v a t i v e i n t h i s s e n s e a r e c a l l e d h y p e r e l a s t i c o r " G r e e n - e l a s t i c " .

Non-conservative materials

Cauchy-elastic materials have a constitutive equation that relates the Cauchy stress tensor to the strain tensor, assuming temperature effects can be ignored and the body is homogeneous. The material's response must be independent of the observer, ensuring material frame-indifference. Isotropic materials have a specific form of the constitutive equation. Cauchy-elastic materials generally have a non-conservative structure, meaning the work done by stresses depends on the path of deformation, unlike hyperelastic materials which are conservative.

Formally, a material is said to be Cauchy-elastic if the Cauchy stress tensor formula_1 is a function of the strain tensor (deformation gradient) formula_2 alone: formula_3 This definition assumes that the effect of temperature can be ignored, and the body is homogeneous. This is the constitutive equation for a Cauchy-elastic material. Note that the function formula_4 depends on the choice of reference configuration. Typically, the reference configuration is taken as the relaxed (zero-stress) configuration, but need not be. Material frame-indifference requires that the constitutive relation formula_4 should not change when the location of the observer changes. Therefore the constitutive equation for another arbitrary observer can be written formula_6. Knowing that the Cauchy stress tensor formula_7 and the deformation gradient formula_8 are objective quantities, one can write: formula_9 where formula_10 is a proper orthogonal tensor. The above is a condition that the constitutive law formula_11 has to respect to make sure that the response of the material will be independent of the observer. Similar conditions can be derived for constitutive laws relating the deformation gradient to the first or second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor. For an isotropic material the Cauchy stress tensor formula_1 can be expressed as a function of the left Cauchy-Green tensor formula_13. The constitutive equation may then be written: formula_14 In order to find the restriction on formula_15 which will ensure the principle of material frame-indifference, one can write: formula_16 A constitutive equation that respects the above condition is said to be isotropic. Even though the stress in a Cauchy-elastic material depends only on the state of deformation, the work done by stresses may depend on the path of deformation. Therefore a Cauchy elastic material in general has a non-conservative structure, and the stress cannot necessarily be derived from a scalar "elastic potential" function. Materials that are conservative in this sense are called hyperelastic or "Green-elastic".

Comic LO

W h e n f i r s t p u b l i s h e d , C o m i c L O h e l p e d t r i g g e r a s m a l l b o o m i n " l o l i c o n " m a n g a i n t h e e a r l y 2 0 0 0 s . C o m i c L O w a s o r i g i n a l l y a n e x t r a i s s u e o f o t h e r e r o t i c m a g a z i n e s , b u t i t b e c a m e i n d e p e n d e n t o n D e c e m b e r 2 1 , 2 0 0 5 . O n M a y 2 2 , 2 0 1 0 , t h e p u b l i s h e r p u t o u t a n a n n o u n c e m e n t t o s t o p t h e i l l e g a l u p l o a d i n g o f t h e m a g a z i n e o n i t s o f f i c i a l w e b s i t e . I n D e c e m b e r , 2 0 1 5 a g l i m p s e o f t h e s t a n d a r d s o f " C o m i c L O " w e r e b r o u g h t f o r w a r d r e g a r d i n g t h e a r t w o r k . A m a g a p p a S h ō j o g u n , a m a n g a a r t i s t f o r t h e m a g a z i n e w a s t o l d t o d r a w m o r e g i r l s t h a t l o o k l i k e 9 y e a r o l d s a s 8 w a s t o o y o u n g . T h e c o v e r i l l u s t r a t i o n s a r e b y T a k a m i c h i . V o l u m e 2 0 0 w a s p u b l i s h e d o n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 , 2 0 2 0 .

History

Comic LO, a lolicon manga magazine, debuted in the early 2000s and sparked a brief trend. Initially an extra issue of other erotic magazines, it gained independence in 2005. Over the years, concerns about illegal uploads (2010) and artistic standards (2015) arose. The magazine continues to publish, with volume 200 released in 2020.

When first published, Comic LO helped trigger a small boom in "lolicon" manga in the early 2000s. Comic LO was originally an extra issue of other erotic magazines, but it became independent on December 21, 2005. On May 22, 2010, the publisher put out an announcement to stop the illegal uploading of the magazine on its official website. In December, 2015 a glimpse of the standards of "Comic LO" were brought forward regarding the artwork. Amagappa Shōjogun, a manga artist for the magazine was told to draw more girls that look like 9 year olds as 8 was too young. The cover illustrations are by Takamichi. Volume 200 was published on September 19, 2020.

Druid of Colchester

T h e g r a v e w a s d i s c o v e r e d b y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n 1 9 9 6 , a t t h e v i l l a g e o f S t a n w a y , E s s e x , T h e f i n d i s b e l i e v e d t o b e t h a t o f a n I r o n A g e d r u i d d a t e d . I t i s o n e a m o n g a n u m b e r o f g r a v e s o f e m i n e n t p e o p l e f o u n d , b e l i e v e d t o b e b u r i e d a r o u n d t h e t i m e o f t h e R o m a n i n v a s i o n o f B r i t a i n i n 4 3   C E . T h e a r e a w a s t h e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e C a t u v e l l a u n i t r i b e . I n t h e w o o d e n c h a m b e r e d b u r i a l s i t e , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s u n c o v e r e d c r e m a t e d h u m a n r e m a i n s , a n d a b o a r d g a m e — t h e f i r s t t i m e t h a t s u c h a g a m e h a s b e e n f o u n d v i r t u a l l y i n t a c t . O t h e r i t e m s u n c o v e r e d i n c l u d e d a c l o a k d e c o r a t e d w i t h b r o o c h e s , a j e t b e a d b e l i e v e d t o h a v e m a g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , m e d i c a l e q u i p m e n t , a t e a s t r a i n e r s t i l l c o n t a i n i n g s o m e k i n d o f h e r b a l b r e w , a n d s o m e m y s t e r i o u s m e t a l p o l e s c o n j e c t u r e d t o b e u s e d f o r d i v i n i n g . T h e s u r g i c a l k i t c o n s i s t e d o f 1 3   i n s t r u m e n t s i n c l u d i n g : A c u p w a s a l s o f o u n d , c o n t a i n i n g t r a c e s o f t h e h e r b m u g w o r t . T h e t e a s t r a i n e r a l s o c o n t a i n e d h e r b s c o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h e r b a l r e m e d i e s i n a n c i e n t t i m e s . P h i l i p C r u m m y , d i r e c t o r o f t h e t r u s t , r e m a i n e d c a u t i o u s , a d d i n g t h a t t h e r e m a y b e o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s . " I n t h e r e p o r t w e d r a w t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h i s m a n o r w o m a n w a s a d r u i d , " h e w r o t e : " T h e s o - c a l l e d ‘ d r u i d ’ c o u l d h a v e b e e n a d o c t o r . T h e t e a s t r a i n e r c o n t a i n s a r t e m i s i a p o l l e n , w h i c h i s c o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h e r b a l r e m e d i e s . H e a l i n g i s a n a t t r i b u t e g i v e n t o d r u i d s . W e d o n ' t k n o w w h a t t h e m e t a l r o d s a r e f o r , b u t w e t h i n k t h e y c o u l d h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r d i v i n i n g . T h e q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r a l l t h a t s t a c k s u p t o h i m [ o r h e r ] b e i n g a d r u i d . I t c o u l d b e – i t w a s c e r t a i n l y s o m e b o d y s p e c i a l . " T h e m e d i c a l k i t w a s " f a i r l y R o m a n i z e d " a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l m a y h a v e a c t e d " l i k e a R o m a n s u r g e o n / d o c t o r w o u l d h a v e d o n e . " " D i v i n a t i o n w a s w i d e l y p r a c t i c e d i n t h e R o m a n w o r l d t o o , " h e a d d e d . B e c a u s e o f t h e s i t e ’ s a g e a n d l o c a t i o n , a r c h a e o l o g i s t M i k e P i t t s b e l i e v e d t h e p e r s o n w a s i n d e e d a C e l t i c d r u i d , a n d c o u l d h a v e b e e n c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o C u n o b e l i n u s , a c h i e f o r k i n g o f t h e C a t u v e l l a u n i t r i b e . T h e g r a v e c o n t a i n e d a b o a r d g a m e , w i t h i t s b l u e a n d w h i t e g l a s s b o a r d - p i e c e s l a i d o u t r e a d y f o r s t a r t o f p l a y . S u r v i v i n g m e t a l c o r n e r s a n d h i n g e s f r o m t h e g a m e b o a r d a l l o w e d a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o b e c r e a t e d ; i t i s b e l i e v e d t o b e a 5 5 × 4 0   c e n t i m e t e r ( 2 1 × 1 5   i n c h ) r e c t a n g l e w i t h p l a y o v e r a b o a r d o f 8 × 1 2   s q u a r e s . T h e w h i t e a n d b l u e g l a s s t o k e n s – 1 3 f o r e a c h s i d e – w e r e r a n g e d o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r , s i m i l a r t o t h e s t a r t i n g p o s i t i o n i n c h e s s . A l l p i e c e s w e r e o f e q u a l s i z e , e x c e p t f o r a s i n g l e , s m a l l e r w h i t e b e a d p o s i t i o n e d c l o s e t o t h e c e n t r e o f t h e b o a r d . G i v e n t h e a b s e n c e o f d i c e , F i n k e l ( 2 0 0 9 ) s p e c u l a t e d t h a t t h e g a m e w a s p u r e l y s t r a t e g i c . A d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e g a m e b y S c h ä d l e r ( 2 0 0 7 ) a r g u e s t h a t t h e g a m e i s n e i t h e r R o m a n l a t r u n c u l i , n o r X I I s c r i p t a , b u t i n f a c t a r e l a t i v e o f t h e C e l t i c g a m e k n o w n a s f i d c h e l l o r g w y d d b w y l l . T h e f i n d s u g g e s t s t h e g a m e w a s p l a y e d o n e i t h e r 8 × 1 2 o r 9 × 1 3   s q u a r e s u s i n g 1 3   p i e c e s p e r s i d e . T h e p r e s e n c e o f j u s t o n e s m a l l e r b e a d m a y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e g a m e w a s a s y m m e t r i c a l , w i t h a k i n g - l i k e p i e c e b e l o n g i n g t o o n e s i d e , a s i n t a f l g a m e s . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , s o m e p e o p l e b e l i e v e t h i s b o a r d m a y h a v e b e e n u s e d a l o n g w i t h t h e m e t a l r o d s f o r d i v i n i n g p u r p o s e s . I n 2 0 1 5 , C o l c h e s t e r r e s i d e n t A l e x J o n e s d e v e l o p e d a b o a r d g a m e h e c a l l s " A q u i l a " i n s p i r e d b y t h e S t a n w a y g a m e . A t l e a s t o n e " A q u i l a " t o u r n a m e n t w a s h e l d a t t h e C o l c h e s t e r R o m a n C i r c u s C e n t r e i n S e p t e m b e r   2 0 1 5 .

Artifacts

Archaeologists discovered a grave in Essex, England, dating back to the Iron Age, around 43 CE. The burial site belonged to an important figure, possibly a druid, who was buried with various artifacts, including a board game, medical equipment, and mysterious metal poles. The game, reconstructed from surviving pieces, features a 55x40 cm board with 8x12 squares and 13 glass tokens per player. Scholars speculate about the game's origins and purpose, with some believing it to be a Celtic game called fidchell or gwyddbwyll, while others think it might have been used for divination.

The grave was discovered by archaeologists in 1996, at the village of Stanway, Essex, The find is believed to be that of an Iron Age druid dated . It is one among a number of graves of eminent people found, believed to be buried around the time of the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 CE. The area was then associated with the Catuvellauni tribe. In the wooden chambered burial site, archaeologists uncovered cremated human remains, and a board game — the first time that such a game has been found virtually intact. Other items uncovered included a cloak decorated with brooches, a jet bead believed to have magical properties, medical equipment, a tea strainer still containing some kind of herbal brew, and some mysterious metal poles conjectured to be used for divining. The surgical kit consisted of 13 instruments including: A cup was also found, containing traces of the herb mugwort. The tea strainer also contained herbs commonly associated with herbal remedies in ancient times. Philip Crummy, director of the trust, remained cautious, adding that there may be other explanations. "In the report we draw the possibility that this man or woman was a druid," he wrote: "The so-called ‘druid’ could have been a doctor. The tea strainer contains artemisia pollen, which is commonly associated with herbal remedies. Healing is an attribute given to druids. We don't know what the metal rods are for, but we think they could have been used for divining. The question is whether all that stacks up to him [or her] being a druid. It could be – it was certainly somebody special. " The medical kit was "fairly Romanized" and the individual may have acted "like a Roman surgeon / doctor would have done." "Divination was widely practiced in the Roman world too," he added. Because of the site’s age and location, archaeologist Mike Pitts believed the person was indeed a Celtic druid, and could have been closely related to Cunobelinus, a chief or king of the Catuvellauni tribe. The grave contained a board game, with its blue and white glass board-pieces laid out ready for start of play. Surviving metal corners and hinges from the game board allowed a reconstruction to be created; it is believed to be a 55×40 centimeter (21×15 inch) rectangle with play over a board of 8×12 squares. The white and blue glass tokens – 13 for each side – were ranged opposite each other, similar to the starting position in chess. All pieces were of equal size, except for a single, smaller white bead positioned close to the centre of the board. Given the absence of dice, Finkel (2009) speculated that the game was purely strategic. A detailed analysis of the game by Schädler (2007) argues that the game is neither Roman latrunculi, nor XII scripta, but in fact a relative of the Celtic game known as fidchell or gwyddbwyll. The find suggests the game was played on either 8×12 or 9×13 squares using 13 pieces per side. The presence of just one smaller bead may indicate that the game was asymmetrical, with a king-like piece belonging to one side, as in tafl games. Alternatively, some people believe this board may have been used along with the metal rods for divining purposes. In 2015, Colchester resident Alex Jones developed a board game he calls "Aquila" inspired by the Stanway game. At least one "Aquila" tournament was held at the Colchester Roman Circus Centre in September 2015.

Maeve Fort

B o r n o n 1 9 N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 0 i n L i v e r p o o l , F o r t w a s t h e o n l y c h i l d o f a h o s p i t a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r . S h e a t t e n d e d N a n t w i c h G r a m m a r S c h o o l , b u t l e f t b e f o r e c o m p l e t i n g h e r A - L e v e l s w h e n s h e d i s c o v e r e d t h a t T r i n i t y C o l l e g e , D u b l i n d i d n o t t h e n r e q u i r e e n t r a n t s t o h a v e t a k e n t h e m . S h e a c h i e v e d a s u f f i c i e n t l y g o o d d e g r e e i n E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h t o g a i n a s c h o l a r s h i p f o r s t u d y a t t h e S o r b o n n e f r o m t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t . F o r t d e c i d e d t o a p p l y t o j o i n t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t s h e w a s a d v i s e d t h a t a s a f e m a l e , a n d n o t e v e n a n O x b r i d g e g r a d u a t e , s h e h a d l i t t l e c h a n c e o f b e i n g s e l e c t e d . H o w e v e r , s h e b e c a m e o n e o f j u s t t w e l v e s u c c e s s f u l c a n d i d a t e s t o b e a p p o i n t e d t o t h e j u n i o r g r a d e a t t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e i n 1 9 6 2 . P o s t i n g s t o N e w Y o r k C i t y , B a n g k o k ( a s e c o n d m e n t t o S E A T O ) , B o n n a n d L a g o s f o l l o w e d , w i t h a p p o i n t m e n t a s a n o f f i c e r i n t h e D i p l o m a t i c S e r v i c e o n 2 4 A p r i l 1 9 7 3 . F o r t w a s l a t e r p r o m o t e d t o F i r s t S e c r e t a r y a t t h e F o r e i g n a n d C o m m o n w e a l t h O f f i c e , a n d i n 1 9 7 8 , s h e r e t u r n e d t o N e w Y o r k a s p a r t o f t h e U K ' s m i s s i o n t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . H e r e , s h e b e g a n t o s p e c i a l i s e i n A f r i c a n a f f a i r s , i n p a r t i c u l a r o n t h e N a m i b i a c o n t a c t g r o u p , w o r k i n g t o w a r d s a p e a c e f u l i n d e p e n d e n c e f o r N a m i b i a . A t o n e t i m e , s h e w a s t o l d t o p r e p a r e f o r a p o s t i n g t o t h e H i g h C o m m i s s i o n i n W i n d h o e k , N a m i b i a , b u t i t w a s s u d d e n l y c a n c e l l e d . F o r t r e t u r n e d t o t h e U K i n 1 9 8 2 , t o s t u d y a t t h e R o y a l C o l l e g e o f D e f e n c e S t u d i e s f o r a y e a r . S h e w a s t h e n p r o m o t e d t o c o u n s e l l o r a n d p o s t e d t o S a n t i a g o , C h i l e . S h e w a s r e c a l l e d t o t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e i n 1 9 8 6 , s e r v i n g a s h e a d o f t h e W e s t A f r i c a n d e p a r t m e n t , a n d c o n c u r r e n t l y a s n o n - r e s i d e n t A m b a s s a d o r t o C h a d , w h i c h w a s t h e n c o n s i d e r e d t o o d a n g e r o u s t o h o s t a r e s i d e n t a m b a s s a d o r , d u e t o t h e o n g o i n g C h a d i a n – L i b y a n c o n f l i c t . F o r t w a s t h e n a p p o i n t e d A m b a s s a d o r t o M o z a m b i q u e i n 1 9 8 9 . M o z a m b i q u e w a s s t i l l i n t h e t h r o e s o f i t s c i v i l w a r a n d F o r t b e c a m e i n v o l v e d i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s t o b r i n g t h e c o n f l i c t t o a n d e n d , b u i l d i n g c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n P r e s i d e n t J o a q u i m C h i s s a n o a n d t h e R E N A M O l e a d e r , A f o n s o D h l a k a m a . S h e w a s a p p o i n t e d a C o m p a n i o n o f t h e O r d e r o f S t M i c h a e l a n d S t G e o r g e ( C M G ) i n t h e 1 9 9 0 N e w Y e a r H o n o u r s . I n 1 9 9 2 , F o r t v o l u n t e e r e d t o b e c o m e A m b a s s a d o r t o L e b a n o n , a n o t h e r d a n g e r o u s p o s t i n g . S h e h a d a c l o s e p r o t e c t i o n t e a m o f s i x b o d y g u a r d s f r o m t h e R o y a l M i l i t a r y P o l i c e — F o r t r e f e r r e d t o t h e m a s ' h e r b o y s ' . T h e s i t u a t i o n i n L e b a n o n w a s s u c h t h a t s h e l i v e d i n a f o r t i f i e d c o m p o u n d , a n d t r a v e l l e d i n a n a r m o u r e d R a n g e R o v e r — h e r e s c a p e w a s w a l k i n g i n t h e L e b a n e s e m o u n t a i n s , s t i l l a c c o m p a n i e d b y ' t h e b o y s ' , o n e o f w h o m c a r r i e d h e r b e l o v e d d o g , C h l o e , a w h i t e P o m e r a n i a n - M a l t e s e c r o s s , i n a k n a p s a c k . F o r t w a s a p p o i n t e d H i g h C o m m i s s i o n e r t o S o u t h A f r i c a i n 1 9 9 6 , t w o y e a r s a f t e r N e l s o n M a n d e l a b e c a m e t h e f i r s t b l a c k p r e s i d e n t o f t h a t c o u n t r y . S h e s o o n b e c a m e a f r i e n d a n d c o n f i d a n t o f M a n d e l a a n d o t h e r h i g h - r a n k i n g S o u t h A f r i c a n s . I n 1 9 9 7 , h e r p r e v i o u s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h n e g o t i a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o N a m i b i a a n d M o z a m b i q u e , p r o v e d u s e f u l a g a i n a s t h e s i t u a t i o n i n A n g o l a d e t e r i o r a t e d . S h e h o s t e d P r i n c e C h a r l e s o n a n o f f i c i a l v i s i t , s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f D i a n a , P r i n c e s s o f W a l e s . F o r t w a s p r o m o t e d t o D a m e C o m m a n d e r o f t h e O r d e r o f S t M i c h a e l a n d S t G e o r g e ( D C M G ) i n 1 9 9 8 , a n d b e c a m e a r a r e ' d o u b l e d a m e ' w h e n s h e w a s a p p o i n t e d D a m e C o m m a n d e r o f t h e R o y a l V i c t o r i a n O r d e r ( D C V O ) o n 9 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 9 , d u r i n g Q u e e n E l i z a b e t h I I ' s s t a t e v i s i t t o S o u t h A f r i c a . D a m e M a e v e F o r t d i e d i n L o n d o n , a g e d 6 7 , f o l l o w i n g a s h o r t i l l n e s s .

Foreign Office

Maeve Fort joined the Foreign Office in 1962, becoming one of the first women to do so. She held various postings including New York City, Bangkok, Bonn, Lagos, and Santiago, Chile. She specialized in African affairs, particularly in Namibia and Mozambique, where she played a key role in negotiating peace agreements. Fort served as Ambassador to Mozambique, Lebanon, and South Africa, earning numerous honors, including CMG and DCMG. She died in 2008 at age 67.

Born on 19 November 1940 in Liverpool, Fort was the only child of a hospital administrator. She attended Nantwich Grammar School, but left before completing her A-Levels when she discovered that Trinity College, Dublin did not then require entrants to have taken them. She achieved a sufficiently good degree in English and French to gain a scholarship for study at the Sorbonne from the French government. Fort decided to apply to join the Foreign Office, despite the fact that she was advised that as a female, and not even an Oxbridge graduate, she had little chance of being selected. However, she became one of just twelve successful candidates to be appointed to the junior grade at the Foreign Office in 1962. Postings to New York City, Bangkok (a secondment to SEATO), Bonn and Lagos followed, with appointment as an officer in the Diplomatic Service on 24 April 1973. Fort was later promoted to First Secretary at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and in 1978, she returned to New York as part of the UK's mission to the United Nations. Here, she began to specialise in African affairs, in particular on the Namibia contact group, working towards a peaceful independence for Namibia. At one time, she was told to prepare for a posting to the High Commission in Windhoek, Namibia, but it was suddenly cancelled. Fort returned to the UK in 1982, to study at the Royal College of Defence Studies for a year. She was then promoted to counsellor and posted to Santiago, Chile. She was recalled to the Foreign Office in 1986, serving as head of the West African department, and concurrently as non-resident Ambassador to Chad, which was then considered too dangerous to host a resident ambassador, due to the ongoing Chadian–Libyan conflict. Fort was then appointed Ambassador to Mozambique in 1989. Mozambique was still in the throes of its civil war and Fort became involved in the negotiations to bring the conflict to and end, building contacts between President Joaquim Chissano and the RENAMO leader, Afonso Dhlakama. She was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in the 1990 New Year Honours. In 1992, Fort volunteered to become Ambassador to Lebanon, another dangerous posting. She had a close protection team of six bodyguards from the Royal Military Police — Fort referred to them as 'her boys'. The situation in Lebanon was such that she lived in a fortified compound, and travelled in an armoured Range Rover — her escape was walking in the Lebanese mountains, still accompanied by 'the boys', one of whom carried her beloved dog, Chloe, a white Pomeranian-Maltese cross, in a knapsack. Fort was appointed High Commissioner to South Africa in 1996, two years after Nelson Mandela became the first black president of that country. She soon became a friend and confidant of Mandela and other high-ranking South Africans. In 1997, her previous association with negotiations relating to Namibia and Mozambique, proved useful again as the situation in Angola deteriorated. She hosted Prince Charles on an official visit, shortly after the death of Diana, Princess of Wales. Fort was promoted to Dame Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (DCMG) in 1998, and became a rare 'double dame' when she was appointed Dame Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (DCVO) on 9 November 1999, during Queen Elizabeth II's state visit to South Africa. Dame Maeve Fort died in London, aged 67, following a short illness.

Aajonus Vonderplanitz

O r i g i n a l l y n a m e d J o h n R i c h a r d S w i g a r t , a n d b o r n i n D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s p e n t m o s t o f c h i l d h o o d a n d a d o l e s c e n c e i n t h e C i n c i n n a t i s u b u r b F i n n e y t o w n , O h i o . H e d e s c r i b e d h a v i n g b e e n a s i c k l y c h i l d m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d a b u s e d . H i s b r o t h e r , a c o u p l e o f y e a r s e l d e r , a l l e g e d l y r e s e n t f u l a t l o s s o f m a t e r n a l a t t e n t i o n , " t o r t u r e d m e n e a r l y d a i l y " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z e x p l a i n e d . B e i n g " d y s l e x i c " a n d " b o r d e r l i n e a u t i s t i c " , c o n d i t i o n s " w h i c h n o o n e u n d e r s t o o d a t t h e t i m e " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z " r a r e l y p l a y e d w i t h o t h e r c h i l d r e n " , a n d " e m b a r r a s s e d a n d f r u s t r a t e d m y p a r e n t s " , f u e l i n g p a t e r n a l " d i s c i p l i n e " t h a t l e d t o s e v e r a l h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d . I n a n o t h e r h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n n e a r h i s 1 0 t h b i r t h d a y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a l l e g e d p e r i t o n i t i s w a s m i s d i a g n o s e d a p p e n d i c i t i s , w h e r e u p o n h i s a p p e n d i x , d i s c o v e r e d f i n e , w a s r e m o v e d a n y w a y , h e r e c o u n t e d . H e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s b o n e s w e r e b r i t t l e , h e " r e g u l a r l y " b r e a k i n g l i m b b o n e s , a n d a t a g e 1 5 w a s d i a g n o s e d w i t h " j u v e n i l e d i a b e t e s " . V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i r s t r e c e i v e d f a m i l y a n d c o m m u n i t y s u p p o r t , h e r e c a l l e d , o n c e h e f o u n d h i s f i r s t g i r l f r i e n d i n h i s j u n i o r y e a r a t F i n n e y t o w n H i g h S c h o o l . A t a g e 1 7 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m a r r i e d h e r , a r e c e n t s c h o o l m a t e o n e y e a r e l d e r , w h o b o r e h i s o n l y c h i l d , a s o n , i n h i s s e n i o r y e a r . O n c e h e g r a d u a t e d , t h e n e w f a m i l y m o v e d e l s e w h e r e n e a r C i n c i n n a t i . T h e y r e n t i n g a s m a l l a p a r t m e n t a t a b u s i n e s s i n t e r s e c t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s w i f e w o r k e d a s a u t i l i t y - c o m p a n y s e c r e t a r y , a n d h e a s a s h o r t - o r d e r c o o k a l s o a t t e n d i n g t h e C i n c i n n a t i I n s t i t u t e o f C o m p u t e r T e c h n o l o g y . T h e i r s o n ' s s e v e r e c o l i c , h e r p o s t p a r t u m m o o d p r o b l e m s , a n d h i s o w n c o n f u s i o n s a n d m o o d p r o b l e m s e n d e d t h e i r p r i o r b l i s s . H e i n c r e a s i n g l y d r a n k w i t h f r i e n d s , a n d e n t e r e d a n e x t r a m a r i t a l a f f a i r w i t h a f e m a l e i n s t r u c t o r a t h i s t r a d e s c h o o l . D i v o r c e d a t 1 9 , h e m o v e d t o L o s A n g e l e s f o r w o r k i n c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g . A l t h o u g h h e s e e m i n g l y n e v e r r e m a r r i e d , h i s o w n a n d o t h e r p e r s o n s ' a n e c d o t e s a b o u t h i m i n v o l v e s e v e r a l g i r l f r i e n d s t h r o u g h o u t h i s l a t e r l i f e . O n m o v i n g t o L o s A n g e l e s , f e e l i n g d i r e c t i o n l e s s a n d d i s t r e s s e d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n t i n u e d h e a v y d r i n k i n g . S t i l l a g e d 1 9 , h e d e v e l o p e d a s t o m a c h u l c e r , w h o s e s u r g i c a l t r e a t m e n t c a u s e d a k e l o i d a l s c a r i n t u r n t r e a t e d b y r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y t h a t t h e n c a u s e d m u l t i p l e m y e l o m a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d . O n c e c h e m o t h e r a p y c a u s e d f u r t h e r i l l n e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g p s o r i a s i s , b u r s i t i s , a n d s e v e r e p e r i o d o n t i t i s , h e d i s c o n t i n u e d t r e a t m e n t o f h i s t e r m i n a l c a n c e r , b u t a h o s p i c e w o r k e r , p a y i n g h i m v o l u n t e e r h o m e v i s i t s , g a v e h i m a s m a l l b o o k o n c a n c e r t r e a t m e n t b y r a w c a r r o t j u i c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . W i t h i n 1 0 d a y s , t h e r e g i m e n e n d e d h i s a l l e g e d d y s l e x i a , a n d s o o n t h e r e a f t e r p u t h i s c a n c e r i n r e m i s s i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . A t a g e 2 2 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z b e g a n p r o m o t i n g h i m s e l f a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . A t a b o u t a g e 2 3 , t h e s t i l l J o h n S w i g a r t m e t a g i r l t o d d l e r w h o r e n a m e d h i m A a j o n u s . D i s l i k i n g h i s g i v e n n a m e , a r e m i n d e r o f i l l n e s s a n d m i s t r e a t m e n t , h e a c c e p t e d t h e r e n a m i n g , a n d l a t e r t o o k h i s E u r o p e a n a n c e s t o r s ' l a s t n a m e V o n d e r p l a n i t z . H e w o u l d a t t r i b u t e h i s h e a l t h g a i n s o v e r t h e n e x t t w o y e a r s m o s t l y t o r a w j u i c e s a n d r a w d a i r y . B y a g e 2 5 , e l i m i n a t i n g r a w d a i r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a d o p t e d r a w v e g a n i s m . A t a g e 2 7 , s e e k i n g h e a l t h a n s w e r s , h e r e p u t e d l y s o j o u r n e d b y b i c y c l e , w h i l e h e " l i v e d o f f t h e e a r t h " , a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a . N e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , h e r e t u r n e d t o L o s A n g e l e s t e l l i n g o f a s e e m i n g l y i m p l a u s i b l e h e a l t h a n s w e r : e a t i n g r a w m e a t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m a d i v e r s e r é s u m é , p a r t l y s i n c e b y a g e 4 0 , h e s t i l l h a d m a r g i n a l i n c o m e a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . H e r e c a l l e d e t h i c a l l y r e f u s i n g $ 7 . 5 m i l l i o n t o b e m a d e , i n 1 9 7 1 , t h e W i n s t o n M a n f o r s e v e n y e a r s , a n d , i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , w h i l e e a r n i n g i n c o m e p a i n t i n g m u r a l s a n d s u c h i n s i d e h o m e s , s o m e a c t i n g o n t h e s o a p o p e r a " G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l " . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e c r e a t e d a b r i e f d i e t , d a m a g i n g w i t h i n a f e w d a y s t o w e e k s , f o r a c l i e n t d e m a n d i n g q u i c k w e i g h t l o s s , b u t w h o a l l e g e d l y p u b l i s h e d i t f o r p r o f i t a s t h e B e v e r l y H i l l s D i e t . U p o n o v e r t u r n i n g a t r a f f i c t i c k e t a t a g e 2 2 , h e s o u g h t t o d e v e l o p l e g a l e x p e r t i s e b y p r i v a t e s t u d y . A f t e r 2 0 0 0 , h e w r o t e b u s i n e s s c o n t r a c t s a n d l e g a l r e s p o n s e s f o r f a r m e r s . I n h i s l a t e s t y e a r s , o w n i n g a f a r m i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a n d a n o t h e r i n a r e m o t e a r e a o f T h a i l a n d , n e a r i t s n o r t h e r n b o r d e r w i t h L a o s , h e s p e n t m u c h t i m e a t h i s T h a i l a n d f a r m . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t u t e l a g e b y a S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n u t r i t i o n i s t n a m e d B r u n o C o r i g l i a n o f o l l o w e d b y n e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s o f b i c y c l e t r a v e l a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a , i n h i s l a t e 2 0 s , w h i l e s t u d y i n g b i o l o g y a n d m e d i c a l t e x t b o o k s , N a t i v e A m e r i c a n i n d i g e n o u s h e a l t h c a r e , a n d w i l d l i f e h a b i t s . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e d i s c o v e r e d r a w m e a t ' s p u t a t i v e h e a l i n g c a p a c i t y w h e n f a s t i n g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , w h e r e a p a c k o f c o y o t e s k i l l e d , t o r e o p e n , a n d o f f e r e d h i m a j a c k r a b b i t , t h e n w a t c h e d h i m u n t i l h e a t e i t . I n h i s e a r l y 2 0 s , a m o n g t h e o u t d o o r p u r v e y o r s a t V e n i c e B e a c h , h e s e t u p a t a b l e w i t h t h e b a n n e r " N U T R I T I O N I S T " , a n d b e g a n c o u n s e l i n g i n a r a w - f o o d n i c h e . I n h i n d s i g h t , h e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s a d v i c e h a d b e e n o f t e n i n e f f e c t i v e , a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n h a r m f u l , u n t i l h e i n c l u d e d r a w m e a t . A t p e r h a p s a g e 3 0 , h e b e c a m e a s t a f f n u t r i t i o n i s t , a d v i s i n g c u s t o m e r s , a t a h e a l t h f o o d s t o r e , A u n t T i l l y ' s T o o . A l t h o u g h n o t i n h i s 1 9 9 7 b o o k , h e u s e d t h e t i t l e P h D , s p e c i f y i n g n u t r i t i o n a l s c i e n c e , i n a 2 0 0 1 r e s e a r c h r e p o r t o n m i l k , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I M D , a n d t h e r e a f t e r . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e w a s r e p o r t e d t o l a c k a c c r e d i t e d s c i e n t i f i c o r m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g . I n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 8 6 , a t a g e 3 9 , l i v i n g i n a B e v e r l y H i l l s " s l u m " w h i l e f r e e l a n c i n g i n n u t r i t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e t u r n e d t o C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o . T h e r e , h i s o n l y c h i l d , h i s s o n , e s t r a n g e d f o r a b o u t 2 0 y e a r s , h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n i n a s e v e r e c a r w r e c k , d r i v i n g , w i t h o u t a s e a t b e l t o n , s t r a i g h t i n t o a t r e e . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o h a v e s a b o t a g e d h i s s o n ' s c o n v e n t i o n a l m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t , i n M e r c y H o s p i t a l ' s i n t e n s i v e - c a r e u n i t , a n d u s e d r a w f o o d s t o a w a k e n a n d r e t r i e v e h i s c o m a t o s e s o n f r o m i m m i n e n t d e a t h , a n d t o r e v e r s e h i s p a r a l y s i s a n d b r a i n d a m a g e . T e n y e a r s a f t e r h i s s o n ' s r e c o v e r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d t h e t a l e i n h i s f i r s t b o o k , " W e W a n t t o L i v e " , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 9 7 a n d r e v i s e d i n 2 0 0 5 . U p o n t h e 1 9 9 7 r e l e a s e o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s f i r s t b o o k , R o b e r t A t k i n s i n t e r v i e w e d h i m , b a s e d b y t h e n i n M a l i b u , o n A t k i n s ' s n a t i o n a l l y s y n d i c a t e d r a d i o s h o w . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d c l a i m e d t h a t h i s o w n p r o t o c o l h a d c u r e d o v e r 2 0 0 c l i e n t s o f c a n c e r . I n 2 0 0 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z t r a d e m a r k e d t h e n a m e " P r i m a l D i e t " . U n l i k e l a t e r d i e t s c a l l e d " p r i m a l " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t p r i n c i p a l l y i n c l u d e s r a w m e a t , r a w e g g s , r a w d a i r y , r a w f a t s , a n d u n h e a t e d h o n e y . I n 2 0 0 2 , h i s o t h e r b o o k , t h e " R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " , w a s p u b l i s h e d . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , h e w a s s t i l l c l a i m i n g o v e r 9 0 % r a t e o f c a n c e r r e m i s s i o n a m o n g h i s c l i e n t s c l o s e l y h e e d i n g i t . D e s p i t e m a i n s t r e a m d i s m i s s a l , h i s P r i m a l D i e t g a i n e d a s i z a b l e , i f u n d e r g r o u n d , f o l l o w i n g . A l t h o u g h V o n d e r p l a n i t z d a t e d i t t o t h e 1 9 7 0 s , h i s f o o d - r i g h t s c a m p a i g n m o r e c l e a r l y b e g a n n e a r i n g 2 0 0 0 . I n t o 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d a n a l l y , J a m e s S t e w a r t , w e r e t h e r a w - m i l k m o v e m e n t ' s d e f a c t o l e a d e r s . I n 1 9 9 7 o r 1 9 9 8 , V e n i c e r e s i d e n t J a m e s S t e w a r t , i n p o o r h e a l t h , d i s c o v e r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t . B y 2 0 0 0 , S t e w a r t w a s a s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a d i s t r i b u t o r o f r a w m i l k f o r C l a r a v a l e F a r m , w h i c h h a d o n l y e i g h t c o w s , b u t w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y f a r m s t i l l l i c e n s e d t o s u p p l y u n p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o r e t a i l s t o r e s . W h i l e C l a r a v a l e F a r m a d d e d c o w s f o r S t e w a r t ' s d i s t r i b u t i o n r e a c h i n g 3 0 s t o r e s i n f o u r c o u n t i e s — O r a n g e , V e n t u r a , S a n D i e g o , a n d L o s A n g e l e s — o n e c o u n t y , L o s A n g e l e s , w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y w h e r e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s i l l e g a l . B y 2 0 0 1 , L . A . c o u n t y ' s r e g u l a t o r s w e r e p u l l i n g S t e w a r t ' s p l a c e d m i l k f r o m s t o r e s , y e t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c a m p a i g n t o l e g a l i z e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s c u l m i n a t i n g . I n 2 0 0 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d r e w S t e w a r t t o h e l p d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d p r o t e s t s , a l t h o u g h i n i t i a l t u r n o u t w a s m i n u s c u l e . L a t e r i n 2 0 0 1 , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I , a n d s u b m i t t e d t o t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s r e p o r t o n r a w m i l k , a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g t h r e a t o f l e g a l a c t i o n , g o t t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s t o e n d t h e b a n o n r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e . H i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d , t h e h e a r i n g s f u e l e d c o n s u m e r d e m a n d f o r u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . C l a r a v a l e F a r m ' s s u p p l y v i a S t e w a r t i n s u f f i c i e n t , s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a r e s i d e n t s w o u l d t r a v e l n o r t h t o b u y r a w m i l k a t t h e M c A f e e b r o t h e r s ' f a r m , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s D a i r y C o m p a n y . I n e a r l y 2 0 0 0 , t h e M c A f e e s ' f a r m h a d s w i t c h e d t o o r g a n i c , b u t t h e i r O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s s t i l l s o l d i t s m i l k w h o l e s a l e t o O r g a n i c V a l l e y , w h i c h i n t u r n s u p p l i e d o n l y p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o s t o r e s . U p o n v i s i t s b y s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n c u s t o m e r s , t h e M c A f e e s ' O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s o b t a i n e d a p e r m i t t o s e l l r a w d a i r y r e t a i l . D u r i n g 2 0 0 1 , M a r k M c A f e e c o n t a c t e d S t e w a r t , w h o t h e n r e c r u i t e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z i n v e s t e d $ 1 5 0 0 0 , a n d w i t h S t e w a r t r e c r u i t e d o t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g r e a l - e s t a t e e x e c u t i v e L a r r y O t t i n g , w h o i n v e s t e d $ 1 7 0 0 0 , a n d O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b e g a n s u p p l y i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y r e t a i l . T h e v o l u m e a l l o w e d S t e w a r t , d e s p i t e d r o p p i n g C l a r a v a l e ' s m i l k , t o r e a c h 8 9 s t o r e s . Y e t i n 2 0 0 4 , a s t h e n a t i o n ' s l a r g e s t u n p a s t e u r i z e d s u p p l i e r , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b r o u g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n - h o u s e , e l i m i n a t i n g S t e w a r t . S t e w a r t t h e n f o c u s e d o n g r o w i n g h i s p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , R a w e s o m e . R a w e s o m e w o u l d k e e p S t e w a r t a n d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r a w - d a i r y m o v e m e n t u n t i l R a w e s o m e ' s c o n t r o v e r s i a l c l o s u r e v i a g o v e r n m e n t r a i d i n 2 0 1 1 . I n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o r m e d t h e n o t - f o r - p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d ( R T C H F ) . R T C H F , d e c l a r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z , " w i l l c o m b a t a n y l e g i s l a t i o n b a n n i n g p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o c h o o s e r a w f o o d " . Y e t R T C H F a p p a r e n t l y f o c u s e d o n r a w d a i r y . I n t h i s a g e n d a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z o r i g i n a t e d t h e " a n i m a l - l e a s i n g " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , w h o s e m e m b e r s a r e a l s o R T C H F m e m b e r s , c o n t r a c t s a f a r m e r t o p r o d u c e s o l e l y f o r t h a t f o o d c l u b . A s p r e s i d e n t o f R T C H F , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e d i a t e d t h e s e a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s i n m u l t i p l e s t a t e s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e a n w h i l e c r i t i c i z e d t h e " h e r d s h a r e " o r " c o w s h a r e " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a c o n s u m e r b u y s " s h a r e s " , t h u s " p a r t i a l l y o w n s " t h e c a t t l e , a n d t h e n b u y s d a i r y d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e f a r m e r , w h o m a y s t i l l s e l l t o n o n s h a r e h o l d e r s , t o o . P a r t l y b y w r i t i n g l e g a l d o c u m e n t s f o r f a r m e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s d e s p i t e n o t b e i n g a n a t t o r n e y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d i s c o m f i t e d t h e F a r m - t o - C o n s u m e r L e g a l D e f e n s e F u n d ( F T C L D F ) . O p e r a t e d b y a t t o r n e y s , t h e F T C L D F a l s o e n d o r s e d t h e h e r d s h a r e m o d e l , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o l a c k p r e c e d e n t , a s s h a r e h o l d i n g c a n e n t i t l e o n e t o p r o f i t s w i t h o u t a n y o w n e r s h i p o f p r o p e r t y , w h e r e a s l e a s i n g h e l d l o n g p r e c e d e n t o f f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y m a t c h i n g o w n e r s h i p , a r g u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s b e i n g n o t a l a w y e r a p p e a l e d t o A m i s h f a r m e r s , h o w e v e r , w h o t r a d i t i o n a l l y a v o i d e d t a k i n g l e g a l a c t i o n s . B y 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s l e g a l r e s p o n s e s w e r e w e l l k n o w n f o r e n d i n g r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s a g a i n s t R T C H F ' s f a r m e r s . O n c e s o t h r e a t e n e d , s o m e n o n - R T C H F f a r m e r s n e w l y s i g n e d R T C H F c o n t r a c t s . B y 2 0 1 0 , R T C H F ' s f o o d c l u b s n u m b e r e d a b o u t 8 0 , e a c h c o m m o n l y h a v i n g a b o u t 1 0 0 t o 2 0 0 m e m b e r s , a n d a f e w h a v i n g o v e r a 1 0 0 0 m e m b e r s . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n p r e s s u r i n g s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s t o e n f o r c e l a w s a g a i n s t r a w m i l k . A d r a g n e t a g a i n s t f a r m e r s a n d c l u b m a n a g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z u n f o l d e d . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a t t e m p t s t o d e f e n d t h e m d r e w m i x e d r e s u l t s . I n A p r i l 2 0 1 1 , t h e F D A f i l e d i n f e d e r a l c o u r t a g a i n s t A m i s h f a r m e r D a n i e l A l l g y e r o f P e n n s y l v a n i a . U n a b l e t o r e a c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z , w h o w a s t r a v e l i n g a b r o a d a s n u t r i t i o n i s t , A l l g y e r d r o p p e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R T C H F t h e n e x t m o n t h a n d h i r e d K a r l D a h l s t r o m ' s P r o A d v o c a t e G r o u p . A g a i n s t A l l y g e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i l e d a m o t i o n t o i n t e r c e d e , b u t t h e j u d g e d e n i e d i t , e x c l u d i n g V o n d e p l a n i t z f r o m t h e c a s e , a n d a d d e d t h a t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a r g u m e n t s a b o u t h e a l t h a n d r i g h t s w e r e i r r e l e v a n t t o w h e t h e r A l l g y e r w e r e g u i l t y o f i n t e r s t a t e c o m m e r c e o f u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 2 , r u l i n g a g a i n s t A l l g y e r , t h e j u d g e c a l l e d i t " a c o w s h a r e " t h a t w a s " m e r e l y a s u b t e r f u g e " . Y e t i n t h e W i s c o n s i n s t a t e t r i a l o f f a r m e r V e r n o n H e r s h b e r g e r , V o n d e r p l a n i t z p a r t i c i p a t e d a n d c l a i m e d v i c t o r y i n M a y 2 0 1 3 . T h e p r e e m i n e n t f o o d c l u b l i n k e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d w a s t h e R a w e s o m e f o o d c l u b , k n o w n f o r e x o t i c r a w f o o d s , a n d t h r i v i n g , d r a w i n g c e l e b r i t y c l i e n t e l e , i n V e n i c e , L o s A n g e l e s . I n 2 0 0 1 , J a m e s S t e w a r t h a d f o u n d e d a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , " T h e G a r a g e " . B y 2 0 0 3 , i t e v o l v e d i n t o R a w e s o m e , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e c o n t r a c t f o r , i n v e s t e d i n , a n d s t e e r e d c l i e n t s t o . I n 2 0 0 5 , r e g u l a t o r s t r i e d t o r e s t r i c t R a w e s o m e , b u t V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e r e s p o n s e a n d p e r s u a d e d S t e w a r t t o r e s i s t . T h e g o v e r n m e n t d r o p p e d t h e c i t a t i o n , R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d , o v e r t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s , t h i s s u c c e s s d r e w V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e n o w n f o r f e n d i n g o f f r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s . Y e t i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d t u r n a g a i n s t S t e w a r t , a c o n f l i c t t h a t d i v i d e d t h e f o o d c l u b . H a v i n g l o n g t h o u g h t h i s b o d y r e s p o n d i n g p o o r l y t o s o m e o f h e r p r o d u c t s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s u s p e c t e d H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s ' o w n e r S h a r o n P a l m e r , o n e o f R a w e s o m e ' s m a i n s u p p l i e r s , o f s e c r e t l y o u t s o u r c i n g , o f s u p p l y i n g m e a t n o t o r g a n i c a n d n o t s o y - f r e e , a n d o f p r o v i d i n g c o n t a m i n a t e d e g g s . S t e w a r t s t o o d b y P a l m e r a n d k e p t c a r r y i n g h e r p r o d u c t s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d P a l m e r ' s m a i n c r e d i t o r , R a w e s o m e m e m b e r L a r r y O t t i n g , t h e n p u b l i s h e d a d e f a m a t o r y w e b s i t e , " U n h e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s " . I n J u n e 2 0 1 0 , a n u n n a m e d P a l m e r e m p l o y e e e x p l a i n e d t o a V e n t u r a C o u n t y S h e r i f f ' s d e t e c t i v e a n d a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s a g e n t t h a t H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s l a c k e d t h e m e a n s t o p r o d u c e a l l o f t h e f o o d i t w a s s u p p l y i n g . L a t e r t h a t m o n t h , o n J u n e 3 0 , b u t v i a i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n c e 2 0 0 8 , r e g u l a t o r s r a i d e d R a w e s o m e . T w o d a y s a f t e r t h a t J u n e 2 0 1 0 r a i d o n R a w e s o m e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s e n t f r o m A s i a a g r o u p e m a i l a l l e g i n g t h a t " g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s t r e s p a s s e d a n d k i d n a p p e d v o l u n t e e r s a n d m e m b e r s f o r t h e e n t i r e t i m e t h a t t h e y s e i z e d t h e p r o p e r t y , a b o u t f i v e h o u r s " , a n d t h a t " t h e y s t o l e , u n d e r t h e t e r m c o n f i s c a t e , t h o u s a n d s o f d o l l a r s w o r t h o f m e m b e r s ' F O O D t h a t w a s p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y " . R e f e r r i n g t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s " o n l i n e n o t i c e s " , a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y a g e n t , a r g u i n g t o p r o t e c t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d t o c o n c e a l i d e n t i f i e s o f u n d e r c o v e r a g e n t s , w h o s e " l i v e s a n d s a f e t y w o u l d b e p u t i n t o j e o p a r d y " , g o t a L o s A n g e l e s S u p e r i o r C o u r t j u d g e t o s e a l t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ' s d o c u m e n t s . T h e L o s A n g e l e s D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s o f f i c e a l s o b e g a n s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e e m a i l a c c o u n t s o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z , o f P a l m e r , a n d o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h . A l t h o u g h R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d e v e n d r e w s u p p o r t i n m a i n s t r e a m m e d i a , t h e r a i d i n t e n s i f i e d t h e S t e w a r t – V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n f l i c t , d i v i d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s m e m b e r s h i p a n d p o i s o n i n g R a w e s o m e ' s a t m o s p h e r e , w h e r e a c l o u d o f v a g u e c o n s p i r a c y t h e o r i e s r e a c h i n g g l o b a l p r o p o r t i o n s s e e m e d t o h o v e r . I n l a t e 2 0 1 0 , b u t t o n o a v a i l , V o n d e r p l a n i t z v i s i t e d V e n t u r a C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o s e e k P a l m e r ' s p r o s e c u t i o n f o r a l l e g e d l y d e f r a u d i n g R a w e s o m e . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g s u e d S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r f o r s o m e $ 2 0 m i l l i o n . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 1 , a u t h o r i t i e s a g a i n r a i d e d R a w e s o m e , b u t t h i s t i m e c l o s e d i t , a r r e s t e d S t e w a r t , a n d , e l s e w h e r e , a r r e s t e d P a l m e r f o r c r i m i n a l c o n s p i r a c y i n i l l e g a l l y p r o d u c i n g a n d s e l l i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . A l s o a r r e s t e d w a s P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h , c h a r g e d s i m i l a r l y . A l t h o u g h c l a i m i n g c r e d i t f o r b u i l d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s s u c c e s s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o u n d h i m s e l f m a r g i n a l i z e d b y R a w e s o m e ' s s u p p o r t e r s d e m o n s t r a t i n g p u b l i c l y . F u r t h e r , o u t s i d e t h e c o u r t h o u s e a t s u c h a d e m o n s t r a t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z , t r y i n g t o a n s w e r i n t e r e s t e d n e w s m e d i a , c o n c l u d e d h i m s e l f b l a c k l i s t e d f r o m n e w s g a t h e r i n g . I n 2 0 1 2 , S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r w e r e a r r e s t e d o n c r i m i n a l c h a r g e s a s t o f u n d i n g o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m , w h e r e b y t h e y a l l e g e d l y m i s l e d i n v e s t o r s a b o u t t h e i r o w n c r e d i t w o r t h i n e s s , a n d c o u l d e a c h f a c e 4 0 y e a r s i m p r i s o n m e n t . A f t e r f o u r m o n t h s o f j a i l , S t e w a r t t o o k a p l e a d e a l , p a i d a f i n e , g a v e u p R a w e s o m e ' s c a u s e , a n d b e g a n d i s t r i b u t i n g o l i v e o i l . B y J u l y 2 0 1 3 , t h e c i v i l s u i t ' s j u d g e h a d r e d u c e d t h e 3 0 c i v i l c h a r g e s t o t w o , P a l m e r h a d c o u n t e r s u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g , a n d t h e j u d g e o r d e r e d t h e p a r t i e s t o n e g o t i a t e a s e t t l e m e n t . B y t h e n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s s e e m i n g l y i r r a t i o n a l v e n d e t t a w a s i n f a m o u s , p a r t i a l l y b l a m e d f o r R a w e s o m e ' s d o w n f a l l . D e s p i t e h i s r o l e i n R a w e s o m e a n d t h e o t h e r a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t h e c o n t i n u e d a f t e r R a w e s o m e ' s d e b a c l e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d n e v e r b e p r o s e c u t e d . S t i l l , b y 2 0 1 0 , h e b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t h e t a r g e t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l o r p h a r m a c e u t i c a l c o n s p i r a c y t o n e u t r a l i z e h i m . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e h a d d e s c r i b e d t h e o n g o i n g f l u p a n d e m i c a s a h o a x m e d i a t e d b y f l u v a c c i n a t i o n . S o o n , h e a l l e g e d a p p a r e n t r e t r i b u t i o n b y i n v a d e r s o f h i s h o t e l r o o m i n T h a i l a n d f o r c i b l y g i v i n g h i m i n j e c t i o n s t h a t s e n t h i s " m e r c u r y , b a r i u m , a n d c h r o m i u m r e a d i n g s o f f t h e c h a r t s " , i m p a i r i n g h i s h e a l t h , c a u s i n g w e i g h t l o s s , a n d p r e m a t u r e l y a g i n g h i m . L a t e r , h e c l a i m e d t h a t o n a T h a i l a n d r o a d , h i s c a r ' s b r a k e s s u d d e n l y f a i l e d , c a u s i n g a p o t e n t i a l l y f a t a l c a r w r e c k t h a t h e l i k e w i s e a t t r i b u t e d t o a p l o t a g a i n s t h i s l i f e . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 , a t h i s f a r m i n T h a i l a n d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a p p a r e n t l y l e a n e d a g a i n s t h i s h o u s e ' s s e c o n d - s t o r y b a l c o n y r a i l , w h i c h p r o v e d f a u l t y , a l l o w i n g h i s f a l l t h a t b r o k e h i s s p i n e a n d p a r a l y z e d h i m . A t t h e h o s p i t a l , h e a c c e p t e d p a i n - k i l l i n g d r u g s , y e t r e f u s e d s u r g e r y t o r e p a i r i n t e r n a l b l e e d i n g . A f t e r a f e w d a y s , h e l o s t c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d d i e d . D e s p i t e r u m o r s o f c o n s p i r a c y , t w o o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c o l l e a g u e s d e s c r i b e d l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u g g e s t i n g a g e n u i n e a c c i d e n t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d a u t h o r e d t w o b o o k s : a m e m o i r r e t r a c i n g h i s p a t h t o a n d i n t r o d u c i n g t h e P r i m a l D i e t , " W e W a n t T o L i v e " ( 1 9 9 7 / 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d a f o l l o w - u p r e c i p e b o o k c i t i n g p u t a t i v e s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e , " T h e R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " ( 2 0 0 2 ) .

Biographical sketch

Aajonus Vonderplanitz was born John Richard Swigart in Denver, Colorado, and grew up in Finneytown, Ohio. He suffered from various health issues, including dyslexia, autism, and juvenile diabetes, and was hospitalized multiple times. He married young and had a son, but the marriage ended in divorce. He moved to Los Angeles, where he developed a stomach ulcer and was diagnosed with multiple myeloma. He claimed to have cured himself through a raw carrot juice diet and later promoted himself as a nutritionist. He adopted a raw vegan diet, then later advocated for eating raw meat. He wrote two books, "We Want To Live" and "The Recipe for Living Without Disease," and became a prominent figure in the raw milk movement. He died in 2013 after falling from a balcony in Thailand.

Originally named John Richard Swigart, and born in Denver, Colorado, Vonderplanitz spent most of childhood and adolescence in the Cincinnati suburb Finneytown, Ohio. He described having been a sickly child misunderstood and abused. His brother, a couple of years elder, allegedly resentful at loss of maternal attention, "tortured me nearly daily", Vonderplanitz explained. Being "dyslexic" and "borderline autistic", conditions "which no one understood at the time", Vonderplanitz "rarely played with other children", and "embarrassed and frustrated my parents", fueling paternal "discipline" that led to several hospitalizations, Vonderplanitz claimed. In another hospitalization near his 10th birthday, Vonderplanitz's alleged peritonitis was misdiagnosed appendicitis, whereupon his appendix, discovered fine, was removed anyway, he recounted. He claimed that his bones were brittle, he "regularly" breaking limb bones, and at age 15 was diagnosed with "juvenile diabetes". Vonderplanitz first received family and community support, he recalled, once he found his first girlfriend in his junior year at Finneytown High School. At age 17, Vonderplanitz married her, a recent schoolmate one year elder, who bore his only child, a son, in his senior year. Once he graduated, the new family moved elsewhere near Cincinnati. They renting a small apartment at a business intersection, Vonderplanitz's wife worked as a utility-company secretary, and he as a short-order cook also attending the Cincinnati Institute of Computer Technology. Their son's severe colic, her postpartum mood problems, and his own confusions and mood problems ended their prior bliss. He increasingly drank with friends, and entered an extramarital affair with a female instructor at his trade school. Divorced at 19, he moved to Los Angeles for work in computer programming. Although he seemingly never remarried, his own and other persons' anecdotes about him involve several girlfriends throughout his later life. On moving to Los Angeles, feeling directionless and distressed, Vonderplanitz continued heavy drinking. Still aged 19, he developed a stomach ulcer, whose surgical treatment caused a keloidal scar in turn treated by radiation therapy that then caused multiple myeloma, Vonderplanitz recounted. Once chemotherapy caused further illnesses, including psoriasis, bursitis, and severe periodontitis, he discontinued treatment of his terminal cancer, but a hospice worker, paying him volunteer home visits, gave him a small book on cancer treatment by raw carrot juice, Vonderplanitz would claim. Within 10 days, the regimen ended his alleged dyslexia, and soon thereafter put his cancer in remission, Vonderplanitz would claim. At age 22, Vonderplanitz began promoting himself as a nutritionist. At about age 23, the still John Swigart met a girl toddler who renamed him Aajonus. Disliking his given name, a reminder of illness and mistreatment, he accepted the renaming, and later took his European ancestors' last name Vonderplanitz. He would attribute his health gains over the next two years mostly to raw juices and raw dairy. By age 25, eliminating raw dairy, Vonderplanitz adopted raw veganism. At age 27, seeking health answers, he reputedly sojourned by bicycle, while he "lived off the earth", across North America and into Latin America. Nearly three years later, he returned to Los Angeles telling of a seemingly implausible health answer: eating raw meat. Vonderplanitz would claim a diverse résumé, partly since by age 40, he still had marginal income as a nutritionist. He recalled ethically refusing $7.5 million to be made, in 1971, the Winston Man for seven years, and, in the 1980s, while earning income painting murals and such inside homes, some acting on the soap opera "General Hospital". He claimed to have created a brief diet, damaging within a few days to weeks, for a client demanding quick weight loss, but who allegedly published it for profit as the Beverly Hills Diet. Upon overturning a traffic ticket at age 22, he sought to develop legal expertise by private study. After 2000, he wrote business contracts and legal responses for farmers. In his latest years, owning a farm in the Philippines hindsight, he claimed that his advice had been often ineffective, and sometimes even harmful, until he included raw meat. At perhaps age 30, he became a staff nutritionist, advising customers, at a healthfood store, Aunt Tilly's Too. Although not in his 1997 book, he used the title PhD, specifying nutritional science, in a 2001 research report on milk, cowritten with William Campbell Douglass II MD, and thereafter. In 2009, he was reported to lack accredited scientific or medical training. In September 1986, at age 39, living in a Beverly Hills "slum" while freelancing in nutrition, Vonderplanitz returned to Cincinnati, Ohio. There, his only child, his son, estranged for about 20 years, had recently been in a severe car wreck, driving, without a seatbelt on, straight into a tree. honey. In 2002, his other book, the "Recipe for Living Without Disease", was published. Nearing 2010, he was still claiming over 90% rate of cancer remission among his clients closely heeding it. Despite mainstream dismissal, his Primal Diet gained a sizable, if underground, following. Although Vonderplanitz dated it to the 1970s, his food-rights campaign more clearly began nearing 2000. Into 2011, Vonderplanitz and an ally, James Stewart, were the raw-milk movement's de facto leaders. In 1997 or 1998, Venice resident James Stewart, in poor health, discovered Vonderplanitz's Primal Diet. By 2000, Stewart was a southern California distributor of raw milk for Claravale Farm, which had only eight cows, but was the state's only farm still licensed to supply unpasteurized milk to retail stores. While Claravale Farm added cows his life. In August 2013, at his farm in Thailand, Vonderplanitz apparently leaned against his house's second-story balcony rail, which proved faulty, allowing his fall that broke his spine and paralyzed him. At the hospital, he accepted pain-killing drugs, yet refused surgery to repair internal bleeding. After a few days, he lost consciousness and died. Despite rumors of conspiracy, two of Vonderplanitz's colleagues described local circumstances suggesting a genuine accident. Vonderplanitz had authored two books: a memoir retracing his path to and introducing the Primal Diet, "We Want To Live" (1997/2005), and a follow-up recipe book citing putative scientific evidence, "The Recipe for Living Without Disease" (2002).

Aajonus Vonderplanitz

O r i g i n a l l y n a m e d J o h n R i c h a r d S w i g a r t , a n d b o r n i n D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s p e n t m o s t o f c h i l d h o o d a n d a d o l e s c e n c e i n t h e C i n c i n n a t i s u b u r b F i n n e y t o w n , O h i o . H e d e s c r i b e d h a v i n g b e e n a s i c k l y c h i l d m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d a b u s e d . H i s b r o t h e r , a c o u p l e o f y e a r s e l d e r , a l l e g e d l y r e s e n t f u l a t l o s s o f m a t e r n a l a t t e n t i o n , " t o r t u r e d m e n e a r l y d a i l y " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z e x p l a i n e d . B e i n g " d y s l e x i c " a n d " b o r d e r l i n e a u t i s t i c " , c o n d i t i o n s " w h i c h n o o n e u n d e r s t o o d a t t h e t i m e " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z " r a r e l y p l a y e d w i t h o t h e r c h i l d r e n " , a n d " e m b a r r a s s e d a n d f r u s t r a t e d m y p a r e n t s " , f u e l i n g p a t e r n a l " d i s c i p l i n e " t h a t l e d t o s e v e r a l h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d . I n a n o t h e r h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n n e a r h i s 1 0 t h b i r t h d a y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a l l e g e d p e r i t o n i t i s w a s m i s d i a g n o s e d a p p e n d i c i t i s , w h e r e u p o n h i s a p p e n d i x , d i s c o v e r e d f i n e , w a s r e m o v e d a n y w a y , h e r e c o u n t e d . H e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s b o n e s w e r e b r i t t l e , h e " r e g u l a r l y " b r e a k i n g l i m b b o n e s , a n d a t a g e 1 5 w a s d i a g n o s e d w i t h " j u v e n i l e d i a b e t e s " . V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i r s t r e c e i v e d f a m i l y a n d c o m m u n i t y s u p p o r t , h e r e c a l l e d , o n c e h e f o u n d h i s f i r s t g i r l f r i e n d i n h i s j u n i o r y e a r a t F i n n e y t o w n H i g h S c h o o l . A t a g e 1 7 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m a r r i e d h e r , a r e c e n t s c h o o l m a t e o n e y e a r e l d e r , w h o b o r e h i s o n l y c h i l d , a s o n , i n h i s s e n i o r y e a r . O n c e h e g r a d u a t e d , t h e n e w f a m i l y m o v e d e l s e w h e r e n e a r C i n c i n n a t i . T h e y r e n t i n g a s m a l l a p a r t m e n t a t a b u s i n e s s i n t e r s e c t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s w i f e w o r k e d a s a u t i l i t y - c o m p a n y s e c r e t a r y , a n d h e a s a s h o r t - o r d e r c o o k a l s o a t t e n d i n g t h e C i n c i n n a t i I n s t i t u t e o f C o m p u t e r T e c h n o l o g y . T h e i r s o n ' s s e v e r e c o l i c , h e r p o s t p a r t u m m o o d p r o b l e m s , a n d h i s o w n c o n f u s i o n s a n d m o o d p r o b l e m s e n d e d t h e i r p r i o r b l i s s . H e i n c r e a s i n g l y d r a n k w i t h f r i e n d s , a n d e n t e r e d a n e x t r a m a r i t a l a f f a i r w i t h a f e m a l e i n s t r u c t o r a t h i s t r a d e s c h o o l . D i v o r c e d a t 1 9 , h e m o v e d t o L o s A n g e l e s f o r w o r k i n c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g . A l t h o u g h h e s e e m i n g l y n e v e r r e m a r r i e d , h i s o w n a n d o t h e r p e r s o n s ' a n e c d o t e s a b o u t h i m i n v o l v e s e v e r a l g i r l f r i e n d s t h r o u g h o u t h i s l a t e r l i f e . O n m o v i n g t o L o s A n g e l e s , f e e l i n g d i r e c t i o n l e s s a n d d i s t r e s s e d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n t i n u e d h e a v y d r i n k i n g . S t i l l a g e d 1 9 , h e d e v e l o p e d a s t o m a c h u l c e r , w h o s e s u r g i c a l t r e a t m e n t c a u s e d a k e l o i d a l s c a r i n t u r n t r e a t e d b y r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y t h a t t h e n c a u s e d m u l t i p l e m y e l o m a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d . O n c e c h e m o t h e r a p y c a u s e d f u r t h e r i l l n e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g p s o r i a s i s , b u r s i t i s , a n d s e v e r e p e r i o d o n t i t i s , h e d i s c o n t i n u e d t r e a t m e n t o f h i s t e r m i n a l c a n c e r , b u t a h o s p i c e w o r k e r , p a y i n g h i m v o l u n t e e r h o m e v i s i t s , g a v e h i m a s m a l l b o o k o n c a n c e r t r e a t m e n t b y r a w c a r r o t j u i c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . W i t h i n 1 0 d a y s , t h e r e g i m e n e n d e d h i s a l l e g e d d y s l e x i a , a n d s o o n t h e r e a f t e r p u t h i s c a n c e r i n r e m i s s i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . A t a g e 2 2 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z b e g a n p r o m o t i n g h i m s e l f a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . A t a b o u t a g e 2 3 , t h e s t i l l J o h n S w i g a r t m e t a g i r l t o d d l e r w h o r e n a m e d h i m A a j o n u s . D i s l i k i n g h i s g i v e n n a m e , a r e m i n d e r o f i l l n e s s a n d m i s t r e a t m e n t , h e a c c e p t e d t h e r e n a m i n g , a n d l a t e r t o o k h i s E u r o p e a n a n c e s t o r s ' l a s t n a m e V o n d e r p l a n i t z . H e w o u l d a t t r i b u t e h i s h e a l t h g a i n s o v e r t h e n e x t t w o y e a r s m o s t l y t o r a w j u i c e s a n d r a w d a i r y . B y a g e 2 5 , e l i m i n a t i n g r a w d a i r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a d o p t e d r a w v e g a n i s m . A t a g e 2 7 , s e e k i n g h e a l t h a n s w e r s , h e r e p u t e d l y s o j o u r n e d b y b i c y c l e , w h i l e h e " l i v e d o f f t h e e a r t h " , a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a . N e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , h e r e t u r n e d t o L o s A n g e l e s t e l l i n g o f a s e e m i n g l y i m p l a u s i b l e h e a l t h a n s w e r : e a t i n g r a w m e a t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m a d i v e r s e r é s u m é , p a r t l y s i n c e b y a g e 4 0 , h e s t i l l h a d m a r g i n a l i n c o m e a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . H e r e c a l l e d e t h i c a l l y r e f u s i n g $ 7 . 5 m i l l i o n t o b e m a d e , i n 1 9 7 1 , t h e W i n s t o n M a n f o r s e v e n y e a r s , a n d , i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , w h i l e e a r n i n g i n c o m e p a i n t i n g m u r a l s a n d s u c h i n s i d e h o m e s , s o m e a c t i n g o n t h e s o a p o p e r a " G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l " . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e c r e a t e d a b r i e f d i e t , d a m a g i n g w i t h i n a f e w d a y s t o w e e k s , f o r a c l i e n t d e m a n d i n g q u i c k w e i g h t l o s s , b u t w h o a l l e g e d l y p u b l i s h e d i t f o r p r o f i t a s t h e B e v e r l y H i l l s D i e t . U p o n o v e r t u r n i n g a t r a f f i c t i c k e t a t a g e 2 2 , h e s o u g h t t o d e v e l o p l e g a l e x p e r t i s e b y p r i v a t e s t u d y . A f t e r 2 0 0 0 , h e w r o t e b u s i n e s s c o n t r a c t s a n d l e g a l r e s p o n s e s f o r f a r m e r s . I n h i s l a t e s t y e a r s , o w n i n g a f a r m i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a n d a n o t h e r i n a r e m o t e a r e a o f T h a i l a n d , n e a r i t s n o r t h e r n b o r d e r w i t h L a o s , h e s p e n t m u c h t i m e a t h i s T h a i l a n d f a r m . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t u t e l a g e b y a S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n u t r i t i o n i s t n a m e d B r u n o C o r i g l i a n o f o l l o w e d b y n e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s o f b i c y c l e t r a v e l a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a , i n h i s l a t e 2 0 s , w h i l e s t u d y i n g b i o l o g y a n d m e d i c a l t e x t b o o k s , N a t i v e A m e r i c a n i n d i g e n o u s h e a l t h c a r e , a n d w i l d l i f e h a b i t s . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e d i s c o v e r e d r a w m e a t ' s p u t a t i v e h e a l i n g c a p a c i t y w h e n f a s t i n g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , w h e r e a p a c k o f c o y o t e s k i l l e d , t o r e o p e n , a n d o f f e r e d h i m a j a c k r a b b i t , t h e n w a t c h e d h i m u n t i l h e a t e i t . I n h i s e a r l y 2 0 s , a m o n g t h e o u t d o o r p u r v e y o r s a t V e n i c e B e a c h , h e s e t u p a t a b l e w i t h t h e b a n n e r " N U T R I T I O N I S T " , a n d b e g a n c o u n s e l i n g i n a r a w - f o o d n i c h e . I n h i n d s i g h t , h e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s a d v i c e h a d b e e n o f t e n i n e f f e c t i v e , a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n h a r m f u l , u n t i l h e i n c l u d e d r a w m e a t . A t p e r h a p s a g e 3 0 , h e b e c a m e a s t a f f n u t r i t i o n i s t , a d v i s i n g c u s t o m e r s , a t a h e a l t h f o o d s t o r e , A u n t T i l l y ' s T o o . A l t h o u g h n o t i n h i s 1 9 9 7 b o o k , h e u s e d t h e t i t l e P h D , s p e c i f y i n g n u t r i t i o n a l s c i e n c e , i n a 2 0 0 1 r e s e a r c h r e p o r t o n m i l k , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I M D , a n d t h e r e a f t e r . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e w a s r e p o r t e d t o l a c k a c c r e d i t e d s c i e n t i f i c o r m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g . I n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 8 6 , a t a g e 3 9 , l i v i n g i n a B e v e r l y H i l l s " s l u m " w h i l e f r e e l a n c i n g i n n u t r i t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e t u r n e d t o C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o . T h e r e , h i s o n l y c h i l d , h i s s o n , e s t r a n g e d f o r a b o u t 2 0 y e a r s , h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n i n a s e v e r e c a r w r e c k , d r i v i n g , w i t h o u t a s e a t b e l t o n , s t r a i g h t i n t o a t r e e . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o h a v e s a b o t a g e d h i s s o n ' s c o n v e n t i o n a l m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t , i n M e r c y H o s p i t a l ' s i n t e n s i v e - c a r e u n i t , a n d u s e d r a w f o o d s t o a w a k e n a n d r e t r i e v e h i s c o m a t o s e s o n f r o m i m m i n e n t d e a t h , a n d t o r e v e r s e h i s p a r a l y s i s a n d b r a i n d a m a g e . T e n y e a r s a f t e r h i s s o n ' s r e c o v e r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d t h e t a l e i n h i s f i r s t b o o k , " W e W a n t t o L i v e " , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 9 7 a n d r e v i s e d i n 2 0 0 5 . U p o n t h e 1 9 9 7 r e l e a s e o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s f i r s t b o o k , R o b e r t A t k i n s i n t e r v i e w e d h i m , b a s e d b y t h e n i n M a l i b u , o n A t k i n s ' s n a t i o n a l l y s y n d i c a t e d r a d i o s h o w . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d c l a i m e d t h a t h i s o w n p r o t o c o l h a d c u r e d o v e r 2 0 0 c l i e n t s o f c a n c e r . I n 2 0 0 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z t r a d e m a r k e d t h e n a m e " P r i m a l D i e t " . U n l i k e l a t e r d i e t s c a l l e d " p r i m a l " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t p r i n c i p a l l y i n c l u d e s r a w m e a t , r a w e g g s , r a w d a i r y , r a w f a t s , a n d u n h e a t e d h o n e y . I n 2 0 0 2 , h i s o t h e r b o o k , t h e " R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " , w a s p u b l i s h e d . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , h e w a s s t i l l c l a i m i n g o v e r 9 0 % r a t e o f c a n c e r r e m i s s i o n a m o n g h i s c l i e n t s c l o s e l y h e e d i n g i t . D e s p i t e m a i n s t r e a m d i s m i s s a l , h i s P r i m a l D i e t g a i n e d a s i z a b l e , i f u n d e r g r o u n d , f o l l o w i n g . A l t h o u g h V o n d e r p l a n i t z d a t e d i t t o t h e 1 9 7 0 s , h i s f o o d - r i g h t s c a m p a i g n m o r e c l e a r l y b e g a n n e a r i n g 2 0 0 0 . I n t o 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d a n a l l y , J a m e s S t e w a r t , w e r e t h e r a w - m i l k m o v e m e n t ' s d e f a c t o l e a d e r s . I n 1 9 9 7 o r 1 9 9 8 , V e n i c e r e s i d e n t J a m e s S t e w a r t , i n p o o r h e a l t h , d i s c o v e r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t . B y 2 0 0 0 , S t e w a r t w a s a s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a d i s t r i b u t o r o f r a w m i l k f o r C l a r a v a l e F a r m , w h i c h h a d o n l y e i g h t c o w s , b u t w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y f a r m s t i l l l i c e n s e d t o s u p p l y u n p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o r e t a i l s t o r e s . W h i l e C l a r a v a l e F a r m a d d e d c o w s f o r S t e w a r t ' s d i s t r i b u t i o n r e a c h i n g 3 0 s t o r e s i n f o u r c o u n t i e s — O r a n g e , V e n t u r a , S a n D i e g o , a n d L o s A n g e l e s — o n e c o u n t y , L o s A n g e l e s , w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y w h e r e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s i l l e g a l . B y 2 0 0 1 , L . A . c o u n t y ' s r e g u l a t o r s w e r e p u l l i n g S t e w a r t ' s p l a c e d m i l k f r o m s t o r e s , y e t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c a m p a i g n t o l e g a l i z e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s c u l m i n a t i n g . I n 2 0 0 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d r e w S t e w a r t t o h e l p d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d p r o t e s t s , a l t h o u g h i n i t i a l t u r n o u t w a s m i n u s c u l e . L a t e r i n 2 0 0 1 , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I , a n d s u b m i t t e d t o t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s r e p o r t o n r a w m i l k , a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g t h r e a t o f l e g a l a c t i o n , g o t t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s t o e n d t h e b a n o n r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e . H i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d , t h e h e a r i n g s f u e l e d c o n s u m e r d e m a n d f o r u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . C l a r a v a l e F a r m ' s s u p p l y v i a S t e w a r t i n s u f f i c i e n t , s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a r e s i d e n t s w o u l d t r a v e l n o r t h t o b u y r a w m i l k a t t h e M c A f e e b r o t h e r s ' f a r m , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s D a i r y C o m p a n y . I n e a r l y 2 0 0 0 , t h e M c A f e e s ' f a r m h a d s w i t c h e d t o o r g a n i c , b u t t h e i r O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s s t i l l s o l d i t s m i l k w h o l e s a l e t o O r g a n i c V a l l e y , w h i c h i n t u r n s u p p l i e d o n l y p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o s t o r e s . U p o n v i s i t s b y s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n c u s t o m e r s , t h e M c A f e e s ' O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s o b t a i n e d a p e r m i t t o s e l l r a w d a i r y r e t a i l . D u r i n g 2 0 0 1 , M a r k M c A f e e c o n t a c t e d S t e w a r t , w h o t h e n r e c r u i t e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z i n v e s t e d $ 1 5 0 0 0 , a n d w i t h S t e w a r t r e c r u i t e d o t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g r e a l - e s t a t e e x e c u t i v e L a r r y O t t i n g , w h o i n v e s t e d $ 1 7 0 0 0 , a n d O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b e g a n s u p p l y i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y r e t a i l . T h e v o l u m e a l l o w e d S t e w a r t , d e s p i t e d r o p p i n g C l a r a v a l e ' s m i l k , t o r e a c h 8 9 s t o r e s . Y e t i n 2 0 0 4 , a s t h e n a t i o n ' s l a r g e s t u n p a s t e u r i z e d s u p p l i e r , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b r o u g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n - h o u s e , e l i m i n a t i n g S t e w a r t . S t e w a r t t h e n f o c u s e d o n g r o w i n g h i s p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , R a w e s o m e . R a w e s o m e w o u l d k e e p S t e w a r t a n d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r a w - d a i r y m o v e m e n t u n t i l R a w e s o m e ' s c o n t r o v e r s i a l c l o s u r e v i a g o v e r n m e n t r a i d i n 2 0 1 1 . I n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o r m e d t h e n o t - f o r - p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d ( R T C H F ) . R T C H F , d e c l a r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z , " w i l l c o m b a t a n y l e g i s l a t i o n b a n n i n g p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o c h o o s e r a w f o o d " . Y e t R T C H F a p p a r e n t l y f o c u s e d o n r a w d a i r y . I n t h i s a g e n d a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z o r i g i n a t e d t h e " a n i m a l - l e a s i n g " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , w h o s e m e m b e r s a r e a l s o R T C H F m e m b e r s , c o n t r a c t s a f a r m e r t o p r o d u c e s o l e l y f o r t h a t f o o d c l u b . A s p r e s i d e n t o f R T C H F , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e d i a t e d t h e s e a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s i n m u l t i p l e s t a t e s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e a n w h i l e c r i t i c i z e d t h e " h e r d s h a r e " o r " c o w s h a r e " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a c o n s u m e r b u y s " s h a r e s " , t h u s " p a r t i a l l y o w n s " t h e c a t t l e , a n d t h e n b u y s d a i r y d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e f a r m e r , w h o m a y s t i l l s e l l t o n o n s h a r e h o l d e r s , t o o . P a r t l y b y w r i t i n g l e g a l d o c u m e n t s f o r f a r m e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s d e s p i t e n o t b e i n g a n a t t o r n e y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d i s c o m f i t e d t h e F a r m - t o - C o n s u m e r L e g a l D e f e n s e F u n d ( F T C L D F ) . O p e r a t e d b y a t t o r n e y s , t h e F T C L D F a l s o e n d o r s e d t h e h e r d s h a r e m o d e l , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o l a c k p r e c e d e n t , a s s h a r e h o l d i n g c a n e n t i t l e o n e t o p r o f i t s w i t h o u t a n y o w n e r s h i p o f p r o p e r t y , w h e r e a s l e a s i n g h e l d l o n g p r e c e d e n t o f f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y m a t c h i n g o w n e r s h i p , a r g u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s b e i n g n o t a l a w y e r a p p e a l e d t o A m i s h f a r m e r s , h o w e v e r , w h o t r a d i t i o n a l l y a v o i d e d t a k i n g l e g a l a c t i o n s . B y 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s l e g a l r e s p o n s e s w e r e w e l l k n o w n f o r e n d i n g r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s a g a i n s t R T C H F ' s f a r m e r s . O n c e s o t h r e a t e n e d , s o m e n o n - R T C H F f a r m e r s n e w l y s i g n e d R T C H F c o n t r a c t s . B y 2 0 1 0 , R T C H F ' s f o o d c l u b s n u m b e r e d a b o u t 8 0 , e a c h c o m m o n l y h a v i n g a b o u t 1 0 0 t o 2 0 0 m e m b e r s , a n d a f e w h a v i n g o v e r a 1 0 0 0 m e m b e r s . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n p r e s s u r i n g s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s t o e n f o r c e l a w s a g a i n s t r a w m i l k . A d r a g n e t a g a i n s t f a r m e r s a n d c l u b m a n a g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z u n f o l d e d . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a t t e m p t s t o d e f e n d t h e m d r e w m i x e d r e s u l t s . I n A p r i l 2 0 1 1 , t h e F D A f i l e d i n f e d e r a l c o u r t a g a i n s t A m i s h f a r m e r D a n i e l A l l g y e r o f P e n n s y l v a n i a . U n a b l e t o r e a c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z , w h o w a s t r a v e l i n g a b r o a d a s n u t r i t i o n i s t , A l l g y e r d r o p p e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R T C H F t h e n e x t m o n t h a n d h i r e d K a r l D a h l s t r o m ' s P r o A d v o c a t e G r o u p . A g a i n s t A l l y g e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i l e d a m o t i o n t o i n t e r c e d e , b u t t h e j u d g e d e n i e d i t , e x c l u d i n g V o n d e p l a n i t z f r o m t h e c a s e , a n d a d d e d t h a t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a r g u m e n t s a b o u t h e a l t h a n d r i g h t s w e r e i r r e l e v a n t t o w h e t h e r A l l g y e r w e r e g u i l t y o f i n t e r s t a t e c o m m e r c e o f u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 2 , r u l i n g a g a i n s t A l l g y e r , t h e j u d g e c a l l e d i t " a c o w s h a r e " t h a t w a s " m e r e l y a s u b t e r f u g e " . Y e t i n t h e W i s c o n s i n s t a t e t r i a l o f f a r m e r V e r n o n H e r s h b e r g e r , V o n d e r p l a n i t z p a r t i c i p a t e d a n d c l a i m e d v i c t o r y i n M a y 2 0 1 3 . T h e p r e e m i n e n t f o o d c l u b l i n k e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d w a s t h e R a w e s o m e f o o d c l u b , k n o w n f o r e x o t i c r a w f o o d s , a n d t h r i v i n g , d r a w i n g c e l e b r i t y c l i e n t e l e , i n V e n i c e , L o s A n g e l e s . I n 2 0 0 1 , J a m e s S t e w a r t h a d f o u n d e d a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , " T h e G a r a g e " . B y 2 0 0 3 , i t e v o l v e d i n t o R a w e s o m e , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e c o n t r a c t f o r , i n v e s t e d i n , a n d s t e e r e d c l i e n t s t o . I n 2 0 0 5 , r e g u l a t o r s t r i e d t o r e s t r i c t R a w e s o m e , b u t V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e r e s p o n s e a n d p e r s u a d e d S t e w a r t t o r e s i s t . T h e g o v e r n m e n t d r o p p e d t h e c i t a t i o n , R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d , o v e r t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s , t h i s s u c c e s s d r e w V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e n o w n f o r f e n d i n g o f f r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s . Y e t i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d t u r n a g a i n s t S t e w a r t , a c o n f l i c t t h a t d i v i d e d t h e f o o d c l u b . H a v i n g l o n g t h o u g h t h i s b o d y r e s p o n d i n g p o o r l y t o s o m e o f h e r p r o d u c t s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s u s p e c t e d H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s ' o w n e r S h a r o n P a l m e r , o n e o f R a w e s o m e ' s m a i n s u p p l i e r s , o f s e c r e t l y o u t s o u r c i n g , o f s u p p l y i n g m e a t n o t o r g a n i c a n d n o t s o y - f r e e , a n d o f p r o v i d i n g c o n t a m i n a t e d e g g s . S t e w a r t s t o o d b y P a l m e r a n d k e p t c a r r y i n g h e r p r o d u c t s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d P a l m e r ' s m a i n c r e d i t o r , R a w e s o m e m e m b e r L a r r y O t t i n g , t h e n p u b l i s h e d a d e f a m a t o r y w e b s i t e , " U n h e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s " . I n J u n e 2 0 1 0 , a n u n n a m e d P a l m e r e m p l o y e e e x p l a i n e d t o a V e n t u r a C o u n t y S h e r i f f ' s d e t e c t i v e a n d a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s a g e n t t h a t H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s l a c k e d t h e m e a n s t o p r o d u c e a l l o f t h e f o o d i t w a s s u p p l y i n g . L a t e r t h a t m o n t h , o n J u n e 3 0 , b u t v i a i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n c e 2 0 0 8 , r e g u l a t o r s r a i d e d R a w e s o m e . T w o d a y s a f t e r t h a t J u n e 2 0 1 0 r a i d o n R a w e s o m e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s e n t f r o m A s i a a g r o u p e m a i l a l l e g i n g t h a t " g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s t r e s p a s s e d a n d k i d n a p p e d v o l u n t e e r s a n d m e m b e r s f o r t h e e n t i r e t i m e t h a t t h e y s e i z e d t h e p r o p e r t y , a b o u t f i v e h o u r s " , a n d t h a t " t h e y s t o l e , u n d e r t h e t e r m c o n f i s c a t e , t h o u s a n d s o f d o l l a r s w o r t h o f m e m b e r s ' F O O D t h a t w a s p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y " . R e f e r r i n g t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s " o n l i n e n o t i c e s " , a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y a g e n t , a r g u i n g t o p r o t e c t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d t o c o n c e a l i d e n t i f i e s o f u n d e r c o v e r a g e n t s , w h o s e " l i v e s a n d s a f e t y w o u l d b e p u t i n t o j e o p a r d y " , g o t a L o s A n g e l e s S u p e r i o r C o u r t j u d g e t o s e a l t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ' s d o c u m e n t s . T h e L o s A n g e l e s D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s o f f i c e a l s o b e g a n s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e e m a i l a c c o u n t s o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z , o f P a l m e r , a n d o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h . A l t h o u g h R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d e v e n d r e w s u p p o r t i n m a i n s t r e a m m e d i a , t h e r a i d i n t e n s i f i e d t h e S t e w a r t – V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n f l i c t , d i v i d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s m e m b e r s h i p a n d p o i s o n i n g R a w e s o m e ' s a t m o s p h e r e , w h e r e a c l o u d o f v a g u e c o n s p i r a c y t h e o r i e s r e a c h i n g g l o b a l p r o p o r t i o n s s e e m e d t o h o v e r . I n l a t e 2 0 1 0 , b u t t o n o a v a i l , V o n d e r p l a n i t z v i s i t e d V e n t u r a C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o s e e k P a l m e r ' s p r o s e c u t i o n f o r a l l e g e d l y d e f r a u d i n g R a w e s o m e . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g s u e d S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r f o r s o m e $ 2 0 m i l l i o n . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 1 , a u t h o r i t i e s a g a i n r a i d e d R a w e s o m e , b u t t h i s t i m e c l o s e d i t , a r r e s t e d S t e w a r t , a n d , e l s e w h e r e , a r r e s t e d P a l m e r f o r c r i m i n a l c o n s p i r a c y i n i l l e g a l l y p r o d u c i n g a n d s e l l i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . A l s o a r r e s t e d w a s P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h , c h a r g e d s i m i l a r l y . A l t h o u g h c l a i m i n g c r e d i t f o r b u i l d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s s u c c e s s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o u n d h i m s e l f m a r g i n a l i z e d b y R a w e s o m e ' s s u p p o r t e r s d e m o n s t r a t i n g p u b l i c l y . F u r t h e r , o u t s i d e t h e c o u r t h o u s e a t s u c h a d e m o n s t r a t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z , t r y i n g t o a n s w e r i n t e r e s t e d n e w s m e d i a , c o n c l u d e d h i m s e l f b l a c k l i s t e d f r o m n e w s g a t h e r i n g . I n 2 0 1 2 , S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r w e r e a r r e s t e d o n c r i m i n a l c h a r g e s a s t o f u n d i n g o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m , w h e r e b y t h e y a l l e g e d l y m i s l e d i n v e s t o r s a b o u t t h e i r o w n c r e d i t w o r t h i n e s s , a n d c o u l d e a c h f a c e 4 0 y e a r s i m p r i s o n m e n t . A f t e r f o u r m o n t h s o f j a i l , S t e w a r t t o o k a p l e a d e a l , p a i d a f i n e , g a v e u p R a w e s o m e ' s c a u s e , a n d b e g a n d i s t r i b u t i n g o l i v e o i l . B y J u l y 2 0 1 3 , t h e c i v i l s u i t ' s j u d g e h a d r e d u c e d t h e 3 0 c i v i l c h a r g e s t o t w o , P a l m e r h a d c o u n t e r s u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g , a n d t h e j u d g e o r d e r e d t h e p a r t i e s t o n e g o t i a t e a s e t t l e m e n t . B y t h e n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s s e e m i n g l y i r r a t i o n a l v e n d e t t a w a s i n f a m o u s , p a r t i a l l y b l a m e d f o r R a w e s o m e ' s d o w n f a l l . D e s p i t e h i s r o l e i n R a w e s o m e a n d t h e o t h e r a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t h e c o n t i n u e d a f t e r R a w e s o m e ' s d e b a c l e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d n e v e r b e p r o s e c u t e d . S t i l l , b y 2 0 1 0 , h e b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t h e t a r g e t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l o r p h a r m a c e u t i c a l c o n s p i r a c y t o n e u t r a l i z e h i m . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e h a d d e s c r i b e d t h e o n g o i n g f l u p a n d e m i c a s a h o a x m e d i a t e d b y f l u v a c c i n a t i o n . S o o n , h e a l l e g e d a p p a r e n t r e t r i b u t i o n b y i n v a d e r s o f h i s h o t e l r o o m i n T h a i l a n d f o r c i b l y g i v i n g h i m i n j e c t i o n s t h a t s e n t h i s " m e r c u r y , b a r i u m , a n d c h r o m i u m r e a d i n g s o f f t h e c h a r t s " , i m p a i r i n g h i s h e a l t h , c a u s i n g w e i g h t l o s s , a n d p r e m a t u r e l y a g i n g h i m . L a t e r , h e c l a i m e d t h a t o n a T h a i l a n d r o a d , h i s c a r ' s b r a k e s s u d d e n l y f a i l e d , c a u s i n g a p o t e n t i a l l y f a t a l c a r w r e c k t h a t h e l i k e w i s e a t t r i b u t e d t o a p l o t a g a i n s t h i s l i f e . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 , a t h i s f a r m i n T h a i l a n d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a p p a r e n t l y l e a n e d a g a i n s t h i s h o u s e ' s s e c o n d - s t o r y b a l c o n y r a i l , w h i c h p r o v e d f a u l t y , a l l o w i n g h i s f a l l t h a t b r o k e h i s s p i n e a n d p a r a l y z e d h i m . A t t h e h o s p i t a l , h e a c c e p t e d p a i n - k i l l i n g d r u g s , y e t r e f u s e d s u r g e r y t o r e p a i r i n t e r n a l b l e e d i n g . A f t e r a f e w d a y s , h e l o s t c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d d i e d . D e s p i t e r u m o r s o f c o n s p i r a c y , t w o o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c o l l e a g u e s d e s c r i b e d l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u g g e s t i n g a g e n u i n e a c c i d e n t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d a u t h o r e d t w o b o o k s : a m e m o i r r e t r a c i n g h i s p a t h t o a n d i n t r o d u c i n g t h e P r i m a l D i e t , " W e W a n t T o L i v e " ( 1 9 9 7 / 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d a f o l l o w - u p r e c i p e b o o k c i t i n g p u t a t i v e s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e , " T h e R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " ( 2 0 0 2 ) .

Biographical sketch ; Adulthood

Aajonus Vonderplanitz was born John Richard Swigart in Denver, Colorado, and grew up in Finneytown, Ohio. He had a difficult childhood, suffering from various health issues and alleged abuse. He married young and had a son, but the marriage ended in divorce. He moved to Los Angeles, where he developed a stomach ulcer and later multiple myeloma. He claimed to have cured himself through a raw food diet and later promoted himself as a nutritionist. He traveled extensively, adopting a raw vegan diet and eventually incorporating raw meat into his regimen. He wrote two books and advised clients on nutrition, but his credentials were questioned. He died in 2013 after falling from a balcony in Thailand.

Originally named John Richard Swigart, and born in Denver, Colorado, Vonderplanitz spent most of childhood and adolescence in the Cincinnati suburb Finneytown, Ohio. He described having been a sickly child misunderstood and abused. His brother, a couple of years elder, allegedly resentful at loss of maternal attention, "tortured me nearly daily", Vonderplanitz explained. Being "dyslexic" and "borderline autistic", conditions "which no one understood at the time", Vonderplanitz "rarely played with other children", and "embarrassed and frustrated my parents", fueling paternal "discipline" that led to several hospitalizations, Vonderplanitz claimed. In another hospitalization near his 10th birthday, Vonderplanitz's alleged peritonitis was misdiagnosed appendicitis, whereupon his appendix, discovered fine, was removed anyway, he recounted. He claimed that his bones were brittle, he "regularly" breaking limb bones, and at age 15 was diagnosed with "juvenile diabetes". Vonderplanitz first received family and community support, he recalled, once he found his first girlfriend in his junior year at Finneytown High School. At age 17, Vonderplanitz married her, a recent schoolmate one year elder, who bore his only child, a son, in his senior year. Once he graduated, the new family moved elsewhere near Cincinnati. They renting a small apartment at a business intersection, Vonderplanitz's wife worked as a utility-company secretary, and he as a short-order cook also attending the Cincinnati Institute of Computer Technology. Their son's severe colic, her postpartum mood problems, and his own confusions and mood problems ended their prior bliss. He increasingly drank with friends, and entered an extramarital affair with a female instructor at his trade school. Divorced at 19, he moved to Los Angeles for work in computer programming. Although he seemingly never remarried, his own and other persons' anecdotes about him involve several girlfriends throughout his later life. On moving to Los Angeles, feeling directionless and distressed, Vonderplanitz continued heavy drinking. Still aged 19, he developed a stomach ulcer, whose surgical treatment caused a keloidal scar in turn treated by radiation therapy that then caused multiple myeloma, Vonderplanitz recounted. Once chemotherapy caused further illnesses, including psoriasis, bursitis, and severe periodontitis, he discontinued treatment of his terminal cancer, but a hospice worker, paying him volunteer home visits, gave him a small book on cancer treatment by raw carrot juice, Vonderplanitz would claim. Within 10 days, the regimen ended his alleged dyslexia, and soon thereafter put his cancer in remission, Vonderplanitz would claim. At age 22, Vonderplanitz began promoting himself as a nutritionist. At about age 23, the still John Swigart met a girl toddler who renamed him Aajonus. Disliking his given name, a reminder of illness and mistreatment, he accepted the renaming, and later took his European ancestors' last name Vonderplanitz. He would attribute his health gains over the next two years mostly to raw juices and raw dairy. By age 25, eliminating raw dairy, Vonderplanitz adopted raw veganism. At age 27, seeking health answers, he reputedly sojourned by bicycle, while he "lived off the earth", across North America and into Latin America. Nearly three years later, he returned to Los Angeles telling of a seemingly implausible health answer: eating raw meat. Vonderplanitz would claim a diverse résumé, partly since by age 40, he still had marginal income as a nutritionist. He recalled ethically refusing $7.5 million to be made, in 1971, the Winston Man for seven years, and, in the 1980s, while earning income painting murals and such inside homes, some acting on the soap opera "General Hospital". He claimed to have created a brief diet, damaging within a few days to weeks, for a client demanding quick weight loss, but who allegedly published it for profit as the Beverly Hills Diet. Upon overturning a traffic ticket at age 22, he sought to develop legal expertise by private study. After 2000, he wrote business contracts and legal responses for farmers. In his latest years, owning a farm in the Philippines hindsight, he claimed that his advice had been often ineffective, and sometimes even harmful, until he included raw meat. At perhaps age 30, he became a staff nutritionist, advising customers, at a healthfood store, Aunt Tilly's Too. Although not in his 1997 book, he used the title PhD, specifying nutritional science, in a 2001 research report on milk, cowritten with William Campbell Douglass II MD, and thereafter. In 2009, he was reported to lack accredited scientific or medical training. In September 1986, at age 39, living in a Beverly Hills "slum" while freelancing in nutrition, Vonderplanitz returned to Cincinnati, Ohio. There, his only child, his son, estranged for about 20 years, had recently been in a severe car wreck, driving, without a seatbelt on, straight into a tree. seemingly irrational vendetta was infamous, partially blamed for Rawesome's downfall. Despite his role in Rawesome and the other animal-leasing arrangements that he continued after Rawesome's debacle, Vonderplanitz would never be prosecuted. Still, by 2010, he believed himself the target of governmental or pharmaceutical conspiracy to neutralize him. In 2009, he had described the ongoing flu pandemic as a hoax mediated by flu vaccination. Soon, he alleged apparent retribution by invaders of his hotel room in Thailand forcibly giving him injections that sent his "mercury, barium, and chromium readings off the charts", impairing his health, causing weight loss, and prematurely aging him. Later, he claimed that on a Thailand road, his car's brakes suddenly failed, causing a potentially fatal car wreck that he likewise attributed to a plot against his life. In August 2013, at his farm in Thailand, Vonderplanitz apparently leaned against his house's second-story balcony rail, which proved faulty, allowing his fall that broke his spine and paralyzed him. At the hospital, he accepted pain-killing drugs, yet refused surgery to repair internal bleeding. After a few days, he lost consciousness and died. Despite rumors of conspiracy, two of Vonderplanitz's colleagues described local circumstances suggesting a genuine accident. Vonderplanitz had authored two books: a memoir retracing his path to and introducing the Primal Diet, "We Want To Live" (1997/2005), and a follow-up recipe book citing putative scientific evidence, "The Recipe for Living Without Disease" (2002).

Aajonus Vonderplanitz

O r i g i n a l l y n a m e d J o h n R i c h a r d S w i g a r t , a n d b o r n i n D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s p e n t m o s t o f c h i l d h o o d a n d a d o l e s c e n c e i n t h e C i n c i n n a t i s u b u r b F i n n e y t o w n , O h i o . H e d e s c r i b e d h a v i n g b e e n a s i c k l y c h i l d m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d a b u s e d . H i s b r o t h e r , a c o u p l e o f y e a r s e l d e r , a l l e g e d l y r e s e n t f u l a t l o s s o f m a t e r n a l a t t e n t i o n , " t o r t u r e d m e n e a r l y d a i l y " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z e x p l a i n e d . B e i n g " d y s l e x i c " a n d " b o r d e r l i n e a u t i s t i c " , c o n d i t i o n s " w h i c h n o o n e u n d e r s t o o d a t t h e t i m e " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z " r a r e l y p l a y e d w i t h o t h e r c h i l d r e n " , a n d " e m b a r r a s s e d a n d f r u s t r a t e d m y p a r e n t s " , f u e l i n g p a t e r n a l " d i s c i p l i n e " t h a t l e d t o s e v e r a l h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d . I n a n o t h e r h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n n e a r h i s 1 0 t h b i r t h d a y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a l l e g e d p e r i t o n i t i s w a s m i s d i a g n o s e d a p p e n d i c i t i s , w h e r e u p o n h i s a p p e n d i x , d i s c o v e r e d f i n e , w a s r e m o v e d a n y w a y , h e r e c o u n t e d . H e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s b o n e s w e r e b r i t t l e , h e " r e g u l a r l y " b r e a k i n g l i m b b o n e s , a n d a t a g e 1 5 w a s d i a g n o s e d w i t h " j u v e n i l e d i a b e t e s " . V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i r s t r e c e i v e d f a m i l y a n d c o m m u n i t y s u p p o r t , h e r e c a l l e d , o n c e h e f o u n d h i s f i r s t g i r l f r i e n d i n h i s j u n i o r y e a r a t F i n n e y t o w n H i g h S c h o o l . A t a g e 1 7 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m a r r i e d h e r , a r e c e n t s c h o o l m a t e o n e y e a r e l d e r , w h o b o r e h i s o n l y c h i l d , a s o n , i n h i s s e n i o r y e a r . O n c e h e g r a d u a t e d , t h e n e w f a m i l y m o v e d e l s e w h e r e n e a r C i n c i n n a t i . T h e y r e n t i n g a s m a l l a p a r t m e n t a t a b u s i n e s s i n t e r s e c t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s w i f e w o r k e d a s a u t i l i t y - c o m p a n y s e c r e t a r y , a n d h e a s a s h o r t - o r d e r c o o k a l s o a t t e n d i n g t h e C i n c i n n a t i I n s t i t u t e o f C o m p u t e r T e c h n o l o g y . T h e i r s o n ' s s e v e r e c o l i c , h e r p o s t p a r t u m m o o d p r o b l e m s , a n d h i s o w n c o n f u s i o n s a n d m o o d p r o b l e m s e n d e d t h e i r p r i o r b l i s s . H e i n c r e a s i n g l y d r a n k w i t h f r i e n d s , a n d e n t e r e d a n e x t r a m a r i t a l a f f a i r w i t h a f e m a l e i n s t r u c t o r a t h i s t r a d e s c h o o l . D i v o r c e d a t 1 9 , h e m o v e d t o L o s A n g e l e s f o r w o r k i n c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g . A l t h o u g h h e s e e m i n g l y n e v e r r e m a r r i e d , h i s o w n a n d o t h e r p e r s o n s ' a n e c d o t e s a b o u t h i m i n v o l v e s e v e r a l g i r l f r i e n d s t h r o u g h o u t h i s l a t e r l i f e . O n m o v i n g t o L o s A n g e l e s , f e e l i n g d i r e c t i o n l e s s a n d d i s t r e s s e d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n t i n u e d h e a v y d r i n k i n g . S t i l l a g e d 1 9 , h e d e v e l o p e d a s t o m a c h u l c e r , w h o s e s u r g i c a l t r e a t m e n t c a u s e d a k e l o i d a l s c a r i n t u r n t r e a t e d b y r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y t h a t t h e n c a u s e d m u l t i p l e m y e l o m a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d . O n c e c h e m o t h e r a p y c a u s e d f u r t h e r i l l n e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g p s o r i a s i s , b u r s i t i s , a n d s e v e r e p e r i o d o n t i t i s , h e d i s c o n t i n u e d t r e a t m e n t o f h i s t e r m i n a l c a n c e r , b u t a h o s p i c e w o r k e r , p a y i n g h i m v o l u n t e e r h o m e v i s i t s , g a v e h i m a s m a l l b o o k o n c a n c e r t r e a t m e n t b y r a w c a r r o t j u i c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . W i t h i n 1 0 d a y s , t h e r e g i m e n e n d e d h i s a l l e g e d d y s l e x i a , a n d s o o n t h e r e a f t e r p u t h i s c a n c e r i n r e m i s s i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . A t a g e 2 2 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z b e g a n p r o m o t i n g h i m s e l f a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . A t a b o u t a g e 2 3 , t h e s t i l l J o h n S w i g a r t m e t a g i r l t o d d l e r w h o r e n a m e d h i m A a j o n u s . D i s l i k i n g h i s g i v e n n a m e , a r e m i n d e r o f i l l n e s s a n d m i s t r e a t m e n t , h e a c c e p t e d t h e r e n a m i n g , a n d l a t e r t o o k h i s E u r o p e a n a n c e s t o r s ' l a s t n a m e V o n d e r p l a n i t z . H e w o u l d a t t r i b u t e h i s h e a l t h g a i n s o v e r t h e n e x t t w o y e a r s m o s t l y t o r a w j u i c e s a n d r a w d a i r y . B y a g e 2 5 , e l i m i n a t i n g r a w d a i r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a d o p t e d r a w v e g a n i s m . A t a g e 2 7 , s e e k i n g h e a l t h a n s w e r s , h e r e p u t e d l y s o j o u r n e d b y b i c y c l e , w h i l e h e " l i v e d o f f t h e e a r t h " , a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a . N e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , h e r e t u r n e d t o L o s A n g e l e s t e l l i n g o f a s e e m i n g l y i m p l a u s i b l e h e a l t h a n s w e r : e a t i n g r a w m e a t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m a d i v e r s e r é s u m é , p a r t l y s i n c e b y a g e 4 0 , h e s t i l l h a d m a r g i n a l i n c o m e a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . H e r e c a l l e d e t h i c a l l y r e f u s i n g $ 7 . 5 m i l l i o n t o b e m a d e , i n 1 9 7 1 , t h e W i n s t o n M a n f o r s e v e n y e a r s , a n d , i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , w h i l e e a r n i n g i n c o m e p a i n t i n g m u r a l s a n d s u c h i n s i d e h o m e s , s o m e a c t i n g o n t h e s o a p o p e r a " G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l " . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e c r e a t e d a b r i e f d i e t , d a m a g i n g w i t h i n a f e w d a y s t o w e e k s , f o r a c l i e n t d e m a n d i n g q u i c k w e i g h t l o s s , b u t w h o a l l e g e d l y p u b l i s h e d i t f o r p r o f i t a s t h e B e v e r l y H i l l s D i e t . U p o n o v e r t u r n i n g a t r a f f i c t i c k e t a t a g e 2 2 , h e s o u g h t t o d e v e l o p l e g a l e x p e r t i s e b y p r i v a t e s t u d y . A f t e r 2 0 0 0 , h e w r o t e b u s i n e s s c o n t r a c t s a n d l e g a l r e s p o n s e s f o r f a r m e r s . I n h i s l a t e s t y e a r s , o w n i n g a f a r m i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a n d a n o t h e r i n a r e m o t e a r e a o f T h a i l a n d , n e a r i t s n o r t h e r n b o r d e r w i t h L a o s , h e s p e n t m u c h t i m e a t h i s T h a i l a n d f a r m . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t u t e l a g e b y a S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n u t r i t i o n i s t n a m e d B r u n o C o r i g l i a n o f o l l o w e d b y n e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s o f b i c y c l e t r a v e l a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a , i n h i s l a t e 2 0 s , w h i l e s t u d y i n g b i o l o g y a n d m e d i c a l t e x t b o o k s , N a t i v e A m e r i c a n i n d i g e n o u s h e a l t h c a r e , a n d w i l d l i f e h a b i t s . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e d i s c o v e r e d r a w m e a t ' s p u t a t i v e h e a l i n g c a p a c i t y w h e n f a s t i n g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , w h e r e a p a c k o f c o y o t e s k i l l e d , t o r e o p e n , a n d o f f e r e d h i m a j a c k r a b b i t , t h e n w a t c h e d h i m u n t i l h e a t e i t . I n h i s e a r l y 2 0 s , a m o n g t h e o u t d o o r p u r v e y o r s a t V e n i c e B e a c h , h e s e t u p a t a b l e w i t h t h e b a n n e r " N U T R I T I O N I S T " , a n d b e g a n c o u n s e l i n g i n a r a w - f o o d n i c h e . I n h i n d s i g h t , h e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s a d v i c e h a d b e e n o f t e n i n e f f e c t i v e , a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n h a r m f u l , u n t i l h e i n c l u d e d r a w m e a t . A t p e r h a p s a g e 3 0 , h e b e c a m e a s t a f f n u t r i t i o n i s t , a d v i s i n g c u s t o m e r s , a t a h e a l t h f o o d s t o r e , A u n t T i l l y ' s T o o . A l t h o u g h n o t i n h i s 1 9 9 7 b o o k , h e u s e d t h e t i t l e P h D , s p e c i f y i n g n u t r i t i o n a l s c i e n c e , i n a 2 0 0 1 r e s e a r c h r e p o r t o n m i l k , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I M D , a n d t h e r e a f t e r . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e w a s r e p o r t e d t o l a c k a c c r e d i t e d s c i e n t i f i c o r m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g . I n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 8 6 , a t a g e 3 9 , l i v i n g i n a B e v e r l y H i l l s " s l u m " w h i l e f r e e l a n c i n g i n n u t r i t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e t u r n e d t o C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o . T h e r e , h i s o n l y c h i l d , h i s s o n , e s t r a n g e d f o r a b o u t 2 0 y e a r s , h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n i n a s e v e r e c a r w r e c k , d r i v i n g , w i t h o u t a s e a t b e l t o n , s t r a i g h t i n t o a t r e e . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o h a v e s a b o t a g e d h i s s o n ' s c o n v e n t i o n a l m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t , i n M e r c y H o s p i t a l ' s i n t e n s i v e - c a r e u n i t , a n d u s e d r a w f o o d s t o a w a k e n a n d r e t r i e v e h i s c o m a t o s e s o n f r o m i m m i n e n t d e a t h , a n d t o r e v e r s e h i s p a r a l y s i s a n d b r a i n d a m a g e . T e n y e a r s a f t e r h i s s o n ' s r e c o v e r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d t h e t a l e i n h i s f i r s t b o o k , " W e W a n t t o L i v e " , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 9 7 a n d r e v i s e d i n 2 0 0 5 . U p o n t h e 1 9 9 7 r e l e a s e o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s f i r s t b o o k , R o b e r t A t k i n s i n t e r v i e w e d h i m , b a s e d b y t h e n i n M a l i b u , o n A t k i n s ' s n a t i o n a l l y s y n d i c a t e d r a d i o s h o w . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d c l a i m e d t h a t h i s o w n p r o t o c o l h a d c u r e d o v e r 2 0 0 c l i e n t s o f c a n c e r . I n 2 0 0 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z t r a d e m a r k e d t h e n a m e " P r i m a l D i e t " . U n l i k e l a t e r d i e t s c a l l e d " p r i m a l " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t p r i n c i p a l l y i n c l u d e s r a w m e a t , r a w e g g s , r a w d a i r y , r a w f a t s , a n d u n h e a t e d h o n e y . I n 2 0 0 2 , h i s o t h e r b o o k , t h e " R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " , w a s p u b l i s h e d . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , h e w a s s t i l l c l a i m i n g o v e r 9 0 % r a t e o f c a n c e r r e m i s s i o n a m o n g h i s c l i e n t s c l o s e l y h e e d i n g i t . D e s p i t e m a i n s t r e a m d i s m i s s a l , h i s P r i m a l D i e t g a i n e d a s i z a b l e , i f u n d e r g r o u n d , f o l l o w i n g . A l t h o u g h V o n d e r p l a n i t z d a t e d i t t o t h e 1 9 7 0 s , h i s f o o d - r i g h t s c a m p a i g n m o r e c l e a r l y b e g a n n e a r i n g 2 0 0 0 . I n t o 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d a n a l l y , J a m e s S t e w a r t , w e r e t h e r a w - m i l k m o v e m e n t ' s d e f a c t o l e a d e r s . I n 1 9 9 7 o r 1 9 9 8 , V e n i c e r e s i d e n t J a m e s S t e w a r t , i n p o o r h e a l t h , d i s c o v e r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t . B y 2 0 0 0 , S t e w a r t w a s a s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a d i s t r i b u t o r o f r a w m i l k f o r C l a r a v a l e F a r m , w h i c h h a d o n l y e i g h t c o w s , b u t w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y f a r m s t i l l l i c e n s e d t o s u p p l y u n p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o r e t a i l s t o r e s . W h i l e C l a r a v a l e F a r m a d d e d c o w s f o r S t e w a r t ' s d i s t r i b u t i o n r e a c h i n g 3 0 s t o r e s i n f o u r c o u n t i e s — O r a n g e , V e n t u r a , S a n D i e g o , a n d L o s A n g e l e s — o n e c o u n t y , L o s A n g e l e s , w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y w h e r e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s i l l e g a l . B y 2 0 0 1 , L . A . c o u n t y ' s r e g u l a t o r s w e r e p u l l i n g S t e w a r t ' s p l a c e d m i l k f r o m s t o r e s , y e t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c a m p a i g n t o l e g a l i z e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s c u l m i n a t i n g . I n 2 0 0 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d r e w S t e w a r t t o h e l p d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d p r o t e s t s , a l t h o u g h i n i t i a l t u r n o u t w a s m i n u s c u l e . L a t e r i n 2 0 0 1 , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I , a n d s u b m i t t e d t o t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s r e p o r t o n r a w m i l k , a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g t h r e a t o f l e g a l a c t i o n , g o t t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s t o e n d t h e b a n o n r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e . H i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d , t h e h e a r i n g s f u e l e d c o n s u m e r d e m a n d f o r u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . C l a r a v a l e F a r m ' s s u p p l y v i a S t e w a r t i n s u f f i c i e n t , s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a r e s i d e n t s w o u l d t r a v e l n o r t h t o b u y r a w m i l k a t t h e M c A f e e b r o t h e r s ' f a r m , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s D a i r y C o m p a n y . I n e a r l y 2 0 0 0 , t h e M c A f e e s ' f a r m h a d s w i t c h e d t o o r g a n i c , b u t t h e i r O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s s t i l l s o l d i t s m i l k w h o l e s a l e t o O r g a n i c V a l l e y , w h i c h i n t u r n s u p p l i e d o n l y p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o s t o r e s . U p o n v i s i t s b y s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n c u s t o m e r s , t h e M c A f e e s ' O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s o b t a i n e d a p e r m i t t o s e l l r a w d a i r y r e t a i l . D u r i n g 2 0 0 1 , M a r k M c A f e e c o n t a c t e d S t e w a r t , w h o t h e n r e c r u i t e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z i n v e s t e d $ 1 5 0 0 0 , a n d w i t h S t e w a r t r e c r u i t e d o t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g r e a l - e s t a t e e x e c u t i v e L a r r y O t t i n g , w h o i n v e s t e d $ 1 7 0 0 0 , a n d O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b e g a n s u p p l y i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y r e t a i l . T h e v o l u m e a l l o w e d S t e w a r t , d e s p i t e d r o p p i n g C l a r a v a l e ' s m i l k , t o r e a c h 8 9 s t o r e s . Y e t i n 2 0 0 4 , a s t h e n a t i o n ' s l a r g e s t u n p a s t e u r i z e d s u p p l i e r , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b r o u g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n - h o u s e , e l i m i n a t i n g S t e w a r t . S t e w a r t t h e n f o c u s e d o n g r o w i n g h i s p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , R a w e s o m e . R a w e s o m e w o u l d k e e p S t e w a r t a n d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r a w - d a i r y m o v e m e n t u n t i l R a w e s o m e ' s c o n t r o v e r s i a l c l o s u r e v i a g o v e r n m e n t r a i d i n 2 0 1 1 . I n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o r m e d t h e n o t - f o r - p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d ( R T C H F ) . R T C H F , d e c l a r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z , " w i l l c o m b a t a n y l e g i s l a t i o n b a n n i n g p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o c h o o s e r a w f o o d " . Y e t R T C H F a p p a r e n t l y f o c u s e d o n r a w d a i r y . I n t h i s a g e n d a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z o r i g i n a t e d t h e " a n i m a l - l e a s i n g " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , w h o s e m e m b e r s a r e a l s o R T C H F m e m b e r s , c o n t r a c t s a f a r m e r t o p r o d u c e s o l e l y f o r t h a t f o o d c l u b . A s p r e s i d e n t o f R T C H F , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e d i a t e d t h e s e a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s i n m u l t i p l e s t a t e s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e a n w h i l e c r i t i c i z e d t h e " h e r d s h a r e " o r " c o w s h a r e " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a c o n s u m e r b u y s " s h a r e s " , t h u s " p a r t i a l l y o w n s " t h e c a t t l e , a n d t h e n b u y s d a i r y d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e f a r m e r , w h o m a y s t i l l s e l l t o n o n s h a r e h o l d e r s , t o o . P a r t l y b y w r i t i n g l e g a l d o c u m e n t s f o r f a r m e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s d e s p i t e n o t b e i n g a n a t t o r n e y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d i s c o m f i t e d t h e F a r m - t o - C o n s u m e r L e g a l D e f e n s e F u n d ( F T C L D F ) . O p e r a t e d b y a t t o r n e y s , t h e F T C L D F a l s o e n d o r s e d t h e h e r d s h a r e m o d e l , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o l a c k p r e c e d e n t , a s s h a r e h o l d i n g c a n e n t i t l e o n e t o p r o f i t s w i t h o u t a n y o w n e r s h i p o f p r o p e r t y , w h e r e a s l e a s i n g h e l d l o n g p r e c e d e n t o f f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y m a t c h i n g o w n e r s h i p , a r g u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s b e i n g n o t a l a w y e r a p p e a l e d t o A m i s h f a r m e r s , h o w e v e r , w h o t r a d i t i o n a l l y a v o i d e d t a k i n g l e g a l a c t i o n s . B y 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s l e g a l r e s p o n s e s w e r e w e l l k n o w n f o r e n d i n g r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s a g a i n s t R T C H F ' s f a r m e r s . O n c e s o t h r e a t e n e d , s o m e n o n - R T C H F f a r m e r s n e w l y s i g n e d R T C H F c o n t r a c t s . B y 2 0 1 0 , R T C H F ' s f o o d c l u b s n u m b e r e d a b o u t 8 0 , e a c h c o m m o n l y h a v i n g a b o u t 1 0 0 t o 2 0 0 m e m b e r s , a n d a f e w h a v i n g o v e r a 1 0 0 0 m e m b e r s . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n p r e s s u r i n g s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s t o e n f o r c e l a w s a g a i n s t r a w m i l k . A d r a g n e t a g a i n s t f a r m e r s a n d c l u b m a n a g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z u n f o l d e d . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a t t e m p t s t o d e f e n d t h e m d r e w m i x e d r e s u l t s . I n A p r i l 2 0 1 1 , t h e F D A f i l e d i n f e d e r a l c o u r t a g a i n s t A m i s h f a r m e r D a n i e l A l l g y e r o f P e n n s y l v a n i a . U n a b l e t o r e a c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z , w h o w a s t r a v e l i n g a b r o a d a s n u t r i t i o n i s t , A l l g y e r d r o p p e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R T C H F t h e n e x t m o n t h a n d h i r e d K a r l D a h l s t r o m ' s P r o A d v o c a t e G r o u p . A g a i n s t A l l y g e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i l e d a m o t i o n t o i n t e r c e d e , b u t t h e j u d g e d e n i e d i t , e x c l u d i n g V o n d e p l a n i t z f r o m t h e c a s e , a n d a d d e d t h a t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a r g u m e n t s a b o u t h e a l t h a n d r i g h t s w e r e i r r e l e v a n t t o w h e t h e r A l l g y e r w e r e g u i l t y o f i n t e r s t a t e c o m m e r c e o f u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 2 , r u l i n g a g a i n s t A l l g y e r , t h e j u d g e c a l l e d i t " a c o w s h a r e " t h a t w a s " m e r e l y a s u b t e r f u g e " . Y e t i n t h e W i s c o n s i n s t a t e t r i a l o f f a r m e r V e r n o n H e r s h b e r g e r , V o n d e r p l a n i t z p a r t i c i p a t e d a n d c l a i m e d v i c t o r y i n M a y 2 0 1 3 . T h e p r e e m i n e n t f o o d c l u b l i n k e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d w a s t h e R a w e s o m e f o o d c l u b , k n o w n f o r e x o t i c r a w f o o d s , a n d t h r i v i n g , d r a w i n g c e l e b r i t y c l i e n t e l e , i n V e n i c e , L o s A n g e l e s . I n 2 0 0 1 , J a m e s S t e w a r t h a d f o u n d e d a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , " T h e G a r a g e " . B y 2 0 0 3 , i t e v o l v e d i n t o R a w e s o m e , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e c o n t r a c t f o r , i n v e s t e d i n , a n d s t e e r e d c l i e n t s t o . I n 2 0 0 5 , r e g u l a t o r s t r i e d t o r e s t r i c t R a w e s o m e , b u t V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e r e s p o n s e a n d p e r s u a d e d S t e w a r t t o r e s i s t . T h e g o v e r n m e n t d r o p p e d t h e c i t a t i o n , R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d , o v e r t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s , t h i s s u c c e s s d r e w V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e n o w n f o r f e n d i n g o f f r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s . Y e t i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d t u r n a g a i n s t S t e w a r t , a c o n f l i c t t h a t d i v i d e d t h e f o o d c l u b . H a v i n g l o n g t h o u g h t h i s b o d y r e s p o n d i n g p o o r l y t o s o m e o f h e r p r o d u c t s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s u s p e c t e d H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s ' o w n e r S h a r o n P a l m e r , o n e o f R a w e s o m e ' s m a i n s u p p l i e r s , o f s e c r e t l y o u t s o u r c i n g , o f s u p p l y i n g m e a t n o t o r g a n i c a n d n o t s o y - f r e e , a n d o f p r o v i d i n g c o n t a m i n a t e d e g g s . S t e w a r t s t o o d b y P a l m e r a n d k e p t c a r r y i n g h e r p r o d u c t s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d P a l m e r ' s m a i n c r e d i t o r , R a w e s o m e m e m b e r L a r r y O t t i n g , t h e n p u b l i s h e d a d e f a m a t o r y w e b s i t e , " U n h e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s " . I n J u n e 2 0 1 0 , a n u n n a m e d P a l m e r e m p l o y e e e x p l a i n e d t o a V e n t u r a C o u n t y S h e r i f f ' s d e t e c t i v e a n d a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s a g e n t t h a t H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s l a c k e d t h e m e a n s t o p r o d u c e a l l o f t h e f o o d i t w a s s u p p l y i n g . L a t e r t h a t m o n t h , o n J u n e 3 0 , b u t v i a i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n c e 2 0 0 8 , r e g u l a t o r s r a i d e d R a w e s o m e . T w o d a y s a f t e r t h a t J u n e 2 0 1 0 r a i d o n R a w e s o m e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s e n t f r o m A s i a a g r o u p e m a i l a l l e g i n g t h a t " g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s t r e s p a s s e d a n d k i d n a p p e d v o l u n t e e r s a n d m e m b e r s f o r t h e e n t i r e t i m e t h a t t h e y s e i z e d t h e p r o p e r t y , a b o u t f i v e h o u r s " , a n d t h a t " t h e y s t o l e , u n d e r t h e t e r m c o n f i s c a t e , t h o u s a n d s o f d o l l a r s w o r t h o f m e m b e r s ' F O O D t h a t w a s p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y " . R e f e r r i n g t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s " o n l i n e n o t i c e s " , a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y a g e n t , a r g u i n g t o p r o t e c t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d t o c o n c e a l i d e n t i f i e s o f u n d e r c o v e r a g e n t s , w h o s e " l i v e s a n d s a f e t y w o u l d b e p u t i n t o j e o p a r d y " , g o t a L o s A n g e l e s S u p e r i o r C o u r t j u d g e t o s e a l t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ' s d o c u m e n t s . T h e L o s A n g e l e s D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s o f f i c e a l s o b e g a n s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e e m a i l a c c o u n t s o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z , o f P a l m e r , a n d o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h . A l t h o u g h R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d e v e n d r e w s u p p o r t i n m a i n s t r e a m m e d i a , t h e r a i d i n t e n s i f i e d t h e S t e w a r t – V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n f l i c t , d i v i d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s m e m b e r s h i p a n d p o i s o n i n g R a w e s o m e ' s a t m o s p h e r e , w h e r e a c l o u d o f v a g u e c o n s p i r a c y t h e o r i e s r e a c h i n g g l o b a l p r o p o r t i o n s s e e m e d t o h o v e r . I n l a t e 2 0 1 0 , b u t t o n o a v a i l , V o n d e r p l a n i t z v i s i t e d V e n t u r a C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o s e e k P a l m e r ' s p r o s e c u t i o n f o r a l l e g e d l y d e f r a u d i n g R a w e s o m e . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g s u e d S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r f o r s o m e $ 2 0 m i l l i o n . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 1 , a u t h o r i t i e s a g a i n r a i d e d R a w e s o m e , b u t t h i s t i m e c l o s e d i t , a r r e s t e d S t e w a r t , a n d , e l s e w h e r e , a r r e s t e d P a l m e r f o r c r i m i n a l c o n s p i r a c y i n i l l e g a l l y p r o d u c i n g a n d s e l l i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . A l s o a r r e s t e d w a s P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h , c h a r g e d s i m i l a r l y . A l t h o u g h c l a i m i n g c r e d i t f o r b u i l d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s s u c c e s s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o u n d h i m s e l f m a r g i n a l i z e d b y R a w e s o m e ' s s u p p o r t e r s d e m o n s t r a t i n g p u b l i c l y . F u r t h e r , o u t s i d e t h e c o u r t h o u s e a t s u c h a d e m o n s t r a t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z , t r y i n g t o a n s w e r i n t e r e s t e d n e w s m e d i a , c o n c l u d e d h i m s e l f b l a c k l i s t e d f r o m n e w s g a t h e r i n g . I n 2 0 1 2 , S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r w e r e a r r e s t e d o n c r i m i n a l c h a r g e s a s t o f u n d i n g o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m , w h e r e b y t h e y a l l e g e d l y m i s l e d i n v e s t o r s a b o u t t h e i r o w n c r e d i t w o r t h i n e s s , a n d c o u l d e a c h f a c e 4 0 y e a r s i m p r i s o n m e n t . A f t e r f o u r m o n t h s o f j a i l , S t e w a r t t o o k a p l e a d e a l , p a i d a f i n e , g a v e u p R a w e s o m e ' s c a u s e , a n d b e g a n d i s t r i b u t i n g o l i v e o i l . B y J u l y 2 0 1 3 , t h e c i v i l s u i t ' s j u d g e h a d r e d u c e d t h e 3 0 c i v i l c h a r g e s t o t w o , P a l m e r h a d c o u n t e r s u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g , a n d t h e j u d g e o r d e r e d t h e p a r t i e s t o n e g o t i a t e a s e t t l e m e n t . B y t h e n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s s e e m i n g l y i r r a t i o n a l v e n d e t t a w a s i n f a m o u s , p a r t i a l l y b l a m e d f o r R a w e s o m e ' s d o w n f a l l . D e s p i t e h i s r o l e i n R a w e s o m e a n d t h e o t h e r a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t h e c o n t i n u e d a f t e r R a w e s o m e ' s d e b a c l e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d n e v e r b e p r o s e c u t e d . S t i l l , b y 2 0 1 0 , h e b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t h e t a r g e t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l o r p h a r m a c e u t i c a l c o n s p i r a c y t o n e u t r a l i z e h i m . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e h a d d e s c r i b e d t h e o n g o i n g f l u p a n d e m i c a s a h o a x m e d i a t e d b y f l u v a c c i n a t i o n . S o o n , h e a l l e g e d a p p a r e n t r e t r i b u t i o n b y i n v a d e r s o f h i s h o t e l r o o m i n T h a i l a n d f o r c i b l y g i v i n g h i m i n j e c t i o n s t h a t s e n t h i s " m e r c u r y , b a r i u m , a n d c h r o m i u m r e a d i n g s o f f t h e c h a r t s " , i m p a i r i n g h i s h e a l t h , c a u s i n g w e i g h t l o s s , a n d p r e m a t u r e l y a g i n g h i m . L a t e r , h e c l a i m e d t h a t o n a T h a i l a n d r o a d , h i s c a r ' s b r a k e s s u d d e n l y f a i l e d , c a u s i n g a p o t e n t i a l l y f a t a l c a r w r e c k t h a t h e l i k e w i s e a t t r i b u t e d t o a p l o t a g a i n s t h i s l i f e . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 , a t h i s f a r m i n T h a i l a n d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a p p a r e n t l y l e a n e d a g a i n s t h i s h o u s e ' s s e c o n d - s t o r y b a l c o n y r a i l , w h i c h p r o v e d f a u l t y , a l l o w i n g h i s f a l l t h a t b r o k e h i s s p i n e a n d p a r a l y z e d h i m . A t t h e h o s p i t a l , h e a c c e p t e d p a i n - k i l l i n g d r u g s , y e t r e f u s e d s u r g e r y t o r e p a i r i n t e r n a l b l e e d i n g . A f t e r a f e w d a y s , h e l o s t c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d d i e d . D e s p i t e r u m o r s o f c o n s p i r a c y , t w o o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c o l l e a g u e s d e s c r i b e d l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u g g e s t i n g a g e n u i n e a c c i d e n t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d a u t h o r e d t w o b o o k s : a m e m o i r r e t r a c i n g h i s p a t h t o a n d i n t r o d u c i n g t h e P r i m a l D i e t , " W e W a n t T o L i v e " ( 1 9 9 7 / 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d a f o l l o w - u p r e c i p e b o o k c i t i n g p u t a t i v e s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e , " T h e R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " ( 2 0 0 2 ) .

Nutritional career

Aajonus Vonderplanitz, a self-proclaimed nutritionist, promoted a raw food diet, particularly emphasizing raw meat, and advocated for individuals' rights to choose their food options. His career spanned several decades, during which he developed his Primal Diet, wrote books, and engaged in activism for food freedom. Notably, he claimed to have helped numerous individuals recover from cancer and other illnesses through his dietary approach.

his cancer in remission, Vonderplanitz would claim. At age 22, Vonderplanitz began promoting himself as a nutritionist. At about age 23, the still John Swigart met a girl toddler who renamed him Aajonus. Disliking his given name, a reminder of illness and mistreatment, he accepted the renaming, and later took his European ancestors' last name Vonderplanitz. He would attribute his health gains over the next two years mostly to raw juices and raw dairy. By age 25, eliminating raw dairy, Vonderplanitz adopted raw veganism. At age 27, seeking health answers, he reputedly sojourned by bicycle, while he "lived off the earth", across North America and into Latin America. Nearly three years later, he returned to Los Angeles telling of a seemingly implausible health answer: eating raw meat. Vonderplanitz would claim a diverse résumé, partly since by age 40, he still had marginal income as a nutritionist. He recalled ethically refusing $7.5 million to be made, in 1971, the Winston Man for seven years, and, in the 1980s, while earning income painting murals and such inside homes, some acting on the soap opera "General Hospital". He claimed to have created a brief diet, damaging within a few days to weeks, for a client demanding quick weight loss, but who allegedly published it for profit as the Beverly Hills Diet. Upon overturning a traffic ticket at age 22, he sought to develop legal expertise by private study. After 2000, he wrote business contracts and legal responses for farmers. In his latest years, owning a farm in the Philippines and another in a remote area of Thailand, near its northern border with Laos, he spent much time at his Thailand farm. Vonderplanitz claimed tutelage by a Southern California nutritionist named Bruno Corigliano followed by nearly three years of bicycle travel across North America and into Latin America, in his late 20s, while studying biology and medical textbooks, Native American indigenous healthcare, and wildlife habits. He claimed to have discovered raw meat's putative healing capacity when fasting in the wilderness, where a pack of coyotes killed, tore open, and offered him a jackrabbit, then watched him until he ate it. In his early 20s, among the outdoor purveyors at Venice Beach, he set up a table with the banner "NUTRITIONIST", and began counseling in a raw-food niche. In hindsight, he claimed that his advice had been often ineffective, and sometimes even harmful, until he included raw meat. At perhaps age 30, he became a staff nutritionist, advising customers, at a healthfood store, Aunt Tilly's Too. Although not in his 1997 book, he used the title PhD, specifying nutritional science, in a 2001 research report on milk, cowritten with William Campbell Douglass II MD, and thereafter. In 2009, he was reported to lack accredited scientific or medical training. In September 1986, at age 39, living in a Beverly Hills "slum" while freelancing in nutrition, Vonderplanitz returned to Cincinnati, Ohio. There, his only child, his son, estranged for about 20 years, had recently been in a severe car wreck, driving, without a seatbelt on, straight into a tree. Vonderplanitz claimed to have sabotaged his son's conventional medical treatment, in Mercy Hospital's intensive-care unit, and used raw foods to awaken and retrieve his comatose son from imminent death, and to reverse his paralysis and brain damage. Ten years after his son's recovery, Vonderplanitz recounted the tale in his first book, "We Want to Live", first published in 1997 and revised in 2005. Upon the 1997 release of Vonderplanitz's first book, Robert Atkins interviewed him, based by then in Malibu, on Atkins's nationally syndicated radio show. Vonderplanitz had claimed that his own protocol had cured over 200 clients of cancer. In 2000, Vonderplanitz trademarked the name "Primal Diet". Unlike later diets called "primal", Vonderplanitz's Primal Diet principally includes raw meat, raw eggs, raw dairy, raw fats, and unheated honey. In 2002, his other book, the "Recipe for Living Without Disease", was published. Nearing 2010, he was still claiming over 90% rate of cancer remission among his clients closely heeding it. Despite mainstream dismissal, his Primal Diet gained a sizable, if underground, following. Although Vonderplanitz dated it to the 1970s, his food-rights campaign more clearly began nearing 2000. Into 2011, Vonderplanitz and an ally, James Stewart, were the raw-milk movement's de facto leaders. In 1997 or 1998, Venice resident James Stewart, in poor health, discovered Vonderplanitz's Primal Diet. By 2000, Stewart was a southern California distributor of raw milk for Claravale Farm, which had only eight cows, but was the state's only farm still licensed to supply unpasteurized milk to retail stores. While Claravale Farm added cows in-house, eliminating Stewart. Stewart then focused on growing his private food club, Rawesome. Rawesome would keep Stewart and Vonderplanitz at the center of the raw-dairy movement until Rawesome's controversial closure via government raid in 2011. In the late 1990s, Vonderplanitz formed the not-for-profit organization Right to Choose Healthy Food (RTCHF). RTCHF, declared Vonderplanitz, "will combat any legislation banning people's right to choose raw food". Yet RTCHF apparently focused on raw dairy. In this agenda, Vonderplanitz originated the "animal-leasing" model, whereby a private food club, whose members are also RTCHF members, contracts a farmer to produce solely for that food club. As president of RTCHF, Vonderplanitz mediated these animal-leasing arrangements in multiple states. Vonderplanitz meanwhile criticized the "herdshare" or "cowshare" model, whereby a consumer buys "shares", thus "partially owns" unpasteurized dairy. In February 2012, ruling against Allgyer, the judge called it "a cow share" that was "merely a subterfuge". Yet in the Wisconsin state trial of farmer Vernon Hershberger, Vonderplanitz participated and claimed victory in May 2013. The preeminent food club linked to Vonderplanitz's Right to Choose Healthy Food was the Rawesome food club, known for exotic raw foods, and thriving, drawing celebrity clientele, in Venice, Los Angeles. In 2001, James Stewart had founded a private food club, "The Garage". By 2003, it evolved into Rawesome, which Vonderplanitz wrote the contract for, invested in, and steered clients to. In 2005, regulators tried to restrict Rawesome, but Vonderplanitz wrote the response and persuaded Stewart to resist. The government dropped the citation, Rawesome continued normal operation, and, over the

Aajonus Vonderplanitz

O r i g i n a l l y n a m e d J o h n R i c h a r d S w i g a r t , a n d b o r n i n D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s p e n t m o s t o f c h i l d h o o d a n d a d o l e s c e n c e i n t h e C i n c i n n a t i s u b u r b F i n n e y t o w n , O h i o . H e d e s c r i b e d h a v i n g b e e n a s i c k l y c h i l d m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d a b u s e d . H i s b r o t h e r , a c o u p l e o f y e a r s e l d e r , a l l e g e d l y r e s e n t f u l a t l o s s o f m a t e r n a l a t t e n t i o n , " t o r t u r e d m e n e a r l y d a i l y " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z e x p l a i n e d . B e i n g " d y s l e x i c " a n d " b o r d e r l i n e a u t i s t i c " , c o n d i t i o n s " w h i c h n o o n e u n d e r s t o o d a t t h e t i m e " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z " r a r e l y p l a y e d w i t h o t h e r c h i l d r e n " , a n d " e m b a r r a s s e d a n d f r u s t r a t e d m y p a r e n t s " , f u e l i n g p a t e r n a l " d i s c i p l i n e " t h a t l e d t o s e v e r a l h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d . I n a n o t h e r h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n n e a r h i s 1 0 t h b i r t h d a y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a l l e g e d p e r i t o n i t i s w a s m i s d i a g n o s e d a p p e n d i c i t i s , w h e r e u p o n h i s a p p e n d i x , d i s c o v e r e d f i n e , w a s r e m o v e d a n y w a y , h e r e c o u n t e d . H e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s b o n e s w e r e b r i t t l e , h e " r e g u l a r l y " b r e a k i n g l i m b b o n e s , a n d a t a g e 1 5 w a s d i a g n o s e d w i t h " j u v e n i l e d i a b e t e s " . V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i r s t r e c e i v e d f a m i l y a n d c o m m u n i t y s u p p o r t , h e r e c a l l e d , o n c e h e f o u n d h i s f i r s t g i r l f r i e n d i n h i s j u n i o r y e a r a t F i n n e y t o w n H i g h S c h o o l . A t a g e 1 7 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m a r r i e d h e r , a r e c e n t s c h o o l m a t e o n e y e a r e l d e r , w h o b o r e h i s o n l y c h i l d , a s o n , i n h i s s e n i o r y e a r . O n c e h e g r a d u a t e d , t h e n e w f a m i l y m o v e d e l s e w h e r e n e a r C i n c i n n a t i . T h e y r e n t i n g a s m a l l a p a r t m e n t a t a b u s i n e s s i n t e r s e c t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s w i f e w o r k e d a s a u t i l i t y - c o m p a n y s e c r e t a r y , a n d h e a s a s h o r t - o r d e r c o o k a l s o a t t e n d i n g t h e C i n c i n n a t i I n s t i t u t e o f C o m p u t e r T e c h n o l o g y . T h e i r s o n ' s s e v e r e c o l i c , h e r p o s t p a r t u m m o o d p r o b l e m s , a n d h i s o w n c o n f u s i o n s a n d m o o d p r o b l e m s e n d e d t h e i r p r i o r b l i s s . H e i n c r e a s i n g l y d r a n k w i t h f r i e n d s , a n d e n t e r e d a n e x t r a m a r i t a l a f f a i r w i t h a f e m a l e i n s t r u c t o r a t h i s t r a d e s c h o o l . D i v o r c e d a t 1 9 , h e m o v e d t o L o s A n g e l e s f o r w o r k i n c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g . A l t h o u g h h e s e e m i n g l y n e v e r r e m a r r i e d , h i s o w n a n d o t h e r p e r s o n s ' a n e c d o t e s a b o u t h i m i n v o l v e s e v e r a l g i r l f r i e n d s t h r o u g h o u t h i s l a t e r l i f e . O n m o v i n g t o L o s A n g e l e s , f e e l i n g d i r e c t i o n l e s s a n d d i s t r e s s e d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n t i n u e d h e a v y d r i n k i n g . S t i l l a g e d 1 9 , h e d e v e l o p e d a s t o m a c h u l c e r , w h o s e s u r g i c a l t r e a t m e n t c a u s e d a k e l o i d a l s c a r i n t u r n t r e a t e d b y r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y t h a t t h e n c a u s e d m u l t i p l e m y e l o m a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d . O n c e c h e m o t h e r a p y c a u s e d f u r t h e r i l l n e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g p s o r i a s i s , b u r s i t i s , a n d s e v e r e p e r i o d o n t i t i s , h e d i s c o n t i n u e d t r e a t m e n t o f h i s t e r m i n a l c a n c e r , b u t a h o s p i c e w o r k e r , p a y i n g h i m v o l u n t e e r h o m e v i s i t s , g a v e h i m a s m a l l b o o k o n c a n c e r t r e a t m e n t b y r a w c a r r o t j u i c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . W i t h i n 1 0 d a y s , t h e r e g i m e n e n d e d h i s a l l e g e d d y s l e x i a , a n d s o o n t h e r e a f t e r p u t h i s c a n c e r i n r e m i s s i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . A t a g e 2 2 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z b e g a n p r o m o t i n g h i m s e l f a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . A t a b o u t a g e 2 3 , t h e s t i l l J o h n S w i g a r t m e t a g i r l t o d d l e r w h o r e n a m e d h i m A a j o n u s . D i s l i k i n g h i s g i v e n n a m e , a r e m i n d e r o f i l l n e s s a n d m i s t r e a t m e n t , h e a c c e p t e d t h e r e n a m i n g , a n d l a t e r t o o k h i s E u r o p e a n a n c e s t o r s ' l a s t n a m e V o n d e r p l a n i t z . H e w o u l d a t t r i b u t e h i s h e a l t h g a i n s o v e r t h e n e x t t w o y e a r s m o s t l y t o r a w j u i c e s a n d r a w d a i r y . B y a g e 2 5 , e l i m i n a t i n g r a w d a i r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a d o p t e d r a w v e g a n i s m . A t a g e 2 7 , s e e k i n g h e a l t h a n s w e r s , h e r e p u t e d l y s o j o u r n e d b y b i c y c l e , w h i l e h e " l i v e d o f f t h e e a r t h " , a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a . N e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , h e r e t u r n e d t o L o s A n g e l e s t e l l i n g o f a s e e m i n g l y i m p l a u s i b l e h e a l t h a n s w e r : e a t i n g r a w m e a t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m a d i v e r s e r é s u m é , p a r t l y s i n c e b y a g e 4 0 , h e s t i l l h a d m a r g i n a l i n c o m e a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . H e r e c a l l e d e t h i c a l l y r e f u s i n g $ 7 . 5 m i l l i o n t o b e m a d e , i n 1 9 7 1 , t h e W i n s t o n M a n f o r s e v e n y e a r s , a n d , i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , w h i l e e a r n i n g i n c o m e p a i n t i n g m u r a l s a n d s u c h i n s i d e h o m e s , s o m e a c t i n g o n t h e s o a p o p e r a " G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l " . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e c r e a t e d a b r i e f d i e t , d a m a g i n g w i t h i n a f e w d a y s t o w e e k s , f o r a c l i e n t d e m a n d i n g q u i c k w e i g h t l o s s , b u t w h o a l l e g e d l y p u b l i s h e d i t f o r p r o f i t a s t h e B e v e r l y H i l l s D i e t . U p o n o v e r t u r n i n g a t r a f f i c t i c k e t a t a g e 2 2 , h e s o u g h t t o d e v e l o p l e g a l e x p e r t i s e b y p r i v a t e s t u d y . A f t e r 2 0 0 0 , h e w r o t e b u s i n e s s c o n t r a c t s a n d l e g a l r e s p o n s e s f o r f a r m e r s . I n h i s l a t e s t y e a r s , o w n i n g a f a r m i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a n d a n o t h e r i n a r e m o t e a r e a o f T h a i l a n d , n e a r i t s n o r t h e r n b o r d e r w i t h L a o s , h e s p e n t m u c h t i m e a t h i s T h a i l a n d f a r m . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t u t e l a g e b y a S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n u t r i t i o n i s t n a m e d B r u n o C o r i g l i a n o f o l l o w e d b y n e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s o f b i c y c l e t r a v e l a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a , i n h i s l a t e 2 0 s , w h i l e s t u d y i n g b i o l o g y a n d m e d i c a l t e x t b o o k s , N a t i v e A m e r i c a n i n d i g e n o u s h e a l t h c a r e , a n d w i l d l i f e h a b i t s . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e d i s c o v e r e d r a w m e a t ' s p u t a t i v e h e a l i n g c a p a c i t y w h e n f a s t i n g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , w h e r e a p a c k o f c o y o t e s k i l l e d , t o r e o p e n , a n d o f f e r e d h i m a j a c k r a b b i t , t h e n w a t c h e d h i m u n t i l h e a t e i t . I n h i s e a r l y 2 0 s , a m o n g t h e o u t d o o r p u r v e y o r s a t V e n i c e B e a c h , h e s e t u p a t a b l e w i t h t h e b a n n e r " N U T R I T I O N I S T " , a n d b e g a n c o u n s e l i n g i n a r a w - f o o d n i c h e . I n h i n d s i g h t , h e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s a d v i c e h a d b e e n o f t e n i n e f f e c t i v e , a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n h a r m f u l , u n t i l h e i n c l u d e d r a w m e a t . A t p e r h a p s a g e 3 0 , h e b e c a m e a s t a f f n u t r i t i o n i s t , a d v i s i n g c u s t o m e r s , a t a h e a l t h f o o d s t o r e , A u n t T i l l y ' s T o o . A l t h o u g h n o t i n h i s 1 9 9 7 b o o k , h e u s e d t h e t i t l e P h D , s p e c i f y i n g n u t r i t i o n a l s c i e n c e , i n a 2 0 0 1 r e s e a r c h r e p o r t o n m i l k , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I M D , a n d t h e r e a f t e r . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e w a s r e p o r t e d t o l a c k a c c r e d i t e d s c i e n t i f i c o r m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g . I n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 8 6 , a t a g e 3 9 , l i v i n g i n a B e v e r l y H i l l s " s l u m " w h i l e f r e e l a n c i n g i n n u t r i t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e t u r n e d t o C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o . T h e r e , h i s o n l y c h i l d , h i s s o n , e s t r a n g e d f o r a b o u t 2 0 y e a r s , h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n i n a s e v e r e c a r w r e c k , d r i v i n g , w i t h o u t a s e a t b e l t o n , s t r a i g h t i n t o a t r e e . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o h a v e s a b o t a g e d h i s s o n ' s c o n v e n t i o n a l m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t , i n M e r c y H o s p i t a l ' s i n t e n s i v e - c a r e u n i t , a n d u s e d r a w f o o d s t o a w a k e n a n d r e t r i e v e h i s c o m a t o s e s o n f r o m i m m i n e n t d e a t h , a n d t o r e v e r s e h i s p a r a l y s i s a n d b r a i n d a m a g e . T e n y e a r s a f t e r h i s s o n ' s r e c o v e r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d t h e t a l e i n h i s f i r s t b o o k , " W e W a n t t o L i v e " , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 9 7 a n d r e v i s e d i n 2 0 0 5 . U p o n t h e 1 9 9 7 r e l e a s e o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s f i r s t b o o k , R o b e r t A t k i n s i n t e r v i e w e d h i m , b a s e d b y t h e n i n M a l i b u , o n A t k i n s ' s n a t i o n a l l y s y n d i c a t e d r a d i o s h o w . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d c l a i m e d t h a t h i s o w n p r o t o c o l h a d c u r e d o v e r 2 0 0 c l i e n t s o f c a n c e r . I n 2 0 0 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z t r a d e m a r k e d t h e n a m e " P r i m a l D i e t " . U n l i k e l a t e r d i e t s c a l l e d " p r i m a l " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t p r i n c i p a l l y i n c l u d e s r a w m e a t , r a w e g g s , r a w d a i r y , r a w f a t s , a n d u n h e a t e d h o n e y . I n 2 0 0 2 , h i s o t h e r b o o k , t h e " R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " , w a s p u b l i s h e d . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , h e w a s s t i l l c l a i m i n g o v e r 9 0 % r a t e o f c a n c e r r e m i s s i o n a m o n g h i s c l i e n t s c l o s e l y h e e d i n g i t . D e s p i t e m a i n s t r e a m d i s m i s s a l , h i s P r i m a l D i e t g a i n e d a s i z a b l e , i f u n d e r g r o u n d , f o l l o w i n g . A l t h o u g h V o n d e r p l a n i t z d a t e d i t t o t h e 1 9 7 0 s , h i s f o o d - r i g h t s c a m p a i g n m o r e c l e a r l y b e g a n n e a r i n g 2 0 0 0 . I n t o 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d a n a l l y , J a m e s S t e w a r t , w e r e t h e r a w - m i l k m o v e m e n t ' s d e f a c t o l e a d e r s . I n 1 9 9 7 o r 1 9 9 8 , V e n i c e r e s i d e n t J a m e s S t e w a r t , i n p o o r h e a l t h , d i s c o v e r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t . B y 2 0 0 0 , S t e w a r t w a s a s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a d i s t r i b u t o r o f r a w m i l k f o r C l a r a v a l e F a r m , w h i c h h a d o n l y e i g h t c o w s , b u t w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y f a r m s t i l l l i c e n s e d t o s u p p l y u n p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o r e t a i l s t o r e s . W h i l e C l a r a v a l e F a r m a d d e d c o w s f o r S t e w a r t ' s d i s t r i b u t i o n r e a c h i n g 3 0 s t o r e s i n f o u r c o u n t i e s — O r a n g e , V e n t u r a , S a n D i e g o , a n d L o s A n g e l e s — o n e c o u n t y , L o s A n g e l e s , w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y w h e r e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s i l l e g a l . B y 2 0 0 1 , L . A . c o u n t y ' s r e g u l a t o r s w e r e p u l l i n g S t e w a r t ' s p l a c e d m i l k f r o m s t o r e s , y e t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c a m p a i g n t o l e g a l i z e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s c u l m i n a t i n g . I n 2 0 0 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d r e w S t e w a r t t o h e l p d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d p r o t e s t s , a l t h o u g h i n i t i a l t u r n o u t w a s m i n u s c u l e . L a t e r i n 2 0 0 1 , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I , a n d s u b m i t t e d t o t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s r e p o r t o n r a w m i l k , a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g t h r e a t o f l e g a l a c t i o n , g o t t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s t o e n d t h e b a n o n r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e . H i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d , t h e h e a r i n g s f u e l e d c o n s u m e r d e m a n d f o r u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . C l a r a v a l e F a r m ' s s u p p l y v i a S t e w a r t i n s u f f i c i e n t , s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a r e s i d e n t s w o u l d t r a v e l n o r t h t o b u y r a w m i l k a t t h e M c A f e e b r o t h e r s ' f a r m , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s D a i r y C o m p a n y . I n e a r l y 2 0 0 0 , t h e M c A f e e s ' f a r m h a d s w i t c h e d t o o r g a n i c , b u t t h e i r O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s s t i l l s o l d i t s m i l k w h o l e s a l e t o O r g a n i c V a l l e y , w h i c h i n t u r n s u p p l i e d o n l y p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o s t o r e s . U p o n v i s i t s b y s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n c u s t o m e r s , t h e M c A f e e s ' O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s o b t a i n e d a p e r m i t t o s e l l r a w d a i r y r e t a i l . D u r i n g 2 0 0 1 , M a r k M c A f e e c o n t a c t e d S t e w a r t , w h o t h e n r e c r u i t e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z i n v e s t e d $ 1 5 0 0 0 , a n d w i t h S t e w a r t r e c r u i t e d o t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g r e a l - e s t a t e e x e c u t i v e L a r r y O t t i n g , w h o i n v e s t e d $ 1 7 0 0 0 , a n d O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b e g a n s u p p l y i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y r e t a i l . T h e v o l u m e a l l o w e d S t e w a r t , d e s p i t e d r o p p i n g C l a r a v a l e ' s m i l k , t o r e a c h 8 9 s t o r e s . Y e t i n 2 0 0 4 , a s t h e n a t i o n ' s l a r g e s t u n p a s t e u r i z e d s u p p l i e r , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b r o u g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n - h o u s e , e l i m i n a t i n g S t e w a r t . S t e w a r t t h e n f o c u s e d o n g r o w i n g h i s p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , R a w e s o m e . R a w e s o m e w o u l d k e e p S t e w a r t a n d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r a w - d a i r y m o v e m e n t u n t i l R a w e s o m e ' s c o n t r o v e r s i a l c l o s u r e v i a g o v e r n m e n t r a i d i n 2 0 1 1 . I n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o r m e d t h e n o t - f o r - p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d ( R T C H F ) . R T C H F , d e c l a r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z , " w i l l c o m b a t a n y l e g i s l a t i o n b a n n i n g p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o c h o o s e r a w f o o d " . Y e t R T C H F a p p a r e n t l y f o c u s e d o n r a w d a i r y . I n t h i s a g e n d a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z o r i g i n a t e d t h e " a n i m a l - l e a s i n g " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , w h o s e m e m b e r s a r e a l s o R T C H F m e m b e r s , c o n t r a c t s a f a r m e r t o p r o d u c e s o l e l y f o r t h a t f o o d c l u b . A s p r e s i d e n t o f R T C H F , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e d i a t e d t h e s e a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s i n m u l t i p l e s t a t e s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e a n w h i l e c r i t i c i z e d t h e " h e r d s h a r e " o r " c o w s h a r e " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a c o n s u m e r b u y s " s h a r e s " , t h u s " p a r t i a l l y o w n s " t h e c a t t l e , a n d t h e n b u y s d a i r y d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e f a r m e r , w h o m a y s t i l l s e l l t o n o n s h a r e h o l d e r s , t o o . P a r t l y b y w r i t i n g l e g a l d o c u m e n t s f o r f a r m e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s d e s p i t e n o t b e i n g a n a t t o r n e y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d i s c o m f i t e d t h e F a r m - t o - C o n s u m e r L e g a l D e f e n s e F u n d ( F T C L D F ) . O p e r a t e d b y a t t o r n e y s , t h e F T C L D F a l s o e n d o r s e d t h e h e r d s h a r e m o d e l , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o l a c k p r e c e d e n t , a s s h a r e h o l d i n g c a n e n t i t l e o n e t o p r o f i t s w i t h o u t a n y o w n e r s h i p o f p r o p e r t y , w h e r e a s l e a s i n g h e l d l o n g p r e c e d e n t o f f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y m a t c h i n g o w n e r s h i p , a r g u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s b e i n g n o t a l a w y e r a p p e a l e d t o A m i s h f a r m e r s , h o w e v e r , w h o t r a d i t i o n a l l y a v o i d e d t a k i n g l e g a l a c t i o n s . B y 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s l e g a l r e s p o n s e s w e r e w e l l k n o w n f o r e n d i n g r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s a g a i n s t R T C H F ' s f a r m e r s . O n c e s o t h r e a t e n e d , s o m e n o n - R T C H F f a r m e r s n e w l y s i g n e d R T C H F c o n t r a c t s . B y 2 0 1 0 , R T C H F ' s f o o d c l u b s n u m b e r e d a b o u t 8 0 , e a c h c o m m o n l y h a v i n g a b o u t 1 0 0 t o 2 0 0 m e m b e r s , a n d a f e w h a v i n g o v e r a 1 0 0 0 m e m b e r s . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n p r e s s u r i n g s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s t o e n f o r c e l a w s a g a i n s t r a w m i l k . A d r a g n e t a g a i n s t f a r m e r s a n d c l u b m a n a g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z u n f o l d e d . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a t t e m p t s t o d e f e n d t h e m d r e w m i x e d r e s u l t s . I n A p r i l 2 0 1 1 , t h e F D A f i l e d i n f e d e r a l c o u r t a g a i n s t A m i s h f a r m e r D a n i e l A l l g y e r o f P e n n s y l v a n i a . U n a b l e t o r e a c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z , w h o w a s t r a v e l i n g a b r o a d a s n u t r i t i o n i s t , A l l g y e r d r o p p e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R T C H F t h e n e x t m o n t h a n d h i r e d K a r l D a h l s t r o m ' s P r o A d v o c a t e G r o u p . A g a i n s t A l l y g e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i l e d a m o t i o n t o i n t e r c e d e , b u t t h e j u d g e d e n i e d i t , e x c l u d i n g V o n d e p l a n i t z f r o m t h e c a s e , a n d a d d e d t h a t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a r g u m e n t s a b o u t h e a l t h a n d r i g h t s w e r e i r r e l e v a n t t o w h e t h e r A l l g y e r w e r e g u i l t y o f i n t e r s t a t e c o m m e r c e o f u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 2 , r u l i n g a g a i n s t A l l g y e r , t h e j u d g e c a l l e d i t " a c o w s h a r e " t h a t w a s " m e r e l y a s u b t e r f u g e " . Y e t i n t h e W i s c o n s i n s t a t e t r i a l o f f a r m e r V e r n o n H e r s h b e r g e r , V o n d e r p l a n i t z p a r t i c i p a t e d a n d c l a i m e d v i c t o r y i n M a y 2 0 1 3 . T h e p r e e m i n e n t f o o d c l u b l i n k e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d w a s t h e R a w e s o m e f o o d c l u b , k n o w n f o r e x o t i c r a w f o o d s , a n d t h r i v i n g , d r a w i n g c e l e b r i t y c l i e n t e l e , i n V e n i c e , L o s A n g e l e s . I n 2 0 0 1 , J a m e s S t e w a r t h a d f o u n d e d a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , " T h e G a r a g e " . B y 2 0 0 3 , i t e v o l v e d i n t o R a w e s o m e , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e c o n t r a c t f o r , i n v e s t e d i n , a n d s t e e r e d c l i e n t s t o . I n 2 0 0 5 , r e g u l a t o r s t r i e d t o r e s t r i c t R a w e s o m e , b u t V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e r e s p o n s e a n d p e r s u a d e d S t e w a r t t o r e s i s t . T h e g o v e r n m e n t d r o p p e d t h e c i t a t i o n , R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d , o v e r t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s , t h i s s u c c e s s d r e w V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e n o w n f o r f e n d i n g o f f r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s . Y e t i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d t u r n a g a i n s t S t e w a r t , a c o n f l i c t t h a t d i v i d e d t h e f o o d c l u b . H a v i n g l o n g t h o u g h t h i s b o d y r e s p o n d i n g p o o r l y t o s o m e o f h e r p r o d u c t s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s u s p e c t e d H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s ' o w n e r S h a r o n P a l m e r , o n e o f R a w e s o m e ' s m a i n s u p p l i e r s , o f s e c r e t l y o u t s o u r c i n g , o f s u p p l y i n g m e a t n o t o r g a n i c a n d n o t s o y - f r e e , a n d o f p r o v i d i n g c o n t a m i n a t e d e g g s . S t e w a r t s t o o d b y P a l m e r a n d k e p t c a r r y i n g h e r p r o d u c t s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d P a l m e r ' s m a i n c r e d i t o r , R a w e s o m e m e m b e r L a r r y O t t i n g , t h e n p u b l i s h e d a d e f a m a t o r y w e b s i t e , " U n h e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s " . I n J u n e 2 0 1 0 , a n u n n a m e d P a l m e r e m p l o y e e e x p l a i n e d t o a V e n t u r a C o u n t y S h e r i f f ' s d e t e c t i v e a n d a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s a g e n t t h a t H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s l a c k e d t h e m e a n s t o p r o d u c e a l l o f t h e f o o d i t w a s s u p p l y i n g . L a t e r t h a t m o n t h , o n J u n e 3 0 , b u t v i a i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n c e 2 0 0 8 , r e g u l a t o r s r a i d e d R a w e s o m e . T w o d a y s a f t e r t h a t J u n e 2 0 1 0 r a i d o n R a w e s o m e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s e n t f r o m A s i a a g r o u p e m a i l a l l e g i n g t h a t " g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s t r e s p a s s e d a n d k i d n a p p e d v o l u n t e e r s a n d m e m b e r s f o r t h e e n t i r e t i m e t h a t t h e y s e i z e d t h e p r o p e r t y , a b o u t f i v e h o u r s " , a n d t h a t " t h e y s t o l e , u n d e r t h e t e r m c o n f i s c a t e , t h o u s a n d s o f d o l l a r s w o r t h o f m e m b e r s ' F O O D t h a t w a s p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y " . R e f e r r i n g t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s " o n l i n e n o t i c e s " , a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y a g e n t , a r g u i n g t o p r o t e c t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d t o c o n c e a l i d e n t i f i e s o f u n d e r c o v e r a g e n t s , w h o s e " l i v e s a n d s a f e t y w o u l d b e p u t i n t o j e o p a r d y " , g o t a L o s A n g e l e s S u p e r i o r C o u r t j u d g e t o s e a l t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ' s d o c u m e n t s . T h e L o s A n g e l e s D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s o f f i c e a l s o b e g a n s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e e m a i l a c c o u n t s o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z , o f P a l m e r , a n d o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h . A l t h o u g h R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d e v e n d r e w s u p p o r t i n m a i n s t r e a m m e d i a , t h e r a i d i n t e n s i f i e d t h e S t e w a r t – V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n f l i c t , d i v i d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s m e m b e r s h i p a n d p o i s o n i n g R a w e s o m e ' s a t m o s p h e r e , w h e r e a c l o u d o f v a g u e c o n s p i r a c y t h e o r i e s r e a c h i n g g l o b a l p r o p o r t i o n s s e e m e d t o h o v e r . I n l a t e 2 0 1 0 , b u t t o n o a v a i l , V o n d e r p l a n i t z v i s i t e d V e n t u r a C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o s e e k P a l m e r ' s p r o s e c u t i o n f o r a l l e g e d l y d e f r a u d i n g R a w e s o m e . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g s u e d S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r f o r s o m e $ 2 0 m i l l i o n . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 1 , a u t h o r i t i e s a g a i n r a i d e d R a w e s o m e , b u t t h i s t i m e c l o s e d i t , a r r e s t e d S t e w a r t , a n d , e l s e w h e r e , a r r e s t e d P a l m e r f o r c r i m i n a l c o n s p i r a c y i n i l l e g a l l y p r o d u c i n g a n d s e l l i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . A l s o a r r e s t e d w a s P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h , c h a r g e d s i m i l a r l y . A l t h o u g h c l a i m i n g c r e d i t f o r b u i l d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s s u c c e s s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o u n d h i m s e l f m a r g i n a l i z e d b y R a w e s o m e ' s s u p p o r t e r s d e m o n s t r a t i n g p u b l i c l y . F u r t h e r , o u t s i d e t h e c o u r t h o u s e a t s u c h a d e m o n s t r a t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z , t r y i n g t o a n s w e r i n t e r e s t e d n e w s m e d i a , c o n c l u d e d h i m s e l f b l a c k l i s t e d f r o m n e w s g a t h e r i n g . I n 2 0 1 2 , S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r w e r e a r r e s t e d o n c r i m i n a l c h a r g e s a s t o f u n d i n g o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m , w h e r e b y t h e y a l l e g e d l y m i s l e d i n v e s t o r s a b o u t t h e i r o w n c r e d i t w o r t h i n e s s , a n d c o u l d e a c h f a c e 4 0 y e a r s i m p r i s o n m e n t . A f t e r f o u r m o n t h s o f j a i l , S t e w a r t t o o k a p l e a d e a l , p a i d a f i n e , g a v e u p R a w e s o m e ' s c a u s e , a n d b e g a n d i s t r i b u t i n g o l i v e o i l . B y J u l y 2 0 1 3 , t h e c i v i l s u i t ' s j u d g e h a d r e d u c e d t h e 3 0 c i v i l c h a r g e s t o t w o , P a l m e r h a d c o u n t e r s u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g , a n d t h e j u d g e o r d e r e d t h e p a r t i e s t o n e g o t i a t e a s e t t l e m e n t . B y t h e n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s s e e m i n g l y i r r a t i o n a l v e n d e t t a w a s i n f a m o u s , p a r t i a l l y b l a m e d f o r R a w e s o m e ' s d o w n f a l l . D e s p i t e h i s r o l e i n R a w e s o m e a n d t h e o t h e r a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t h e c o n t i n u e d a f t e r R a w e s o m e ' s d e b a c l e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d n e v e r b e p r o s e c u t e d . S t i l l , b y 2 0 1 0 , h e b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t h e t a r g e t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l o r p h a r m a c e u t i c a l c o n s p i r a c y t o n e u t r a l i z e h i m . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e h a d d e s c r i b e d t h e o n g o i n g f l u p a n d e m i c a s a h o a x m e d i a t e d b y f l u v a c c i n a t i o n . S o o n , h e a l l e g e d a p p a r e n t r e t r i b u t i o n b y i n v a d e r s o f h i s h o t e l r o o m i n T h a i l a n d f o r c i b l y g i v i n g h i m i n j e c t i o n s t h a t s e n t h i s " m e r c u r y , b a r i u m , a n d c h r o m i u m r e a d i n g s o f f t h e c h a r t s " , i m p a i r i n g h i s h e a l t h , c a u s i n g w e i g h t l o s s , a n d p r e m a t u r e l y a g i n g h i m . L a t e r , h e c l a i m e d t h a t o n a T h a i l a n d r o a d , h i s c a r ' s b r a k e s s u d d e n l y f a i l e d , c a u s i n g a p o t e n t i a l l y f a t a l c a r w r e c k t h a t h e l i k e w i s e a t t r i b u t e d t o a p l o t a g a i n s t h i s l i f e . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 , a t h i s f a r m i n T h a i l a n d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a p p a r e n t l y l e a n e d a g a i n s t h i s h o u s e ' s s e c o n d - s t o r y b a l c o n y r a i l , w h i c h p r o v e d f a u l t y , a l l o w i n g h i s f a l l t h a t b r o k e h i s s p i n e a n d p a r a l y z e d h i m . A t t h e h o s p i t a l , h e a c c e p t e d p a i n - k i l l i n g d r u g s , y e t r e f u s e d s u r g e r y t o r e p a i r i n t e r n a l b l e e d i n g . A f t e r a f e w d a y s , h e l o s t c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d d i e d . D e s p i t e r u m o r s o f c o n s p i r a c y , t w o o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c o l l e a g u e s d e s c r i b e d l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u g g e s t i n g a g e n u i n e a c c i d e n t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d a u t h o r e d t w o b o o k s : a m e m o i r r e t r a c i n g h i s p a t h t o a n d i n t r o d u c i n g t h e P r i m a l D i e t , " W e W a n t T o L i v e " ( 1 9 9 7 / 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d a f o l l o w - u p r e c i p e b o o k c i t i n g p u t a t i v e s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e , " T h e R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " ( 2 0 0 2 ) .

Food activism

Aajonus Vonderplanitz, a self-proclaimed nutritionist, promoted a raw diet and advocated for food rights. He formed the non-profit Right to Choose Healthy Food (RTCHF) to support raw dairy consumption. Through RTCHF, he developed the "animal-leasing" model, where a private food club contracts with a farmer to produce exclusively for its members. This approach allowed consumers to access raw dairy products while circumventing regulations. Vonderplanitz's efforts led to the growth of RTCHF-affiliated food clubs, with around 80 clubs and thousands of members by 2010. However, his methods were met with resistance from regulatory bodies, leading to conflicts and raids on farms and food clubs associated with him.

his cancer in remission, Vonderplanitz would claim. At age 22, Vonderplanitz began promoting himself as a nutritionist. At about age 23, the still John Swigart met a girl toddler who renamed him Aajonus. Disliking his given name, a reminder of illness and mistreatment, he accepted the renaming, and later took his European ancestors' last name Vonderplanitz. He would attribute his health gains over the next two years mostly to raw juices and raw dairy. By age 25, eliminating raw dairy, Vonderplanitz adopted raw veganism. At age 27, seeking health answers, he reputedly sojourned by bicycle, while he "lived off the earth", across North America and into Latin America. Nearly three years later, he returned to Los Angeles telling of a seemingly implausible health answer: eating raw meat. Vonderplanitz honey. In 2002, his other book, the "Recipe for Living Without Disease", was published. Nearing 2010, he was still claiming over 90% rate of cancer remission among his clients closely heeding it. Despite mainstream dismissal, his Primal Diet gained a sizable, if underground, following. Although Vonderplanitz dated it to the 1970s, his food-rights campaign more clearly began nearing 2000. Into 2011, Vonderplanitz and an ally, James Stewart, were the raw-milk movement's de facto leaders. In 1997 or 1998, Venice resident James Stewart, in poor health, discovered Vonderplanitz's Primal Diet. By 2000, Stewart was a southern California distributor of raw milk for Claravale Farm, which had only eight cows, but was the state's only farm still licensed to supply unpasteurized milk to retail stores. While Claravale Farm added cows in-house, eliminating Stewart. Stewart then focused on growing his private food club, Rawesome. Rawesome would keep Stewart and Vonderplanitz at the center of the raw-dairy movement until Rawesome's controversial closure via government raid in 2011. In the late 1990s, Vonderplanitz formed the not-for-profit organization Right to Choose Healthy Food (RTCHF). RTCHF, declared Vonderplanitz, "will combat any legislation banning people's right to choose raw food". Yet RTCHF apparently focused on raw dairy. In this agenda, Vonderplanitz originated the "animal-leasing" model, whereby a private food club, whose members are also RTCHF members, contracts a farmer to produce solely for that food club. As president of RTCHF, Vonderplanitz mediated these animal-leasing arrangements in multiple states. Vonderplanitz meanwhile criticized the "herdshare" or "cowshare" model, whereby a consumer buys "shares", thus "partially owns" the cattle, and then buys dairy directly from the farmer, who may still sell to nonshareholders, too. Partly by writing legal documents for farmers and consumers despite not being an attorney, Vonderplanitz discomfited the Farm-to-Consumer Legal Defense Fund (FTCLDF). Operated by attorneys, the FTCLDF also endorsed the herdshare model, which Vonderplanitz claimed to lack precedent, as shareholding can entitle one to profits without any ownership of property, whereas leasing held long precedent of full responsibility matching ownership, argued Vonderplanitz. Vonderplanitz's being not a lawyer appealed to Amish farmers, however, who traditionally avoided taking legal actions. By 2010, Vonderplanitz's legal responses were well known for ending regulators' legal threats against RTCHF's farmers. Once so threatened, some non-RTCHF farmers newly signed RTCHF contracts. By 2010, RTCHF's food clubs numbered about 80, each commonly having about 100 to 200 members, and a few having over a 1000 members. Nearing 2010, federal government began pressuring state governments to enforce laws against raw milk. A dragnet against farmers and club managers connected to Vonderplanitz unfolded. Vonderplanitz's attempts to defend them drew mixed results. In April 2011, the FDA filed in federal court against Amish farmer Daniel Allgyer of Pennsylvania. Unable to reach Vonderplanitz, who was traveling abroad as nutritionist, Allgyer dropped Vonderplanitz's RTCHF the next month and hired Karl Dahlstrom's ProAdvocate Group. Against Allyger's resistance, Vonderplanitz filed a motion to intercede, but the judge denied it, excluding Vondeplanitz from the case, and added that Vonderplanitz's arguments about health and rights were irrelevant to whether Allgyer were guilty of interstate commerce of unpasteurized dairy. In February 2012, ruling against Allgyer, the judge called it "a cow share" that was "merely a subterfuge". Yet in the Wisconsin state trial of farmer Vernon Hershberger, Vonderplanitz participated and claimed victory in May 2013. The preeminent food club linked to Vonderplanitz's Right to Choose Healthy Food was the Rawesome food club, known for exotic raw foods, and thriving, drawing celebrity clientele, in Venice, Los Angeles. In 2001, James Stewart had founded a private food club, "The Garage". By 2003, it evolved into Rawesome, which Vonderplanitz wrote the contract for, invested in, and steered clients to. In 2005, regulators tried to restrict Rawesome, but Vonderplanitz wrote the response and persuaded Stewart to resist. The government dropped the citation, Rawesome continued normal operation, and, over the next few years, this success drew Vonderplanitz renown for fending off regulators' legal threats. Yet in October 2010, Vonderplanitz would turn against Stewart, a conflict that divided the food club. Having long thought his body responding poorly to some of her products, Vonderplanitz suspected Healthy Family Farms' owner Sharon Palmer, one of Rawesome's main suppliers, of secretly outsourcing, of supplying meat not organic and not soy-free, and of providing contaminated eggs. Stewart stood by Palmer and kept carrying her products. Vonderplanitz and Palmer's main creditor, Rawesome member Larry Otting, then published a defamatory website, "Unhealthy Family Farms". In June 2010, an unnamed Palmer employee explained to a Ventura County Sheriff's detective and a Los Angeles County District Attorney's agent that Healthy Family Farms lacked the means to produce all of the food it was supplying. Later that month, on June 30, but via investigation since 2008, regulators raided Rawesome. Two days after that June 2010 raid on Rawesome, Vonderplanitz sent from Asia a group email alleging that "government agents trespassed and kidnapped volunteers and members for the entire time that they seized the property, about five hours", and that "they stole, under the term confiscate, thousands of dollars worth of members' FOOD that was private property". Referring to Vonderplanitz's "online notices", a Los Angeles County District Attorney agent, arguing to protect the investigation and to conceal identifies of undercover agents, whose "lives and safety would be put into jeopardy", got a Los Angeles Superior Court judge to seal the investigation's documents. The Los Angeles District Attorney's

Aajonus Vonderplanitz

O r i g i n a l l y n a m e d J o h n R i c h a r d S w i g a r t , a n d b o r n i n D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s p e n t m o s t o f c h i l d h o o d a n d a d o l e s c e n c e i n t h e C i n c i n n a t i s u b u r b F i n n e y t o w n , O h i o . H e d e s c r i b e d h a v i n g b e e n a s i c k l y c h i l d m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d a b u s e d . H i s b r o t h e r , a c o u p l e o f y e a r s e l d e r , a l l e g e d l y r e s e n t f u l a t l o s s o f m a t e r n a l a t t e n t i o n , " t o r t u r e d m e n e a r l y d a i l y " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z e x p l a i n e d . B e i n g " d y s l e x i c " a n d " b o r d e r l i n e a u t i s t i c " , c o n d i t i o n s " w h i c h n o o n e u n d e r s t o o d a t t h e t i m e " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z " r a r e l y p l a y e d w i t h o t h e r c h i l d r e n " , a n d " e m b a r r a s s e d a n d f r u s t r a t e d m y p a r e n t s " , f u e l i n g p a t e r n a l " d i s c i p l i n e " t h a t l e d t o s e v e r a l h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d . I n a n o t h e r h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n n e a r h i s 1 0 t h b i r t h d a y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a l l e g e d p e r i t o n i t i s w a s m i s d i a g n o s e d a p p e n d i c i t i s , w h e r e u p o n h i s a p p e n d i x , d i s c o v e r e d f i n e , w a s r e m o v e d a n y w a y , h e r e c o u n t e d . H e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s b o n e s w e r e b r i t t l e , h e " r e g u l a r l y " b r e a k i n g l i m b b o n e s , a n d a t a g e 1 5 w a s d i a g n o s e d w i t h " j u v e n i l e d i a b e t e s " . V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i r s t r e c e i v e d f a m i l y a n d c o m m u n i t y s u p p o r t , h e r e c a l l e d , o n c e h e f o u n d h i s f i r s t g i r l f r i e n d i n h i s j u n i o r y e a r a t F i n n e y t o w n H i g h S c h o o l . A t a g e 1 7 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m a r r i e d h e r , a r e c e n t s c h o o l m a t e o n e y e a r e l d e r , w h o b o r e h i s o n l y c h i l d , a s o n , i n h i s s e n i o r y e a r . O n c e h e g r a d u a t e d , t h e n e w f a m i l y m o v e d e l s e w h e r e n e a r C i n c i n n a t i . T h e y r e n t i n g a s m a l l a p a r t m e n t a t a b u s i n e s s i n t e r s e c t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s w i f e w o r k e d a s a u t i l i t y - c o m p a n y s e c r e t a r y , a n d h e a s a s h o r t - o r d e r c o o k a l s o a t t e n d i n g t h e C i n c i n n a t i I n s t i t u t e o f C o m p u t e r T e c h n o l o g y . T h e i r s o n ' s s e v e r e c o l i c , h e r p o s t p a r t u m m o o d p r o b l e m s , a n d h i s o w n c o n f u s i o n s a n d m o o d p r o b l e m s e n d e d t h e i r p r i o r b l i s s . H e i n c r e a s i n g l y d r a n k w i t h f r i e n d s , a n d e n t e r e d a n e x t r a m a r i t a l a f f a i r w i t h a f e m a l e i n s t r u c t o r a t h i s t r a d e s c h o o l . D i v o r c e d a t 1 9 , h e m o v e d t o L o s A n g e l e s f o r w o r k i n c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g . A l t h o u g h h e s e e m i n g l y n e v e r r e m a r r i e d , h i s o w n a n d o t h e r p e r s o n s ' a n e c d o t e s a b o u t h i m i n v o l v e s e v e r a l g i r l f r i e n d s t h r o u g h o u t h i s l a t e r l i f e . O n m o v i n g t o L o s A n g e l e s , f e e l i n g d i r e c t i o n l e s s a n d d i s t r e s s e d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n t i n u e d h e a v y d r i n k i n g . S t i l l a g e d 1 9 , h e d e v e l o p e d a s t o m a c h u l c e r , w h o s e s u r g i c a l t r e a t m e n t c a u s e d a k e l o i d a l s c a r i n t u r n t r e a t e d b y r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y t h a t t h e n c a u s e d m u l t i p l e m y e l o m a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d . O n c e c h e m o t h e r a p y c a u s e d f u r t h e r i l l n e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g p s o r i a s i s , b u r s i t i s , a n d s e v e r e p e r i o d o n t i t i s , h e d i s c o n t i n u e d t r e a t m e n t o f h i s t e r m i n a l c a n c e r , b u t a h o s p i c e w o r k e r , p a y i n g h i m v o l u n t e e r h o m e v i s i t s , g a v e h i m a s m a l l b o o k o n c a n c e r t r e a t m e n t b y r a w c a r r o t j u i c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . W i t h i n 1 0 d a y s , t h e r e g i m e n e n d e d h i s a l l e g e d d y s l e x i a , a n d s o o n t h e r e a f t e r p u t h i s c a n c e r i n r e m i s s i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . A t a g e 2 2 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z b e g a n p r o m o t i n g h i m s e l f a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . A t a b o u t a g e 2 3 , t h e s t i l l J o h n S w i g a r t m e t a g i r l t o d d l e r w h o r e n a m e d h i m A a j o n u s . D i s l i k i n g h i s g i v e n n a m e , a r e m i n d e r o f i l l n e s s a n d m i s t r e a t m e n t , h e a c c e p t e d t h e r e n a m i n g , a n d l a t e r t o o k h i s E u r o p e a n a n c e s t o r s ' l a s t n a m e V o n d e r p l a n i t z . H e w o u l d a t t r i b u t e h i s h e a l t h g a i n s o v e r t h e n e x t t w o y e a r s m o s t l y t o r a w j u i c e s a n d r a w d a i r y . B y a g e 2 5 , e l i m i n a t i n g r a w d a i r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a d o p t e d r a w v e g a n i s m . A t a g e 2 7 , s e e k i n g h e a l t h a n s w e r s , h e r e p u t e d l y s o j o u r n e d b y b i c y c l e , w h i l e h e " l i v e d o f f t h e e a r t h " , a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a . N e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , h e r e t u r n e d t o L o s A n g e l e s t e l l i n g o f a s e e m i n g l y i m p l a u s i b l e h e a l t h a n s w e r : e a t i n g r a w m e a t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m a d i v e r s e r é s u m é , p a r t l y s i n c e b y a g e 4 0 , h e s t i l l h a d m a r g i n a l i n c o m e a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . H e r e c a l l e d e t h i c a l l y r e f u s i n g $ 7 . 5 m i l l i o n t o b e m a d e , i n 1 9 7 1 , t h e W i n s t o n M a n f o r s e v e n y e a r s , a n d , i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , w h i l e e a r n i n g i n c o m e p a i n t i n g m u r a l s a n d s u c h i n s i d e h o m e s , s o m e a c t i n g o n t h e s o a p o p e r a " G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l " . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e c r e a t e d a b r i e f d i e t , d a m a g i n g w i t h i n a f e w d a y s t o w e e k s , f o r a c l i e n t d e m a n d i n g q u i c k w e i g h t l o s s , b u t w h o a l l e g e d l y p u b l i s h e d i t f o r p r o f i t a s t h e B e v e r l y H i l l s D i e t . U p o n o v e r t u r n i n g a t r a f f i c t i c k e t a t a g e 2 2 , h e s o u g h t t o d e v e l o p l e g a l e x p e r t i s e b y p r i v a t e s t u d y . A f t e r 2 0 0 0 , h e w r o t e b u s i n e s s c o n t r a c t s a n d l e g a l r e s p o n s e s f o r f a r m e r s . I n h i s l a t e s t y e a r s , o w n i n g a f a r m i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a n d a n o t h e r i n a r e m o t e a r e a o f T h a i l a n d , n e a r i t s n o r t h e r n b o r d e r w i t h L a o s , h e s p e n t m u c h t i m e a t h i s T h a i l a n d f a r m . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t u t e l a g e b y a S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n u t r i t i o n i s t n a m e d B r u n o C o r i g l i a n o f o l l o w e d b y n e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s o f b i c y c l e t r a v e l a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a , i n h i s l a t e 2 0 s , w h i l e s t u d y i n g b i o l o g y a n d m e d i c a l t e x t b o o k s , N a t i v e A m e r i c a n i n d i g e n o u s h e a l t h c a r e , a n d w i l d l i f e h a b i t s . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e d i s c o v e r e d r a w m e a t ' s p u t a t i v e h e a l i n g c a p a c i t y w h e n f a s t i n g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , w h e r e a p a c k o f c o y o t e s k i l l e d , t o r e o p e n , a n d o f f e r e d h i m a j a c k r a b b i t , t h e n w a t c h e d h i m u n t i l h e a t e i t . I n h i s e a r l y 2 0 s , a m o n g t h e o u t d o o r p u r v e y o r s a t V e n i c e B e a c h , h e s e t u p a t a b l e w i t h t h e b a n n e r " N U T R I T I O N I S T " , a n d b e g a n c o u n s e l i n g i n a r a w - f o o d n i c h e . I n h i n d s i g h t , h e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s a d v i c e h a d b e e n o f t e n i n e f f e c t i v e , a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n h a r m f u l , u n t i l h e i n c l u d e d r a w m e a t . A t p e r h a p s a g e 3 0 , h e b e c a m e a s t a f f n u t r i t i o n i s t , a d v i s i n g c u s t o m e r s , a t a h e a l t h f o o d s t o r e , A u n t T i l l y ' s T o o . A l t h o u g h n o t i n h i s 1 9 9 7 b o o k , h e u s e d t h e t i t l e P h D , s p e c i f y i n g n u t r i t i o n a l s c i e n c e , i n a 2 0 0 1 r e s e a r c h r e p o r t o n m i l k , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I M D , a n d t h e r e a f t e r . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e w a s r e p o r t e d t o l a c k a c c r e d i t e d s c i e n t i f i c o r m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g . I n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 8 6 , a t a g e 3 9 , l i v i n g i n a B e v e r l y H i l l s " s l u m " w h i l e f r e e l a n c i n g i n n u t r i t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e t u r n e d t o C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o . T h e r e , h i s o n l y c h i l d , h i s s o n , e s t r a n g e d f o r a b o u t 2 0 y e a r s , h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n i n a s e v e r e c a r w r e c k , d r i v i n g , w i t h o u t a s e a t b e l t o n , s t r a i g h t i n t o a t r e e . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o h a v e s a b o t a g e d h i s s o n ' s c o n v e n t i o n a l m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t , i n M e r c y H o s p i t a l ' s i n t e n s i v e - c a r e u n i t , a n d u s e d r a w f o o d s t o a w a k e n a n d r e t r i e v e h i s c o m a t o s e s o n f r o m i m m i n e n t d e a t h , a n d t o r e v e r s e h i s p a r a l y s i s a n d b r a i n d a m a g e . T e n y e a r s a f t e r h i s s o n ' s r e c o v e r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d t h e t a l e i n h i s f i r s t b o o k , " W e W a n t t o L i v e " , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 9 7 a n d r e v i s e d i n 2 0 0 5 . U p o n t h e 1 9 9 7 r e l e a s e o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s f i r s t b o o k , R o b e r t A t k i n s i n t e r v i e w e d h i m , b a s e d b y t h e n i n M a l i b u , o n A t k i n s ' s n a t i o n a l l y s y n d i c a t e d r a d i o s h o w . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d c l a i m e d t h a t h i s o w n p r o t o c o l h a d c u r e d o v e r 2 0 0 c l i e n t s o f c a n c e r . I n 2 0 0 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z t r a d e m a r k e d t h e n a m e " P r i m a l D i e t " . U n l i k e l a t e r d i e t s c a l l e d " p r i m a l " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t p r i n c i p a l l y i n c l u d e s r a w m e a t , r a w e g g s , r a w d a i r y , r a w f a t s , a n d u n h e a t e d h o n e y . I n 2 0 0 2 , h i s o t h e r b o o k , t h e " R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " , w a s p u b l i s h e d . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , h e w a s s t i l l c l a i m i n g o v e r 9 0 % r a t e o f c a n c e r r e m i s s i o n a m o n g h i s c l i e n t s c l o s e l y h e e d i n g i t . D e s p i t e m a i n s t r e a m d i s m i s s a l , h i s P r i m a l D i e t g a i n e d a s i z a b l e , i f u n d e r g r o u n d , f o l l o w i n g . A l t h o u g h V o n d e r p l a n i t z d a t e d i t t o t h e 1 9 7 0 s , h i s f o o d - r i g h t s c a m p a i g n m o r e c l e a r l y b e g a n n e a r i n g 2 0 0 0 . I n t o 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d a n a l l y , J a m e s S t e w a r t , w e r e t h e r a w - m i l k m o v e m e n t ' s d e f a c t o l e a d e r s . I n 1 9 9 7 o r 1 9 9 8 , V e n i c e r e s i d e n t J a m e s S t e w a r t , i n p o o r h e a l t h , d i s c o v e r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t . B y 2 0 0 0 , S t e w a r t w a s a s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a d i s t r i b u t o r o f r a w m i l k f o r C l a r a v a l e F a r m , w h i c h h a d o n l y e i g h t c o w s , b u t w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y f a r m s t i l l l i c e n s e d t o s u p p l y u n p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o r e t a i l s t o r e s . W h i l e C l a r a v a l e F a r m a d d e d c o w s f o r S t e w a r t ' s d i s t r i b u t i o n r e a c h i n g 3 0 s t o r e s i n f o u r c o u n t i e s — O r a n g e , V e n t u r a , S a n D i e g o , a n d L o s A n g e l e s — o n e c o u n t y , L o s A n g e l e s , w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y w h e r e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s i l l e g a l . B y 2 0 0 1 , L . A . c o u n t y ' s r e g u l a t o r s w e r e p u l l i n g S t e w a r t ' s p l a c e d m i l k f r o m s t o r e s , y e t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c a m p a i g n t o l e g a l i z e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s c u l m i n a t i n g . I n 2 0 0 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d r e w S t e w a r t t o h e l p d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d p r o t e s t s , a l t h o u g h i n i t i a l t u r n o u t w a s m i n u s c u l e . L a t e r i n 2 0 0 1 , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I , a n d s u b m i t t e d t o t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s r e p o r t o n r a w m i l k , a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g t h r e a t o f l e g a l a c t i o n , g o t t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s t o e n d t h e b a n o n r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e . H i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d , t h e h e a r i n g s f u e l e d c o n s u m e r d e m a n d f o r u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . C l a r a v a l e F a r m ' s s u p p l y v i a S t e w a r t i n s u f f i c i e n t , s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a r e s i d e n t s w o u l d t r a v e l n o r t h t o b u y r a w m i l k a t t h e M c A f e e b r o t h e r s ' f a r m , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s D a i r y C o m p a n y . I n e a r l y 2 0 0 0 , t h e M c A f e e s ' f a r m h a d s w i t c h e d t o o r g a n i c , b u t t h e i r O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s s t i l l s o l d i t s m i l k w h o l e s a l e t o O r g a n i c V a l l e y , w h i c h i n t u r n s u p p l i e d o n l y p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o s t o r e s . U p o n v i s i t s b y s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n c u s t o m e r s , t h e M c A f e e s ' O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s o b t a i n e d a p e r m i t t o s e l l r a w d a i r y r e t a i l . D u r i n g 2 0 0 1 , M a r k M c A f e e c o n t a c t e d S t e w a r t , w h o t h e n r e c r u i t e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z i n v e s t e d $ 1 5 0 0 0 , a n d w i t h S t e w a r t r e c r u i t e d o t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g r e a l - e s t a t e e x e c u t i v e L a r r y O t t i n g , w h o i n v e s t e d $ 1 7 0 0 0 , a n d O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b e g a n s u p p l y i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y r e t a i l . T h e v o l u m e a l l o w e d S t e w a r t , d e s p i t e d r o p p i n g C l a r a v a l e ' s m i l k , t o r e a c h 8 9 s t o r e s . Y e t i n 2 0 0 4 , a s t h e n a t i o n ' s l a r g e s t u n p a s t e u r i z e d s u p p l i e r , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b r o u g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n - h o u s e , e l i m i n a t i n g S t e w a r t . S t e w a r t t h e n f o c u s e d o n g r o w i n g h i s p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , R a w e s o m e . R a w e s o m e w o u l d k e e p S t e w a r t a n d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r a w - d a i r y m o v e m e n t u n t i l R a w e s o m e ' s c o n t r o v e r s i a l c l o s u r e v i a g o v e r n m e n t r a i d i n 2 0 1 1 . I n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o r m e d t h e n o t - f o r - p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d ( R T C H F ) . R T C H F , d e c l a r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z , " w i l l c o m b a t a n y l e g i s l a t i o n b a n n i n g p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o c h o o s e r a w f o o d " . Y e t R T C H F a p p a r e n t l y f o c u s e d o n r a w d a i r y . I n t h i s a g e n d a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z o r i g i n a t e d t h e " a n i m a l - l e a s i n g " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , w h o s e m e m b e r s a r e a l s o R T C H F m e m b e r s , c o n t r a c t s a f a r m e r t o p r o d u c e s o l e l y f o r t h a t f o o d c l u b . A s p r e s i d e n t o f R T C H F , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e d i a t e d t h e s e a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s i n m u l t i p l e s t a t e s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e a n w h i l e c r i t i c i z e d t h e " h e r d s h a r e " o r " c o w s h a r e " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a c o n s u m e r b u y s " s h a r e s " , t h u s " p a r t i a l l y o w n s " t h e c a t t l e , a n d t h e n b u y s d a i r y d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e f a r m e r , w h o m a y s t i l l s e l l t o n o n s h a r e h o l d e r s , t o o . P a r t l y b y w r i t i n g l e g a l d o c u m e n t s f o r f a r m e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s d e s p i t e n o t b e i n g a n a t t o r n e y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d i s c o m f i t e d t h e F a r m - t o - C o n s u m e r L e g a l D e f e n s e F u n d ( F T C L D F ) . O p e r a t e d b y a t t o r n e y s , t h e F T C L D F a l s o e n d o r s e d t h e h e r d s h a r e m o d e l , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o l a c k p r e c e d e n t , a s s h a r e h o l d i n g c a n e n t i t l e o n e t o p r o f i t s w i t h o u t a n y o w n e r s h i p o f p r o p e r t y , w h e r e a s l e a s i n g h e l d l o n g p r e c e d e n t o f f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y m a t c h i n g o w n e r s h i p , a r g u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s b e i n g n o t a l a w y e r a p p e a l e d t o A m i s h f a r m e r s , h o w e v e r , w h o t r a d i t i o n a l l y a v o i d e d t a k i n g l e g a l a c t i o n s . B y 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s l e g a l r e s p o n s e s w e r e w e l l k n o w n f o r e n d i n g r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s a g a i n s t R T C H F ' s f a r m e r s . O n c e s o t h r e a t e n e d , s o m e n o n - R T C H F f a r m e r s n e w l y s i g n e d R T C H F c o n t r a c t s . B y 2 0 1 0 , R T C H F ' s f o o d c l u b s n u m b e r e d a b o u t 8 0 , e a c h c o m m o n l y h a v i n g a b o u t 1 0 0 t o 2 0 0 m e m b e r s , a n d a f e w h a v i n g o v e r a 1 0 0 0 m e m b e r s . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n p r e s s u r i n g s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s t o e n f o r c e l a w s a g a i n s t r a w m i l k . A d r a g n e t a g a i n s t f a r m e r s a n d c l u b m a n a g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z u n f o l d e d . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a t t e m p t s t o d e f e n d t h e m d r e w m i x e d r e s u l t s . I n A p r i l 2 0 1 1 , t h e F D A f i l e d i n f e d e r a l c o u r t a g a i n s t A m i s h f a r m e r D a n i e l A l l g y e r o f P e n n s y l v a n i a . U n a b l e t o r e a c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z , w h o w a s t r a v e l i n g a b r o a d a s n u t r i t i o n i s t , A l l g y e r d r o p p e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R T C H F t h e n e x t m o n t h a n d h i r e d K a r l D a h l s t r o m ' s P r o A d v o c a t e G r o u p . A g a i n s t A l l y g e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i l e d a m o t i o n t o i n t e r c e d e , b u t t h e j u d g e d e n i e d i t , e x c l u d i n g V o n d e p l a n i t z f r o m t h e c a s e , a n d a d d e d t h a t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a r g u m e n t s a b o u t h e a l t h a n d r i g h t s w e r e i r r e l e v a n t t o w h e t h e r A l l g y e r w e r e g u i l t y o f i n t e r s t a t e c o m m e r c e o f u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 2 , r u l i n g a g a i n s t A l l g y e r , t h e j u d g e c a l l e d i t " a c o w s h a r e " t h a t w a s " m e r e l y a s u b t e r f u g e " . Y e t i n t h e W i s c o n s i n s t a t e t r i a l o f f a r m e r V e r n o n H e r s h b e r g e r , V o n d e r p l a n i t z p a r t i c i p a t e d a n d c l a i m e d v i c t o r y i n M a y 2 0 1 3 . T h e p r e e m i n e n t f o o d c l u b l i n k e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d w a s t h e R a w e s o m e f o o d c l u b , k n o w n f o r e x o t i c r a w f o o d s , a n d t h r i v i n g , d r a w i n g c e l e b r i t y c l i e n t e l e , i n V e n i c e , L o s A n g e l e s . I n 2 0 0 1 , J a m e s S t e w a r t h a d f o u n d e d a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , " T h e G a r a g e " . B y 2 0 0 3 , i t e v o l v e d i n t o R a w e s o m e , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e c o n t r a c t f o r , i n v e s t e d i n , a n d s t e e r e d c l i e n t s t o . I n 2 0 0 5 , r e g u l a t o r s t r i e d t o r e s t r i c t R a w e s o m e , b u t V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e r e s p o n s e a n d p e r s u a d e d S t e w a r t t o r e s i s t . T h e g o v e r n m e n t d r o p p e d t h e c i t a t i o n , R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d , o v e r t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s , t h i s s u c c e s s d r e w V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e n o w n f o r f e n d i n g o f f r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s . Y e t i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d t u r n a g a i n s t S t e w a r t , a c o n f l i c t t h a t d i v i d e d t h e f o o d c l u b . H a v i n g l o n g t h o u g h t h i s b o d y r e s p o n d i n g p o o r l y t o s o m e o f h e r p r o d u c t s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s u s p e c t e d H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s ' o w n e r S h a r o n P a l m e r , o n e o f R a w e s o m e ' s m a i n s u p p l i e r s , o f s e c r e t l y o u t s o u r c i n g , o f s u p p l y i n g m e a t n o t o r g a n i c a n d n o t s o y - f r e e , a n d o f p r o v i d i n g c o n t a m i n a t e d e g g s . S t e w a r t s t o o d b y P a l m e r a n d k e p t c a r r y i n g h e r p r o d u c t s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d P a l m e r ' s m a i n c r e d i t o r , R a w e s o m e m e m b e r L a r r y O t t i n g , t h e n p u b l i s h e d a d e f a m a t o r y w e b s i t e , " U n h e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s " . I n J u n e 2 0 1 0 , a n u n n a m e d P a l m e r e m p l o y e e e x p l a i n e d t o a V e n t u r a C o u n t y S h e r i f f ' s d e t e c t i v e a n d a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s a g e n t t h a t H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s l a c k e d t h e m e a n s t o p r o d u c e a l l o f t h e f o o d i t w a s s u p p l y i n g . L a t e r t h a t m o n t h , o n J u n e 3 0 , b u t v i a i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n c e 2 0 0 8 , r e g u l a t o r s r a i d e d R a w e s o m e . T w o d a y s a f t e r t h a t J u n e 2 0 1 0 r a i d o n R a w e s o m e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s e n t f r o m A s i a a g r o u p e m a i l a l l e g i n g t h a t " g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s t r e s p a s s e d a n d k i d n a p p e d v o l u n t e e r s a n d m e m b e r s f o r t h e e n t i r e t i m e t h a t t h e y s e i z e d t h e p r o p e r t y , a b o u t f i v e h o u r s " , a n d t h a t " t h e y s t o l e , u n d e r t h e t e r m c o n f i s c a t e , t h o u s a n d s o f d o l l a r s w o r t h o f m e m b e r s ' F O O D t h a t w a s p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y " . R e f e r r i n g t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s " o n l i n e n o t i c e s " , a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y a g e n t , a r g u i n g t o p r o t e c t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d t o c o n c e a l i d e n t i f i e s o f u n d e r c o v e r a g e n t s , w h o s e " l i v e s a n d s a f e t y w o u l d b e p u t i n t o j e o p a r d y " , g o t a L o s A n g e l e s S u p e r i o r C o u r t j u d g e t o s e a l t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ' s d o c u m e n t s . T h e L o s A n g e l e s D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s o f f i c e a l s o b e g a n s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e e m a i l a c c o u n t s o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z , o f P a l m e r , a n d o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h . A l t h o u g h R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d e v e n d r e w s u p p o r t i n m a i n s t r e a m m e d i a , t h e r a i d i n t e n s i f i e d t h e S t e w a r t – V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n f l i c t , d i v i d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s m e m b e r s h i p a n d p o i s o n i n g R a w e s o m e ' s a t m o s p h e r e , w h e r e a c l o u d o f v a g u e c o n s p i r a c y t h e o r i e s r e a c h i n g g l o b a l p r o p o r t i o n s s e e m e d t o h o v e r . I n l a t e 2 0 1 0 , b u t t o n o a v a i l , V o n d e r p l a n i t z v i s i t e d V e n t u r a C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o s e e k P a l m e r ' s p r o s e c u t i o n f o r a l l e g e d l y d e f r a u d i n g R a w e s o m e . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g s u e d S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r f o r s o m e $ 2 0 m i l l i o n . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 1 , a u t h o r i t i e s a g a i n r a i d e d R a w e s o m e , b u t t h i s t i m e c l o s e d i t , a r r e s t e d S t e w a r t , a n d , e l s e w h e r e , a r r e s t e d P a l m e r f o r c r i m i n a l c o n s p i r a c y i n i l l e g a l l y p r o d u c i n g a n d s e l l i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . A l s o a r r e s t e d w a s P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h , c h a r g e d s i m i l a r l y . A l t h o u g h c l a i m i n g c r e d i t f o r b u i l d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s s u c c e s s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o u n d h i m s e l f m a r g i n a l i z e d b y R a w e s o m e ' s s u p p o r t e r s d e m o n s t r a t i n g p u b l i c l y . F u r t h e r , o u t s i d e t h e c o u r t h o u s e a t s u c h a d e m o n s t r a t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z , t r y i n g t o a n s w e r i n t e r e s t e d n e w s m e d i a , c o n c l u d e d h i m s e l f b l a c k l i s t e d f r o m n e w s g a t h e r i n g . I n 2 0 1 2 , S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r w e r e a r r e s t e d o n c r i m i n a l c h a r g e s a s t o f u n d i n g o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m , w h e r e b y t h e y a l l e g e d l y m i s l e d i n v e s t o r s a b o u t t h e i r o w n c r e d i t w o r t h i n e s s , a n d c o u l d e a c h f a c e 4 0 y e a r s i m p r i s o n m e n t . A f t e r f o u r m o n t h s o f j a i l , S t e w a r t t o o k a p l e a d e a l , p a i d a f i n e , g a v e u p R a w e s o m e ' s c a u s e , a n d b e g a n d i s t r i b u t i n g o l i v e o i l . B y J u l y 2 0 1 3 , t h e c i v i l s u i t ' s j u d g e h a d r e d u c e d t h e 3 0 c i v i l c h a r g e s t o t w o , P a l m e r h a d c o u n t e r s u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g , a n d t h e j u d g e o r d e r e d t h e p a r t i e s t o n e g o t i a t e a s e t t l e m e n t . B y t h e n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s s e e m i n g l y i r r a t i o n a l v e n d e t t a w a s i n f a m o u s , p a r t i a l l y b l a m e d f o r R a w e s o m e ' s d o w n f a l l . D e s p i t e h i s r o l e i n R a w e s o m e a n d t h e o t h e r a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t h e c o n t i n u e d a f t e r R a w e s o m e ' s d e b a c l e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d n e v e r b e p r o s e c u t e d . S t i l l , b y 2 0 1 0 , h e b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t h e t a r g e t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l o r p h a r m a c e u t i c a l c o n s p i r a c y t o n e u t r a l i z e h i m . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e h a d d e s c r i b e d t h e o n g o i n g f l u p a n d e m i c a s a h o a x m e d i a t e d b y f l u v a c c i n a t i o n . S o o n , h e a l l e g e d a p p a r e n t r e t r i b u t i o n b y i n v a d e r s o f h i s h o t e l r o o m i n T h a i l a n d f o r c i b l y g i v i n g h i m i n j e c t i o n s t h a t s e n t h i s " m e r c u r y , b a r i u m , a n d c h r o m i u m r e a d i n g s o f f t h e c h a r t s " , i m p a i r i n g h i s h e a l t h , c a u s i n g w e i g h t l o s s , a n d p r e m a t u r e l y a g i n g h i m . L a t e r , h e c l a i m e d t h a t o n a T h a i l a n d r o a d , h i s c a r ' s b r a k e s s u d d e n l y f a i l e d , c a u s i n g a p o t e n t i a l l y f a t a l c a r w r e c k t h a t h e l i k e w i s e a t t r i b u t e d t o a p l o t a g a i n s t h i s l i f e . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 , a t h i s f a r m i n T h a i l a n d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a p p a r e n t l y l e a n e d a g a i n s t h i s h o u s e ' s s e c o n d - s t o r y b a l c o n y r a i l , w h i c h p r o v e d f a u l t y , a l l o w i n g h i s f a l l t h a t b r o k e h i s s p i n e a n d p a r a l y z e d h i m . A t t h e h o s p i t a l , h e a c c e p t e d p a i n - k i l l i n g d r u g s , y e t r e f u s e d s u r g e r y t o r e p a i r i n t e r n a l b l e e d i n g . A f t e r a f e w d a y s , h e l o s t c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d d i e d . D e s p i t e r u m o r s o f c o n s p i r a c y , t w o o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c o l l e a g u e s d e s c r i b e d l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u g g e s t i n g a g e n u i n e a c c i d e n t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d a u t h o r e d t w o b o o k s : a m e m o i r r e t r a c i n g h i s p a t h t o a n d i n t r o d u c i n g t h e P r i m a l D i e t , " W e W a n t T o L i v e " ( 1 9 9 7 / 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d a f o l l o w - u p r e c i p e b o o k c i t i n g p u t a t i v e s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e , " T h e R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " ( 2 0 0 2 ) .

Food activism ; California

Aventajado Vonderplanitz is a prominent figure in the food activism movement in California. He advocates for the consumption of raw meat and has written books on the topic. Vonderplanitz has been involved in various campaigns to promote access to raw milk and other unpasteurized dairy products. He has worked with farmers and distributors to make these products available to consumers, often through private food clubs. Vonderplanitz has also been involved in conflicts with regulators and law enforcement agencies, who have sought to restrict access to these products.

and another in a remote area of Thailand, near its northern border with Laos, he spent much time at his Thailand farm. Vonderplanitz claimed tutelage by a Southern California nutritionist named Bruno Corigliano followed by nearly three years of bicycle travel across North America and into Latin America, in his late 20s, while studying biology and medical textbooks, Native American indigenous healthcare, and wildlife habits. He claimed to have discovered raw meat's putative healing capacity when fasting in the wilderness, where a pack of coyotes killed, tore open, and offered him a jackrabbit, then watched him until he ate it. In his early 20s, among the outdoor purveyors at Venice Beach, he set up a table with the banner "NUTRITIONIST", and began counseling in a raw-food niche. In honey. In 2002, his other book, the "Recipe for Living Without Disease", was published. Nearing 2010, he was still claiming over 90% rate of cancer remission among his clients closely heeding it. Despite mainstream dismissal, his Primal Diet gained a sizable, if underground, following. Although Vonderplanitz dated it to the 1970s, his food-rights campaign more clearly began nearing 2000. Into 2011, Vonderplanitz and an ally, James Stewart, were the raw-milk movement's de facto leaders. In 1997 or 1998, Venice resident James Stewart, in poor health, discovered Vonderplanitz's Primal Diet. By 2000, Stewart was a southern California distributor of raw milk for Claravale Farm, which had only eight cows, but was the state's only farm still licensed to supply unpasteurized milk to retail stores. While Claravale Farm added cows for Stewart's distribution reaching 30 stores in four counties—Orange, Ventura, San Diego, and Los Angeles—one county, Los Angeles, was the state's only where raw milk's retail sale was illegal. By 2001, L. A. county's regulators were pulling Stewart's placed milk from stores, yet Vonderplanitz's campaign to legalize raw milk's retail sale was culminating. In 2001, Vonderplanitz drew Stewart to help demonstrations and protests, although initial turnout was minuscule. Later in 2001, cowritten with William Campbell Douglass II, and submitted to the county's board of supervisors, Vonderplanitz's report on raw milk, and accompanying threat of legal action, got the county's board of supervisors to end the ban on raw milk's retail sale. Highly publicized, the hearings fueled consumer demand for unpasteurized dairy. Claravale Farm's supply via Stewart insufficient, southern California residents would travel north to buy raw milk at the McAfee brothers' farm, Organic Pastures Dairy Company. In early 2000, the McAfees' farm had switched to organic, but their Organic Pastures still sold its milk wholesale to Organic Valley, which in turn supplied only pasteurized milk to stores. Upon visits by southern Californian customers, the McAfees' Organic Pastures obtained a permit to sell raw dairy retail. During 2001, Mark McAfee contacted Stewart, who then recruited Vonderplanitz. Vonderplanitz invested $15 000, and with Stewart recruited others, including real-estate executive Larry Otting, who invested $17 000, and Organic Pastures began supplying unpasteurized dairy retail. The volume allowed Stewart, despite dropping Claravale's milk, to reach 89 stores. Yet in 2004, as the nation's largest unpasteurized supplier, Organic Pastures brought distribution in-house, eliminating Stewart. Stewart then focused on growing his private food club, Rawesome. Rawesome would keep Stewart and Vonderplanitz at the center of the raw-dairy movement until Rawesome's controversial closure via government raid in 2011. In the late 1990s, Vonderplanitz formed the not-for-profit organization Right to Choose Healthy Food (RTCHF). RTCHF, declared Vonderplanitz, "will combat any legislation banning people's right to choose raw food". Yet RTCHF apparently focused on raw dairy. In this agenda, Vonderplanitz originated the "animal-leasing" model, whereby a private food club, whose members are also RTCHF members, contracts a farmer to produce solely for that food club. As president of RTCHF, Vonderplanitz mediated these animal-leasing arrangements in multiple states. Vonderplanitz meanwhile criticized the "herdshare" or "cowshare" model, whereby a consumer buys "shares", thus "partially owns" unpasteurized dairy. In February 2012, ruling against Allgyer, the judge called it "a cow share" that was "merely a subterfuge". Yet in the Wisconsin state trial of farmer Vernon Hershberger, Vonderplanitz participated and claimed victory in May 2013. The preeminent food club linked to Vonderplanitz's Right to Choose Healthy Food was the Rawesome food club, known for exotic raw foods, and thriving, drawing celebrity clientele, in Venice, Los Angeles. In 2001, James Stewart had founded a private food club, "The Garage". By 2003, it evolved into Rawesome, which Vonderplanitz wrote the contract for, invested in, and steered clients to. In 2005, regulators tried to restrict Rawesome, but Vonderplanitz wrote the response and persuaded Stewart to resist. The government dropped the citation, Rawesome continued normal operation, and, over the next few years, this success drew Vonderplanitz renown for fending off regulators' legal threats. Yet in October 2010, Vonderplanitz would turn against Stewart, a conflict that divided the food club. Having long thought his body responding poorly to some of her products, Vonderplanitz suspected Healthy Family Farms' owner Sharon Palmer, one of Rawesome's main suppliers, of secretly outsourcing, of supplying meat not organic and not soy-free, and of providing contaminated eggs. Stewart stood by Palmer and kept carrying her products. Vonderplanitz and Palmer's main creditor, Rawesome member Larry Otting, then published a defamatory website, "Unhealthy Family Farms". In June 2010, an unnamed Palmer employee explained to a Ventura County Sheriff's detective and a Los Angeles County District Attorney's agent that Healthy Family Farms lacked the means to produce all of the food it was supplying. Later that month, on June 30, but via investigation since 2008, regulators raided Rawesome. Two days after that June 2010 raid on Rawesome, Vonderplanitz sent from Asia a group email alleging that "government agents trespassed and kidnapped volunteers and members for the entire time that they seized the property, about five hours", and that "they stole, under the term confiscate, thousands of dollars worth of members' FOOD that was private property". Referring to Vonderplanitz's "online notices", a Los Angeles County District Attorney agent, arguing to protect the investigation and to conceal identifies of undercover agents, whose "lives and safety would be put into jeopardy", got a Los Angeles Superior Court judge to seal the investigation's documents. The Los Angeles District Attorney's

Aajonus Vonderplanitz

O r i g i n a l l y n a m e d J o h n R i c h a r d S w i g a r t , a n d b o r n i n D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s p e n t m o s t o f c h i l d h o o d a n d a d o l e s c e n c e i n t h e C i n c i n n a t i s u b u r b F i n n e y t o w n , O h i o . H e d e s c r i b e d h a v i n g b e e n a s i c k l y c h i l d m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d a b u s e d . H i s b r o t h e r , a c o u p l e o f y e a r s e l d e r , a l l e g e d l y r e s e n t f u l a t l o s s o f m a t e r n a l a t t e n t i o n , " t o r t u r e d m e n e a r l y d a i l y " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z e x p l a i n e d . B e i n g " d y s l e x i c " a n d " b o r d e r l i n e a u t i s t i c " , c o n d i t i o n s " w h i c h n o o n e u n d e r s t o o d a t t h e t i m e " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z " r a r e l y p l a y e d w i t h o t h e r c h i l d r e n " , a n d " e m b a r r a s s e d a n d f r u s t r a t e d m y p a r e n t s " , f u e l i n g p a t e r n a l " d i s c i p l i n e " t h a t l e d t o s e v e r a l h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d . I n a n o t h e r h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n n e a r h i s 1 0 t h b i r t h d a y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a l l e g e d p e r i t o n i t i s w a s m i s d i a g n o s e d a p p e n d i c i t i s , w h e r e u p o n h i s a p p e n d i x , d i s c o v e r e d f i n e , w a s r e m o v e d a n y w a y , h e r e c o u n t e d . H e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s b o n e s w e r e b r i t t l e , h e " r e g u l a r l y " b r e a k i n g l i m b b o n e s , a n d a t a g e 1 5 w a s d i a g n o s e d w i t h " j u v e n i l e d i a b e t e s " . V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i r s t r e c e i v e d f a m i l y a n d c o m m u n i t y s u p p o r t , h e r e c a l l e d , o n c e h e f o u n d h i s f i r s t g i r l f r i e n d i n h i s j u n i o r y e a r a t F i n n e y t o w n H i g h S c h o o l . A t a g e 1 7 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m a r r i e d h e r , a r e c e n t s c h o o l m a t e o n e y e a r e l d e r , w h o b o r e h i s o n l y c h i l d , a s o n , i n h i s s e n i o r y e a r . O n c e h e g r a d u a t e d , t h e n e w f a m i l y m o v e d e l s e w h e r e n e a r C i n c i n n a t i . T h e y r e n t i n g a s m a l l a p a r t m e n t a t a b u s i n e s s i n t e r s e c t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s w i f e w o r k e d a s a u t i l i t y - c o m p a n y s e c r e t a r y , a n d h e a s a s h o r t - o r d e r c o o k a l s o a t t e n d i n g t h e C i n c i n n a t i I n s t i t u t e o f C o m p u t e r T e c h n o l o g y . T h e i r s o n ' s s e v e r e c o l i c , h e r p o s t p a r t u m m o o d p r o b l e m s , a n d h i s o w n c o n f u s i o n s a n d m o o d p r o b l e m s e n d e d t h e i r p r i o r b l i s s . H e i n c r e a s i n g l y d r a n k w i t h f r i e n d s , a n d e n t e r e d a n e x t r a m a r i t a l a f f a i r w i t h a f e m a l e i n s t r u c t o r a t h i s t r a d e s c h o o l . D i v o r c e d a t 1 9 , h e m o v e d t o L o s A n g e l e s f o r w o r k i n c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g . A l t h o u g h h e s e e m i n g l y n e v e r r e m a r r i e d , h i s o w n a n d o t h e r p e r s o n s ' a n e c d o t e s a b o u t h i m i n v o l v e s e v e r a l g i r l f r i e n d s t h r o u g h o u t h i s l a t e r l i f e . O n m o v i n g t o L o s A n g e l e s , f e e l i n g d i r e c t i o n l e s s a n d d i s t r e s s e d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n t i n u e d h e a v y d r i n k i n g . S t i l l a g e d 1 9 , h e d e v e l o p e d a s t o m a c h u l c e r , w h o s e s u r g i c a l t r e a t m e n t c a u s e d a k e l o i d a l s c a r i n t u r n t r e a t e d b y r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y t h a t t h e n c a u s e d m u l t i p l e m y e l o m a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d . O n c e c h e m o t h e r a p y c a u s e d f u r t h e r i l l n e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g p s o r i a s i s , b u r s i t i s , a n d s e v e r e p e r i o d o n t i t i s , h e d i s c o n t i n u e d t r e a t m e n t o f h i s t e r m i n a l c a n c e r , b u t a h o s p i c e w o r k e r , p a y i n g h i m v o l u n t e e r h o m e v i s i t s , g a v e h i m a s m a l l b o o k o n c a n c e r t r e a t m e n t b y r a w c a r r o t j u i c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . W i t h i n 1 0 d a y s , t h e r e g i m e n e n d e d h i s a l l e g e d d y s l e x i a , a n d s o o n t h e r e a f t e r p u t h i s c a n c e r i n r e m i s s i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . A t a g e 2 2 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z b e g a n p r o m o t i n g h i m s e l f a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . A t a b o u t a g e 2 3 , t h e s t i l l J o h n S w i g a r t m e t a g i r l t o d d l e r w h o r e n a m e d h i m A a j o n u s . D i s l i k i n g h i s g i v e n n a m e , a r e m i n d e r o f i l l n e s s a n d m i s t r e a t m e n t , h e a c c e p t e d t h e r e n a m i n g , a n d l a t e r t o o k h i s E u r o p e a n a n c e s t o r s ' l a s t n a m e V o n d e r p l a n i t z . H e w o u l d a t t r i b u t e h i s h e a l t h g a i n s o v e r t h e n e x t t w o y e a r s m o s t l y t o r a w j u i c e s a n d r a w d a i r y . B y a g e 2 5 , e l i m i n a t i n g r a w d a i r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a d o p t e d r a w v e g a n i s m . A t a g e 2 7 , s e e k i n g h e a l t h a n s w e r s , h e r e p u t e d l y s o j o u r n e d b y b i c y c l e , w h i l e h e " l i v e d o f f t h e e a r t h " , a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a . N e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , h e r e t u r n e d t o L o s A n g e l e s t e l l i n g o f a s e e m i n g l y i m p l a u s i b l e h e a l t h a n s w e r : e a t i n g r a w m e a t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m a d i v e r s e r é s u m é , p a r t l y s i n c e b y a g e 4 0 , h e s t i l l h a d m a r g i n a l i n c o m e a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . H e r e c a l l e d e t h i c a l l y r e f u s i n g $ 7 . 5 m i l l i o n t o b e m a d e , i n 1 9 7 1 , t h e W i n s t o n M a n f o r s e v e n y e a r s , a n d , i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , w h i l e e a r n i n g i n c o m e p a i n t i n g m u r a l s a n d s u c h i n s i d e h o m e s , s o m e a c t i n g o n t h e s o a p o p e r a " G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l " . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e c r e a t e d a b r i e f d i e t , d a m a g i n g w i t h i n a f e w d a y s t o w e e k s , f o r a c l i e n t d e m a n d i n g q u i c k w e i g h t l o s s , b u t w h o a l l e g e d l y p u b l i s h e d i t f o r p r o f i t a s t h e B e v e r l y H i l l s D i e t . U p o n o v e r t u r n i n g a t r a f f i c t i c k e t a t a g e 2 2 , h e s o u g h t t o d e v e l o p l e g a l e x p e r t i s e b y p r i v a t e s t u d y . A f t e r 2 0 0 0 , h e w r o t e b u s i n e s s c o n t r a c t s a n d l e g a l r e s p o n s e s f o r f a r m e r s . I n h i s l a t e s t y e a r s , o w n i n g a f a r m i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a n d a n o t h e r i n a r e m o t e a r e a o f T h a i l a n d , n e a r i t s n o r t h e r n b o r d e r w i t h L a o s , h e s p e n t m u c h t i m e a t h i s T h a i l a n d f a r m . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t u t e l a g e b y a S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n u t r i t i o n i s t n a m e d B r u n o C o r i g l i a n o f o l l o w e d b y n e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s o f b i c y c l e t r a v e l a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a , i n h i s l a t e 2 0 s , w h i l e s t u d y i n g b i o l o g y a n d m e d i c a l t e x t b o o k s , N a t i v e A m e r i c a n i n d i g e n o u s h e a l t h c a r e , a n d w i l d l i f e h a b i t s . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e d i s c o v e r e d r a w m e a t ' s p u t a t i v e h e a l i n g c a p a c i t y w h e n f a s t i n g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , w h e r e a p a c k o f c o y o t e s k i l l e d , t o r e o p e n , a n d o f f e r e d h i m a j a c k r a b b i t , t h e n w a t c h e d h i m u n t i l h e a t e i t . I n h i s e a r l y 2 0 s , a m o n g t h e o u t d o o r p u r v e y o r s a t V e n i c e B e a c h , h e s e t u p a t a b l e w i t h t h e b a n n e r " N U T R I T I O N I S T " , a n d b e g a n c o u n s e l i n g i n a r a w - f o o d n i c h e . I n h i n d s i g h t , h e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s a d v i c e h a d b e e n o f t e n i n e f f e c t i v e , a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n h a r m f u l , u n t i l h e i n c l u d e d r a w m e a t . A t p e r h a p s a g e 3 0 , h e b e c a m e a s t a f f n u t r i t i o n i s t , a d v i s i n g c u s t o m e r s , a t a h e a l t h f o o d s t o r e , A u n t T i l l y ' s T o o . A l t h o u g h n o t i n h i s 1 9 9 7 b o o k , h e u s e d t h e t i t l e P h D , s p e c i f y i n g n u t r i t i o n a l s c i e n c e , i n a 2 0 0 1 r e s e a r c h r e p o r t o n m i l k , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I M D , a n d t h e r e a f t e r . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e w a s r e p o r t e d t o l a c k a c c r e d i t e d s c i e n t i f i c o r m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g . I n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 8 6 , a t a g e 3 9 , l i v i n g i n a B e v e r l y H i l l s " s l u m " w h i l e f r e e l a n c i n g i n n u t r i t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e t u r n e d t o C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o . T h e r e , h i s o n l y c h i l d , h i s s o n , e s t r a n g e d f o r a b o u t 2 0 y e a r s , h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n i n a s e v e r e c a r w r e c k , d r i v i n g , w i t h o u t a s e a t b e l t o n , s t r a i g h t i n t o a t r e e . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o h a v e s a b o t a g e d h i s s o n ' s c o n v e n t i o n a l m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t , i n M e r c y H o s p i t a l ' s i n t e n s i v e - c a r e u n i t , a n d u s e d r a w f o o d s t o a w a k e n a n d r e t r i e v e h i s c o m a t o s e s o n f r o m i m m i n e n t d e a t h , a n d t o r e v e r s e h i s p a r a l y s i s a n d b r a i n d a m a g e . T e n y e a r s a f t e r h i s s o n ' s r e c o v e r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d t h e t a l e i n h i s f i r s t b o o k , " W e W a n t t o L i v e " , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 9 7 a n d r e v i s e d i n 2 0 0 5 . U p o n t h e 1 9 9 7 r e l e a s e o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s f i r s t b o o k , R o b e r t A t k i n s i n t e r v i e w e d h i m , b a s e d b y t h e n i n M a l i b u , o n A t k i n s ' s n a t i o n a l l y s y n d i c a t e d r a d i o s h o w . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d c l a i m e d t h a t h i s o w n p r o t o c o l h a d c u r e d o v e r 2 0 0 c l i e n t s o f c a n c e r . I n 2 0 0 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z t r a d e m a r k e d t h e n a m e " P r i m a l D i e t " . U n l i k e l a t e r d i e t s c a l l e d " p r i m a l " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t p r i n c i p a l l y i n c l u d e s r a w m e a t , r a w e g g s , r a w d a i r y , r a w f a t s , a n d u n h e a t e d h o n e y . I n 2 0 0 2 , h i s o t h e r b o o k , t h e " R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " , w a s p u b l i s h e d . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , h e w a s s t i l l c l a i m i n g o v e r 9 0 % r a t e o f c a n c e r r e m i s s i o n a m o n g h i s c l i e n t s c l o s e l y h e e d i n g i t . D e s p i t e m a i n s t r e a m d i s m i s s a l , h i s P r i m a l D i e t g a i n e d a s i z a b l e , i f u n d e r g r o u n d , f o l l o w i n g . A l t h o u g h V o n d e r p l a n i t z d a t e d i t t o t h e 1 9 7 0 s , h i s f o o d - r i g h t s c a m p a i g n m o r e c l e a r l y b e g a n n e a r i n g 2 0 0 0 . I n t o 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d a n a l l y , J a m e s S t e w a r t , w e r e t h e r a w - m i l k m o v e m e n t ' s d e f a c t o l e a d e r s . I n 1 9 9 7 o r 1 9 9 8 , V e n i c e r e s i d e n t J a m e s S t e w a r t , i n p o o r h e a l t h , d i s c o v e r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t . B y 2 0 0 0 , S t e w a r t w a s a s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a d i s t r i b u t o r o f r a w m i l k f o r C l a r a v a l e F a r m , w h i c h h a d o n l y e i g h t c o w s , b u t w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y f a r m s t i l l l i c e n s e d t o s u p p l y u n p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o r e t a i l s t o r e s . W h i l e C l a r a v a l e F a r m a d d e d c o w s f o r S t e w a r t ' s d i s t r i b u t i o n r e a c h i n g 3 0 s t o r e s i n f o u r c o u n t i e s — O r a n g e , V e n t u r a , S a n D i e g o , a n d L o s A n g e l e s — o n e c o u n t y , L o s A n g e l e s , w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y w h e r e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s i l l e g a l . B y 2 0 0 1 , L . A . c o u n t y ' s r e g u l a t o r s w e r e p u l l i n g S t e w a r t ' s p l a c e d m i l k f r o m s t o r e s , y e t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c a m p a i g n t o l e g a l i z e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s c u l m i n a t i n g . I n 2 0 0 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d r e w S t e w a r t t o h e l p d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d p r o t e s t s , a l t h o u g h i n i t i a l t u r n o u t w a s m i n u s c u l e . L a t e r i n 2 0 0 1 , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I , a n d s u b m i t t e d t o t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s r e p o r t o n r a w m i l k , a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g t h r e a t o f l e g a l a c t i o n , g o t t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s t o e n d t h e b a n o n r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e . H i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d , t h e h e a r i n g s f u e l e d c o n s u m e r d e m a n d f o r u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . C l a r a v a l e F a r m ' s s u p p l y v i a S t e w a r t i n s u f f i c i e n t , s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a r e s i d e n t s w o u l d t r a v e l n o r t h t o b u y r a w m i l k a t t h e M c A f e e b r o t h e r s ' f a r m , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s D a i r y C o m p a n y . I n e a r l y 2 0 0 0 , t h e M c A f e e s ' f a r m h a d s w i t c h e d t o o r g a n i c , b u t t h e i r O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s s t i l l s o l d i t s m i l k w h o l e s a l e t o O r g a n i c V a l l e y , w h i c h i n t u r n s u p p l i e d o n l y p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o s t o r e s . U p o n v i s i t s b y s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n c u s t o m e r s , t h e M c A f e e s ' O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s o b t a i n e d a p e r m i t t o s e l l r a w d a i r y r e t a i l . D u r i n g 2 0 0 1 , M a r k M c A f e e c o n t a c t e d S t e w a r t , w h o t h e n r e c r u i t e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z i n v e s t e d $ 1 5 0 0 0 , a n d w i t h S t e w a r t r e c r u i t e d o t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g r e a l - e s t a t e e x e c u t i v e L a r r y O t t i n g , w h o i n v e s t e d $ 1 7 0 0 0 , a n d O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b e g a n s u p p l y i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y r e t a i l . T h e v o l u m e a l l o w e d S t e w a r t , d e s p i t e d r o p p i n g C l a r a v a l e ' s m i l k , t o r e a c h 8 9 s t o r e s . Y e t i n 2 0 0 4 , a s t h e n a t i o n ' s l a r g e s t u n p a s t e u r i z e d s u p p l i e r , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b r o u g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n - h o u s e , e l i m i n a t i n g S t e w a r t . S t e w a r t t h e n f o c u s e d o n g r o w i n g h i s p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , R a w e s o m e . R a w e s o m e w o u l d k e e p S t e w a r t a n d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r a w - d a i r y m o v e m e n t u n t i l R a w e s o m e ' s c o n t r o v e r s i a l c l o s u r e v i a g o v e r n m e n t r a i d i n 2 0 1 1 . I n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o r m e d t h e n o t - f o r - p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d ( R T C H F ) . R T C H F , d e c l a r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z , " w i l l c o m b a t a n y l e g i s l a t i o n b a n n i n g p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o c h o o s e r a w f o o d " . Y e t R T C H F a p p a r e n t l y f o c u s e d o n r a w d a i r y . I n t h i s a g e n d a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z o r i g i n a t e d t h e " a n i m a l - l e a s i n g " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , w h o s e m e m b e r s a r e a l s o R T C H F m e m b e r s , c o n t r a c t s a f a r m e r t o p r o d u c e s o l e l y f o r t h a t f o o d c l u b . A s p r e s i d e n t o f R T C H F , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e d i a t e d t h e s e a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s i n m u l t i p l e s t a t e s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e a n w h i l e c r i t i c i z e d t h e " h e r d s h a r e " o r " c o w s h a r e " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a c o n s u m e r b u y s " s h a r e s " , t h u s " p a r t i a l l y o w n s " t h e c a t t l e , a n d t h e n b u y s d a i r y d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e f a r m e r , w h o m a y s t i l l s e l l t o n o n s h a r e h o l d e r s , t o o . P a r t l y b y w r i t i n g l e g a l d o c u m e n t s f o r f a r m e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s d e s p i t e n o t b e i n g a n a t t o r n e y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d i s c o m f i t e d t h e F a r m - t o - C o n s u m e r L e g a l D e f e n s e F u n d ( F T C L D F ) . O p e r a t e d b y a t t o r n e y s , t h e F T C L D F a l s o e n d o r s e d t h e h e r d s h a r e m o d e l , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o l a c k p r e c e d e n t , a s s h a r e h o l d i n g c a n e n t i t l e o n e t o p r o f i t s w i t h o u t a n y o w n e r s h i p o f p r o p e r t y , w h e r e a s l e a s i n g h e l d l o n g p r e c e d e n t o f f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y m a t c h i n g o w n e r s h i p , a r g u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s b e i n g n o t a l a w y e r a p p e a l e d t o A m i s h f a r m e r s , h o w e v e r , w h o t r a d i t i o n a l l y a v o i d e d t a k i n g l e g a l a c t i o n s . B y 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s l e g a l r e s p o n s e s w e r e w e l l k n o w n f o r e n d i n g r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s a g a i n s t R T C H F ' s f a r m e r s . O n c e s o t h r e a t e n e d , s o m e n o n - R T C H F f a r m e r s n e w l y s i g n e d R T C H F c o n t r a c t s . B y 2 0 1 0 , R T C H F ' s f o o d c l u b s n u m b e r e d a b o u t 8 0 , e a c h c o m m o n l y h a v i n g a b o u t 1 0 0 t o 2 0 0 m e m b e r s , a n d a f e w h a v i n g o v e r a 1 0 0 0 m e m b e r s . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n p r e s s u r i n g s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s t o e n f o r c e l a w s a g a i n s t r a w m i l k . A d r a g n e t a g a i n s t f a r m e r s a n d c l u b m a n a g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z u n f o l d e d . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a t t e m p t s t o d e f e n d t h e m d r e w m i x e d r e s u l t s . I n A p r i l 2 0 1 1 , t h e F D A f i l e d i n f e d e r a l c o u r t a g a i n s t A m i s h f a r m e r D a n i e l A l l g y e r o f P e n n s y l v a n i a . U n a b l e t o r e a c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z , w h o w a s t r a v e l i n g a b r o a d a s n u t r i t i o n i s t , A l l g y e r d r o p p e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R T C H F t h e n e x t m o n t h a n d h i r e d K a r l D a h l s t r o m ' s P r o A d v o c a t e G r o u p . A g a i n s t A l l y g e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i l e d a m o t i o n t o i n t e r c e d e , b u t t h e j u d g e d e n i e d i t , e x c l u d i n g V o n d e p l a n i t z f r o m t h e c a s e , a n d a d d e d t h a t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a r g u m e n t s a b o u t h e a l t h a n d r i g h t s w e r e i r r e l e v a n t t o w h e t h e r A l l g y e r w e r e g u i l t y o f i n t e r s t a t e c o m m e r c e o f u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 2 , r u l i n g a g a i n s t A l l g y e r , t h e j u d g e c a l l e d i t " a c o w s h a r e " t h a t w a s " m e r e l y a s u b t e r f u g e " . Y e t i n t h e W i s c o n s i n s t a t e t r i a l o f f a r m e r V e r n o n H e r s h b e r g e r , V o n d e r p l a n i t z p a r t i c i p a t e d a n d c l a i m e d v i c t o r y i n M a y 2 0 1 3 . T h e p r e e m i n e n t f o o d c l u b l i n k e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d w a s t h e R a w e s o m e f o o d c l u b , k n o w n f o r e x o t i c r a w f o o d s , a n d t h r i v i n g , d r a w i n g c e l e b r i t y c l i e n t e l e , i n V e n i c e , L o s A n g e l e s . I n 2 0 0 1 , J a m e s S t e w a r t h a d f o u n d e d a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , " T h e G a r a g e " . B y 2 0 0 3 , i t e v o l v e d i n t o R a w e s o m e , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e c o n t r a c t f o r , i n v e s t e d i n , a n d s t e e r e d c l i e n t s t o . I n 2 0 0 5 , r e g u l a t o r s t r i e d t o r e s t r i c t R a w e s o m e , b u t V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e r e s p o n s e a n d p e r s u a d e d S t e w a r t t o r e s i s t . T h e g o v e r n m e n t d r o p p e d t h e c i t a t i o n , R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d , o v e r t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s , t h i s s u c c e s s d r e w V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e n o w n f o r f e n d i n g o f f r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s . Y e t i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d t u r n a g a i n s t S t e w a r t , a c o n f l i c t t h a t d i v i d e d t h e f o o d c l u b . H a v i n g l o n g t h o u g h t h i s b o d y r e s p o n d i n g p o o r l y t o s o m e o f h e r p r o d u c t s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s u s p e c t e d H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s ' o w n e r S h a r o n P a l m e r , o n e o f R a w e s o m e ' s m a i n s u p p l i e r s , o f s e c r e t l y o u t s o u r c i n g , o f s u p p l y i n g m e a t n o t o r g a n i c a n d n o t s o y - f r e e , a n d o f p r o v i d i n g c o n t a m i n a t e d e g g s . S t e w a r t s t o o d b y P a l m e r a n d k e p t c a r r y i n g h e r p r o d u c t s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d P a l m e r ' s m a i n c r e d i t o r , R a w e s o m e m e m b e r L a r r y O t t i n g , t h e n p u b l i s h e d a d e f a m a t o r y w e b s i t e , " U n h e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s " . I n J u n e 2 0 1 0 , a n u n n a m e d P a l m e r e m p l o y e e e x p l a i n e d t o a V e n t u r a C o u n t y S h e r i f f ' s d e t e c t i v e a n d a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s a g e n t t h a t H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s l a c k e d t h e m e a n s t o p r o d u c e a l l o f t h e f o o d i t w a s s u p p l y i n g . L a t e r t h a t m o n t h , o n J u n e 3 0 , b u t v i a i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n c e 2 0 0 8 , r e g u l a t o r s r a i d e d R a w e s o m e . T w o d a y s a f t e r t h a t J u n e 2 0 1 0 r a i d o n R a w e s o m e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s e n t f r o m A s i a a g r o u p e m a i l a l l e g i n g t h a t " g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s t r e s p a s s e d a n d k i d n a p p e d v o l u n t e e r s a n d m e m b e r s f o r t h e e n t i r e t i m e t h a t t h e y s e i z e d t h e p r o p e r t y , a b o u t f i v e h o u r s " , a n d t h a t " t h e y s t o l e , u n d e r t h e t e r m c o n f i s c a t e , t h o u s a n d s o f d o l l a r s w o r t h o f m e m b e r s ' F O O D t h a t w a s p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y " . R e f e r r i n g t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s " o n l i n e n o t i c e s " , a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y a g e n t , a r g u i n g t o p r o t e c t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d t o c o n c e a l i d e n t i f i e s o f u n d e r c o v e r a g e n t s , w h o s e " l i v e s a n d s a f e t y w o u l d b e p u t i n t o j e o p a r d y " , g o t a L o s A n g e l e s S u p e r i o r C o u r t j u d g e t o s e a l t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ' s d o c u m e n t s . T h e L o s A n g e l e s D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s o f f i c e a l s o b e g a n s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e e m a i l a c c o u n t s o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z , o f P a l m e r , a n d o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h . A l t h o u g h R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d e v e n d r e w s u p p o r t i n m a i n s t r e a m m e d i a , t h e r a i d i n t e n s i f i e d t h e S t e w a r t – V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n f l i c t , d i v i d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s m e m b e r s h i p a n d p o i s o n i n g R a w e s o m e ' s a t m o s p h e r e , w h e r e a c l o u d o f v a g u e c o n s p i r a c y t h e o r i e s r e a c h i n g g l o b a l p r o p o r t i o n s s e e m e d t o h o v e r . I n l a t e 2 0 1 0 , b u t t o n o a v a i l , V o n d e r p l a n i t z v i s i t e d V e n t u r a C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o s e e k P a l m e r ' s p r o s e c u t i o n f o r a l l e g e d l y d e f r a u d i n g R a w e s o m e . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g s u e d S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r f o r s o m e $ 2 0 m i l l i o n . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 1 , a u t h o r i t i e s a g a i n r a i d e d R a w e s o m e , b u t t h i s t i m e c l o s e d i t , a r r e s t e d S t e w a r t , a n d , e l s e w h e r e , a r r e s t e d P a l m e r f o r c r i m i n a l c o n s p i r a c y i n i l l e g a l l y p r o d u c i n g a n d s e l l i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . A l s o a r r e s t e d w a s P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h , c h a r g e d s i m i l a r l y . A l t h o u g h c l a i m i n g c r e d i t f o r b u i l d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s s u c c e s s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o u n d h i m s e l f m a r g i n a l i z e d b y R a w e s o m e ' s s u p p o r t e r s d e m o n s t r a t i n g p u b l i c l y . F u r t h e r , o u t s i d e t h e c o u r t h o u s e a t s u c h a d e m o n s t r a t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z , t r y i n g t o a n s w e r i n t e r e s t e d n e w s m e d i a , c o n c l u d e d h i m s e l f b l a c k l i s t e d f r o m n e w s g a t h e r i n g . I n 2 0 1 2 , S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r w e r e a r r e s t e d o n c r i m i n a l c h a r g e s a s t o f u n d i n g o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m , w h e r e b y t h e y a l l e g e d l y m i s l e d i n v e s t o r s a b o u t t h e i r o w n c r e d i t w o r t h i n e s s , a n d c o u l d e a c h f a c e 4 0 y e a r s i m p r i s o n m e n t . A f t e r f o u r m o n t h s o f j a i l , S t e w a r t t o o k a p l e a d e a l , p a i d a f i n e , g a v e u p R a w e s o m e ' s c a u s e , a n d b e g a n d i s t r i b u t i n g o l i v e o i l . B y J u l y 2 0 1 3 , t h e c i v i l s u i t ' s j u d g e h a d r e d u c e d t h e 3 0 c i v i l c h a r g e s t o t w o , P a l m e r h a d c o u n t e r s u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g , a n d t h e j u d g e o r d e r e d t h e p a r t i e s t o n e g o t i a t e a s e t t l e m e n t . B y t h e n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s s e e m i n g l y i r r a t i o n a l v e n d e t t a w a s i n f a m o u s , p a r t i a l l y b l a m e d f o r R a w e s o m e ' s d o w n f a l l . D e s p i t e h i s r o l e i n R a w e s o m e a n d t h e o t h e r a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t h e c o n t i n u e d a f t e r R a w e s o m e ' s d e b a c l e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d n e v e r b e p r o s e c u t e d . S t i l l , b y 2 0 1 0 , h e b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t h e t a r g e t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l o r p h a r m a c e u t i c a l c o n s p i r a c y t o n e u t r a l i z e h i m . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e h a d d e s c r i b e d t h e o n g o i n g f l u p a n d e m i c a s a h o a x m e d i a t e d b y f l u v a c c i n a t i o n . S o o n , h e a l l e g e d a p p a r e n t r e t r i b u t i o n b y i n v a d e r s o f h i s h o t e l r o o m i n T h a i l a n d f o r c i b l y g i v i n g h i m i n j e c t i o n s t h a t s e n t h i s " m e r c u r y , b a r i u m , a n d c h r o m i u m r e a d i n g s o f f t h e c h a r t s " , i m p a i r i n g h i s h e a l t h , c a u s i n g w e i g h t l o s s , a n d p r e m a t u r e l y a g i n g h i m . L a t e r , h e c l a i m e d t h a t o n a T h a i l a n d r o a d , h i s c a r ' s b r a k e s s u d d e n l y f a i l e d , c a u s i n g a p o t e n t i a l l y f a t a l c a r w r e c k t h a t h e l i k e w i s e a t t r i b u t e d t o a p l o t a g a i n s t h i s l i f e . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 , a t h i s f a r m i n T h a i l a n d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a p p a r e n t l y l e a n e d a g a i n s t h i s h o u s e ' s s e c o n d - s t o r y b a l c o n y r a i l , w h i c h p r o v e d f a u l t y , a l l o w i n g h i s f a l l t h a t b r o k e h i s s p i n e a n d p a r a l y z e d h i m . A t t h e h o s p i t a l , h e a c c e p t e d p a i n - k i l l i n g d r u g s , y e t r e f u s e d s u r g e r y t o r e p a i r i n t e r n a l b l e e d i n g . A f t e r a f e w d a y s , h e l o s t c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d d i e d . D e s p i t e r u m o r s o f c o n s p i r a c y , t w o o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c o l l e a g u e s d e s c r i b e d l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u g g e s t i n g a g e n u i n e a c c i d e n t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d a u t h o r e d t w o b o o k s : a m e m o i r r e t r a c i n g h i s p a t h t o a n d i n t r o d u c i n g t h e P r i m a l D i e t , " W e W a n t T o L i v e " ( 1 9 9 7 / 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d a f o l l o w - u p r e c i p e b o o k c i t i n g p u t a t i v e s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e , " T h e R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " ( 2 0 0 2 ) .

Food activism ; Nationwide

A.J. Vonderplanitz is a prominent figure in the food activism movement, particularly in the area of raw milk and dairy products. He has been involved in various campaigns and organizations aimed at promoting access to healthy food choices and challenging government regulations that restrict such access. Vonderplanitz has written books on diet and health, including "The Recipe for Living Without Disease," and has developed the "Primal Diet." He has also been involved in the raw milk movement, working with farmers and distributors to promote the availability of unpasteurized dairy products. Through his organization, Right to Choose Healthy Food (RTCHF), Vonderplanitz has advocated for the rights of consumers to choose their own food sources and has challenged government restrictions on raw milk sales. He has also been involved in legal battles on behalf of farmers and food clubs, using his knowledge of law and nutrition to defend their rights.

honey. In 2002, his other book, the "Recipe for Living Without Disease", was published. Nearing 2010, he was still claiming over 90% rate of cancer remission among his clients closely heeding it. Despite mainstream dismissal, his Primal Diet gained a sizable, if underground, following. Although Vonderplanitz dated it to the 1970s, his food-rights campaign more clearly began nearing 2000. Into 2011, Vonderplanitz and an ally, James Stewart, were the raw-milk movement's de facto leaders. In 1997 or 1998, Venice resident James Stewart, in poor health, discovered Vonderplanitz's Primal Diet. By 2000, Stewart was a southern California distributor of raw milk for Claravale Farm, which had only eight cows, but was the state's only farm still licensed to supply unpasteurized milk to retail stores. While Claravale Farm added cows for Stewart's distribution reaching 30 stores in four counties—Orange, Ventura, San Diego, and Los Angeles—one county, Los Angeles, was the state's only where raw milk's retail sale was illegal. By 2001, L. A. county's regulators were pulling Stewart's placed milk from stores, yet Vonderplanitz's campaign to legalize raw milk's retail sale was culminating. In 2001, Vonderplanitz drew Stewart to help demonstrations and protests, although initial turnout was minuscule. Later in 2001, cowritten with William Campbell Douglass II, and submitted to the county's board of supervisors, Vonderplanitz's report on raw milk, and accompanying threat of legal action, got the county's board of supervisors to end the ban on raw milk's retail sale. Highly publicized, the hearings fueled consumer demand for unpasteurized dairy. Claravale Farm's supply via Stewart insufficient, southern in-house, eliminating Stewart. Stewart then focused on growing his private food club, Rawesome. Rawesome would keep Stewart and Vonderplanitz at the center of the raw-dairy movement until Rawesome's controversial closure via government raid in 2011. In the late 1990s, Vonderplanitz formed the not-for-profit organization Right to Choose Healthy Food (RTCHF). RTCHF, declared Vonderplanitz, "will combat any legislation banning people's right to choose raw food". Yet RTCHF apparently focused on raw dairy. In this agenda, Vonderplanitz originated the "animal-leasing" model, whereby a private food club, whose members are also RTCHF members, contracts a farmer to produce solely for that food club. As president of RTCHF, Vonderplanitz mediated these animal-leasing arrangements in multiple states. Vonderplanitz meanwhile criticized the "herdshare" or "cowshare" model, whereby a consumer buys "shares", thus "partially owns" the cattle, and then buys dairy directly from the farmer, who may still sell to nonshareholders, too. Partly by writing legal documents for farmers and consumers despite not being an attorney, Vonderplanitz discomfited the Farm-to-Consumer Legal Defense Fund (FTCLDF). Operated by attorneys, the FTCLDF also endorsed the herdshare model, which Vonderplanitz claimed to lack precedent, as shareholding can entitle one to profits without any ownership of property, whereas leasing held long precedent of full responsibility matching ownership, argued Vonderplanitz. Vonderplanitz's being not a lawyer appealed to Amish farmers, however, who traditionally avoided taking legal actions. By 2010, Vonderplanitz's legal responses were well known for ending regulators' legal threats against RTCHF's farmers. Once so threatened, some non-RTCHF farmers newly signed RTCHF contracts. By 2010, RTCHF's food clubs numbered about 80, each commonly having about 100 to 200 members, and a few having over a 1000 members. Nearing 2010, federal government began pressuring state governments to enforce laws against raw milk. A dragnet against farmers and club managers connected to Vonderplanitz unfolded. Vonderplanitz's attempts to defend them drew mixed results. In April 2011, the FDA filed in federal court against Amish farmer Daniel Allgyer of Pennsylvania. Unable to reach Vonderplanitz, who was traveling abroad as nutritionist, Allgyer dropped Vonderplanitz's RTCHF the next month and hired Karl Dahlstrom's ProAdvocate Group. Against Allyger's resistance, Vonderplanitz filed a motion to intercede, but the judge denied it, excluding Vondeplanitz from the case, and added that Vonderplanitz's arguments about health and rights were irrelevant to whether Allgyer were guilty of interstate commerce of unpasteurized dairy. In February 2012, ruling against Allgyer, the judge called it "a cow share" that was "merely a subterfuge". Yet in the Wisconsin state trial of farmer Vernon Hershberger, Vonderplanitz participated and claimed victory in May 2013. The preeminent food club linked to Vonderplanitz's Right to Choose Healthy Food was the Rawesome food club, known for exotic raw foods, and thriving, drawing celebrity clientele, in Venice, Los Angeles. In 2001, James Stewart had founded a private food club, "The Garage". By 2003, it evolved into Rawesome, which Vonderplanitz wrote the contract for, invested in, and steered clients to. In 2005, regulators tried to restrict Rawesome, but Vonderplanitz wrote the response and persuaded Stewart to resist. The government dropped the citation, Rawesome continued normal operation, and, over the next few years, this success drew Vonderplanitz renown for fending off regulators' legal threats. Yet in October 2010, Vonderplanitz would turn against Stewart, a conflict that divided the food club. Having long thought his body responding poorly to some of her products, Vonderplanitz suspected Healthy Family Farms' owner Sharon Palmer, one of Rawesome's main suppliers, of secretly outsourcing, of supplying meat not organic and not soy-free, and of providing contaminated eggs. Stewart stood by Palmer and kept carrying her products. Vonderplanitz and Palmer's main creditor, Rawesome member Larry Otting, then published a defamatory website, "Unhealthy Family Farms". In June 2010, an unnamed Palmer employee explained to a Ventura County Sheriff's detective and a Los Angeles County District Attorney's agent that Healthy Family Farms lacked the means to produce all of the food it was supplying. Later that month, on June 30, but via investigation since 2008, regulators raided Rawesome. Two days after that June 2010 raid on Rawesome, Vonderplanitz sent from Asia a group email alleging that "government agents trespassed and kidnapped volunteers and members for the entire time that they seized the property, about five hours", and that "they stole, under the term confiscate, thousands of dollars worth of members' FOOD that was private property". Referring to Vonderplanitz's "online notices", a Los Angeles County District Attorney agent, arguing to protect the investigation and to conceal identifies of undercover agents, whose "lives and safety would be put into jeopardy", got a Los Angeles Superior Court judge to seal the investigation's documents. The Los Angeles District Attorney's

Aajonus Vonderplanitz

O r i g i n a l l y n a m e d J o h n R i c h a r d S w i g a r t , a n d b o r n i n D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s p e n t m o s t o f c h i l d h o o d a n d a d o l e s c e n c e i n t h e C i n c i n n a t i s u b u r b F i n n e y t o w n , O h i o . H e d e s c r i b e d h a v i n g b e e n a s i c k l y c h i l d m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d a b u s e d . H i s b r o t h e r , a c o u p l e o f y e a r s e l d e r , a l l e g e d l y r e s e n t f u l a t l o s s o f m a t e r n a l a t t e n t i o n , " t o r t u r e d m e n e a r l y d a i l y " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z e x p l a i n e d . B e i n g " d y s l e x i c " a n d " b o r d e r l i n e a u t i s t i c " , c o n d i t i o n s " w h i c h n o o n e u n d e r s t o o d a t t h e t i m e " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z " r a r e l y p l a y e d w i t h o t h e r c h i l d r e n " , a n d " e m b a r r a s s e d a n d f r u s t r a t e d m y p a r e n t s " , f u e l i n g p a t e r n a l " d i s c i p l i n e " t h a t l e d t o s e v e r a l h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d . I n a n o t h e r h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n n e a r h i s 1 0 t h b i r t h d a y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a l l e g e d p e r i t o n i t i s w a s m i s d i a g n o s e d a p p e n d i c i t i s , w h e r e u p o n h i s a p p e n d i x , d i s c o v e r e d f i n e , w a s r e m o v e d a n y w a y , h e r e c o u n t e d . H e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s b o n e s w e r e b r i t t l e , h e " r e g u l a r l y " b r e a k i n g l i m b b o n e s , a n d a t a g e 1 5 w a s d i a g n o s e d w i t h " j u v e n i l e d i a b e t e s " . V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i r s t r e c e i v e d f a m i l y a n d c o m m u n i t y s u p p o r t , h e r e c a l l e d , o n c e h e f o u n d h i s f i r s t g i r l f r i e n d i n h i s j u n i o r y e a r a t F i n n e y t o w n H i g h S c h o o l . A t a g e 1 7 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m a r r i e d h e r , a r e c e n t s c h o o l m a t e o n e y e a r e l d e r , w h o b o r e h i s o n l y c h i l d , a s o n , i n h i s s e n i o r y e a r . O n c e h e g r a d u a t e d , t h e n e w f a m i l y m o v e d e l s e w h e r e n e a r C i n c i n n a t i . T h e y r e n t i n g a s m a l l a p a r t m e n t a t a b u s i n e s s i n t e r s e c t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s w i f e w o r k e d a s a u t i l i t y - c o m p a n y s e c r e t a r y , a n d h e a s a s h o r t - o r d e r c o o k a l s o a t t e n d i n g t h e C i n c i n n a t i I n s t i t u t e o f C o m p u t e r T e c h n o l o g y . T h e i r s o n ' s s e v e r e c o l i c , h e r p o s t p a r t u m m o o d p r o b l e m s , a n d h i s o w n c o n f u s i o n s a n d m o o d p r o b l e m s e n d e d t h e i r p r i o r b l i s s . H e i n c r e a s i n g l y d r a n k w i t h f r i e n d s , a n d e n t e r e d a n e x t r a m a r i t a l a f f a i r w i t h a f e m a l e i n s t r u c t o r a t h i s t r a d e s c h o o l . D i v o r c e d a t 1 9 , h e m o v e d t o L o s A n g e l e s f o r w o r k i n c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g . A l t h o u g h h e s e e m i n g l y n e v e r r e m a r r i e d , h i s o w n a n d o t h e r p e r s o n s ' a n e c d o t e s a b o u t h i m i n v o l v e s e v e r a l g i r l f r i e n d s t h r o u g h o u t h i s l a t e r l i f e . O n m o v i n g t o L o s A n g e l e s , f e e l i n g d i r e c t i o n l e s s a n d d i s t r e s s e d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n t i n u e d h e a v y d r i n k i n g . S t i l l a g e d 1 9 , h e d e v e l o p e d a s t o m a c h u l c e r , w h o s e s u r g i c a l t r e a t m e n t c a u s e d a k e l o i d a l s c a r i n t u r n t r e a t e d b y r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y t h a t t h e n c a u s e d m u l t i p l e m y e l o m a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d . O n c e c h e m o t h e r a p y c a u s e d f u r t h e r i l l n e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g p s o r i a s i s , b u r s i t i s , a n d s e v e r e p e r i o d o n t i t i s , h e d i s c o n t i n u e d t r e a t m e n t o f h i s t e r m i n a l c a n c e r , b u t a h o s p i c e w o r k e r , p a y i n g h i m v o l u n t e e r h o m e v i s i t s , g a v e h i m a s m a l l b o o k o n c a n c e r t r e a t m e n t b y r a w c a r r o t j u i c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . W i t h i n 1 0 d a y s , t h e r e g i m e n e n d e d h i s a l l e g e d d y s l e x i a , a n d s o o n t h e r e a f t e r p u t h i s c a n c e r i n r e m i s s i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . A t a g e 2 2 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z b e g a n p r o m o t i n g h i m s e l f a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . A t a b o u t a g e 2 3 , t h e s t i l l J o h n S w i g a r t m e t a g i r l t o d d l e r w h o r e n a m e d h i m A a j o n u s . D i s l i k i n g h i s g i v e n n a m e , a r e m i n d e r o f i l l n e s s a n d m i s t r e a t m e n t , h e a c c e p t e d t h e r e n a m i n g , a n d l a t e r t o o k h i s E u r o p e a n a n c e s t o r s ' l a s t n a m e V o n d e r p l a n i t z . H e w o u l d a t t r i b u t e h i s h e a l t h g a i n s o v e r t h e n e x t t w o y e a r s m o s t l y t o r a w j u i c e s a n d r a w d a i r y . B y a g e 2 5 , e l i m i n a t i n g r a w d a i r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a d o p t e d r a w v e g a n i s m . A t a g e 2 7 , s e e k i n g h e a l t h a n s w e r s , h e r e p u t e d l y s o j o u r n e d b y b i c y c l e , w h i l e h e " l i v e d o f f t h e e a r t h " , a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a . N e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , h e r e t u r n e d t o L o s A n g e l e s t e l l i n g o f a s e e m i n g l y i m p l a u s i b l e h e a l t h a n s w e r : e a t i n g r a w m e a t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m a d i v e r s e r é s u m é , p a r t l y s i n c e b y a g e 4 0 , h e s t i l l h a d m a r g i n a l i n c o m e a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . H e r e c a l l e d e t h i c a l l y r e f u s i n g $ 7 . 5 m i l l i o n t o b e m a d e , i n 1 9 7 1 , t h e W i n s t o n M a n f o r s e v e n y e a r s , a n d , i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , w h i l e e a r n i n g i n c o m e p a i n t i n g m u r a l s a n d s u c h i n s i d e h o m e s , s o m e a c t i n g o n t h e s o a p o p e r a " G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l " . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e c r e a t e d a b r i e f d i e t , d a m a g i n g w i t h i n a f e w d a y s t o w e e k s , f o r a c l i e n t d e m a n d i n g q u i c k w e i g h t l o s s , b u t w h o a l l e g e d l y p u b l i s h e d i t f o r p r o f i t a s t h e B e v e r l y H i l l s D i e t . U p o n o v e r t u r n i n g a t r a f f i c t i c k e t a t a g e 2 2 , h e s o u g h t t o d e v e l o p l e g a l e x p e r t i s e b y p r i v a t e s t u d y . A f t e r 2 0 0 0 , h e w r o t e b u s i n e s s c o n t r a c t s a n d l e g a l r e s p o n s e s f o r f a r m e r s . I n h i s l a t e s t y e a r s , o w n i n g a f a r m i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a n d a n o t h e r i n a r e m o t e a r e a o f T h a i l a n d , n e a r i t s n o r t h e r n b o r d e r w i t h L a o s , h e s p e n t m u c h t i m e a t h i s T h a i l a n d f a r m . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t u t e l a g e b y a S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n u t r i t i o n i s t n a m e d B r u n o C o r i g l i a n o f o l l o w e d b y n e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s o f b i c y c l e t r a v e l a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a , i n h i s l a t e 2 0 s , w h i l e s t u d y i n g b i o l o g y a n d m e d i c a l t e x t b o o k s , N a t i v e A m e r i c a n i n d i g e n o u s h e a l t h c a r e , a n d w i l d l i f e h a b i t s . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e d i s c o v e r e d r a w m e a t ' s p u t a t i v e h e a l i n g c a p a c i t y w h e n f a s t i n g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , w h e r e a p a c k o f c o y o t e s k i l l e d , t o r e o p e n , a n d o f f e r e d h i m a j a c k r a b b i t , t h e n w a t c h e d h i m u n t i l h e a t e i t . I n h i s e a r l y 2 0 s , a m o n g t h e o u t d o o r p u r v e y o r s a t V e n i c e B e a c h , h e s e t u p a t a b l e w i t h t h e b a n n e r " N U T R I T I O N I S T " , a n d b e g a n c o u n s e l i n g i n a r a w - f o o d n i c h e . I n h i n d s i g h t , h e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s a d v i c e h a d b e e n o f t e n i n e f f e c t i v e , a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n h a r m f u l , u n t i l h e i n c l u d e d r a w m e a t . A t p e r h a p s a g e 3 0 , h e b e c a m e a s t a f f n u t r i t i o n i s t , a d v i s i n g c u s t o m e r s , a t a h e a l t h f o o d s t o r e , A u n t T i l l y ' s T o o . A l t h o u g h n o t i n h i s 1 9 9 7 b o o k , h e u s e d t h e t i t l e P h D , s p e c i f y i n g n u t r i t i o n a l s c i e n c e , i n a 2 0 0 1 r e s e a r c h r e p o r t o n m i l k , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I M D , a n d t h e r e a f t e r . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e w a s r e p o r t e d t o l a c k a c c r e d i t e d s c i e n t i f i c o r m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g . I n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 8 6 , a t a g e 3 9 , l i v i n g i n a B e v e r l y H i l l s " s l u m " w h i l e f r e e l a n c i n g i n n u t r i t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e t u r n e d t o C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o . T h e r e , h i s o n l y c h i l d , h i s s o n , e s t r a n g e d f o r a b o u t 2 0 y e a r s , h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n i n a s e v e r e c a r w r e c k , d r i v i n g , w i t h o u t a s e a t b e l t o n , s t r a i g h t i n t o a t r e e . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o h a v e s a b o t a g e d h i s s o n ' s c o n v e n t i o n a l m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t , i n M e r c y H o s p i t a l ' s i n t e n s i v e - c a r e u n i t , a n d u s e d r a w f o o d s t o a w a k e n a n d r e t r i e v e h i s c o m a t o s e s o n f r o m i m m i n e n t d e a t h , a n d t o r e v e r s e h i s p a r a l y s i s a n d b r a i n d a m a g e . T e n y e a r s a f t e r h i s s o n ' s r e c o v e r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d t h e t a l e i n h i s f i r s t b o o k , " W e W a n t t o L i v e " , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 9 7 a n d r e v i s e d i n 2 0 0 5 . U p o n t h e 1 9 9 7 r e l e a s e o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s f i r s t b o o k , R o b e r t A t k i n s i n t e r v i e w e d h i m , b a s e d b y t h e n i n M a l i b u , o n A t k i n s ' s n a t i o n a l l y s y n d i c a t e d r a d i o s h o w . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d c l a i m e d t h a t h i s o w n p r o t o c o l h a d c u r e d o v e r 2 0 0 c l i e n t s o f c a n c e r . I n 2 0 0 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z t r a d e m a r k e d t h e n a m e " P r i m a l D i e t " . U n l i k e l a t e r d i e t s c a l l e d " p r i m a l " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t p r i n c i p a l l y i n c l u d e s r a w m e a t , r a w e g g s , r a w d a i r y , r a w f a t s , a n d u n h e a t e d h o n e y . I n 2 0 0 2 , h i s o t h e r b o o k , t h e " R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " , w a s p u b l i s h e d . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , h e w a s s t i l l c l a i m i n g o v e r 9 0 % r a t e o f c a n c e r r e m i s s i o n a m o n g h i s c l i e n t s c l o s e l y h e e d i n g i t . D e s p i t e m a i n s t r e a m d i s m i s s a l , h i s P r i m a l D i e t g a i n e d a s i z a b l e , i f u n d e r g r o u n d , f o l l o w i n g . A l t h o u g h V o n d e r p l a n i t z d a t e d i t t o t h e 1 9 7 0 s , h i s f o o d - r i g h t s c a m p a i g n m o r e c l e a r l y b e g a n n e a r i n g 2 0 0 0 . I n t o 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d a n a l l y , J a m e s S t e w a r t , w e r e t h e r a w - m i l k m o v e m e n t ' s d e f a c t o l e a d e r s . I n 1 9 9 7 o r 1 9 9 8 , V e n i c e r e s i d e n t J a m e s S t e w a r t , i n p o o r h e a l t h , d i s c o v e r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t . B y 2 0 0 0 , S t e w a r t w a s a s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a d i s t r i b u t o r o f r a w m i l k f o r C l a r a v a l e F a r m , w h i c h h a d o n l y e i g h t c o w s , b u t w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y f a r m s t i l l l i c e n s e d t o s u p p l y u n p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o r e t a i l s t o r e s . W h i l e C l a r a v a l e F a r m a d d e d c o w s f o r S t e w a r t ' s d i s t r i b u t i o n r e a c h i n g 3 0 s t o r e s i n f o u r c o u n t i e s — O r a n g e , V e n t u r a , S a n D i e g o , a n d L o s A n g e l e s — o n e c o u n t y , L o s A n g e l e s , w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y w h e r e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s i l l e g a l . B y 2 0 0 1 , L . A . c o u n t y ' s r e g u l a t o r s w e r e p u l l i n g S t e w a r t ' s p l a c e d m i l k f r o m s t o r e s , y e t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c a m p a i g n t o l e g a l i z e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s c u l m i n a t i n g . I n 2 0 0 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d r e w S t e w a r t t o h e l p d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d p r o t e s t s , a l t h o u g h i n i t i a l t u r n o u t w a s m i n u s c u l e . L a t e r i n 2 0 0 1 , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I , a n d s u b m i t t e d t o t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s r e p o r t o n r a w m i l k , a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g t h r e a t o f l e g a l a c t i o n , g o t t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s t o e n d t h e b a n o n r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e . H i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d , t h e h e a r i n g s f u e l e d c o n s u m e r d e m a n d f o r u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . C l a r a v a l e F a r m ' s s u p p l y v i a S t e w a r t i n s u f f i c i e n t , s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a r e s i d e n t s w o u l d t r a v e l n o r t h t o b u y r a w m i l k a t t h e M c A f e e b r o t h e r s ' f a r m , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s D a i r y C o m p a n y . I n e a r l y 2 0 0 0 , t h e M c A f e e s ' f a r m h a d s w i t c h e d t o o r g a n i c , b u t t h e i r O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s s t i l l s o l d i t s m i l k w h o l e s a l e t o O r g a n i c V a l l e y , w h i c h i n t u r n s u p p l i e d o n l y p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o s t o r e s . U p o n v i s i t s b y s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n c u s t o m e r s , t h e M c A f e e s ' O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s o b t a i n e d a p e r m i t t o s e l l r a w d a i r y r e t a i l . D u r i n g 2 0 0 1 , M a r k M c A f e e c o n t a c t e d S t e w a r t , w h o t h e n r e c r u i t e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z i n v e s t e d $ 1 5 0 0 0 , a n d w i t h S t e w a r t r e c r u i t e d o t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g r e a l - e s t a t e e x e c u t i v e L a r r y O t t i n g , w h o i n v e s t e d $ 1 7 0 0 0 , a n d O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b e g a n s u p p l y i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y r e t a i l . T h e v o l u m e a l l o w e d S t e w a r t , d e s p i t e d r o p p i n g C l a r a v a l e ' s m i l k , t o r e a c h 8 9 s t o r e s . Y e t i n 2 0 0 4 , a s t h e n a t i o n ' s l a r g e s t u n p a s t e u r i z e d s u p p l i e r , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b r o u g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n - h o u s e , e l i m i n a t i n g S t e w a r t . S t e w a r t t h e n f o c u s e d o n g r o w i n g h i s p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , R a w e s o m e . R a w e s o m e w o u l d k e e p S t e w a r t a n d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r a w - d a i r y m o v e m e n t u n t i l R a w e s o m e ' s c o n t r o v e r s i a l c l o s u r e v i a g o v e r n m e n t r a i d i n 2 0 1 1 . I n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o r m e d t h e n o t - f o r - p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d ( R T C H F ) . R T C H F , d e c l a r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z , " w i l l c o m b a t a n y l e g i s l a t i o n b a n n i n g p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o c h o o s e r a w f o o d " . Y e t R T C H F a p p a r e n t l y f o c u s e d o n r a w d a i r y . I n t h i s a g e n d a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z o r i g i n a t e d t h e " a n i m a l - l e a s i n g " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , w h o s e m e m b e r s a r e a l s o R T C H F m e m b e r s , c o n t r a c t s a f a r m e r t o p r o d u c e s o l e l y f o r t h a t f o o d c l u b . A s p r e s i d e n t o f R T C H F , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e d i a t e d t h e s e a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s i n m u l t i p l e s t a t e s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e a n w h i l e c r i t i c i z e d t h e " h e r d s h a r e " o r " c o w s h a r e " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a c o n s u m e r b u y s " s h a r e s " , t h u s " p a r t i a l l y o w n s " t h e c a t t l e , a n d t h e n b u y s d a i r y d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e f a r m e r , w h o m a y s t i l l s e l l t o n o n s h a r e h o l d e r s , t o o . P a r t l y b y w r i t i n g l e g a l d o c u m e n t s f o r f a r m e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s d e s p i t e n o t b e i n g a n a t t o r n e y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d i s c o m f i t e d t h e F a r m - t o - C o n s u m e r L e g a l D e f e n s e F u n d ( F T C L D F ) . O p e r a t e d b y a t t o r n e y s , t h e F T C L D F a l s o e n d o r s e d t h e h e r d s h a r e m o d e l , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o l a c k p r e c e d e n t , a s s h a r e h o l d i n g c a n e n t i t l e o n e t o p r o f i t s w i t h o u t a n y o w n e r s h i p o f p r o p e r t y , w h e r e a s l e a s i n g h e l d l o n g p r e c e d e n t o f f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y m a t c h i n g o w n e r s h i p , a r g u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s b e i n g n o t a l a w y e r a p p e a l e d t o A m i s h f a r m e r s , h o w e v e r , w h o t r a d i t i o n a l l y a v o i d e d t a k i n g l e g a l a c t i o n s . B y 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s l e g a l r e s p o n s e s w e r e w e l l k n o w n f o r e n d i n g r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s a g a i n s t R T C H F ' s f a r m e r s . O n c e s o t h r e a t e n e d , s o m e n o n - R T C H F f a r m e r s n e w l y s i g n e d R T C H F c o n t r a c t s . B y 2 0 1 0 , R T C H F ' s f o o d c l u b s n u m b e r e d a b o u t 8 0 , e a c h c o m m o n l y h a v i n g a b o u t 1 0 0 t o 2 0 0 m e m b e r s , a n d a f e w h a v i n g o v e r a 1 0 0 0 m e m b e r s . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n p r e s s u r i n g s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s t o e n f o r c e l a w s a g a i n s t r a w m i l k . A d r a g n e t a g a i n s t f a r m e r s a n d c l u b m a n a g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z u n f o l d e d . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a t t e m p t s t o d e f e n d t h e m d r e w m i x e d r e s u l t s . I n A p r i l 2 0 1 1 , t h e F D A f i l e d i n f e d e r a l c o u r t a g a i n s t A m i s h f a r m e r D a n i e l A l l g y e r o f P e n n s y l v a n i a . U n a b l e t o r e a c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z , w h o w a s t r a v e l i n g a b r o a d a s n u t r i t i o n i s t , A l l g y e r d r o p p e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R T C H F t h e n e x t m o n t h a n d h i r e d K a r l D a h l s t r o m ' s P r o A d v o c a t e G r o u p . A g a i n s t A l l y g e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i l e d a m o t i o n t o i n t e r c e d e , b u t t h e j u d g e d e n i e d i t , e x c l u d i n g V o n d e p l a n i t z f r o m t h e c a s e , a n d a d d e d t h a t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a r g u m e n t s a b o u t h e a l t h a n d r i g h t s w e r e i r r e l e v a n t t o w h e t h e r A l l g y e r w e r e g u i l t y o f i n t e r s t a t e c o m m e r c e o f u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 2 , r u l i n g a g a i n s t A l l g y e r , t h e j u d g e c a l l e d i t " a c o w s h a r e " t h a t w a s " m e r e l y a s u b t e r f u g e " . Y e t i n t h e W i s c o n s i n s t a t e t r i a l o f f a r m e r V e r n o n H e r s h b e r g e r , V o n d e r p l a n i t z p a r t i c i p a t e d a n d c l a i m e d v i c t o r y i n M a y 2 0 1 3 . T h e p r e e m i n e n t f o o d c l u b l i n k e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d w a s t h e R a w e s o m e f o o d c l u b , k n o w n f o r e x o t i c r a w f o o d s , a n d t h r i v i n g , d r a w i n g c e l e b r i t y c l i e n t e l e , i n V e n i c e , L o s A n g e l e s . I n 2 0 0 1 , J a m e s S t e w a r t h a d f o u n d e d a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , " T h e G a r a g e " . B y 2 0 0 3 , i t e v o l v e d i n t o R a w e s o m e , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e c o n t r a c t f o r , i n v e s t e d i n , a n d s t e e r e d c l i e n t s t o . I n 2 0 0 5 , r e g u l a t o r s t r i e d t o r e s t r i c t R a w e s o m e , b u t V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e r e s p o n s e a n d p e r s u a d e d S t e w a r t t o r e s i s t . T h e g o v e r n m e n t d r o p p e d t h e c i t a t i o n , R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d , o v e r t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s , t h i s s u c c e s s d r e w V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e n o w n f o r f e n d i n g o f f r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s . Y e t i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d t u r n a g a i n s t S t e w a r t , a c o n f l i c t t h a t d i v i d e d t h e f o o d c l u b . H a v i n g l o n g t h o u g h t h i s b o d y r e s p o n d i n g p o o r l y t o s o m e o f h e r p r o d u c t s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s u s p e c t e d H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s ' o w n e r S h a r o n P a l m e r , o n e o f R a w e s o m e ' s m a i n s u p p l i e r s , o f s e c r e t l y o u t s o u r c i n g , o f s u p p l y i n g m e a t n o t o r g a n i c a n d n o t s o y - f r e e , a n d o f p r o v i d i n g c o n t a m i n a t e d e g g s . S t e w a r t s t o o d b y P a l m e r a n d k e p t c a r r y i n g h e r p r o d u c t s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d P a l m e r ' s m a i n c r e d i t o r , R a w e s o m e m e m b e r L a r r y O t t i n g , t h e n p u b l i s h e d a d e f a m a t o r y w e b s i t e , " U n h e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s " . I n J u n e 2 0 1 0 , a n u n n a m e d P a l m e r e m p l o y e e e x p l a i n e d t o a V e n t u r a C o u n t y S h e r i f f ' s d e t e c t i v e a n d a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s a g e n t t h a t H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s l a c k e d t h e m e a n s t o p r o d u c e a l l o f t h e f o o d i t w a s s u p p l y i n g . L a t e r t h a t m o n t h , o n J u n e 3 0 , b u t v i a i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n c e 2 0 0 8 , r e g u l a t o r s r a i d e d R a w e s o m e . T w o d a y s a f t e r t h a t J u n e 2 0 1 0 r a i d o n R a w e s o m e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s e n t f r o m A s i a a g r o u p e m a i l a l l e g i n g t h a t " g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s t r e s p a s s e d a n d k i d n a p p e d v o l u n t e e r s a n d m e m b e r s f o r t h e e n t i r e t i m e t h a t t h e y s e i z e d t h e p r o p e r t y , a b o u t f i v e h o u r s " , a n d t h a t " t h e y s t o l e , u n d e r t h e t e r m c o n f i s c a t e , t h o u s a n d s o f d o l l a r s w o r t h o f m e m b e r s ' F O O D t h a t w a s p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y " . R e f e r r i n g t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s " o n l i n e n o t i c e s " , a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y a g e n t , a r g u i n g t o p r o t e c t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d t o c o n c e a l i d e n t i f i e s o f u n d e r c o v e r a g e n t s , w h o s e " l i v e s a n d s a f e t y w o u l d b e p u t i n t o j e o p a r d y " , g o t a L o s A n g e l e s S u p e r i o r C o u r t j u d g e t o s e a l t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ' s d o c u m e n t s . T h e L o s A n g e l e s D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s o f f i c e a l s o b e g a n s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e e m a i l a c c o u n t s o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z , o f P a l m e r , a n d o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h . A l t h o u g h R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d e v e n d r e w s u p p o r t i n m a i n s t r e a m m e d i a , t h e r a i d i n t e n s i f i e d t h e S t e w a r t – V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n f l i c t , d i v i d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s m e m b e r s h i p a n d p o i s o n i n g R a w e s o m e ' s a t m o s p h e r e , w h e r e a c l o u d o f v a g u e c o n s p i r a c y t h e o r i e s r e a c h i n g g l o b a l p r o p o r t i o n s s e e m e d t o h o v e r . I n l a t e 2 0 1 0 , b u t t o n o a v a i l , V o n d e r p l a n i t z v i s i t e d V e n t u r a C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o s e e k P a l m e r ' s p r o s e c u t i o n f o r a l l e g e d l y d e f r a u d i n g R a w e s o m e . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g s u e d S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r f o r s o m e $ 2 0 m i l l i o n . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 1 , a u t h o r i t i e s a g a i n r a i d e d R a w e s o m e , b u t t h i s t i m e c l o s e d i t , a r r e s t e d S t e w a r t , a n d , e l s e w h e r e , a r r e s t e d P a l m e r f o r c r i m i n a l c o n s p i r a c y i n i l l e g a l l y p r o d u c i n g a n d s e l l i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . A l s o a r r e s t e d w a s P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h , c h a r g e d s i m i l a r l y . A l t h o u g h c l a i m i n g c r e d i t f o r b u i l d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s s u c c e s s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o u n d h i m s e l f m a r g i n a l i z e d b y R a w e s o m e ' s s u p p o r t e r s d e m o n s t r a t i n g p u b l i c l y . F u r t h e r , o u t s i d e t h e c o u r t h o u s e a t s u c h a d e m o n s t r a t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z , t r y i n g t o a n s w e r i n t e r e s t e d n e w s m e d i a , c o n c l u d e d h i m s e l f b l a c k l i s t e d f r o m n e w s g a t h e r i n g . I n 2 0 1 2 , S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r w e r e a r r e s t e d o n c r i m i n a l c h a r g e s a s t o f u n d i n g o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m , w h e r e b y t h e y a l l e g e d l y m i s l e d i n v e s t o r s a b o u t t h e i r o w n c r e d i t w o r t h i n e s s , a n d c o u l d e a c h f a c e 4 0 y e a r s i m p r i s o n m e n t . A f t e r f o u r m o n t h s o f j a i l , S t e w a r t t o o k a p l e a d e a l , p a i d a f i n e , g a v e u p R a w e s o m e ' s c a u s e , a n d b e g a n d i s t r i b u t i n g o l i v e o i l . B y J u l y 2 0 1 3 , t h e c i v i l s u i t ' s j u d g e h a d r e d u c e d t h e 3 0 c i v i l c h a r g e s t o t w o , P a l m e r h a d c o u n t e r s u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g , a n d t h e j u d g e o r d e r e d t h e p a r t i e s t o n e g o t i a t e a s e t t l e m e n t . B y t h e n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s s e e m i n g l y i r r a t i o n a l v e n d e t t a w a s i n f a m o u s , p a r t i a l l y b l a m e d f o r R a w e s o m e ' s d o w n f a l l . D e s p i t e h i s r o l e i n R a w e s o m e a n d t h e o t h e r a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t h e c o n t i n u e d a f t e r R a w e s o m e ' s d e b a c l e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d n e v e r b e p r o s e c u t e d . S t i l l , b y 2 0 1 0 , h e b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t h e t a r g e t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l o r p h a r m a c e u t i c a l c o n s p i r a c y t o n e u t r a l i z e h i m . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e h a d d e s c r i b e d t h e o n g o i n g f l u p a n d e m i c a s a h o a x m e d i a t e d b y f l u v a c c i n a t i o n . S o o n , h e a l l e g e d a p p a r e n t r e t r i b u t i o n b y i n v a d e r s o f h i s h o t e l r o o m i n T h a i l a n d f o r c i b l y g i v i n g h i m i n j e c t i o n s t h a t s e n t h i s " m e r c u r y , b a r i u m , a n d c h r o m i u m r e a d i n g s o f f t h e c h a r t s " , i m p a i r i n g h i s h e a l t h , c a u s i n g w e i g h t l o s s , a n d p r e m a t u r e l y a g i n g h i m . L a t e r , h e c l a i m e d t h a t o n a T h a i l a n d r o a d , h i s c a r ' s b r a k e s s u d d e n l y f a i l e d , c a u s i n g a p o t e n t i a l l y f a t a l c a r w r e c k t h a t h e l i k e w i s e a t t r i b u t e d t o a p l o t a g a i n s t h i s l i f e . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 , a t h i s f a r m i n T h a i l a n d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a p p a r e n t l y l e a n e d a g a i n s t h i s h o u s e ' s s e c o n d - s t o r y b a l c o n y r a i l , w h i c h p r o v e d f a u l t y , a l l o w i n g h i s f a l l t h a t b r o k e h i s s p i n e a n d p a r a l y z e d h i m . A t t h e h o s p i t a l , h e a c c e p t e d p a i n - k i l l i n g d r u g s , y e t r e f u s e d s u r g e r y t o r e p a i r i n t e r n a l b l e e d i n g . A f t e r a f e w d a y s , h e l o s t c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d d i e d . D e s p i t e r u m o r s o f c o n s p i r a c y , t w o o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c o l l e a g u e s d e s c r i b e d l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u g g e s t i n g a g e n u i n e a c c i d e n t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d a u t h o r e d t w o b o o k s : a m e m o i r r e t r a c i n g h i s p a t h t o a n d i n t r o d u c i n g t h e P r i m a l D i e t , " W e W a n t T o L i v e " ( 1 9 9 7 / 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d a f o l l o w - u p r e c i p e b o o k c i t i n g p u t a t i v e s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e , " T h e R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " ( 2 0 0 2 ) .

Rawesome food club

The text describes the life and work of Aajonus Vonderplanitz, a nutritionist and advocate for raw food and healthy eating. He developed the Primal Diet and wrote several books on nutrition and health. Vonderplanitz was involved in the raw milk movement and helped establish the Rawesome food club, which became a hub for raw dairy enthusiasts. He also founded the non-profit organization Right to Choose Healthy Food (RTCHF), which aimed to promote access to raw food and challenge regulations restricting its sale. Vonderplanitz was known for his unconventional approach to health and nutrition, and his advocacy for food freedom and individual choice.

and another in a remote area of Thailand, near its northern border with Laos, he spent much time at his Thailand farm. Vonderplanitz claimed tutelage by a Southern California nutritionist named Bruno Corigliano followed by nearly three years of bicycle travel across North America and into Latin America, in his late 20s, while studying biology and medical textbooks, Native American indigenous healthcare, and wildlife habits. He claimed to have discovered raw meat's putative healing capacity when fasting in the wilderness, where a pack of coyotes killed, tore open, and offered him a jackrabbit, then watched him until he ate it. In his early 20s, among the outdoor purveyors at Venice Beach, he set up a table with the banner "NUTRITIONIST", and began counseling in a raw-food niche. In honey. In 2002, his other book, the "Recipe for Living Without Disease", was published. Nearing 2010, he was still claiming over 90% rate of cancer remission among his clients closely heeding it. Despite mainstream dismissal, his Primal Diet gained a sizable, if underground, following. Although Vonderplanitz dated it to the 1970s, his food-rights campaign more clearly began nearing 2000. Into 2011, Vonderplanitz and an ally, James Stewart, were the raw-milk movement's de facto leaders. In 1997 or 1998, Venice resident James Stewart, in poor health, discovered Vonderplanitz's Primal Diet. By 2000, Stewart was a southern California distributor of raw milk for Claravale Farm, which had only eight cows, but was the state's only farm still licensed to supply unpasteurized milk to retail stores. While Claravale Farm added cows in-house, eliminating Stewart. Stewart then focused on growing his private food club, Rawesome. Rawesome would keep Stewart and Vonderplanitz at the center of the raw-dairy movement until Rawesome's controversial closure via government raid in 2011. In the late 1990s, Vonderplanitz formed the not-for-profit organization Right to Choose Healthy Food (RTCHF). RTCHF, declared Vonderplanitz, "will combat any legislation banning people's right to choose raw food". Yet RTCHF apparently focused on raw dairy. In this agenda, Vonderplanitz originated the "animal-leasing" model, whereby a private food club, whose members are also RTCHF members, contracts a farmer to produce solely for that food club. As president of RTCHF, Vonderplanitz mediated these animal-leasing arrangements in multiple states. Vonderplanitz meanwhile criticized the "herdshare" or "cowshare" model, whereby a consumer buys "shares", thus "partially owns" the cattle, and then buys dairy directly from the farmer, who may still sell to nonshareholders, too. Partly by writing legal documents for farmers and consumers despite not being an attorney, Vonderplanitz discomfited the Farm-to-Consumer Legal Defense Fund (FTCLDF). Operated by attorneys, the FTCLDF also endorsed the herdshare model, which Vonderplanitz claimed to lack precedent, as shareholding can entitle one to profits without any ownership of property, whereas leasing held long precedent of full responsibility matching ownership, argued Vonderplanitz. Vonderplanitz's being not a lawyer appealed to Amish farmers, however, who traditionally avoided taking legal actions. By 2010, Vonderplanitz's legal responses were well known for ending regulators' legal threats against RTCHF's farmers. Once so threatened, some non-RTCHF farmers newly signed RTCHF contracts. By 2010, RTCHF's food clubs numbered about 80, each commonly having about 100 to 200 members, and a few having over a 1000 members. Nearing 2010, federal government began pressuring state governments to enforce laws against raw milk. A dragnet against farmers and club managers connected to Vonderplanitz unfolded. Vonderplanitz's attempts to defend them drew mixed results. In April 2011, the FDA filed in federal court against Amish farmer Daniel Allgyer of Pennsylvania. Unable to reach Vonderplanitz, who was traveling abroad as nutritionist, Allgyer dropped Vonderplanitz's RTCHF the next month and hired Karl Dahlstrom's ProAdvocate Group. Against Allyger's resistance, Vonderplanitz filed a motion to intercede, but the judge denied it, excluding Vondeplanitz from the case, and added that Vonderplanitz's arguments about health and rights were irrelevant to whether Allgyer were guilty of interstate commerce of unpasteurized dairy. In February 2012, ruling against Allgyer, the judge called it "a cow share" that was "merely a subterfuge". Yet in the Wisconsin state trial of farmer Vernon Hershberger, Vonderplanitz participated and claimed victory in May 2013. The preeminent food club linked to Vonderplanitz's Right to Choose Healthy Food was the Rawesome food club, known for exotic raw foods, and thriving, drawing celebrity clientele, in Venice, Los Angeles. In 2001, James Stewart had founded a private food club, "The Garage". By 2003, it evolved into Rawesome, which Vonderplanitz wrote the contract for, invested in, and steered clients to. In 2005, regulators tried to restrict Rawesome, but Vonderplanitz wrote the response and persuaded Stewart to resist. The government dropped the citation, Rawesome continued normal operation, and, over the next few years, this success drew Vonderplanitz renown for fending off regulators' legal threats. Yet in October 2010, Vonderplanitz would turn against Stewart, a conflict that divided the food club. Having long thought his body responding poorly to some of her products, Vonderplanitz suspected Healthy Family Farms' owner Sharon Palmer, one of Rawesome's main suppliers, of secretly outsourcing, of supplying meat not organic and not soy-free, and of providing contaminated eggs. Stewart stood by Palmer and kept carrying her products. Vonderplanitz and Palmer's main creditor, Rawesome member Larry Otting, then published a defamatory website, "Unhealthy Family Farms". In June 2010, an unnamed Palmer employee explained to a Ventura County Sheriff's detective and a Los Angeles County District Attorney's agent that Healthy Family Farms lacked the means to produce all of the food it was supplying. Later that month, on June 30, but via investigation since 2008, regulators raided Rawesome. Two days after that June 2010 raid on Rawesome, Vonderplanitz sent from Asia a group email alleging that "government agents trespassed and kidnapped volunteers and members for the entire time that they seized the property, about five hours", and that "they stole, under the term confiscate, thousands of dollars worth of members' FOOD that was private property". Referring to Vonderplanitz's "online notices", a Los Angeles County District Attorney agent, arguing to protect the investigation and to conceal identifies of undercover agents, whose "lives and safety would be put into jeopardy", got a Los Angeles Superior Court judge to seal the investigation's documents. The Los Angeles District Attorney's

Aajonus Vonderplanitz

O r i g i n a l l y n a m e d J o h n R i c h a r d S w i g a r t , a n d b o r n i n D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s p e n t m o s t o f c h i l d h o o d a n d a d o l e s c e n c e i n t h e C i n c i n n a t i s u b u r b F i n n e y t o w n , O h i o . H e d e s c r i b e d h a v i n g b e e n a s i c k l y c h i l d m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d a b u s e d . H i s b r o t h e r , a c o u p l e o f y e a r s e l d e r , a l l e g e d l y r e s e n t f u l a t l o s s o f m a t e r n a l a t t e n t i o n , " t o r t u r e d m e n e a r l y d a i l y " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z e x p l a i n e d . B e i n g " d y s l e x i c " a n d " b o r d e r l i n e a u t i s t i c " , c o n d i t i o n s " w h i c h n o o n e u n d e r s t o o d a t t h e t i m e " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z " r a r e l y p l a y e d w i t h o t h e r c h i l d r e n " , a n d " e m b a r r a s s e d a n d f r u s t r a t e d m y p a r e n t s " , f u e l i n g p a t e r n a l " d i s c i p l i n e " t h a t l e d t o s e v e r a l h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d . I n a n o t h e r h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n n e a r h i s 1 0 t h b i r t h d a y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a l l e g e d p e r i t o n i t i s w a s m i s d i a g n o s e d a p p e n d i c i t i s , w h e r e u p o n h i s a p p e n d i x , d i s c o v e r e d f i n e , w a s r e m o v e d a n y w a y , h e r e c o u n t e d . H e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s b o n e s w e r e b r i t t l e , h e " r e g u l a r l y " b r e a k i n g l i m b b o n e s , a n d a t a g e 1 5 w a s d i a g n o s e d w i t h " j u v e n i l e d i a b e t e s " . V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i r s t r e c e i v e d f a m i l y a n d c o m m u n i t y s u p p o r t , h e r e c a l l e d , o n c e h e f o u n d h i s f i r s t g i r l f r i e n d i n h i s j u n i o r y e a r a t F i n n e y t o w n H i g h S c h o o l . A t a g e 1 7 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m a r r i e d h e r , a r e c e n t s c h o o l m a t e o n e y e a r e l d e r , w h o b o r e h i s o n l y c h i l d , a s o n , i n h i s s e n i o r y e a r . O n c e h e g r a d u a t e d , t h e n e w f a m i l y m o v e d e l s e w h e r e n e a r C i n c i n n a t i . T h e y r e n t i n g a s m a l l a p a r t m e n t a t a b u s i n e s s i n t e r s e c t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s w i f e w o r k e d a s a u t i l i t y - c o m p a n y s e c r e t a r y , a n d h e a s a s h o r t - o r d e r c o o k a l s o a t t e n d i n g t h e C i n c i n n a t i I n s t i t u t e o f C o m p u t e r T e c h n o l o g y . T h e i r s o n ' s s e v e r e c o l i c , h e r p o s t p a r t u m m o o d p r o b l e m s , a n d h i s o w n c o n f u s i o n s a n d m o o d p r o b l e m s e n d e d t h e i r p r i o r b l i s s . H e i n c r e a s i n g l y d r a n k w i t h f r i e n d s , a n d e n t e r e d a n e x t r a m a r i t a l a f f a i r w i t h a f e m a l e i n s t r u c t o r a t h i s t r a d e s c h o o l . D i v o r c e d a t 1 9 , h e m o v e d t o L o s A n g e l e s f o r w o r k i n c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g . A l t h o u g h h e s e e m i n g l y n e v e r r e m a r r i e d , h i s o w n a n d o t h e r p e r s o n s ' a n e c d o t e s a b o u t h i m i n v o l v e s e v e r a l g i r l f r i e n d s t h r o u g h o u t h i s l a t e r l i f e . O n m o v i n g t o L o s A n g e l e s , f e e l i n g d i r e c t i o n l e s s a n d d i s t r e s s e d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n t i n u e d h e a v y d r i n k i n g . S t i l l a g e d 1 9 , h e d e v e l o p e d a s t o m a c h u l c e r , w h o s e s u r g i c a l t r e a t m e n t c a u s e d a k e l o i d a l s c a r i n t u r n t r e a t e d b y r a d i a t i o n t h e r a p y t h a t t h e n c a u s e d m u l t i p l e m y e l o m a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d . O n c e c h e m o t h e r a p y c a u s e d f u r t h e r i l l n e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g p s o r i a s i s , b u r s i t i s , a n d s e v e r e p e r i o d o n t i t i s , h e d i s c o n t i n u e d t r e a t m e n t o f h i s t e r m i n a l c a n c e r , b u t a h o s p i c e w o r k e r , p a y i n g h i m v o l u n t e e r h o m e v i s i t s , g a v e h i m a s m a l l b o o k o n c a n c e r t r e a t m e n t b y r a w c a r r o t j u i c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . W i t h i n 1 0 d a y s , t h e r e g i m e n e n d e d h i s a l l e g e d d y s l e x i a , a n d s o o n t h e r e a f t e r p u t h i s c a n c e r i n r e m i s s i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m . A t a g e 2 2 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z b e g a n p r o m o t i n g h i m s e l f a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . A t a b o u t a g e 2 3 , t h e s t i l l J o h n S w i g a r t m e t a g i r l t o d d l e r w h o r e n a m e d h i m A a j o n u s . D i s l i k i n g h i s g i v e n n a m e , a r e m i n d e r o f i l l n e s s a n d m i s t r e a t m e n t , h e a c c e p t e d t h e r e n a m i n g , a n d l a t e r t o o k h i s E u r o p e a n a n c e s t o r s ' l a s t n a m e V o n d e r p l a n i t z . H e w o u l d a t t r i b u t e h i s h e a l t h g a i n s o v e r t h e n e x t t w o y e a r s m o s t l y t o r a w j u i c e s a n d r a w d a i r y . B y a g e 2 5 , e l i m i n a t i n g r a w d a i r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a d o p t e d r a w v e g a n i s m . A t a g e 2 7 , s e e k i n g h e a l t h a n s w e r s , h e r e p u t e d l y s o j o u r n e d b y b i c y c l e , w h i l e h e " l i v e d o f f t h e e a r t h " , a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a . N e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , h e r e t u r n e d t o L o s A n g e l e s t e l l i n g o f a s e e m i n g l y i m p l a u s i b l e h e a l t h a n s w e r : e a t i n g r a w m e a t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d c l a i m a d i v e r s e r é s u m é , p a r t l y s i n c e b y a g e 4 0 , h e s t i l l h a d m a r g i n a l i n c o m e a s a n u t r i t i o n i s t . H e r e c a l l e d e t h i c a l l y r e f u s i n g $ 7 . 5 m i l l i o n t o b e m a d e , i n 1 9 7 1 , t h e W i n s t o n M a n f o r s e v e n y e a r s , a n d , i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , w h i l e e a r n i n g i n c o m e p a i n t i n g m u r a l s a n d s u c h i n s i d e h o m e s , s o m e a c t i n g o n t h e s o a p o p e r a " G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l " . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e c r e a t e d a b r i e f d i e t , d a m a g i n g w i t h i n a f e w d a y s t o w e e k s , f o r a c l i e n t d e m a n d i n g q u i c k w e i g h t l o s s , b u t w h o a l l e g e d l y p u b l i s h e d i t f o r p r o f i t a s t h e B e v e r l y H i l l s D i e t . U p o n o v e r t u r n i n g a t r a f f i c t i c k e t a t a g e 2 2 , h e s o u g h t t o d e v e l o p l e g a l e x p e r t i s e b y p r i v a t e s t u d y . A f t e r 2 0 0 0 , h e w r o t e b u s i n e s s c o n t r a c t s a n d l e g a l r e s p o n s e s f o r f a r m e r s . I n h i s l a t e s t y e a r s , o w n i n g a f a r m i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a n d a n o t h e r i n a r e m o t e a r e a o f T h a i l a n d , n e a r i t s n o r t h e r n b o r d e r w i t h L a o s , h e s p e n t m u c h t i m e a t h i s T h a i l a n d f a r m . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t u t e l a g e b y a S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n u t r i t i o n i s t n a m e d B r u n o C o r i g l i a n o f o l l o w e d b y n e a r l y t h r e e y e a r s o f b i c y c l e t r a v e l a c r o s s N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d i n t o L a t i n A m e r i c a , i n h i s l a t e 2 0 s , w h i l e s t u d y i n g b i o l o g y a n d m e d i c a l t e x t b o o k s , N a t i v e A m e r i c a n i n d i g e n o u s h e a l t h c a r e , a n d w i l d l i f e h a b i t s . H e c l a i m e d t o h a v e d i s c o v e r e d r a w m e a t ' s p u t a t i v e h e a l i n g c a p a c i t y w h e n f a s t i n g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , w h e r e a p a c k o f c o y o t e s k i l l e d , t o r e o p e n , a n d o f f e r e d h i m a j a c k r a b b i t , t h e n w a t c h e d h i m u n t i l h e a t e i t . I n h i s e a r l y 2 0 s , a m o n g t h e o u t d o o r p u r v e y o r s a t V e n i c e B e a c h , h e s e t u p a t a b l e w i t h t h e b a n n e r " N U T R I T I O N I S T " , a n d b e g a n c o u n s e l i n g i n a r a w - f o o d n i c h e . I n h i n d s i g h t , h e c l a i m e d t h a t h i s a d v i c e h a d b e e n o f t e n i n e f f e c t i v e , a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n h a r m f u l , u n t i l h e i n c l u d e d r a w m e a t . A t p e r h a p s a g e 3 0 , h e b e c a m e a s t a f f n u t r i t i o n i s t , a d v i s i n g c u s t o m e r s , a t a h e a l t h f o o d s t o r e , A u n t T i l l y ' s T o o . A l t h o u g h n o t i n h i s 1 9 9 7 b o o k , h e u s e d t h e t i t l e P h D , s p e c i f y i n g n u t r i t i o n a l s c i e n c e , i n a 2 0 0 1 r e s e a r c h r e p o r t o n m i l k , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I M D , a n d t h e r e a f t e r . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e w a s r e p o r t e d t o l a c k a c c r e d i t e d s c i e n t i f i c o r m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g . I n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 8 6 , a t a g e 3 9 , l i v i n g i n a B e v e r l y H i l l s " s l u m " w h i l e f r e e l a n c i n g i n n u t r i t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e t u r n e d t o C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o . T h e r e , h i s o n l y c h i l d , h i s s o n , e s t r a n g e d f o r a b o u t 2 0 y e a r s , h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n i n a s e v e r e c a r w r e c k , d r i v i n g , w i t h o u t a s e a t b e l t o n , s t r a i g h t i n t o a t r e e . V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o h a v e s a b o t a g e d h i s s o n ' s c o n v e n t i o n a l m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t , i n M e r c y H o s p i t a l ' s i n t e n s i v e - c a r e u n i t , a n d u s e d r a w f o o d s t o a w a k e n a n d r e t r i e v e h i s c o m a t o s e s o n f r o m i m m i n e n t d e a t h , a n d t o r e v e r s e h i s p a r a l y s i s a n d b r a i n d a m a g e . T e n y e a r s a f t e r h i s s o n ' s r e c o v e r y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e c o u n t e d t h e t a l e i n h i s f i r s t b o o k , " W e W a n t t o L i v e " , f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 9 7 a n d r e v i s e d i n 2 0 0 5 . U p o n t h e 1 9 9 7 r e l e a s e o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s f i r s t b o o k , R o b e r t A t k i n s i n t e r v i e w e d h i m , b a s e d b y t h e n i n M a l i b u , o n A t k i n s ' s n a t i o n a l l y s y n d i c a t e d r a d i o s h o w . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d c l a i m e d t h a t h i s o w n p r o t o c o l h a d c u r e d o v e r 2 0 0 c l i e n t s o f c a n c e r . I n 2 0 0 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z t r a d e m a r k e d t h e n a m e " P r i m a l D i e t " . U n l i k e l a t e r d i e t s c a l l e d " p r i m a l " , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t p r i n c i p a l l y i n c l u d e s r a w m e a t , r a w e g g s , r a w d a i r y , r a w f a t s , a n d u n h e a t e d h o n e y . I n 2 0 0 2 , h i s o t h e r b o o k , t h e " R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " , w a s p u b l i s h e d . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , h e w a s s t i l l c l a i m i n g o v e r 9 0 % r a t e o f c a n c e r r e m i s s i o n a m o n g h i s c l i e n t s c l o s e l y h e e d i n g i t . D e s p i t e m a i n s t r e a m d i s m i s s a l , h i s P r i m a l D i e t g a i n e d a s i z a b l e , i f u n d e r g r o u n d , f o l l o w i n g . A l t h o u g h V o n d e r p l a n i t z d a t e d i t t o t h e 1 9 7 0 s , h i s f o o d - r i g h t s c a m p a i g n m o r e c l e a r l y b e g a n n e a r i n g 2 0 0 0 . I n t o 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d a n a l l y , J a m e s S t e w a r t , w e r e t h e r a w - m i l k m o v e m e n t ' s d e f a c t o l e a d e r s . I n 1 9 9 7 o r 1 9 9 8 , V e n i c e r e s i d e n t J a m e s S t e w a r t , i n p o o r h e a l t h , d i s c o v e r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s P r i m a l D i e t . B y 2 0 0 0 , S t e w a r t w a s a s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a d i s t r i b u t o r o f r a w m i l k f o r C l a r a v a l e F a r m , w h i c h h a d o n l y e i g h t c o w s , b u t w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y f a r m s t i l l l i c e n s e d t o s u p p l y u n p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o r e t a i l s t o r e s . W h i l e C l a r a v a l e F a r m a d d e d c o w s f o r S t e w a r t ' s d i s t r i b u t i o n r e a c h i n g 3 0 s t o r e s i n f o u r c o u n t i e s — O r a n g e , V e n t u r a , S a n D i e g o , a n d L o s A n g e l e s — o n e c o u n t y , L o s A n g e l e s , w a s t h e s t a t e ' s o n l y w h e r e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s i l l e g a l . B y 2 0 0 1 , L . A . c o u n t y ' s r e g u l a t o r s w e r e p u l l i n g S t e w a r t ' s p l a c e d m i l k f r o m s t o r e s , y e t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c a m p a i g n t o l e g a l i z e r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e w a s c u l m i n a t i n g . I n 2 0 0 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d r e w S t e w a r t t o h e l p d e m o n s t r a t i o n s a n d p r o t e s t s , a l t h o u g h i n i t i a l t u r n o u t w a s m i n u s c u l e . L a t e r i n 2 0 0 1 , c o w r i t t e n w i t h W i l l i a m C a m p b e l l D o u g l a s s I I , a n d s u b m i t t e d t o t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s r e p o r t o n r a w m i l k , a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g t h r e a t o f l e g a l a c t i o n , g o t t h e c o u n t y ' s b o a r d o f s u p e r v i s o r s t o e n d t h e b a n o n r a w m i l k ' s r e t a i l s a l e . H i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d , t h e h e a r i n g s f u e l e d c o n s u m e r d e m a n d f o r u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . C l a r a v a l e F a r m ' s s u p p l y v i a S t e w a r t i n s u f f i c i e n t , s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a r e s i d e n t s w o u l d t r a v e l n o r t h t o b u y r a w m i l k a t t h e M c A f e e b r o t h e r s ' f a r m , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s D a i r y C o m p a n y . I n e a r l y 2 0 0 0 , t h e M c A f e e s ' f a r m h a d s w i t c h e d t o o r g a n i c , b u t t h e i r O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s s t i l l s o l d i t s m i l k w h o l e s a l e t o O r g a n i c V a l l e y , w h i c h i n t u r n s u p p l i e d o n l y p a s t e u r i z e d m i l k t o s t o r e s . U p o n v i s i t s b y s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a n c u s t o m e r s , t h e M c A f e e s ' O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s o b t a i n e d a p e r m i t t o s e l l r a w d a i r y r e t a i l . D u r i n g 2 0 0 1 , M a r k M c A f e e c o n t a c t e d S t e w a r t , w h o t h e n r e c r u i t e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z i n v e s t e d $ 1 5 0 0 0 , a n d w i t h S t e w a r t r e c r u i t e d o t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g r e a l - e s t a t e e x e c u t i v e L a r r y O t t i n g , w h o i n v e s t e d $ 1 7 0 0 0 , a n d O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b e g a n s u p p l y i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y r e t a i l . T h e v o l u m e a l l o w e d S t e w a r t , d e s p i t e d r o p p i n g C l a r a v a l e ' s m i l k , t o r e a c h 8 9 s t o r e s . Y e t i n 2 0 0 4 , a s t h e n a t i o n ' s l a r g e s t u n p a s t e u r i z e d s u p p l i e r , O r g a n i c P a s t u r e s b r o u g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n - h o u s e , e l i m i n a t i n g S t e w a r t . S t e w a r t t h e n f o c u s e d o n g r o w i n g h i s p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , R a w e s o m e . R a w e s o m e w o u l d k e e p S t e w a r t a n d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r a w - d a i r y m o v e m e n t u n t i l R a w e s o m e ' s c o n t r o v e r s i a l c l o s u r e v i a g o v e r n m e n t r a i d i n 2 0 1 1 . I n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o r m e d t h e n o t - f o r - p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d ( R T C H F ) . R T C H F , d e c l a r e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z , " w i l l c o m b a t a n y l e g i s l a t i o n b a n n i n g p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o c h o o s e r a w f o o d " . Y e t R T C H F a p p a r e n t l y f o c u s e d o n r a w d a i r y . I n t h i s a g e n d a , V o n d e r p l a n i t z o r i g i n a t e d t h e " a n i m a l - l e a s i n g " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , w h o s e m e m b e r s a r e a l s o R T C H F m e m b e r s , c o n t r a c t s a f a r m e r t o p r o d u c e s o l e l y f o r t h a t f o o d c l u b . A s p r e s i d e n t o f R T C H F , V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e d i a t e d t h e s e a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s i n m u l t i p l e s t a t e s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z m e a n w h i l e c r i t i c i z e d t h e " h e r d s h a r e " o r " c o w s h a r e " m o d e l , w h e r e b y a c o n s u m e r b u y s " s h a r e s " , t h u s " p a r t i a l l y o w n s " t h e c a t t l e , a n d t h e n b u y s d a i r y d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e f a r m e r , w h o m a y s t i l l s e l l t o n o n s h a r e h o l d e r s , t o o . P a r t l y b y w r i t i n g l e g a l d o c u m e n t s f o r f a r m e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s d e s p i t e n o t b e i n g a n a t t o r n e y , V o n d e r p l a n i t z d i s c o m f i t e d t h e F a r m - t o - C o n s u m e r L e g a l D e f e n s e F u n d ( F T C L D F ) . O p e r a t e d b y a t t o r n e y s , t h e F T C L D F a l s o e n d o r s e d t h e h e r d s h a r e m o d e l , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z c l a i m e d t o l a c k p r e c e d e n t , a s s h a r e h o l d i n g c a n e n t i t l e o n e t o p r o f i t s w i t h o u t a n y o w n e r s h i p o f p r o p e r t y , w h e r e a s l e a s i n g h e l d l o n g p r e c e d e n t o f f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y m a t c h i n g o w n e r s h i p , a r g u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s b e i n g n o t a l a w y e r a p p e a l e d t o A m i s h f a r m e r s , h o w e v e r , w h o t r a d i t i o n a l l y a v o i d e d t a k i n g l e g a l a c t i o n s . B y 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s l e g a l r e s p o n s e s w e r e w e l l k n o w n f o r e n d i n g r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s a g a i n s t R T C H F ' s f a r m e r s . O n c e s o t h r e a t e n e d , s o m e n o n - R T C H F f a r m e r s n e w l y s i g n e d R T C H F c o n t r a c t s . B y 2 0 1 0 , R T C H F ' s f o o d c l u b s n u m b e r e d a b o u t 8 0 , e a c h c o m m o n l y h a v i n g a b o u t 1 0 0 t o 2 0 0 m e m b e r s , a n d a f e w h a v i n g o v e r a 1 0 0 0 m e m b e r s . N e a r i n g 2 0 1 0 , f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n p r e s s u r i n g s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s t o e n f o r c e l a w s a g a i n s t r a w m i l k . A d r a g n e t a g a i n s t f a r m e r s a n d c l u b m a n a g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z u n f o l d e d . V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a t t e m p t s t o d e f e n d t h e m d r e w m i x e d r e s u l t s . I n A p r i l 2 0 1 1 , t h e F D A f i l e d i n f e d e r a l c o u r t a g a i n s t A m i s h f a r m e r D a n i e l A l l g y e r o f P e n n s y l v a n i a . U n a b l e t o r e a c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z , w h o w a s t r a v e l i n g a b r o a d a s n u t r i t i o n i s t , A l l g y e r d r o p p e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R T C H F t h e n e x t m o n t h a n d h i r e d K a r l D a h l s t r o m ' s P r o A d v o c a t e G r o u p . A g a i n s t A l l y g e r ' s r e s i s t a n c e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f i l e d a m o t i o n t o i n t e r c e d e , b u t t h e j u d g e d e n i e d i t , e x c l u d i n g V o n d e p l a n i t z f r o m t h e c a s e , a n d a d d e d t h a t V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s a r g u m e n t s a b o u t h e a l t h a n d r i g h t s w e r e i r r e l e v a n t t o w h e t h e r A l l g y e r w e r e g u i l t y o f i n t e r s t a t e c o m m e r c e o f u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 2 , r u l i n g a g a i n s t A l l g y e r , t h e j u d g e c a l l e d i t " a c o w s h a r e " t h a t w a s " m e r e l y a s u b t e r f u g e " . Y e t i n t h e W i s c o n s i n s t a t e t r i a l o f f a r m e r V e r n o n H e r s h b e r g e r , V o n d e r p l a n i t z p a r t i c i p a t e d a n d c l a i m e d v i c t o r y i n M a y 2 0 1 3 . T h e p r e e m i n e n t f o o d c l u b l i n k e d t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s R i g h t t o C h o o s e H e a l t h y F o o d w a s t h e R a w e s o m e f o o d c l u b , k n o w n f o r e x o t i c r a w f o o d s , a n d t h r i v i n g , d r a w i n g c e l e b r i t y c l i e n t e l e , i n V e n i c e , L o s A n g e l e s . I n 2 0 0 1 , J a m e s S t e w a r t h a d f o u n d e d a p r i v a t e f o o d c l u b , " T h e G a r a g e " . B y 2 0 0 3 , i t e v o l v e d i n t o R a w e s o m e , w h i c h V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e c o n t r a c t f o r , i n v e s t e d i n , a n d s t e e r e d c l i e n t s t o . I n 2 0 0 5 , r e g u l a t o r s t r i e d t o r e s t r i c t R a w e s o m e , b u t V o n d e r p l a n i t z w r o t e t h e r e s p o n s e a n d p e r s u a d e d S t e w a r t t o r e s i s t . T h e g o v e r n m e n t d r o p p e d t h e c i t a t i o n , R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d , o v e r t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s , t h i s s u c c e s s d r e w V o n d e r p l a n i t z r e n o w n f o r f e n d i n g o f f r e g u l a t o r s ' l e g a l t h r e a t s . Y e t i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 0 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d t u r n a g a i n s t S t e w a r t , a c o n f l i c t t h a t d i v i d e d t h e f o o d c l u b . H a v i n g l o n g t h o u g h t h i s b o d y r e s p o n d i n g p o o r l y t o s o m e o f h e r p r o d u c t s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s u s p e c t e d H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s ' o w n e r S h a r o n P a l m e r , o n e o f R a w e s o m e ' s m a i n s u p p l i e r s , o f s e c r e t l y o u t s o u r c i n g , o f s u p p l y i n g m e a t n o t o r g a n i c a n d n o t s o y - f r e e , a n d o f p r o v i d i n g c o n t a m i n a t e d e g g s . S t e w a r t s t o o d b y P a l m e r a n d k e p t c a r r y i n g h e r p r o d u c t s . V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d P a l m e r ' s m a i n c r e d i t o r , R a w e s o m e m e m b e r L a r r y O t t i n g , t h e n p u b l i s h e d a d e f a m a t o r y w e b s i t e , " U n h e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s " . I n J u n e 2 0 1 0 , a n u n n a m e d P a l m e r e m p l o y e e e x p l a i n e d t o a V e n t u r a C o u n t y S h e r i f f ' s d e t e c t i v e a n d a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s a g e n t t h a t H e a l t h y F a m i l y F a r m s l a c k e d t h e m e a n s t o p r o d u c e a l l o f t h e f o o d i t w a s s u p p l y i n g . L a t e r t h a t m o n t h , o n J u n e 3 0 , b u t v i a i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n c e 2 0 0 8 , r e g u l a t o r s r a i d e d R a w e s o m e . T w o d a y s a f t e r t h a t J u n e 2 0 1 0 r a i d o n R a w e s o m e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z s e n t f r o m A s i a a g r o u p e m a i l a l l e g i n g t h a t " g o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s t r e s p a s s e d a n d k i d n a p p e d v o l u n t e e r s a n d m e m b e r s f o r t h e e n t i r e t i m e t h a t t h e y s e i z e d t h e p r o p e r t y , a b o u t f i v e h o u r s " , a n d t h a t " t h e y s t o l e , u n d e r t h e t e r m c o n f i s c a t e , t h o u s a n d s o f d o l l a r s w o r t h o f m e m b e r s ' F O O D t h a t w a s p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y " . R e f e r r i n g t o V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s " o n l i n e n o t i c e s " , a L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y a g e n t , a r g u i n g t o p r o t e c t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d t o c o n c e a l i d e n t i f i e s o f u n d e r c o v e r a g e n t s , w h o s e " l i v e s a n d s a f e t y w o u l d b e p u t i n t o j e o p a r d y " , g o t a L o s A n g e l e s S u p e r i o r C o u r t j u d g e t o s e a l t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ' s d o c u m e n t s . T h e L o s A n g e l e s D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s o f f i c e a l s o b e g a n s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e e m a i l a c c o u n t s o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z , o f P a l m e r , a n d o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h . A l t h o u g h R a w e s o m e c o n t i n u e d n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n , a n d e v e n d r e w s u p p o r t i n m a i n s t r e a m m e d i a , t h e r a i d i n t e n s i f i e d t h e S t e w a r t – V o n d e r p l a n i t z c o n f l i c t , d i v i d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s m e m b e r s h i p a n d p o i s o n i n g R a w e s o m e ' s a t m o s p h e r e , w h e r e a c l o u d o f v a g u e c o n s p i r a c y t h e o r i e s r e a c h i n g g l o b a l p r o p o r t i o n s s e e m e d t o h o v e r . I n l a t e 2 0 1 0 , b u t t o n o a v a i l , V o n d e r p l a n i t z v i s i t e d V e n t u r a C o u n t y D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o s e e k P a l m e r ' s p r o s e c u t i o n f o r a l l e g e d l y d e f r a u d i n g R a w e s o m e . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 1 , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g s u e d S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r f o r s o m e $ 2 0 m i l l i o n . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 1 , a u t h o r i t i e s a g a i n r a i d e d R a w e s o m e , b u t t h i s t i m e c l o s e d i t , a r r e s t e d S t e w a r t , a n d , e l s e w h e r e , a r r e s t e d P a l m e r f o r c r i m i n a l c o n s p i r a c y i n i l l e g a l l y p r o d u c i n g a n d s e l l i n g u n p a s t e u r i z e d d a i r y . A l s o a r r e s t e d w a s P a l m e r ' s f a r m e m p l o y e e V i c t o r i a B l o c h , c h a r g e d s i m i l a r l y . A l t h o u g h c l a i m i n g c r e d i t f o r b u i l d i n g R a w e s o m e ' s s u c c e s s , V o n d e r p l a n i t z f o u n d h i m s e l f m a r g i n a l i z e d b y R a w e s o m e ' s s u p p o r t e r s d e m o n s t r a t i n g p u b l i c l y . F u r t h e r , o u t s i d e t h e c o u r t h o u s e a t s u c h a d e m o n s t r a t i o n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z , t r y i n g t o a n s w e r i n t e r e s t e d n e w s m e d i a , c o n c l u d e d h i m s e l f b l a c k l i s t e d f r o m n e w s g a t h e r i n g . I n 2 0 1 2 , S t e w a r t a n d P a l m e r w e r e a r r e s t e d o n c r i m i n a l c h a r g e s a s t o f u n d i n g o f P a l m e r ' s f a r m , w h e r e b y t h e y a l l e g e d l y m i s l e d i n v e s t o r s a b o u t t h e i r o w n c r e d i t w o r t h i n e s s , a n d c o u l d e a c h f a c e 4 0 y e a r s i m p r i s o n m e n t . A f t e r f o u r m o n t h s o f j a i l , S t e w a r t t o o k a p l e a d e a l , p a i d a f i n e , g a v e u p R a w e s o m e ' s c a u s e , a n d b e g a n d i s t r i b u t i n g o l i v e o i l . B y J u l y 2 0 1 3 , t h e c i v i l s u i t ' s j u d g e h a d r e d u c e d t h e 3 0 c i v i l c h a r g e s t o t w o , P a l m e r h a d c o u n t e r s u e d V o n d e r p l a n i t z a n d O t t i n g , a n d t h e j u d g e o r d e r e d t h e p a r t i e s t o n e g o t i a t e a s e t t l e m e n t . B y t h e n , V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s s e e m i n g l y i r r a t i o n a l v e n d e t t a w a s i n f a m o u s , p a r t i a l l y b l a m e d f o r R a w e s o m e ' s d o w n f a l l . D e s p i t e h i s r o l e i n R a w e s o m e a n d t h e o t h e r a n i m a l - l e a s i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t h e c o n t i n u e d a f t e r R a w e s o m e ' s d e b a c l e , V o n d e r p l a n i t z w o u l d n e v e r b e p r o s e c u t e d . S t i l l , b y 2 0 1 0 , h e b e l i e v e d h i m s e l f t h e t a r g e t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l o r p h a r m a c e u t i c a l c o n s p i r a c y t o n e u t r a l i z e h i m . I n 2 0 0 9 , h e h a d d e s c r i b e d t h e o n g o i n g f l u p a n d e m i c a s a h o a x m e d i a t e d b y f l u v a c c i n a t i o n . S o o n , h e a l l e g e d a p p a r e n t r e t r i b u t i o n b y i n v a d e r s o f h i s h o t e l r o o m i n T h a i l a n d f o r c i b l y g i v i n g h i m i n j e c t i o n s t h a t s e n t h i s " m e r c u r y , b a r i u m , a n d c h r o m i u m r e a d i n g s o f f t h e c h a r t s " , i m p a i r i n g h i s h e a l t h , c a u s i n g w e i g h t l o s s , a n d p r e m a t u r e l y a g i n g h i m . L a t e r , h e c l a i m e d t h a t o n a T h a i l a n d r o a d , h i s c a r ' s b r a k e s s u d d e n l y f a i l e d , c a u s i n g a p o t e n t i a l l y f a t a l c a r w r e c k t h a t h e l i k e w i s e a t t r i b u t e d t o a p l o t a g a i n s t h i s l i f e . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 , a t h i s f a r m i n T h a i l a n d , V o n d e r p l a n i t z a p p a r e n t l y l e a n e d a g a i n s t h i s h o u s e ' s s e c o n d - s t o r y b a l c o n y r a i l , w h i c h p r o v e d f a u l t y , a l l o w i n g h i s f a l l t h a t b r o k e h i s s p i n e a n d p a r a l y z e d h i m . A t t h e h o s p i t a l , h e a c c e p t e d p a i n - k i l l i n g d r u g s , y e t r e f u s e d s u r g e r y t o r e p a i r i n t e r n a l b l e e d i n g . A f t e r a f e w d a y s , h e l o s t c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d d i e d . D e s p i t e r u m o r s o f c o n s p i r a c y , t w o o f V o n d e r p l a n i t z ' s c o l l e a g u e s d e s c r i b e d l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u g g e s t i n g a g e n u i n e a c c i d e n t . V o n d e r p l a n i t z h a d a u t h o r e d t w o b o o k s : a m e m o i r r e t r a c i n g h i s p a t h t o a n d i n t r o d u c i n g t h e P r i m a l D i e t , " W e W a n t T o L i v e " ( 1 9 9 7 / 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d a f o l l o w - u p r e c i p e b o o k c i t i n g p u t a t i v e s c i e n t i f i c e v i d e n c e , " T h e R e c i p e f o r L i v i n g W i t h o u t D i s e a s e " ( 2 0 0 2 ) .

Final years

In his final years, Aajonus Vonderplanitz, formerly John Swigart, promoted his Primal Diet, emphasizing raw meat consumption. He claimed a high cancer remission rate among followers. His food rights activism led him to form Right to Choose Healthy Food, advocating for access to raw dairy products. He was involved in the raw milk movement, particularly through his association with James Stewart and Rawesome. However, Rawesome was shut down by the government in 2011. Vonderplanitz believed he was targeted by a conspiracy to neutralize him, citing incidents like a hotel room invasion and a car brake failure in Thailand.

diagnosed with "juvenile diabetes". Vonderplanitz first received family and community support, he recalled, once he found his first girlfriend in his junior year at Finneytown High School. At age 17, Vonderplanitz married her, a recent schoolmate one year elder, who bore his only child, a son, in his senior year. Once he graduated, the new family moved elsewhere near Cincinnati. They renting a small apartment at a business intersection, Vonderplanitz's wife worked as a utility-company secretary, and he as a short-order cook also attending the Cincinnati Institute of Computer Technology. Their son's severe colic, her postpartum mood problems, and his own confusions and mood problems ended their prior bliss. He increasingly drank with friends, and entered an extramarital affair with a female instructor at his trade school. Divorced at 19, he moved to Los Angeles for work in computer programming. Although he seemingly never remarried, his own and other persons' anecdotes about him involve several girlfriends throughout his later life. On moving to Los Angeles, feeling directionless and distressed, Vonderplanitz continued heavy drinking. Still aged 19, he developed a stomach ulcer, whose surgical treatment caused a keloidal scar in turn treated by radiation therapy that then caused multiple myeloma, Vonderplanitz recounted. Once chemotherapy caused further illnesses, including psoriasis, bursitis, and severe periodontitis, he discontinued treatment of his terminal cancer, but a hospice worker, paying him volunteer home visits, gave him a small book on cancer treatment by raw carrot juice, Vonderplanitz would claim. Within 10 days, the regimen ended his alleged dyslexia, and soon thereafter put his cancer in remission, Vonderplanitz would claim. At age 22, Vonderplanitz began promoting himself as a nutritionist. At about age 23, the still John Swigart met a girl toddler who renamed him Aajonus. Disliking his given name, a reminder of illness and mistreatment, he accepted the renaming, and later took his European ancestors' last name Vonderplanitz. He would attribute his health gains over the next two years mostly to raw juices and raw dairy. By age 25, eliminating raw dairy, Vonderplanitz adopted raw veganism. At age 27, seeking health answers, he reputedly sojourned by bicycle, while he "lived off the earth", across North America and into Latin America. Nearly three years later, he returned to Los Angeles telling of a seemingly implausible health answer: eating raw meat. Vonderplanitz would claim a diverse résumé, partly since by age 40, he still had marginal income as a nutritionist. He recalled ethically refusing $7.5 million to be made, in 1971, the Winston Man for seven years, and, in the 1980s, while earning income painting murals and such inside homes, some acting on the soap opera "General Hospital". He claimed to have created a brief diet, damaging within a few days to weeks, for a client demanding quick weight loss, but who allegedly published it for profit as the Beverly Hills Diet. Upon overturning a traffic ticket at age 22, he sought to develop legal expertise by private study. After 2000, he wrote business contracts and legal responses for farmers. In his latest years, owning a farm in the Philippines hindsight, he claimed that his advice had been often ineffective, and sometimes even harmful, until he included raw meat. At perhaps age 30, he became a staff nutritionist, advising customers, at a healthfood store, Aunt Tilly's Too. Although not in his 1997 book, he used the title PhD, specifying nutritional science, in a 2001 research report on milk, cowritten with William Campbell Douglass II MD, and thereafter. In 2009, he was reported to lack accredited scientific or medical training. In September 1986, at age 39, living in a Beverly Hills "slum" while freelancing in nutrition, Vonderplanitz returned to Cincinnati, Ohio. There, his only child, his son, estranged for about 20 years, had recently been in a severe car wreck, driving, without a seatbelt on, straight into a tree. honey. In 2002, his other book, the "Recipe for Living Without Disease", was published. Nearing 2010, he was still claiming over 90% rate of cancer remission among his clients closely heeding it. Despite mainstream dismissal, his Primal Diet gained a sizable, if underground, following. Although Vonderplanitz dated it to the 1970s, his food-rights campaign more clearly began nearing 2000. Into 2011, Vonderplanitz and an ally, James Stewart, were the raw-milk movement's de facto leaders. In 1997 or 1998, Venice resident James Stewart, in poor health, discovered Vonderplanitz's Primal Diet. By 2000, Stewart was a southern California distributor of raw milk for Claravale Farm, which had only eight cows, but was the state's only farm still licensed to supply unpasteurized milk to retail stores. While Claravale Farm added cows in-house, eliminating Stewart. Stewart then focused on growing his private food club, Rawesome. Rawesome would keep Stewart and Vonderplanitz at the center of the raw-dairy movement until Rawesome's controversial closure via government raid in 2011. In the late 1990s, Vonderplanitz formed the not-for-profit organization Right to Choose Healthy Food (RTCHF). RTCHF, declared Vonderplanitz, "will combat any legislation banning people's right to choose raw food". Yet RTCHF apparently focused on raw dairy. In this agenda, Vonderplanitz originated the "animal-leasing" model, whereby a private food club, whose members are also RTCHF members, contracts a farmer to produce solely for that food club. As president of RTCHF, Vonderplanitz mediated these animal-leasing arrangements in multiple states. Vonderplanitz meanwhile criticized the "herdshare" or "cowshare" model, whereby a consumer buys "shares", thus "partially owns" seemingly irrational vendetta was infamous, partially blamed for Rawesome's downfall. Despite his role in Rawesome and the other animal-leasing arrangements that he continued after Rawesome's debacle, Vonderplanitz would never be prosecuted. Still, by 2010, he believed himself the target of governmental or pharmaceutical conspiracy to neutralize him. In 2009, he had described the ongoing flu pandemic as a hoax mediated by flu vaccination. Soon, he alleged apparent retribution by invaders of his hotel room in Thailand forcibly giving him injections that sent his "mercury, barium, and chromium readings off the charts", impairing his health, causing weight loss, and prematurely aging him. Later, he claimed that on a Thailand road, his car's brakes suddenly failed, causing a potentially fatal car wreck that he likewise attributed to a plot against

Amsterdam–Zutphen railway

T h e r a i l w a y b e t w e e n A m s t e r d a m a n d A m e r s f o o r t w a s o p e n e d b y t h e H o l l a n d s c h e I J z e r e n S p o o r w e g - M a a t s c h a p p i j i n 1 8 7 4 w i t h t h e A m e r s f o o r t – Z u t p h e n s e c t i o n o p e n i n g i n 1 8 7 6 . I t w a s i n t e n d e d a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n A m s t e r d a m a n d t h e G e r m a n b o r d e r a n d c o m p e t e d w i t h t h e S t a a t s s p o o r - r u n A m s t e r d a m – A r n h e m r a i l w a y ( " R h i j n s p o o r w e g " ) . T h e r a i l w a y b e g i n s a t A m s t e r d a m C e n t r a a l . B e t w e e n A m s t e r d a m C e n t r a a l a n d j u s t b e f o r e A m s t e r d a m M u i d e r p o o r t r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , t h e r a i l w a y i s s i x t r a c k s - w i d e ; a t A m s t e r d a m M u i d e r p o o r t , t w o t r a c k s d i v e r g e o f f t o w a r d s U t r e c h t C e n t r a a l ( A m s t e r d a m – A r n h e m r a i l w a y ) . T h r o u g h t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f A m s t e r d a m M u i d e r p o o r t , t h e r e a r e e i g h t t r a c k s t o w a r d s W e e s p – j u s t t w o o f t h e s e t r a c k s a r e f o r t r a i n s c a l l i n g a t t h e s t a t i o n . S o u t h o f t h i s s t a t i o n , t h e r a i l w a y s g o e s b a c k t o s i x t r a c k s a s i t c r o s s e s t h e R i n g v a a r t . 5 0 0 m e t r e s e a s t o f A m s t e r d a m M u i d e r p o o r t i s t h e e n t r a n c e t o W a t e r g r a a f s m e e r r a i l d e p o t ; t h i s i s a l s o t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e S c h i p h o l f r e i g h t b r i d g e i s l o c a t e d . A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e l i n e g o e s t o t w o t r a c k s . T h e v i e w o f t h e d e p o t i s n o t p e r f e c t f r o m t h e r a i l w a y . A t t h e e n d o f t h e d e p o t t h e r a i l w a y g o e s o v e r t h e A 1 0 r i n g r o a d o f A m s t e r d a m . A t D i e m e n s t a t i o n t h e r e i s a s h o r t s e c t i o n o f 3 - t r a c k r a i l w a y , t h i s s t a y s a s 3 t r a c k s u n t i l j u s t b e f o r e G a a s p e r d a m m e r w e g J u n c t i o n , b e f o r e t h i s p o i n t t h e r e i s a s i n g l e t r a c k l i n e c o m i n g f r o m W a t e r g r a a f s m e e r d e p o t . T h e r a i l w a y l i n e c r o s s e s t h e r i v e r D i e m , t h e n i t b e c o m e s a 4 - t r a c k r a i l w a y , w i t h t w o t r a c k s j o i n i n g f r o m S c h i p h o l . O n c e t h e l i n e s h a v e a l l j o i n e d , t h e l i n e c o n t i n u e s a s a 6 - t r a c k s e c t i o n , c r o s s i n g t h e A 9 . I t t h e n b e c o m e s a 4 - t r a c k s e c t i o n , c r o s s i n g t h e A m s t e r d a m - R h i n e C a n a l w i t h t w o l a r g e b r i d g e s s i d e - b y - s i d e . O n t h e a p p r o a c h e s o f W e e s p , a n e x t r a t w o t r a c k s e x i s t s o t h a t t h e r e a r e 6 t r a c k s , w i t h t w o t r a c k s t h r o u g h t h e m i d d l e f o r p a s s i n g t r a i n s . T h i s i s w h e r e p a s s e n g e r s t o A l m e r e a n d L e l y s t a d , H i l v e r s u m a n d A m e r s f o o r t , A m s t e r d a m a n d D i e m e n a n d S c h i p h o l a n d D u i v e n d r e c h t w o u l d a l l c h a n g e f o r d e s t i n a t i o n s n o t s e r v e d b y t h e i r t r a i n . I t r e d u c e s b a c k t o f o u r t r a c k s a n d t h e n 2   k m s o u t h o f W e e s p , t h e l i n e s p l i t s , w i t h t h e F l e v o l i j n h a v i n g t w o t r a c k s b r a n c h o f f , w h e r e t h e l i n e g o e s t o A l m e r e C e n t r u m a n d L e l y s t a d C e n t r u m . T h e m a i n l i n e c o n t i n u e s a s a 2 - t r a c k s e c t i o n . T h e G o o i b o o g t h e n j o i n s o n n o t f a r f r o m t h e o t h e r A l m e r e l i n e . T h e n e x t s t a t i o n i s N a a r d e n - B u s s u m , w h i c h , u n t i l A u g u s t 2 0 1 9 u s e d t o h a v e f o u r t r a c k s , w i t h a s i n g l e a n d a n i s l a n d p l a t f o r m . O n e o u t s i d e l i n e w a s u s e d a s a p a s s i n g l i n e o n l y . A f t e r A u g u s t 2 0 1 9 t h e s t a t i o n h a s t w o t r a c k s w i t h t w o p l a t f o r m s o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r . T h e n e x t s t a t i o n i s B u s s u m Z u i d , w h i c h i s a s i m p l e 2 - t r a c k s t a t i o n , w i t h t w o p l a t f o r m s o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r . A f t e r t h e s t a t i o n , i s t h e f r e i g h t c a r r i a g e w o r k s o f C r a i l o o . T h e n e x t s t a t i o n i s H i l v e r s u m N o o r d , a g a i n a s i m p l e 2 - t r a c k s t a t i o n , w i t h t w o p l a t f o r m s o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r . T h e n e x t s t a t i o n i s H i l v e r s u m , w h i c h i s t h e m a i n s t a t i o n b e t w e e n A m s t e r d a m C e n t r a a l a n d A m e r s f o o r t . H e r e t h e r e a r e 5 t r a c k s , t h e l a s t 2 o f w h i c h h a d p l a t f o r m s , w h i c h w e r e f i n i s h e d i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 7 , t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e I n t e r c i t y t r a i n s . I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e s t a t i o n i s t h e j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e l i n e t o U t r e c h t . T h i s l i n e u s e d t o g o d i r e c t l y t o U t r e c h t L u n e t t e n , b u t t h e p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e s r u n n i n g v i a U t r e c h t C e n t r a a l . T h e l i n e c o n t i n u e s a s a 2 - t r a c k s e c t i o n a g a i n . T h e n e x t s t a t i o n i s B a a r n , w h i c h h a s 4 t r a c k s . T h i s s t a t i o n l a y o u t w a s c h a n g e d i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 8 , t o 3 t h r o u g h t r a c k s a n d 1 t e r m i n a t i n g f r o m S o e s t d i r e c t i o n . T h i s c o n t i n u e s a s 3 t r a c k s f o r a b o u t 4 0 0 m u n t i l t h e S t i c h t s e l i j n b r a n c h e s o f f t o S o e s t a n d U t r e c h t . T h e n t h e l i n e c o n t i n u e s a s a d o u b l e t r a c k s e c t i o n u n t i l a p p r o a c h i n g A m e r s f o o r t . T h e n c o m e t h e y a r d s o f A m e r s f o o r t o n b o t h s i d e s o f t h e l i n e . T h e n t h e m a i n l i n e j o i n s t h e U t r e c h t – K a m p e n r a i l w a y ( " C e n t r a a l s p o o r w e g " ) f r o m U t r e c h t . T h e s t a t i o n h a s 1 0 t r a c k s i n t o t a l , c o n s i s t i n g o f 3 l a r g e i s l a n d p l a t f o r m s . T h e r e i s 1 p a s s i n g l i n e w i t h i n t h e p l a t f o r m s a n d w i t h 3 p a s s i n g t r a c k s a t t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e s t a t i o n . A c c e s s t o t h e L e u s d e n l i n e i s f r o m p l a t f o r m s 1 a n d 2 . T h e o r i g i n a l A m e r s f o o r t l i n e i s j u s t 2 0 0 m f r o m t h e s t a t i o n b y t r a i n . T h e s t a t i o n b u i l d i n g i s t h e o n l y r e m n a n t o f t h i s .

Trajectory

The railway connects Amsterdam Centraal to Amersfoort, with multiple sections featuring different numbers of tracks. The line passes through various stations, including Weesp, Hilversum, and Baarn, before reaching Amersfoort.

The railway between Amsterdam and Amersfoort was opened by the Hollandsche IJzeren Spoorweg-Maatschappij in 1874 with the Amersfoort–Zutphen section opening in 1876. It was intended as an alternative connection between Amsterdam and the German border and competed with the Staatsspoor-run Amsterdam–Arnhem railway ("Rhijnspoorweg"). The railway begins at Amsterdam Centraal. Between Amsterdam Centraal and just before Amsterdam Muiderpoort railway station, the railway is six tracks-wide; at Amsterdam Muiderpoort, two tracks diverge off towards Utrecht Centraal (Amsterdam–Arnhem railway). Through the eastern side of Amsterdam Muiderpoort, there are eight tracks towards Weesp – just two of these tracks are for trains calling at the station. South of this station, the railways goes back to six tracks as it crosses the Ringvaart. 500 metres east of Amsterdam Muiderpoort is the entrance to Watergraafsmeer rail depot; this is also the point where the Schiphol freight bridge is located. At this point, the line goes to two tracks. The view of the depot is not perfect from the railway. At the end of the depot the railway goes over the A10 ring road of Amsterdam. At Diemen station there is a short section of 3-track railway, this stays as 3 tracks until just before Gaasperdammerweg Junction, before this point there is a single track line coming from Watergraafsmeer depot. The railway line crosses the river Diem, then it becomes a 4-track railway, with two tracks joining from Schiphol. Once the lines have all joined, the line continues as a 6-track section, crossing the A9. It then becomes a 4-track section, crossing the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal with two large bridges side-by-side. On the approaches of Weesp, an extra two tracks exist so that there are 6 tracks, with two tracks through the middle for passing trains. This is where passengers to Almere and Lelystad, Hilversum and Amersfoort, Amsterdam and Diemen and Schiphol and Duivendrecht would all change for destinations not served by their train. It reduces back to four tracks and then 2 km south of Weesp, the line splits, with the Flevolijn having two tracks branch off, where the line goes to Almere Centrum and Lelystad Centrum. The main line continues as a 2-track section. The Gooiboog then joins on not far from the other Almere line. The next station is Naarden-Bussum, which, until August 2019 used to have four tracks, with a single and an island platform. One outside line was used as a passing line only. After August 2019 the station has two tracks with two platforms opposite each other. The next station is Bussum Zuid, which is a simple 2-track station, with two platforms opposite each other. After the station, is the freight carriage works of Crailoo. The next station is Hilversum Noord, again a simple 2-track station, with two platforms opposite each other. The next station is Hilversum, which is the main station between Amsterdam Centraal and Amersfoort. Here there are 5 tracks, the last 2 of which had platforms, which were finished in December 2007, to accommodate the Intercity trains. Immediately after the station is the junction with the line to Utrecht. This line used to go directly to Utrecht Lunetten, but the passenger services running via Utrecht Centraal. The line continues as a 2-track section again. The next station is Baarn, which has 4 tracks. This station layout was changed in December 2008, to 3 through tracks and 1 terminating from Soest direction. This continues as 3 tracks for about 400 m until the Stichtse lijn branches off to Soest and Utrecht. Then the line continues as a double track section until approaching Amersfoort. Then come the yards of Amersfoort on both sides of the line. Then the main line joins the Utrecht–Kampen railway ("Centraalspoorweg") from Utrecht. The station has 10 tracks in total, consisting of 3 large island platforms. There is 1 passing line within the platforms and with 3 passing tracks at the northern part of the station. Access to the Leusden line is from platforms 1 and 2. The original Amersfoort line is just 200 m from the station by train. The station building is the only remnant of this.

Esquisse d'un Programme

S u b m i t t e d i n 1 9 8 4 , t h e " E s q u i s s e d ' u n P r o g r a m m e " w a s a p r o p o s a l s u b m i t t e d b y A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k f o r a p o s i t i o n a t t h e C e n t r e N a t i o n a l d e l a R e c h e r c h e S c i e n t i f i q u e . T h e p r o p o s a l w a s n o t s u c c e s s f u l , b u t G r o t h e n d i e c k o b t a i n e d a s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n w h e r e , w h i l e k e e p i n g h i s a f f i l i a t i o n a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M o n t p e l l i e r , h e w a s p a i d b y t h e C N R S a n d r e l e a s e d o f h i s t e a c h i n g o b l i g a t i o n s . G r o t h e n d i e c k h e l d t h i s p o s i t i o n f r o m 1 9 8 4 t i l l 1 9 8 8 . T h i s p r o p o s a l w a s n o t f o r m a l l y p u b l i s h e d u n t i l 1 9 9 7 , b e c a u s e t h e a u t h o r " c o u l d n o t b e f o u n d , m u c h l e s s h i s p e r m i s s i o n r e q u e s t e d " . T h e o u t l i n e s o f " d e s s i n s d ' e n f a n t s " , o r " c h i l d r e n ' s d r a w i n g s " , a n d " A n a b e l i a n g e o m e t r y " , t h a t a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s m a n u s c r i p t c o n t i n u e t o i n s p i r e r e s e a r c h ; t h u s , " A n a b e l i a n g e o m e t r y i s a p r o p o s e d t h e o r y i n m a t h e m a t i c s , d e s c r i b i n g t h e w a y t h e a l g e b r a i c f u n d a m e n t a l g r o u p " G " o f a n a l g e b r a i c v a r i e t y " V " , o r s o m e r e l a t e d g e o m e t r i c o b j e c t , d e t e r m i n e s h o w " V " c a n b e m a p p e d i n t o a n o t h e r g e o m e t r i c o b j e c t " W " , u n d e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t " G " i s n o t a n a b e l i a n g r o u p , i n t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g s t r o n g l y n o n c o m m u t a t i v e . T h e w o r d " a n a b e l i a n " ( a n a l p h a p r i v a t i v e " a n - " b e f o r e " a b e l i a n " ) w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n " E s q u i s s e d ' u n P r o g r a m m e " . W h i l e t h e w o r k o f G r o t h e n d i e c k w a s f o r m a n y y e a r s u n p u b l i s h e d , a n d u n a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m a l s c h o l a r l y c h a n n e l s , t h e f o r m u l a t i o n a n d p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e p r o p o s e d t h e o r y r e c e i v e d m u c h a t t e n t i o n , a n d s o m e a l t e r a t i o n s , a t t h e h a n d s o f a n u m b e r o f m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . T h o s e w h o h a v e r e s e a r c h e d i n t h i s a r e a h a v e o b t a i n e d s o m e e x p e c t e d a n d r e l a t e d r e s u l t s , a n d i n t h e 2 1 s t c e n t u r y t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f s u c h a t h e o r y s t a r t e d t o b e a v a i l a b l e . " " S u g g e s t e d f u r t h e r r e a d i n g f o r t h e i n t e r e s t e d m a t h e m a t i c a l r e a d e r i s p r o v i d e d i n t h e " R e f e r e n c e s " s e c t i o n . G a l o i s d e v e l o p e d a p o w e r f u l , f u n d a m e n t a l a l g e b r a i c t h e o r y i n m a t h e m a t i c s t h a t p r o v i d e s v e r y e f f i c i e n t c o m p u t a t i o n s f o r c e r t a i n a l g e b r a i c p r o b l e m s b y u t i l i z i n g t h e a l g e b r a i c c o n c e p t o f g r o u p s , w h i c h i s n o w k n o w n a s t h e t h e o r y o f G a l o i s g r o u p s ; s u c h c o m p u t a t i o n s w e r e n o t p o s s i b l e b e f o r e , a n d a l s o i n m a n y c a s e s a r e m u c h m o r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e ' d i r e c t ' c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h o u t u s i n g g r o u p s . T o b e g i n w i t h , A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k s t a t e d i n h i s p r o p o s a l : " " T h u s , t h e g r o u p o f G a l o i s i s r e a l i z e d a s t h e a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p o f a c o n c r e t e , p r o - f i n i t e g r o u p w h i c h r e s p e c t s c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h i s g r o u p . " " T h i s f u n d a m e n t a l , G a l o i s g r o u p t h e o r y i n m a t h e m a t i c s h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y e x p a n d e d , a t f i r s t t o g r o u p o i d s - a s p r o p o s e d i n A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k ' s " E s q u i s s e d ' u n P r o g r a m m e " ( " E d P " ) - a n d n o w a l r e a d y p a r t i a l l y c a r r i e d o u t f o r g r o u p o i d s ; t h e l a t t e r a r e n o w f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d b e y o n d g r o u p o i d s t o c a t e g o r i e s b y s e v e r a l g r o u p s o f m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . H e r e , w e s h a l l f o c u s o n l y o n t h e w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d a n d f u l l y v a l i d a t e d e x t e n s i o n s o f G a l o i s ' t h e o r y . T h u s , E d P a l s o p r o p o s e d a n d a n t i c i p a t e d , a l o n g p r e v i o u s A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k ' s " I H É S " s e m i n a r s ( S G A 1 t o S G A 4 ) h e l d i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e v e n m o r e p o w e r f u l e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n a l G a l o i s ' s t h e o r y f o r g r o u p s b y u t i l i z i n g c a t e g o r i e s , f u n c t o r s a n d n a t u r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , a s w e l l a s f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n o f t h e m a n i f o l d o f i d e a s p r e s e n t e d i n A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k ' s " D e s c e n t T h e o r y " . T h e n o t i o n o f m o t i v e h a s a l s o b e e n p u r s u e d a c t i v e l y . T h i s w a s d e v e l o p e d i n t o t h e m o t i v i c G a l o i s g r o u p , G r o t h e n d i e c k t o p o l o g y a n d G r o t h e n d i e c k c a t e g o r y . S u c h d e v e l o p m e n t s w e r e r e c e n t l y e x t e n d e d i n a l g e b r a i c t o p o l o g y " v i a " r e p r e s e n t a b l e f u n c t o r s a n d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l g r o u p o i d f u n c t o r .

Brief history

In 1984, Alexander Grothendieck submitted a proposal called "Esquisse d'un Programme" to the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, outlining new areas of research including Anabelian geometry and Dessins d'Enfants. Although it wasn't formally published until 1997, the ideas within inspired numerous mathematicians, leading to significant advancements in Galois theory, groupoids, categories, and motivic Galois groups.

Submitted in 1984, the "Esquisse d'un Programme" was a proposal submitted by Alexander Grothendieck for a position at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. The proposal was not successful, but Grothendieck obtained a special position where, while keeping his affiliation at the University of Montpellier, he was paid by the CNRS and released of his teaching obligations. Grothendieck held this position from 1984 till 1988. This proposal was not formally published until 1997, because the author "could not be found, much less his permission requested". The outlines of "dessins d'enfants", or "children's drawings", and "Anabelian geometry", that are contained in this manuscript continue to inspire research; thus, "Anabelian geometry is a proposed theory in mathematics, describing the way the algebraic fundamental group "G" of an algebraic variety "V", or some related geometric object, determines how "V" can be mapped into another geometric object "W", under the assumption that "G" is not an abelian group, in the sense of being strongly noncommutative. The word "anabelian" (an alpha privative "an-" before "abelian") was introduced in "Esquisse d'un Programme". While the work of Grothendieck was for many years unpublished, and unavailable through the traditional formal scholarly channels, the formulation and predictions of the proposed theory received much attention, and some alterations, at the hands of a number of mathematicians. Those who have researched in this area have obtained some expected and related results, and in the 21st century the beginnings of such a theory started to be available."" Suggested further reading for the interested mathematical reader is provided in the "References" section. Galois developed a powerful, fundamental algebraic theory in mathematics that provides very efficient computations for certain algebraic problems by utilizing the algebraic concept of groups, which is now known as the theory of Galois groups; such computations were not possible before, and also in many cases are much more effective than the 'direct' calculations without using groups. To begin with, Alexander Grothendieck stated in his proposal:" "Thus, the group of Galois is realized as the automorphism group of a concrete, pro-finite group which respects certain structures that are essential to this group."" This fundamental, Galois group theory in mathematics has been considerably expanded, at first to groupoids- as proposed in Alexander Grothendieck's "Esquisse d' un Programme" ("EdP")- and now already partially carried out for groupoids; the latter are now further developed beyond groupoids to categories by several groups of mathematicians. Here, we shall focus only on the well-established and fully validated extensions of Galois' theory. Thus, EdP also proposed and anticipated, along previous Alexander Grothendieck's "IHÉS" seminars (SGA1 to SGA4) held in the 1960s, the development of even more powerful extensions of the original Galois's theory for groups by utilizing categories, functors and natural transformations, as well as further expansion of the manifold of ideas presented in Alexander Grothendieck's "Descent Theory". The notion of motive has also been pursued actively. This was developed into the motivic Galois group, Grothendieck topology and Grothendieck category . Such developments were recently extended in algebraic topology "via" representable functors and the fundamental groupoid functor.

Esquisse d'un Programme

S u b m i t t e d i n 1 9 8 4 , t h e " E s q u i s s e d ' u n P r o g r a m m e " w a s a p r o p o s a l s u b m i t t e d b y A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k f o r a p o s i t i o n a t t h e C e n t r e N a t i o n a l d e l a R e c h e r c h e S c i e n t i f i q u e . T h e p r o p o s a l w a s n o t s u c c e s s f u l , b u t G r o t h e n d i e c k o b t a i n e d a s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n w h e r e , w h i l e k e e p i n g h i s a f f i l i a t i o n a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M o n t p e l l i e r , h e w a s p a i d b y t h e C N R S a n d r e l e a s e d o f h i s t e a c h i n g o b l i g a t i o n s . G r o t h e n d i e c k h e l d t h i s p o s i t i o n f r o m 1 9 8 4 t i l l 1 9 8 8 . T h i s p r o p o s a l w a s n o t f o r m a l l y p u b l i s h e d u n t i l 1 9 9 7 , b e c a u s e t h e a u t h o r " c o u l d n o t b e f o u n d , m u c h l e s s h i s p e r m i s s i o n r e q u e s t e d " . T h e o u t l i n e s o f " d e s s i n s d ' e n f a n t s " , o r " c h i l d r e n ' s d r a w i n g s " , a n d " A n a b e l i a n g e o m e t r y " , t h a t a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s m a n u s c r i p t c o n t i n u e t o i n s p i r e r e s e a r c h ; t h u s , " A n a b e l i a n g e o m e t r y i s a p r o p o s e d t h e o r y i n m a t h e m a t i c s , d e s c r i b i n g t h e w a y t h e a l g e b r a i c f u n d a m e n t a l g r o u p " G " o f a n a l g e b r a i c v a r i e t y " V " , o r s o m e r e l a t e d g e o m e t r i c o b j e c t , d e t e r m i n e s h o w " V " c a n b e m a p p e d i n t o a n o t h e r g e o m e t r i c o b j e c t " W " , u n d e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t " G " i s n o t a n a b e l i a n g r o u p , i n t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g s t r o n g l y n o n c o m m u t a t i v e . T h e w o r d " a n a b e l i a n " ( a n a l p h a p r i v a t i v e " a n - " b e f o r e " a b e l i a n " ) w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n " E s q u i s s e d ' u n P r o g r a m m e " . W h i l e t h e w o r k o f G r o t h e n d i e c k w a s f o r m a n y y e a r s u n p u b l i s h e d , a n d u n a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m a l s c h o l a r l y c h a n n e l s , t h e f o r m u l a t i o n a n d p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e p r o p o s e d t h e o r y r e c e i v e d m u c h a t t e n t i o n , a n d s o m e a l t e r a t i o n s , a t t h e h a n d s o f a n u m b e r o f m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . T h o s e w h o h a v e r e s e a r c h e d i n t h i s a r e a h a v e o b t a i n e d s o m e e x p e c t e d a n d r e l a t e d r e s u l t s , a n d i n t h e 2 1 s t c e n t u r y t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f s u c h a t h e o r y s t a r t e d t o b e a v a i l a b l e . " " S u g g e s t e d f u r t h e r r e a d i n g f o r t h e i n t e r e s t e d m a t h e m a t i c a l r e a d e r i s p r o v i d e d i n t h e " R e f e r e n c e s " s e c t i o n . G a l o i s d e v e l o p e d a p o w e r f u l , f u n d a m e n t a l a l g e b r a i c t h e o r y i n m a t h e m a t i c s t h a t p r o v i d e s v e r y e f f i c i e n t c o m p u t a t i o n s f o r c e r t a i n a l g e b r a i c p r o b l e m s b y u t i l i z i n g t h e a l g e b r a i c c o n c e p t o f g r o u p s , w h i c h i s n o w k n o w n a s t h e t h e o r y o f G a l o i s g r o u p s ; s u c h c o m p u t a t i o n s w e r e n o t p o s s i b l e b e f o r e , a n d a l s o i n m a n y c a s e s a r e m u c h m o r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e ' d i r e c t ' c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h o u t u s i n g g r o u p s . T o b e g i n w i t h , A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k s t a t e d i n h i s p r o p o s a l : " " T h u s , t h e g r o u p o f G a l o i s i s r e a l i z e d a s t h e a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p o f a c o n c r e t e , p r o - f i n i t e g r o u p w h i c h r e s p e c t s c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h i s g r o u p . " " T h i s f u n d a m e n t a l , G a l o i s g r o u p t h e o r y i n m a t h e m a t i c s h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y e x p a n d e d , a t f i r s t t o g r o u p o i d s - a s p r o p o s e d i n A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k ' s " E s q u i s s e d ' u n P r o g r a m m e " ( " E d P " ) - a n d n o w a l r e a d y p a r t i a l l y c a r r i e d o u t f o r g r o u p o i d s ; t h e l a t t e r a r e n o w f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d b e y o n d g r o u p o i d s t o c a t e g o r i e s b y s e v e r a l g r o u p s o f m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . H e r e , w e s h a l l f o c u s o n l y o n t h e w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d a n d f u l l y v a l i d a t e d e x t e n s i o n s o f G a l o i s ' t h e o r y . T h u s , E d P a l s o p r o p o s e d a n d a n t i c i p a t e d , a l o n g p r e v i o u s A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k ' s " I H É S " s e m i n a r s ( S G A 1 t o S G A 4 ) h e l d i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e v e n m o r e p o w e r f u l e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n a l G a l o i s ' s t h e o r y f o r g r o u p s b y u t i l i z i n g c a t e g o r i e s , f u n c t o r s a n d n a t u r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , a s w e l l a s f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n o f t h e m a n i f o l d o f i d e a s p r e s e n t e d i n A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k ' s " D e s c e n t T h e o r y " . T h e n o t i o n o f m o t i v e h a s a l s o b e e n p u r s u e d a c t i v e l y . T h i s w a s d e v e l o p e d i n t o t h e m o t i v i c G a l o i s g r o u p , G r o t h e n d i e c k t o p o l o g y a n d G r o t h e n d i e c k c a t e g o r y . S u c h d e v e l o p m e n t s w e r e r e c e n t l y e x t e n d e d i n a l g e b r a i c t o p o l o g y " v i a " r e p r e s e n t a b l e f u n c t o r s a n d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l g r o u p o i d f u n c t o r .

Abstract of Grothendieck's programme

In 1984, Alexander Grothendieck submitted a proposal, "Esquisse d'un Programme," outlining his vision for a new field of mathematics, Anabelian Geometry. Although initially rejected, the proposal inspired research and led to significant advancements in algebraic geometry, including the development of Galois groups, groupoids, categories, and motives. Grothendieck's work continues to influence modern mathematics, shaping our understanding of geometric objects and their relationships.

Submitted in 1984, the "Esquisse d'un Programme" was a proposal submitted by Alexander Grothendieck for a position at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. The proposal was not successful, but Grothendieck obtained a special position where, while keeping his affiliation at the University of Montpellier, he was paid by the CNRS and released of his teaching obligations. Grothendieck held this position from 1984 till 1988. This proposal was not formally published until 1997, because the author "could not be found, much less his permission requested". The outlines of "dessins d'enfants", or "children's drawings", and "Anabelian geometry", that are contained in this manuscript continue to inspire research; thus, "Anabelian geometry is a proposed theory in mathematics, describing the way the algebraic fundamental group "G" of an algebraic variety "V", or some related geometric object, determines how "V" can be mapped into another geometric object "W", under the assumption that "G" is not an abelian group, in the sense of being strongly noncommutative. The word "anabelian" (an alpha privative "an-" before "abelian") was introduced in "Esquisse d'un Programme". While the work of Grothendieck was for many years unpublished, and unavailable through the traditional formal scholarly channels, the formulation and predictions of the proposed theory received much attention, and some alterations, at the hands of a number of mathematicians. Those who have researched in this area have obtained some expected and related results, and in the 21st century the beginnings of such a theory started to be available."" Suggested further reading for the interested mathematical reader is provided in the "References" section. Galois developed a powerful, fundamental algebraic theory in mathematics that provides very efficient computations for certain algebraic problems by utilizing the algebraic concept of groups, which is now known as the theory of Galois groups; such computations were not possible before, and also in many cases are much more effective than the 'direct' calculations without using groups. To begin with, Alexander Grothendieck stated in his proposal:" "Thus, the group of Galois is realized as the automorphism group of a concrete, pro-finite group which respects certain structures that are essential to this group."" This fundamental, Galois group theory in mathematics has been considerably expanded, at first to groupoids- as proposed in Alexander Grothendieck's "Esquisse d' un Programme" ("EdP")- and now already partially carried out for groupoids; the latter are now further developed beyond groupoids to categories by several groups of mathematicians. Here, we shall focus only on the well-established and fully validated extensions of Galois' theory. Thus, EdP also proposed and anticipated, along previous Alexander Grothendieck's "IHÉS" seminars (SGA1 to SGA4) held in the 1960s, the development of even more powerful extensions of the original Galois's theory for groups by utilizing categories, functors and natural transformations, as well as further expansion of the manifold of ideas presented in Alexander Grothendieck's "Descent Theory". The notion of motive has also been pursued actively. This was developed into the motivic Galois group, Grothendieck topology and Grothendieck category . Such developments were recently extended in algebraic topology "via" representable functors and the fundamental groupoid functor.

Esquisse d'un Programme

S u b m i t t e d i n 1 9 8 4 , t h e " E s q u i s s e d ' u n P r o g r a m m e " w a s a p r o p o s a l s u b m i t t e d b y A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k f o r a p o s i t i o n a t t h e C e n t r e N a t i o n a l d e l a R e c h e r c h e S c i e n t i f i q u e . T h e p r o p o s a l w a s n o t s u c c e s s f u l , b u t G r o t h e n d i e c k o b t a i n e d a s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n w h e r e , w h i l e k e e p i n g h i s a f f i l i a t i o n a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M o n t p e l l i e r , h e w a s p a i d b y t h e C N R S a n d r e l e a s e d o f h i s t e a c h i n g o b l i g a t i o n s . G r o t h e n d i e c k h e l d t h i s p o s i t i o n f r o m 1 9 8 4 t i l l 1 9 8 8 . T h i s p r o p o s a l w a s n o t f o r m a l l y p u b l i s h e d u n t i l 1 9 9 7 , b e c a u s e t h e a u t h o r " c o u l d n o t b e f o u n d , m u c h l e s s h i s p e r m i s s i o n r e q u e s t e d " . T h e o u t l i n e s o f " d e s s i n s d ' e n f a n t s " , o r " c h i l d r e n ' s d r a w i n g s " , a n d " A n a b e l i a n g e o m e t r y " , t h a t a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s m a n u s c r i p t c o n t i n u e t o i n s p i r e r e s e a r c h ; t h u s , " A n a b e l i a n g e o m e t r y i s a p r o p o s e d t h e o r y i n m a t h e m a t i c s , d e s c r i b i n g t h e w a y t h e a l g e b r a i c f u n d a m e n t a l g r o u p " G " o f a n a l g e b r a i c v a r i e t y " V " , o r s o m e r e l a t e d g e o m e t r i c o b j e c t , d e t e r m i n e s h o w " V " c a n b e m a p p e d i n t o a n o t h e r g e o m e t r i c o b j e c t " W " , u n d e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t " G " i s n o t a n a b e l i a n g r o u p , i n t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g s t r o n g l y n o n c o m m u t a t i v e . T h e w o r d " a n a b e l i a n " ( a n a l p h a p r i v a t i v e " a n - " b e f o r e " a b e l i a n " ) w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n " E s q u i s s e d ' u n P r o g r a m m e " . W h i l e t h e w o r k o f G r o t h e n d i e c k w a s f o r m a n y y e a r s u n p u b l i s h e d , a n d u n a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m a l s c h o l a r l y c h a n n e l s , t h e f o r m u l a t i o n a n d p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e p r o p o s e d t h e o r y r e c e i v e d m u c h a t t e n t i o n , a n d s o m e a l t e r a t i o n s , a t t h e h a n d s o f a n u m b e r o f m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . T h o s e w h o h a v e r e s e a r c h e d i n t h i s a r e a h a v e o b t a i n e d s o m e e x p e c t e d a n d r e l a t e d r e s u l t s , a n d i n t h e 2 1 s t c e n t u r y t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f s u c h a t h e o r y s t a r t e d t o b e a v a i l a b l e . " " S u g g e s t e d f u r t h e r r e a d i n g f o r t h e i n t e r e s t e d m a t h e m a t i c a l r e a d e r i s p r o v i d e d i n t h e " R e f e r e n c e s " s e c t i o n . G a l o i s d e v e l o p e d a p o w e r f u l , f u n d a m e n t a l a l g e b r a i c t h e o r y i n m a t h e m a t i c s t h a t p r o v i d e s v e r y e f f i c i e n t c o m p u t a t i o n s f o r c e r t a i n a l g e b r a i c p r o b l e m s b y u t i l i z i n g t h e a l g e b r a i c c o n c e p t o f g r o u p s , w h i c h i s n o w k n o w n a s t h e t h e o r y o f G a l o i s g r o u p s ; s u c h c o m p u t a t i o n s w e r e n o t p o s s i b l e b e f o r e , a n d a l s o i n m a n y c a s e s a r e m u c h m o r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e ' d i r e c t ' c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h o u t u s i n g g r o u p s . T o b e g i n w i t h , A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k s t a t e d i n h i s p r o p o s a l : " " T h u s , t h e g r o u p o f G a l o i s i s r e a l i z e d a s t h e a u t o m o r p h i s m g r o u p o f a c o n c r e t e , p r o - f i n i t e g r o u p w h i c h r e s p e c t s c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h i s g r o u p . " " T h i s f u n d a m e n t a l , G a l o i s g r o u p t h e o r y i n m a t h e m a t i c s h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y e x p a n d e d , a t f i r s t t o g r o u p o i d s - a s p r o p o s e d i n A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k ' s " E s q u i s s e d ' u n P r o g r a m m e " ( " E d P " ) - a n d n o w a l r e a d y p a r t i a l l y c a r r i e d o u t f o r g r o u p o i d s ; t h e l a t t e r a r e n o w f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d b e y o n d g r o u p o i d s t o c a t e g o r i e s b y s e v e r a l g r o u p s o f m a t h e m a t i c i a n s . H e r e , w e s h a l l f o c u s o n l y o n t h e w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d a n d f u l l y v a l i d a t e d e x t e n s i o n s o f G a l o i s ' t h e o r y . T h u s , E d P a l s o p r o p o s e d a n d a n t i c i p a t e d , a l o n g p r e v i o u s A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k ' s " I H É S " s e m i n a r s ( S G A 1 t o S G A 4 ) h e l d i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e v e n m o r e p o w e r f u l e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n a l G a l o i s ' s t h e o r y f o r g r o u p s b y u t i l i z i n g c a t e g o r i e s , f u n c t o r s a n d n a t u r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , a s w e l l a s f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n o f t h e m a n i f o l d o f i d e a s p r e s e n t e d i n A l e x a n d e r G r o t h e n d i e c k ' s " D e s c e n t T h e o r y " . T h e n o t i o n o f m o t i v e h a s a l s o b e e n p u r s u e d a c t i v e l y . T h i s w a s d e v e l o p e d i n t o t h e m o t i v i c G a l o i s g r o u p , G r o t h e n d i e c k t o p o l o g y a n d G r o t h e n d i e c k c a t e g o r y . S u c h d e v e l o p m e n t s w e r e r e c e n t l y e x t e n d e d i n a l g e b r a i c t o p o l o g y " v i a " r e p r e s e n t a b l e f u n c t o r s a n d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l g r o u p o i d f u n c t o r .

Abstract of Grothendieck's programme ; Extensions of Galois's theory for groups: Galois groupoids, categories and functors

Grothendieck's Esquisse d'un Programme proposes extensions of Galois's theory for groups, including Galois groupoids, categories, and functors. These extensions aim to describe how the algebraic fundamental group of an algebraic variety determines mappings between geometric objects. The proposal outlines Anabelian geometry, which studies the relationship between the fundamental group and geometric objects. Mathematicians have built upon these ideas, developing theories such as motivic Galois groups, Grothendieck topology, and Grothendieck categories. Recent advances include applications in algebraic topology via representable functors and the fundamental groupoid functor.

Submitted in 1984, the "Esquisse d'un Programme" was a proposal submitted by Alexander Grothendieck for a position at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. The proposal was not successful, but Grothendieck obtained a special position where, while keeping his affiliation at the University of Montpellier, he was paid by the CNRS and released of his teaching obligations. Grothendieck held this position from 1984 till 1988. This proposal was not formally published until 1997, because the author "could not be found, much less his permission requested". The outlines of "dessins d'enfants", or "children's drawings", and "Anabelian geometry", that are contained in this manuscript continue to inspire research; thus, "Anabelian geometry is a proposed theory in mathematics, describing the way the algebraic fundamental group "G" of an algebraic variety "V", or some related geometric object, determines how "V" can be mapped into another geometric object "W", under the assumption that "G" is not an abelian group, in the sense of being strongly noncommutative. The word "anabelian" (an alpha privative "an-" before "abelian") was introduced in "Esquisse d'un Programme". While the work of Grothendieck was for many years unpublished, and unavailable through the traditional formal scholarly channels, the formulation and predictions of the proposed theory received much attention, and some alterations, at the hands of a number of mathematicians. Those who have researched in this area have obtained some expected and related results, and in the 21st century the beginnings of such a theory started to be available."" Suggested further reading for the interested mathematical reader is provided in the "References" section. Galois developed a powerful, fundamental algebraic theory in mathematics that provides very efficient computations for certain algebraic problems by utilizing the algebraic concept of groups, which is now known as the theory of Galois groups; such computations were not possible before, and also in many cases are much more effective than the 'direct' calculations without using groups. To begin with, Alexander Grothendieck stated in his proposal:" "Thus, the group of Galois is realized as the automorphism group of a concrete, pro-finite group which respects certain structures that are essential to this group."" This fundamental, Galois group theory in mathematics has been considerably expanded, at first to groupoids- as proposed in Alexander Grothendieck's "Esquisse d' un Programme" ("EdP")- and now already partially carried out for groupoids; the latter are now further developed beyond groupoids to categories by several groups of mathematicians. Here, we shall focus only on the well-established and fully validated extensions of Galois' theory. Thus, EdP also proposed and anticipated, along previous Alexander Grothendieck's "IHÉS" seminars (SGA1 to SGA4) held in the 1960s, the development of even more powerful extensions of the original Galois's theory for groups by utilizing categories, functors and natural transformations, as well as further expansion of the manifold of ideas presented in Alexander Grothendieck's "Descent Theory". The notion of motive has also been pursued actively. This was developed into the motivic Galois group, Grothendieck topology and Grothendieck category . Such developments were recently extended in algebraic topology "via" representable functors and the fundamental groupoid functor.

Zhang Xiao (photographer)

Z h a n g g r a d u a t e d i n a r c h i t e c t u r e f r o m Y a n t a i U n i v e r s i t y i n 2 0 0 5 . F r o m 2 0 0 6 t o 2 0 0 9 , h e w o r k e d i n C h o n g q i n g a s a p h o t o g r a p h e r f o r t h e " C h o n g q i n g M o r n i n g P o s t " ( 《 重 庆 晨 报 》 ) . F r o m t h e s t a r t , h e c a r r i e d t w o c a m e r a s : o n e f o r w o r k , a n d a c h e a p m e d i u m f o r m a t c a m e r a f o r p e r s o n a l u s e . Z h a n g h a s b e e n i n s p i r e d b y t h e p h o t o g r a p h y o f D i a n e A r b u s , A l e c S o t h a n d B o r i s M i k h a i l o v . " T h e y " i s a s e r i e s o f p h o t o g r a p h s m o s t l y t a k e n w h i l e Z h a n g w a s w o r k i n g i n C h o n g q i n g ; t h e y a r e o f s c e n e s i n C h o n g q i n g i t s e l f b u t a l s o n e a r b y o n t h e Y a n g t z e a n d J i a l i n g r i v e r s a n d e l s e w h e r e . T h e c o l o u r p h o t o g r a p h s a r e s q u a r e f o r m a t , a n d e m p l o y e d a H o l g a c a m e r a . A b o o k o f t h e p h o t o g r a p h s w a s p u b l i s h e d i n C h i n a i n 2 0 1 2 ; t w o y e a r s l a t e r a s m a l l e r s e l e c t i o n w a s p u b l i s h e d i n P a r i s . F o r " C o a s t l i n e " , Z h a n g " v i s i t e d e v e r y t o w n a n d c i t y a l o n g t h e C h i n e s e c o a s t l i n e " , f r o m 2 0 0 9 t o 2 0 1 3 . T h e p h o t o g r a p h s a r e c o l o u r a g a i n , b u t t h i s t i m e Z h a n g u s e d a M a m i y a 7   I I c a m e r a . Z h a n g h a s d e s c r i b e d t h e c o a s t l i n e a s " [ C h i n a ' s ] f i r s t a r e a o f i m p a c t f r o m e x t e r n a l c u l t u r e a n d t h e r a p i d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t ; t h e s e r i e s " r e c o r d s s u b t l e a n d s u r r e a l m o m e n t s o f l i f e b y t h e s e a " . C i t e d b y A g n è s S i r e a s s h o w i n g a n i n t i m a t e a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y C h i n a w i t h o u t a n y e x o t i c i s m , " C o a s t l i n e " w o n 2 0 1 1 , a n d a s a r e s u l t w a s w i d e l y e x h i b i t e d a n d p u b l i s h e d i n b o o k f o r m i n A r l e s b y A c t e s S u d i n 2 0 1 1 . T h r e e y e a r s l a t e r a d i f f e r e n t s e l e c t i o n w a s p u b l i s h e d i n K o w l o o n b y J i a z a z h i P r e s s , a n d a s m a l l e r s e l e c t i o n i n T o k y o b y Z e n F o t o G a l l e r y . I n C h i n a p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t s a r e o f f e r e d c a s h f o r t h e i r p o s i t i v e c o m m e n t o n a t o p i c t h e y a r e c o v e r i n g . A l t h o u g h i n h i s c a r e e r a s a p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t Z h a n g d e c l i n e d s u c h o f f e r s o f e n v e l o p e s c o n t a i n i n g l a r g e s u m s o f m o n e y w h e r e h e c o n s i d e r e d i t u n c o n s c i o n a b l e t o d o s o , h e a c c e p t e d t h o s e w i t h s m a l l e r s u m s w h e r e h e c o n s i d e r e d t h e t o p i c i n s i g n i f i c a n t . H e c o l l e c t e d t h e e n v e l o p e s , w h i c h h e h a s e x h i b i t e d . Z h a n g u s e d a H o l g a a g a i n f o r t h e s q u a r e , c o l o u r p h o t o g r a p h s o f t r a d i t i o n a l r i t u a l s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e l u n a r n e w y e a r i n S h a a n x i . T h e b o o k " S h a n x i " w a s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d b y L i t t l e B i g M a n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ; S e a n O ' H a g a n d e s c r i b e s i t a s " a s e d u c t i v e b o o k , a g l i m p s e o f a w o r l d o f p a g a n c u s t o m t h a t s o m e h o w e n d u r e s a g a i n s t t h e o d d s , d r e a m l i k e a n d e n t r a n c i n g " .

Life and career

Zhang Jian graduated in architecture before becoming a photographer. He worked for the Chongqing Morning Post from 2006-2009, during which time he took personal photos using a Holga camera. Inspired by photographers like Diane Arbus, he created the series "They" and "Coastline", showcasing everyday life in China. His work has been widely exhibited and published in books, including "Shanxi", which captures traditional lunar new year rituals.

Zhang graduated in architecture from Yantai University in 2005. From 2006 to 2009, he worked in Chongqing as a photographer for the "Chongqing Morning Post" (《重庆晨报》). From the start, he carried two cameras: one for work, and a cheap medium format camera for personal use. Zhang has been inspired by the photography of Diane Arbus, Alec Soth and Boris Mikhailov. "They" is a series of photographs mostly taken while Zhang was working in Chongqing; they are of scenes in Chongqing itself but also nearby on the Yangtze and Jialing rivers and elsewhere. The colour photographs are square format, and employed a Holga camera. A book of the photographs was published in China in 2012; two years later a smaller selection was published in Paris. For "Coastline", Zhang "visited every town and city along the Chinese coastline", from 2009 to 2013. The photographs are colour again, but this time Zhang used a Mamiya 7 II camera. Zhang has described the coastline as "[China's] first area of impact from external culture and the rapid economic development; the series "records subtle and surreal moments of life by the sea". Cited by Agnès Sire as showing an intimate and contemporary China without any exoticism, "Coastline" won 2011, and as a result was widely exhibited and published in book form in Arles by Actes Sud in 2011. Three years later a different selection was published in Kowloon by Jiazazhi Press, and a smaller selection in Tokyo by Zen Foto Gallery. In China photojournalists are offered cash for their positive comment on a topic they are covering. Although in his career as a photojournalist Zhang declined such offers of envelopes containing large sums of money where he considered it unconscionable to do so, he accepted those with smaller sums where he considered the topic insignificant. He collected the envelopes, which he has exhibited. Zhang used a Holga again for the square, colour photographs of traditional rituals surrounding the lunar new year in Shaanxi. The book "Shanxi" was first published by Little Big Man in the United States; Sean O'Hagan describes it as "a seductive book, a glimpse of a world of pagan custom that somehow endures against the odds, dreamlike and entrancing".

Uncial 093

T h e c o d e x c o n t a i n s a s m a l l p a r t s o f t h e A c t s 2 4 : 2 2 - 2 5 : 5 , a n d 1 P e t 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 ; 3 : 1 , 3 - 7 , o n t w o p a r c h m e n t l e a v e s ( 2 5   c m b y 1 8   c m ) . A c c o r d i n g t o C . R . G r e g o r y i t h a s 1 ½ l e a v e s . T h e t e x t i s w r i t t e n i n t w o c o l u m n s p e r p a g e , 2 4 l i n e s p e r p a g e , i n u n c i a l l e t t e r s . I t i s a p a l i m p s e s t , t h e u p p e r t e x t i s i n H e b r e w . T h e G r e e k t e x t o f t h i s c o d e x i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e B y z a n t i n e t e x t - t y p e i n t h e A c t s , a n d t h e A l e x a n d r i a n t e x t - t y p e i n 1 P e t e r . A l a n d p l a c e d i t i n C a t e g o r y V i n A c t s , a n d i n C a t e g o r y I I i n 1 P e t e r . C u r r e n t l y i t i s d a t e d b y t h e I N T F t o t h e 6 t h - c e n t u r y . I t w a s f o u n d i n C a i r o i n g e n i z a h . I t w a s e x a m i n e d b y C . T a y l o r . T h e c o d e x n o w i s l o c a t e d i n t h e C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y a s a p a r t o f t h e T a y l o r - S c h e c h t e r C o l l e c t i o n ( 1 2 , 1 8 9 ; 1 2 , 2 0 8 ) i n C a m b r i d g e .

Description

This ancient codex consists of two parchment leaves containing fragments of Acts 24:22-25:5 and 1 Peter 2:22-24; 3:1,3-7. Written in uncial script with 24 lines per page, it's a palimpsest with a Hebrew upper text. The Greek text represents the Byzantine type in Acts and Alexandrian type in 1 Peter, dating back to the 6th century.

The codex contains a small parts of the Acts 24:22-25:5, and 1 Pet 2:22-24; 3:1,3-7, on two parchment leaves (25 cm by 18 cm). According to C. R. Gregory it has 1½ leaves. The text is written in two columns per page, 24 lines per page, in uncial letters. It is a palimpsest, the upper text is in Hebrew. The Greek text of this codex is a representative of the Byzantine text-type in the Acts, and the Alexandrian text-type in 1 Peter. Aland placed it in Category V in Acts, and in Category II in 1 Peter. Currently it is dated by the INTF to the 6th-century. It was found in Cairo in genizah. It was examined by C. Taylor. The codex now is located in the Cambridge University Library as a part of the Taylor-Schechter Collection (12,189; 12,208) in Cambridge.

Sun Nan

S u n N a n w a s b o r n i n D a l i a n i n L i a o n i n g , C h i n a , o n F e b r u a r y 1 8 , 1 9 6 9 . S u n N a n w a s b o r n i n t o a f a m i l y o f a r t i s t s . H i s f a t h e r w a s a t e n o r w h o t a u g h t b e l c a n t o a n d h i s m o t h e r , s i s t e r , a n d b r o t h e r a l l p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a d a n c e t r o u p e . R a i s e d i n s u c h a f a m i l y e n v i r o n m e n t , S u n N a n l e a r n e d t o p l a y t h e p i a n o a n d t h e g u i t a r a n d f o r m e d a b a n d a t a n e a r l y a g e . T h o u g h h e d i d n o t c o n s i d e r m u s i c t o b e h i s l i f e ' s w o r k a f t e r g r a d u a t i n g f r o m h i g h s c h o o l , h e w a s s o o n a t t r a c t e d t o p o p s o n g s f r o m H o n g K o n g a n d T a i w a n . U n d e r t h o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , h e o p t e d f o r a c a r e e r i n m u s i c a n d l e a r n e d t o s i n g . I n t h e 1 9 9 0 s , S u n w a s a p o p u l a r s i n g e r i n t h e B e i j i n g m u s i c s c e n e . H e r o s e t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o m i n e n c e a f t e r 2 0 0 2 . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 2 , S u n s e r v e d o n t h e j u d g i n g p a n e l o f " A s i a n W a v e " o n D r a g o n T e l e v i s i o n . H e c a n c e l l e d a l l o f h i s c o n c e r t s i n J a p a n d u r i n g t h e t e r r i t o r i a l d i s p u t e o f S e n k a k u I s l a n d s b e t w e e n C h i n a a n d J a p a n . O n F e b r u a r y 1 7 , 2 0 1 5 , h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e 2 0 1 5 C C T V S p r i n g F e s t i v a l G a l a a n d p e r f o r m e d t h e s o n g " H a n d s " . O n J a n u a r y , S u n t o o k p a r t i n t h e t h i r d s e a s o n o f H u n a n T V ' s " I A m a S i n g e r " a s o n e o f t h e s e v e n i n i t i a l s i n g e r s a n d a h o s t . H o w e v e r , S u n w i t h d r e w f r o m " I A m a S i n g e r " d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t h e w a n t e d t h e r e s t o f t h e s i n g e r s t o s t a n d a h i g h e r c h a n c e i n t h e t i t l e . I n J u l y , h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n J i a n g s u T e l e v i s i o n ' s " M o n g o l i a n S o n g K i n g " , e v e n t u a l l y w i n n i n g . I n N o v e m b e r , h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e " C h i n a S t a r " c o m p e t i t i o n a i r i n g o n D r a g o n T e l e v i s i o n . H e w o n t h e g r a n d p r i z e o n " C h i n a S t a r " a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y t r a v e l e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o p a r t i c i p a t e , r e c e i v i n g t h e 5 8 t h R e c o r d i n g A c a d e m y ' s P r e s i d e n t ' s M e r i t A w a r d . O n O c t o b e r 2 8 , 2 0 1 7 , S u n N a n h e l d t h e " X i X i Y a J i " i n H a n g z h o u ' s X i x i W e t l a n d . D i r e c t o r Z h a n g J i z h o n g , " N e w W e e k l y " p u b l i s h e r S u n W e i , a n d o t h e r g u e s t s a t t e n d e d t h e e v e n t a n d r e l e a s e d " N a n ' s S t o r y " u n d e r t h e b r a n d o f G u o x u e . T h i s t r a d i t i o n a l c r a f t i s i n t e n d e d t o s p r e a d t h e b e a u t y o f C h i n e s e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e t o e v e r y C h i n e s e p e r s o n . T h e d o c u m e n t a r y " A m a z i n g C h i n a " e n d s w i t h a s o n g p e r f o r m e d b y S u n . O n F e b r u a r y 1 5 , 2 0 1 8 , i n t h e 2 0 1 8 C C T V S p r i n g F e s t i v a l G a l a , S u n N a n a n d T a n W e i w e i p e r f o r m e d " N e w B e g i n n i n g o f H a p p i n e s s " . O n M a r c h 2 , h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e 2 0 1 8 C C T V L a n t e r n F e s t i v a l a n d p e r f o r m e d " N e w W o r l d " . O n F e b r u a r y 4 , 2 0 1 9 , t h e C e n t r a l R a d i o a n d T e l e v i s i o n G e n e r a l S t a t i o n S p r i n g F e s t i v a l G a l a i n v i t e d S u n N a n a n d Z h a n g J i e t o p e r f o r m t h e s o n g " T h e D i s t a n c e o f T i m e " . S u n N a n m a r r i e d C h i n e s e a c t r e s s M a i H o n g m e i ( 买 红 妹 ) i n 2 0 0 0 . T h e y h a d a d a u g h t e r a n d a s o n . D u e t o S u n ' s f r e q u e n t t r a v e l i n g f o r h i s c o n c e r t s , S u n a n d M a i c o m m u n i c a t e d l e s s a n d l e s s f r e q u e n t l y . I n 2 0 0 9 , S u n f i l e d f o r d i v o r c e . I n 2 0 0 9 , S u n m a r r i e d h o s t e s s P a n W e i ( 潘 蔚 ) . S u n ' s i n t e r e s t s a n d h o b b i e s i n c l u d e F o r m u l a O n e , g o l f , a n d s o c c e r ; h e i s t h e c a p t a i n o f t h e M e n g Z h o u s o c c e r t e a m . S u n h a s p e r f o r m e d s e v e r a l t h e m e s o n g s f o r C h i n e s e t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g : S u n h a s h a d n u m e r o u s n o t a b l e a c h i e v e m e n t s e a r l y o n i n h i s c a r e e r :

Early life

Born on February 18, 1969, in Dalian, China, Sun Nan grew up in a family of artists. He learned to play the piano and guitar at a young age and formed a band. Although he didn't initially plan to pursue music as a career, he was drawn to pop songs from Hong Kong and Taiwan, leading him to learn singing and eventually become a popular singer in Beijing's music scene in the 1990s.

Sun Nan was born in Dalian in Liaoning, China, on February 18, 1969. Sun Nan was born into a family of artists. His father was a tenor who taught bel canto and his mother, sister, and brother all participated in a dance troupe. Raised in such a family environment, Sun Nan learned to play the piano and the guitar and formed a band at an early age. Though he did not consider music to be his life's work after graduating from high school, he was soon attracted to pop songs from Hong Kong and Taiwan. Under those circumstances, he opted for a career in music and learned to sing. In the 1990s, Sun was a popular singer in the Beijing music scene. He rose to international prominence after 2002. In August 2012, Sun served on the judging panel of "Asian Wave" on Dragon Television. He cancelled all of his concerts in Japan during the territorial dispute of Senkaku Islands between China and Japan. On February 17, 2015, he participated in the 2015 CCTV Spring Festival Gala and performed the song "Hands". On January, Sun took part in the third season of Hunan TV's "I Am a Singer" as one of the seven initial singers and a host. However, Sun withdrew from "I Am a Singer" due to the fact that he wanted the rest of the singers to stand a higher chance in the title. In July, he participated in Jiangsu Television's "Mongolian Song King", eventually winning. In November, he participated in the "China Star" competition airing on Dragon Television. He won the grand prize on "China Star" and subsequently traveled to the United States to participate, receiving the 58th Recording Academy's President's Merit Award. On October 28, 2017, Sun Nan held the "Xi Xi Ya Ji" in Hangzhou's Xixi Wetland. Director Zhang Jizhong, "New Weekly" publisher Sun Wei, and other guests attended the event and released "Nan's Story" under the brand of Guoxue. This traditional craft is intended to spread the beauty of Chinese traditional culture to every Chinese person. The documentary "Amazing China" ends with a song performed by Sun. On February 15, 2018, in the 2018 CCTV Spring Festival Gala, Sun Nan and Tan Weiwei performed "New Beginning of Happiness". On March 2, he participated in the 2018 CCTV Lantern Festival and performed "New World". On February 4, 2019, the Central Radio and Television General Station Spring Festival Gala invited Sun Nan and Zhang Jie to perform the song "The Distance of Time". Sun Nan married Chinese actress Mai Hongmei (买红妹) in 2000. They had a daughter and a son. Due to Sun's frequent traveling for his concerts, Sun and Mai communicated less and less frequently. In 2009, Sun filed for divorce. In 2009, Sun married hostess Pan Wei (潘蔚). Sun's interests and hobbies include Formula One, golf, and soccer; he is the captain of the Meng Zhou soccer team. Sun has performed several theme songs for Chinese television series, including the following: Sun has had numerous notable achievements early on in his career:

Sun Nan

S u n N a n w a s b o r n i n D a l i a n i n L i a o n i n g , C h i n a , o n F e b r u a r y 1 8 , 1 9 6 9 . S u n N a n w a s b o r n i n t o a f a m i l y o f a r t i s t s . H i s f a t h e r w a s a t e n o r w h o t a u g h t b e l c a n t o a n d h i s m o t h e r , s i s t e r , a n d b r o t h e r a l l p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a d a n c e t r o u p e . R a i s e d i n s u c h a f a m i l y e n v i r o n m e n t , S u n N a n l e a r n e d t o p l a y t h e p i a n o a n d t h e g u i t a r a n d f o r m e d a b a n d a t a n e a r l y a g e . T h o u g h h e d i d n o t c o n s i d e r m u s i c t o b e h i s l i f e ' s w o r k a f t e r g r a d u a t i n g f r o m h i g h s c h o o l , h e w a s s o o n a t t r a c t e d t o p o p s o n g s f r o m H o n g K o n g a n d T a i w a n . U n d e r t h o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , h e o p t e d f o r a c a r e e r i n m u s i c a n d l e a r n e d t o s i n g . I n t h e 1 9 9 0 s , S u n w a s a p o p u l a r s i n g e r i n t h e B e i j i n g m u s i c s c e n e . H e r o s e t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o m i n e n c e a f t e r 2 0 0 2 . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 2 , S u n s e r v e d o n t h e j u d g i n g p a n e l o f " A s i a n W a v e " o n D r a g o n T e l e v i s i o n . H e c a n c e l l e d a l l o f h i s c o n c e r t s i n J a p a n d u r i n g t h e t e r r i t o r i a l d i s p u t e o f S e n k a k u I s l a n d s b e t w e e n C h i n a a n d J a p a n . O n F e b r u a r y 1 7 , 2 0 1 5 , h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e 2 0 1 5 C C T V S p r i n g F e s t i v a l G a l a a n d p e r f o r m e d t h e s o n g " H a n d s " . O n J a n u a r y , S u n t o o k p a r t i n t h e t h i r d s e a s o n o f H u n a n T V ' s " I A m a S i n g e r " a s o n e o f t h e s e v e n i n i t i a l s i n g e r s a n d a h o s t . H o w e v e r , S u n w i t h d r e w f r o m " I A m a S i n g e r " d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t h e w a n t e d t h e r e s t o f t h e s i n g e r s t o s t a n d a h i g h e r c h a n c e i n t h e t i t l e . I n J u l y , h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n J i a n g s u T e l e v i s i o n ' s " M o n g o l i a n S o n g K i n g " , e v e n t u a l l y w i n n i n g . I n N o v e m b e r , h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e " C h i n a S t a r " c o m p e t i t i o n a i r i n g o n D r a g o n T e l e v i s i o n . H e w o n t h e g r a n d p r i z e o n " C h i n a S t a r " a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y t r a v e l e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o p a r t i c i p a t e , r e c e i v i n g t h e 5 8 t h R e c o r d i n g A c a d e m y ' s P r e s i d e n t ' s M e r i t A w a r d . O n O c t o b e r 2 8 , 2 0 1 7 , S u n N a n h e l d t h e " X i X i Y a J i " i n H a n g z h o u ' s X i x i W e t l a n d . D i r e c t o r Z h a n g J i z h o n g , " N e w W e e k l y " p u b l i s h e r S u n W e i , a n d o t h e r g u e s t s a t t e n d e d t h e e v e n t a n d r e l e a s e d " N a n ' s S t o r y " u n d e r t h e b r a n d o f G u o x u e . T h i s t r a d i t i o n a l c r a f t i s i n t e n d e d t o s p r e a d t h e b e a u t y o f C h i n e s e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e t o e v e r y C h i n e s e p e r s o n . T h e d o c u m e n t a r y " A m a z i n g C h i n a " e n d s w i t h a s o n g p e r f o r m e d b y S u n . O n F e b r u a r y 1 5 , 2 0 1 8 , i n t h e 2 0 1 8 C C T V S p r i n g F e s t i v a l G a l a , S u n N a n a n d T a n W e i w e i p e r f o r m e d " N e w B e g i n n i n g o f H a p p i n e s s " . O n M a r c h 2 , h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e 2 0 1 8 C C T V L a n t e r n F e s t i v a l a n d p e r f o r m e d " N e w W o r l d " . O n F e b r u a r y 4 , 2 0 1 9 , t h e C e n t r a l R a d i o a n d T e l e v i s i o n G e n e r a l S t a t i o n S p r i n g F e s t i v a l G a l a i n v i t e d S u n N a n a n d Z h a n g J i e t o p e r f o r m t h e s o n g " T h e D i s t a n c e o f T i m e " . S u n N a n m a r r i e d C h i n e s e a c t r e s s M a i H o n g m e i ( 买 红 妹 ) i n 2 0 0 0 . T h e y h a d a d a u g h t e r a n d a s o n . D u e t o S u n ' s f r e q u e n t t r a v e l i n g f o r h i s c o n c e r t s , S u n a n d M a i c o m m u n i c a t e d l e s s a n d l e s s f r e q u e n t l y . I n 2 0 0 9 , S u n f i l e d f o r d i v o r c e . I n 2 0 0 9 , S u n m a r r i e d h o s t e s s P a n W e i ( 潘 蔚 ) . S u n ' s i n t e r e s t s a n d h o b b i e s i n c l u d e F o r m u l a O n e , g o l f , a n d s o c c e r ; h e i s t h e c a p t a i n o f t h e M e n g Z h o u s o c c e r t e a m . S u n h a s p e r f o r m e d s e v e r a l t h e m e s o n g s f o r C h i n e s e t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g : S u n h a s h a d n u m e r o u s n o t a b l e a c h i e v e m e n t s e a r l y o n i n h i s c a r e e r :

Career

Sun Nan is a renowned Chinese singer born on February 18, 1969, in Dalian, China. He comes from a family of artists and began learning music at a young age. After initially pursuing a different path, he became drawn to pop music and decided to pursue a career in singing. Sun gained popularity in the Beijing music scene in the 1990s and later rose to international fame after 2002. Throughout his career, he has participated in various TV shows, competitions, and performances, earning multiple awards and accolades.

Sun Nan was born in Dalian in Liaoning, China, on February 18, 1969. Sun Nan was born into a family of artists. His father was a tenor who taught bel canto and his mother, sister, and brother all participated in a dance troupe. Raised in such a family environment, Sun Nan learned to play the piano and the guitar and formed a band at an early age. Though he did not consider music to be his life's work after graduating from high school, he was soon attracted to pop songs from Hong Kong and Taiwan. Under those circumstances, he opted for a career in music and learned to sing. In the 1990s, Sun was a popular singer in the Beijing music scene. He rose to international prominence after 2002. In August 2012, Sun served on the judging panel of "Asian Wave" on Dragon Television. He cancelled all of his concerts in Japan during the territorial dispute of Senkaku Islands between China and Japan. On February 17, 2015, he participated in the 2015 CCTV Spring Festival Gala and performed the song "Hands". On January, Sun took part in the third season of Hunan TV's "I Am a Singer" as one of the seven initial singers and a host. However, Sun withdrew from "I Am a Singer" due to the fact that he wanted the rest of the singers to stand a higher chance in the title. In July, he participated in Jiangsu Television's "Mongolian Song King", eventually winning. In November, he participated in the "China Star" competition airing on Dragon Television. He won the grand prize on "China Star" and subsequently traveled to the United States to participate, receiving the 58th Recording Academy's President's Merit Award. On October 28, 2017, Sun Nan held the "Xi Xi Ya Ji" in Hangzhou's Xixi Wetland. Director Zhang Jizhong, "New Weekly" publisher Sun Wei, and other guests attended the event and released "Nan's Story" under the brand of Guoxue. This traditional craft is intended to spread the beauty of Chinese traditional culture to every Chinese person. The documentary "Amazing China" ends with a song performed by Sun. On February 15, 2018, in the 2018 CCTV Spring Festival Gala, Sun Nan and Tan Weiwei performed "New Beginning of Happiness". On March 2, he participated in the 2018 CCTV Lantern Festival and performed "New World". On February 4, 2019, the Central Radio and Television General Station Spring Festival Gala invited Sun Nan and Zhang Jie to perform the song "The Distance of Time". Sun Nan married Chinese actress Mai Hongmei (买红妹) in 2000. They had a daughter and a son. Due to Sun's frequent traveling for his concerts, Sun and Mai communicated less and less frequently. In 2009, Sun filed for divorce. In 2009, Sun married hostess Pan Wei (潘蔚). Sun's interests and hobbies include Formula One, golf, and soccer; he is the captain of the Meng Zhou soccer team. Sun has performed several theme songs for Chinese television series, including the following: Sun has had numerous notable achievements early on in his career:

Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia

T h e c h u r c h d e v e l o p e d o u t o f t h e w o r k o f t h e F i n n i s h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y t h a t b e g a n i n 1 8 7 0 a m o n g t h e O v a m b o a n d K a v a n g o p e o p l e i n t h e n o r t h e r n a r e a o f w h a t b e c a m e G e r m a n S o u t h W e s t A f r i c a . I n 1 9 5 4 , a n i n d e p e n d e n t c h u r c h k n o w n a s t h e E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n O v a m b o - K a v a n g o C h u r c h ( E L O C ) w a s e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h B i r g e r E r i k s s o n a s i t s f i r s t p r e s i d e n t . T h e f i r s t N a m i b i a n b i s h o p o f E L O C , L e o n a r d A u a l a , p l a y e d a n o t a b l e r o l e i n t h e s t r u g g l e f o r N a m i b i a ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e . I n 1 9 7 1 a n o p e n l e t t e r w a s w r i t t e n j o i n t l y w i t h M o d e r a t o r P a u l u s G o w a s e b o f t h e R h e n i s h M i s s i o n ' s U n i t e d E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h i n S o u t h W e s t A f r i c a ( l a t e r k n o w n a s t h e E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h i n t h e R e p u b l i c o f N a m i b i a ) t o t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r o f S o u t h A f r i c a , B . J . V o r s t e r , w h i c h d e c l a r e d t h e i r c h u r c h ' s o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e c o n t i n u e d r u l e o f S o u t h A f r i c a a n d t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u r t o f J u s t i c e f o r t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f S o u t h A f r i c a ' s m a n d a t e a n d a t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d t o w a r d s i n d e p e n d e n c e . I n 1 9 8 4 , E L O C ' s n a m e w a s o f f i c i a l l y c h a n g e d t o i t s c u r r e n t i t e r a t i o n , t h e E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h i n N a m i b i a . A u a l a ' s s u c c e s s o r , K l e o p a s D u m e n i , a l s o p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e p l i g h t o f N a m i b i a n s u n d e r S o u t h A f r i c a n r u l e . B i s h o p D u m e n i s u f f e r e d p e r s o n a l l o s s e s i n t h e s t r u g g l e i n c l u d i n g t h e d e a t h o f h i s 1 8 - y e a r - o l d d a u g h t e r i n a b o m b b l a s t i n 1 9 8 8 . I n 2 0 0 7 , E L C I N t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h i n t h e R e p u b l i c o f N a m i b i a a n d t h e G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h i n N a m i b i a ( G E L K ) f o r m e d t h e U n i t e d C h u r c h C o u n c i l : N a m i b i a E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h e s , w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e a i m o f b e c o m i n g o n e u n i t e d n a t i o n a l L u t h e r a n c h u r c h . T h e c h u r c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y l e d b y a M o d e r a t o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g s t t h e c l e r g y . I n t h e 1 9 6 0 s t h e c h u r c h a d o p t e d e p i s c o p a l p o l i t y a n d w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y l e d b y a b i s h o p . I n 1 9 9 2 , t h e c h u r c h w a s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o d i o c e s e s , t h e E a s t e r n D i o c e s e a n d t h e W e s t e r n D i o c e s e , e a c h l e d b y i t s o w n b i s h o p , a n d s i n c e 1 9 9 6 a P r e s i d i n g B i s h o p h a s b e e n e l e c t e d t o p r e s i d e o v e r t h e w h o l e E L C I N . T h e r e h a v e b e e n c a l l s f o r t h e W e s t e r n D i o c e s e t o b e f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o t w o , t o c r e a t e a t o t a l o f t h r e e d i o c e s e s . T w o f u r t h e r d i o c e s e s w o u l d b e a d d e d b y t h e p r o p o s e d a m a l g a m a t i o n w i t h N a m i b i a ' s o t h e r t w o L u t h e r a n d e n o m i n a t i o n s , a p r o c e s s w h i c h i s u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . M o d e r a t o r s o f E L O C B i s h o p s o f E L O C " ( e p i s c o p a l p o l i t y a d o p t e d 1 9 6 3 ) " P r e s i d i n g B i s h o p s o f E L C I N B e t w e e n 2 0 1 2 a n d 2 0 1 4 t h e B i s h o p o f t h e W e s t e r n D i o c e s e w a s J o s a p h a t S h a n g h a l a . B i s h o p S h a n g h a l a a t t e m p t e d t o m o v e t h e p a r i s h p a s t o r a t O k a h a o , t h e R e v H u l d a S h a u - A i t a n a , t o t h e p a r i s h o f O k a m b e b e . T h e p a s t o r r e f u s e d t o m o v e , c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e r e l o c a t i o n w a s n o t f o r p a s t o r a l r e a s o n s , b u t r a t h e r a p e r s o n a l p u n i s h m e n t . T h e i s s u e b e c a m e h i g h l y d i v i s i v e w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h , a n d h i g h - p r o f i l e w i t h i n N a m i b i a n n e w s m e d i a . I n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 3 p a r i s h i o n e r s a t O k a h a o p e t i t i o n e d t h e P r e s i d i n g B i s h o p , S h e k u t a a m b a N a m b a l a , t o h a v e B i s h o p S h a n g h a l a r e m o v e d f r o m o f f i c e . T h e P r e s i d i n g B i s h o p a t t e m p t e d t o i n t e r v e n e , a n d a p p o i n t e d t w o s e p a r a t e c o m m i s s i o n s t o r e p o r t o n t h e g r o w i n g p u b l i c c o n t r o v e r s y , b u t t h e r e s u l t s o f b o t h c o m m i s s i o n s w e r e r e j e c t e d b y t h e p a r i s h . T h e P r e s i d i n g B i s h o p u l t i m a t e l y a p p e a r e d t o s i d e w i t h t h e p a r i s h a u t h o r i t i e s , l e a d i n g t o c o n c e r n s b e i n g e x p r e s s e d f o r t h e f u t u r e u n i t y o f t h e c h u r c h . O n 9 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 B i s h o p S h a n g h a l a a t t e m p t e d t o v i s i t O k a h a o p a r i s h t o p r e a c h a t t h e S u n d a y m o r n i n g s e r v i c e , b u t h e w a s p r e v e n t e d f r o m s p e a k i n g b y t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n , w h o h e c k l e d h i m i n t h e p u l p i t , a n d t h e n e j e c t e d h i m f r o m t h e c h u r c h . T h e c o n t r o v e r s y w a s t e r m i n a t e d w h e n B i s h o p S h a n g h a l a r e t i r e d i n J u n e 2 0 1 4 , a g e d 7 0 . H i s r e t i r e m e n t c e r e m o n y w a s a t t e n d e d b y d i g n i t a r i e s o f c h u r c h a n d s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g t h e N a m i b i a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r . S h a n g h a l a w a s s u c c e e d e d a s B i s h o p o f t h e W e s t e r n D i o c e s e b y B i s h o p V e i k k o M u n y i k a . E L C I N p a r t i c i p a t e s a c t i v e l y i n e c u m e n i c a l w o r k t h r o u g h i t s a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h :

History

The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (ELCIN) originated from the Finnish Missionary Society's work among the Ovambo and Kavango people in the late 19th century. It gained independence in 1954 and played a significant role in Namibia's struggle for independence, with bishops like Leonard Auala and Kleopas Dumeni advocating against South African rule. The church underwent changes in leadership structure, adopting episcopal polity in the 1960s and dividing into two dioceses in 1992. Recent controversies surrounding Bishop Josaphat Shanghala's leadership were resolved with his retirement in 2014. Today, ELCIN continues to engage in ecumenical efforts and works towards potential unification with other Namibian Lutheran denominations.

The church developed out of the work of the Finnish Missionary Society that began in 1870 among the Ovambo and Kavango people in the northern area of what became German South West Africa. In 1954, an independent church known as the Evangelical Lutheran Ovambo-Kavango Church (ELOC) was established with Birger Eriksson as its first president. The first Namibian bishop of ELOC, Leonard Auala, played a notable role in the struggle for Namibia's independence. In 1971 an open letter was written jointly with Moderator Paulus Gowaseb of the Rhenish Mission's United Evangelical Lutheran Church in South West Africa (later known as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Republic of Namibia) to the Prime Minister of South Africa, B.J. Vorster, which declared their church's opposition to the continued rule of South Africa and the acceptance of the recommendation by the International Court of Justice for the withdrawal of South Africa's mandate and a transition period towards independence. In 1984, ELOC's name was officially changed to its current iteration, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia. Auala's successor, Kleopas Dumeni, also played an important role in highlighting the plight of Namibians under South African rule. Bishop Dumeni suffered personal losses in the struggle including the death of his 18-year-old daughter in a bomb blast in 1988. In 2007, ELCIN together with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Republic of Namibia and the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK) formed the United Church Council: Namibia Evangelical Lutheran Churches, with the ultimate aim of becoming one united national Lutheran church. The church was originally led by a Moderator, elected from amongst the clergy. In the 1960s the church adopted episcopal polity and was subsequently led by a bishop. In 1992, the church was divided into two dioceses, the Eastern Diocese and the Western Diocese, each led by its own bishop, and since 1996 a Presiding Bishop has been elected to preside over the whole ELCIN. There have been calls for the Western Diocese to be further divided into two, to create a total of three dioceses. Two further dioceses would be added by the proposed amalgamation with Namibia's other two Lutheran denominations, a process which is under discussion. Moderators of ELOC Bishops of ELOC "(episcopal polity adopted 1963)" Presiding Bishops of ELCIN Between 2012 and 2014 the Bishop of the Western Diocese was Josaphat Shanghala. Bishop Shanghala attempted to move the parish pastor at Okahao, the Rev Hulda Shau-Aitana, to the parish of Okambebe. The pastor refused to move, claiming that the relocation was not for pastoral reasons, but rather a personal punishment. The issue became highly divisive within the church, and high-profile within Namibian news media. In October 2013 parishioners at Okahao petitioned the Presiding Bishop, Shekutaamba Nambala, to have Bishop Shanghala removed from office. The Presiding Bishop attempted to intervene, and appointed two separate commissions to report on the growing public controversy, but the results of both commissions were rejected by the parish. The Presiding Bishop ultimately appeared to side with the parish authorities, leading to concerns being expressed for the future unity of the church. On 9 February 2014 Bishop Shanghala attempted to visit Okahao parish to preach at the Sunday morning service, but he was prevented from speaking by the congregation, who heckled him in the pulpit, and then ejected him from the church. The controversy was terminated when Bishop Shanghala retired in June 2014, aged 70. His retirement ceremony was attended by dignitaries of church and state, including the Namibian Prime Minister. Shanghala was succeeded as Bishop of the Western Diocese by Bishop Veikko Munyika. ELCIN participates actively in ecumenical work through its affiliation with:

Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia

T h e c h u r c h d e v e l o p e d o u t o f t h e w o r k o f t h e F i n n i s h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y t h a t b e g a n i n 1 8 7 0 a m o n g t h e O v a m b o a n d K a v a n g o p e o p l e i n t h e n o r t h e r n a r e a o f w h a t b e c a m e G e r m a n S o u t h W e s t A f r i c a . I n 1 9 5 4 , a n i n d e p e n d e n t c h u r c h k n o w n a s t h e E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n O v a m b o - K a v a n g o C h u r c h ( E L O C ) w a s e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h B i r g e r E r i k s s o n a s i t s f i r s t p r e s i d e n t . T h e f i r s t N a m i b i a n b i s h o p o f E L O C , L e o n a r d A u a l a , p l a y e d a n o t a b l e r o l e i n t h e s t r u g g l e f o r N a m i b i a ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e . I n 1 9 7 1 a n o p e n l e t t e r w a s w r i t t e n j o i n t l y w i t h M o d e r a t o r P a u l u s G o w a s e b o f t h e R h e n i s h M i s s i o n ' s U n i t e d E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h i n S o u t h W e s t A f r i c a ( l a t e r k n o w n a s t h e E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h i n t h e R e p u b l i c o f N a m i b i a ) t o t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r o f S o u t h A f r i c a , B . J . V o r s t e r , w h i c h d e c l a r e d t h e i r c h u r c h ' s o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e c o n t i n u e d r u l e o f S o u t h A f r i c a a n d t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u r t o f J u s t i c e f o r t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f S o u t h A f r i c a ' s m a n d a t e a n d a t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d t o w a r d s i n d e p e n d e n c e . I n 1 9 8 4 , E L O C ' s n a m e w a s o f f i c i a l l y c h a n g e d t o i t s c u r r e n t i t e r a t i o n , t h e E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h i n N a m i b i a . A u a l a ' s s u c c e s s o r , K l e o p a s D u m e n i , a l s o p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e p l i g h t o f N a m i b i a n s u n d e r S o u t h A f r i c a n r u l e . B i s h o p D u m e n i s u f f e r e d p e r s o n a l l o s s e s i n t h e s t r u g g l e i n c l u d i n g t h e d e a t h o f h i s 1 8 - y e a r - o l d d a u g h t e r i n a b o m b b l a s t i n 1 9 8 8 . I n 2 0 0 7 , E L C I N t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h i n t h e R e p u b l i c o f N a m i b i a a n d t h e G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h i n N a m i b i a ( G E L K ) f o r m e d t h e U n i t e d C h u r c h C o u n c i l : N a m i b i a E v a n g e l i c a l L u t h e r a n C h u r c h e s , w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e a i m o f b e c o m i n g o n e u n i t e d n a t i o n a l L u t h e r a n c h u r c h . T h e c h u r c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y l e d b y a M o d e r a t o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g s t t h e c l e r g y . I n t h e 1 9 6 0 s t h e c h u r c h a d o p t e d e p i s c o p a l p o l i t y a n d w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y l e d b y a b i s h o p . I n 1 9 9 2 , t h e c h u r c h w a s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o d i o c e s e s , t h e E a s t e r n D i o c e s e a n d t h e W e s t e r n D i o c e s e , e a c h l e d b y i t s o w n b i s h o p , a n d s i n c e 1 9 9 6 a P r e s i d i n g B i s h o p h a s b e e n e l e c t e d t o p r e s i d e o v e r t h e w h o l e E L C I N . T h e r e h a v e b e e n c a l l s f o r t h e W e s t e r n D i o c e s e t o b e f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o t w o , t o c r e a t e a t o t a l o f t h r e e d i o c e s e s . T w o f u r t h e r d i o c e s e s w o u l d b e a d d e d b y t h e p r o p o s e d a m a l g a m a t i o n w i t h N a m i b i a ' s o t h e r t w o L u t h e r a n d e n o m i n a t i o n s , a p r o c e s s w h i c h i s u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . M o d e r a t o r s o f E L O C B i s h o p s o f E L O C " ( e p i s c o p a l p o l i t y a d o p t e d 1 9 6 3 ) " P r e s i d i n g B i s h o p s o f E L C I N B e t w e e n 2 0 1 2 a n d 2 0 1 4 t h e B i s h o p o f t h e W e s t e r n D i o c e s e w a s J o s a p h a t S h a n g h a l a . B i s h o p S h a n g h a l a a t t e m p t e d t o m o v e t h e p a r i s h p a s t o r a t O k a h a o , t h e R e v H u l d a S h a u - A i t a n a , t o t h e p a r i s h o f O k a m b e b e . T h e p a s t o r r e f u s e d t o m o v e , c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e r e l o c a t i o n w a s n o t f o r p a s t o r a l r e a s o n s , b u t r a t h e r a p e r s o n a l p u n i s h m e n t . T h e i s s u e b e c a m e h i g h l y d i v i s i v e w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h , a n d h i g h - p r o f i l e w i t h i n N a m i b i a n n e w s m e d i a . I n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 3 p a r i s h i o n e r s a t O k a h a o p e t i t i o n e d t h e P r e s i d i n g B i s h o p , S h e k u t a a m b a N a m b a l a , t o h a v e B i s h o p S h a n g h a l a r e m o v e d f r o m o f f i c e . T h e P r e s i d i n g B i s h o p a t t e m p t e d t o i n t e r v e n e , a n d a p p o i n t e d t w o s e p a r a t e c o m m i s s i o n s t o r e p o r t o n t h e g r o w i n g p u b l i c c o n t r o v e r s y , b u t t h e r e s u l t s o f b o t h c o m m i s s i o n s w e r e r e j e c t e d b y t h e p a r i s h . T h e P r e s i d i n g B i s h o p u l t i m a t e l y a p p e a r e d t o s i d e w i t h t h e p a r i s h a u t h o r i t i e s , l e a d i n g t o c o n c e r n s b e i n g e x p r e s s e d f o r t h e f u t u r e u n i t y o f t h e c h u r c h . O n 9 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 B i s h o p S h a n g h a l a a t t e m p t e d t o v i s i t O k a h a o p a r i s h t o p r e a c h a t t h e S u n d a y m o r n i n g s e r v i c e , b u t h e w a s p r e v e n t e d f r o m s p e a k i n g b y t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n , w h o h e c k l e d h i m i n t h e p u l p i t , a n d t h e n e j e c t e d h i m f r o m t h e c h u r c h . T h e c o n t r o v e r s y w a s t e r m i n a t e d w h e n B i s h o p S h a n g h a l a r e t i r e d i n J u n e 2 0 1 4 , a g e d 7 0 . H i s r e t i r e m e n t c e r e m o n y w a s a t t e n d e d b y d i g n i t a r i e s o f c h u r c h a n d s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g t h e N a m i b i a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r . S h a n g h a l a w a s s u c c e e d e d a s B i s h o p o f t h e W e s t e r n D i o c e s e b y B i s h o p V e i k k o M u n y i k a . E L C I N p a r t i c i p a t e s a c t i v e l y i n e c u m e n i c a l w o r k t h r o u g h i t s a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h :

Okahao controversy

The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia faced a major controversy between 2012-2014 involving Bishop Josaphat Shanghala of the Western Diocese and Rev. Hulda Shau-Aitana, the parish pastor at Okahao. Shanghala attempted to relocate Shau-Aitana, who refused, claiming it was a personal punishment. The dispute escalated, with parishioners petitioning for Shanghala's removal and the Presiding Bishop intervening. The controversy ended with Shanghala's retirement in June 2014, following a dramatic incident where he was heckled and ejected from the church by the congregation.

The church developed out of the work of the Finnish Missionary Society that began in 1870 among the Ovambo and Kavango people in the northern area of what became German South West Africa. In 1954, an independent church known as the Evangelical Lutheran Ovambo-Kavango Church (ELOC) was established with Birger Eriksson as its first president. The first Namibian bishop of ELOC, Leonard Auala, played a notable role in the struggle for Namibia's independence. In 1971 an open letter was written jointly with Moderator Paulus Gowaseb of the Rhenish Mission's United Evangelical Lutheran Church in South West Africa (later known as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Republic of Namibia) to the Prime Minister of South Africa, B.J. Vorster, which declared their church's opposition to the continued rule of South Africa and the acceptance of the recommendation by the International Court of Justice for the withdrawal of South Africa's mandate and a transition period towards independence. In 1984, ELOC's name was officially changed to its current iteration, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia. Auala's successor, Kleopas Dumeni, also played an important role in highlighting the plight of Namibians under South African rule. Bishop Dumeni suffered personal losses in the struggle including the death of his 18-year-old daughter in a bomb blast in 1988. In 2007, ELCIN together with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Republic of Namibia and the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK) formed the United Church Council: Namibia Evangelical Lutheran Churches, with the ultimate aim of becoming one united national Lutheran church. The church was originally led by a Moderator, elected from amongst the clergy. In the 1960s the church adopted episcopal polity and was subsequently led by a bishop. In 1992, the church was divided into two dioceses, the Eastern Diocese and the Western Diocese, each led by its own bishop, and since 1996 a Presiding Bishop has been elected to preside over the whole ELCIN. There have been calls for the Western Diocese to be further divided into two, to create a total of three dioceses. Two further dioceses would be added by the proposed amalgamation with Namibia's other two Lutheran denominations, a process which is under discussion. Moderators of ELOC Bishops of ELOC "(episcopal polity adopted 1963)" Presiding Bishops of ELCIN Between 2012 and 2014 the Bishop of the Western Diocese was Josaphat Shanghala. Bishop Shanghala attempted to move the parish pastor at Okahao, the Rev Hulda Shau-Aitana, to the parish of Okambebe. The pastor refused to move, claiming that the relocation was not for pastoral reasons, but rather a personal punishment. The issue became highly divisive within the church, and high-profile within Namibian news media. In October 2013 parishioners at Okahao petitioned the Presiding Bishop, Shekutaamba Nambala, to have Bishop Shanghala removed from office. The Presiding Bishop attempted to intervene, and appointed two separate commissions to report on the growing public controversy, but the results of both commissions were rejected by the parish. The Presiding Bishop ultimately appeared to side with the parish authorities, leading to concerns being expressed for the future unity of the church. On 9 February 2014 Bishop Shanghala attempted to visit Okahao parish to preach at the Sunday morning service, but he was prevented from speaking by the congregation, who heckled him in the pulpit, and then ejected him from the church. The controversy was terminated when Bishop Shanghala retired in June 2014, aged 70. His retirement ceremony was attended by dignitaries of church and state, including the Namibian Prime Minister. Shanghala was succeeded as Bishop of the Western Diocese by Bishop Veikko Munyika. ELCIN participates actively in ecumenical work through its affiliation with:

Megalomastomatidae

G e n e r a w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y M e g a l o m a s t o m a t i d a e i n c l u d e :

Genera

The family Megalomastigmatidae comprises several genera, including:. Provide an overview of the key points related to the genera within this family.

Genera within the family Megalomastomatidae include:

Thomson & Taylor

T h e f i r m w a s f o u n d e d a s " T h o m a s I n v e n t i o n s D e v e l o p m e n t C o . L t d . " b y J . G . P a r r y - T h o m a s & M a j o r K e n T h o m s o n . T h e i r w o r k s h o p s w e r e b a s e d i n t h e ' f l y i n g v i l l a g e ' i n s i d e t h e c i r c u i t a t B r o o k l a n d s , a c o n v e n i e n t l o c a t i o n f o r t h e i r c u s t o m e r s , w h o r a c e d t h e r e . P a r r y - T h o m a s l i v e d i n a n a d j a c e n t f o r m e r R o y a l F l y i n g C o r p s b u i l d i n g n a m e d " T h e H e r m i t a g e " . A f t e r P a r r y - T h o m a s ' d e a t h w h i l s t d r i v i n g " B a b s " a t P e n d i n e S a n d s i n 1 9 2 7 , M a j o r K e n T h o m s o n c a r r i e d o n , j o i n e d b y K e n T a y l o r , u n d e r t h e n e w n a m e o f " T h o m s o n & T a y l o r " . R e i d R a i l t o n , w h o h a d p r e v i o u s l y w o r k e d f o r P a r r y - T h o m a s a t L e y l a n d j o i n e d t h e m a s T e c h n i c a l D i r e c t o r a n d c h i e f d e s i g n e r . I n 1 9 2 6 M a l c o l m C a m p b e l l h a d o p e n e d t h e ' C a m p b e l l S h e d ' a t B r o o k l a n d s , t r a d i n g i n r a c i n g s p o r t s c a r s . A s t h e n a m e s u g g e s t s , t h i s w a s a s i m p l y c o n s t r u c t e d w o o d e n s h e d b u t i t g r e w b i g g e r a n d b i g g e r , e v e n b e i n g u s e d t o h o l d a b a r n d a n c e i n 1 9 3 1 . T h e f a m o u s l y i m p e t u o u s C a m p b e l l l o s t i n t e r e s t t h o u g h a n d h a n d e d i t o v e r t o T h o m s o n & T a y l o r . T h e s h e d s u r v i v e s t o d a y a s p a r t o f t h e B r o o k l a n d s M u s e u m .

Thomas Inventions Development Co. Ltd.

The Thomas Inventions Development Co. Ltd., founded by J.G. Parry-Thomas and Major Ken Thomson, operated from workshops within the Brooklands circuit. After Parry-Thomas' death in 1927, Thomson continued with Ken Taylor, renaming the company Thomson & Taylor, which later acquired Malcolm Campbell's 'Campbell Shed'.

The firm was founded as "Thomas Inventions Development Co. Ltd." by J. G. Parry-Thomas & Major Ken Thomson. Their workshops were based in the 'flying village' inside the circuit at Brooklands, a convenient location for their customers, who raced there. Parry-Thomas lived in an adjacent former Royal Flying Corps building named "The Hermitage". After Parry-Thomas' death whilst driving "Babs" at Pendine Sands in 1927, Major Ken Thomson carried on, joined by Ken Taylor, under the new name of "Thomson & Taylor". Reid Railton, who had previously worked for Parry-Thomas at Leyland joined them as Technical Director and chief designer. In 1926 Malcolm Campbell had opened the 'Campbell Shed' at Brooklands, trading in racing sports cars. As the name suggests, this was a simply constructed wooden shed but it grew bigger and bigger, even being used to hold a barn dance in 1931. The famously impetuous Campbell lost interest though and handed it over to Thomson & Taylor. The shed survives today as part of the Brooklands Museum.

Padamati Sandhya Ragam

S a n d h y a a r r i v e s i n I n d i a w i t h h e r h u s b a n d C h r i s t o v i s i t t h e i r f a m i l y a f t e r h e r f a t h e r ' s d e a t h . T h e y a r e r e c e i v e d c o l d l y a t t h e a i r p o r t b y h i s g r a n d d a u g h t e r A n i t h a , w h o e s c o r t s t h e m t o h e r f a t h e r ' s h o m e . A s h e h a d n o s o n s , t h e f a m i l y a r e a f r a i d t h a t C h r i s , w h o i s w h i t e , w o n ' t b e a b l e t o c o n d u c t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l a s t r i t e s a s t h e d e c e a s e d ' s c l o s e s t m a l e r e l a t i v e , b u t h e i n s i s t s o n t a k i n g t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d c r e m a t e s h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w ' s b o d y a s t h e s u n s e t s . A f t e r c o m i n g b a c k t h a t n i g h t , h e t r i e s t o t a l k t o A n i t h a b u t s h e s c o l d s h i m i n s t e a d , b l a m i n g h i m f o r d i s r u p t i n g h e r g r a n d f a t h e r ' s p e a c e . S a n d h y a i n t e r v e n e s b y s l a p p i n g h e r a n d r e v e a l s t h a t A n i t h a i s a c t u a l l y t h e i r d a u g h t e r w h o w a s t a k e n a w a y b y h e r g r a n d f a t h e r w h e n s h e w a s f i v e y e a r s o l d . S a n d h y a t h e n n a r r a t e s w h a t h a p p e n e d b e f o r e h a n d . 2 0 y e a r s e a r l i e r , S a n d h y a a r r i v e s w i t h h e r f a m i l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a f t e r h e r f a t h e r i s g i v e n a j o b b y h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r t h e r e . S a n d h y a ' s f a t h e r A d i n a r a y a n a , a s t a u n c h t r a d i t i o n a l i s t , i s c o n f u s e d b y A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e a n d s t i c k s t o h i s t r a d i t i o n s d e s p i t e R a m a r a o ' s a t t e m p t s t o m a k e h i m a s s i m i l a t e a n d e v e r y o n e e l s e ' s b e m u s e m e n t . T h e y a l s o m e e t S e s h a g i r i R a o , a n i c e c r e a m s h o p o w n e r w h o i s a l s o I n d i a n , a n d h i s s o n G a n a p a t h i , a b i g e a t e r . O n e d a y , G a n a p a t h i t a k e s S a n d h y a t o t h e s u p e r m a r k e t b u t a b a n d o n s h e r a f t e r h e a r i n g o f a n e w i c e c r e a m s h o p , c a u s i n g h e r t o p a n i c . A f t e r n e a r l y g e t t i n g r u n o v e r b y h i s c a r , s h e m e e t s C h r i s . B e c a u s e o f t h e l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r , h e d e c i d e s t o t a k e h e r a n I n d i a n f a m i l y h e k n o w s a n d t h e y e n d u p a r r i v i n g a s S e s h a g i r i R a o ' s h o u s e , w h e r e t h e y l e a r n t h e y a r e n e i g h b o u r s . L a t e r , s h e m e e t s h e r o t h e r n e i g h b o u r R o n a l d , a b l a c k d r u m m e r . T h e y b o t h g e t c l o s e r t o h e r , t o A d i n a r a y a n a ' s d i s a p p r o v a l . A s t h e y f a l l i n l o v e w i t h S a n d h y a , t h e y g e t G a n a p a t h i t o t e a c h t h e m T e l u g u , b u t h u m o r o u s l y m a n g l e t h e l a n g u a g e o n t h e i r f i r s t a t t e m p t s . B o t h o f t h e m q u i c k l y i m p r o v e a n d e n d u p p r o p o s i n g t o h e r o n t h e s a m e d a y . A f t e r t h i n k i n g a b o u t i t , s h e c o m e s o u t s i d e t h e n e x t d a y w i t h a w h i t e s a r i , s i g n a l l i n g h e r a c c e p t a n c e o f C h r i s t o h i s c e l e b r a t i o n a n d R o n a l d ' s f r u s t r a t i o n . A d i n a r a y a n a t r i e s t o a r r a n g e h e r m a r r i a g e w i t h a n I n d i a n d o c t o r n a m e d R a v i . R a v i i s p r o g r e s s i v e , h o w e v e r , a n d e n c o u r a g e s h e r t o c o n t i n u e p u r s u i n g C h r i s . L a t e r , C h r i s a n d S a n d h y a s e c r e t l y m e e t u p a n d h e p r o p o s e s t h e y e l o p e , t o w h i c h S a n d h y a r e l u c t a n t l y a g r e e s . A d i n a r a y a n a l e a r n s a b o u t t h e i r l o v e a n d t r i e s t o c a t c h t h e m w i t h R o n a l d ' s h e l p , s o t h e y r u n a w a y i n a m o t o r c y c l e a n d t h e n s t e a l a n R V w h e n t h a t s t o p s w o r k i n g . A f t e r l o s i n g t h e m , t h e c o u p l e r e a l i s e t h e y h a v e n o m o n e y a n d m a n a g e t o s a t i a t e t h e i r h u n g e r w i t h s o m e m i l k f o u n d i n t h e R V ' s f r i d g e . E s c a p i n g a c l o s e c a l l w i t h t h e p o l i c e t h e n e x t w o r k i n g , t h e y l u c k i l y f i n d o t h e r I n d i a n s w h o l e t t h e m s t a y i n t h e i r h o u s e . A d i n a r a y a n a c o n s e n t s t o t h e i r m a r r i a g e , b u t t h e c o u p l e g e t i n t o a n a r g u m e n t o n w h o s e c u s t o m s t o f o l l o w . A f t e r R o n a l d s p o t s t h e m a n d t e l l s R a m a r a o , h e g o e s t o t h e m a n d e n d s u p r e s o l v i n g t h e m a t t e r b y s u g g e s t i n g h o l d i n g t w o c e r e m o n i e s   – o n e a t a c h u r c h a n d a n o t h e r a t a t e m p l e . T h u s , C h r i s a n d S a n d h y a f i n a l l y g e t m a r r i e d . I n t h e p r e s e n t , S a n d h y a g i v e s a m e s s a g e o n h o w a l l h u m a n s a r e e q u a l , p r o c e e d e d b y C h r i s t a l k i n g a b o u t h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e . T h e y t h e n o f f e r A n i t h a t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o g o t o A m e r i c a a n d l i v e w i t h t h e m . A s C h r i s a n d S a n d h y a l e a v e f o r t h e a i r p o r t t h e d a y a f t e r , A n i t h a w i s t f u l l y s i t s i n h e r r o o m w i t h t h e d o o r c l o s e d . R i g h t b e f o r e t h e y g e t o n t h e p l a n e , s h e s h o w s u p , a s k s C h r i s t o f o r g i v e h e r , a n d j o i n s t h e m o n t h e f l i g h t . A d d i t i o n a l c a s t : J o h n s o n , G o d m a n , E l i z a b e t h , B i n d u , J y o t h y , B a b y R o h i n i , V i j a y K o t h a r i , B h u s h a n R a o , R a m a S a s t r y , S e e t h a S a s t r y , M r u n a l i n i , J o s h u a Y o r k . M . B a l a M u r a l i k r i s h n a M e e r A b d u l l a , t h e n a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t f r o m I n d i a w h o a l r e a d y a s p i r e d t o b e a f i l m m a k e r , s t a r t e d w o r k i n g i n t h e p e r f o r m i n g a r t s a f t e r m e e t i n g G u m m u l u r i S a s t r y , a n e n g i n e e r a l r e a d y l i v i n g i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a s a n a m a t e u r s t a g e a c t o r i n t h e p l a y s h e d i r e c t e d . A s t h e l e a d e r o f a T e l u g u a s s o c i a t i o n , S a s t r y h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n v i t e t h e c r e w o f t h e I n d i a n f i l m " S a n k a r a b h a r a n a m " t o t o u r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1 9 8 4 . T h i s e n d e d u p g i v i n g S a s t r y a n d A b d u l l a t h e c h a n c e t o m e e t J a n d h y a l a a n d S . P . B a l a s u b r a h m a n y a m , l e a d i n g t o t h e i d e a s o f t h e f i l m b e i n g c o n c e i v e d a n d d e v e l o p e d . A f t e r a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r n a m e s w e r e s u g g e s t e d f o r t h e f i l m , B a l a s u b r a h m a n y a m ' s r e c e i v e d a p p r o v e d b y e v e r y o n e a n d b e c a m e t h e f i n a l t i t l e , w i t h J a n d h y a l a e v e n g i v i n g B a l a s u b r a h m a n y a m t o s h o w h i s g r a t i t u d e . B a l a s u b r a h m a n y a m a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t S i v a m a n i p l a y R o n a l d . F i n d i n g a n a c t o r f o r C h r i s w a s a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r e n t i r e l y . I n s t e a d o f u s i n g a n e s t a b l i s h e d a c t o r , a l o n g c a m p a i g n i n v o l v i n g m u l t i p l e t a l e n t a g e n t s w a s i n i t i a t e d . H o w e v e r , t h e i n i t i a l a c t o r c h o s e n d r o p p e d o u t u n d e r u n c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w i t h A b d u l l a c l a i m i n g t h a t h e h a d l e f t a f t e r g e t t i n g a l a s t - m i n u t e o f f e r f r o m H o l l y w o o d i n 2 0 0 6 b u t t h e n s t a t i n g t h a t h e d i d n o t k n o w t h e r e a s o n i n 2 0 1 0 . T h o m a s J a n e , a t t h e t i m e a t e e n a g e a c t i n g s t u d e n t i n M a r y l a n d , w a s t h e f i n a l c h o i c e f o r t h e r o l e , w h i c h w a s h i s f i l m d e b u t . B e c a u s e t h e p r o d u c t i o n r a n o u t o f m o n e y , h e w a s p a i d w i t h a n R V u s e d t o m a k e t h e f i l m . S h o o t i n g f o r " P a d a m a t i S a n d h y a R a g a m " c o m m e n c e d o n 3 A u g u s t 1 9 8 6 . T h e A m e r i c a n p o r t i o n w a s f i l m e d f i r s t , w i t h m o s t o f t h e s c e n e s b e i n g s h o t i n t h e r e s i d e n c e s a n d s h o p s o f S a s t r y a n d A b d u l l a ' s f r i e n d s a n d n e i g h b o u r s i n t h e W a s h i n g t o n m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a . T h e o t h e r s e g m e n t s w e r e s h o t a l l a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y . F i l m i n g l a s t e d t w o m o n t h s . " T h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t " s t a t e d t h e f i l m " a t t r a c t e d r a v e r e v i e w s i n I n d i a " i n a 1 9 8 9 a r t i c l e . I n r e t r o s p e c t , i t h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s o n e o f a n u m b e r o f f i l m s m a d e b y T e l u g u A m e r i c a n s i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s t h a t e x p l o r e d l i f e i n t h e c o u n t r y . J a h n a v i R e d d y o f " T h e N e w s M i n u t e " a n a l y s e d " P a d a m a t i S a n d h y a R a g a m " a s b e i n g a p r e c u r s o r t o I n d i a n f i l m s a b o u t i n t e r n a t i o n a l r o m a n c e t h a t h a v e b e e n r e l e a s e d a f t e r t h e c o u n t r y ' s l i b e r a l i s a t i o n a n d m a s s m i g r a t i o n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e g a n . S h e a l s o s t a t e d t h a t t h e c a s t i n g o f S i v a m a n i , a n I n d i a n m u s i c i a n , a s t h e b l a c k A m e r i c a n c h a r a c t e r R o n a l d i n t h e f i l m w a s " p r o b l e m a t i c " a n d d i s c u s s e d h o w h e w a s m o s t l y p l a y e d o f f a s c o m i c r e l i e f c o m p a r e d t o C h r i s , p o n d e r i n g i f h e w o u l d h a v e b e e n a c c e p t e d b y S a n d h y a ' s f a m i l y i f s h e f e l l i n l o v e w i t h h i m i n s t e a d . O n e s o n g f r o m t h e f i l m , " L i f e i s S h a b b y " , g a i n e d r e n e w e d a t t e n t i o n i n t h e l a t e 2 0 1 0 s d u e t o i t s o d d E n g l i s h l y r i c s a n d u s e o f r a p , w h i c h i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m S . P . B a l a s u b r a h m a n y a m ' s u s u a l s t y l e .

Production

The story revolves around Sandhya, an Indian girl who moves to the US with her family. She falls in love with Chris, an American boy, despite her father's disapproval. Meanwhile, Ronald, a black drummer, also falls in love with Sandhya. The film explores cultural differences and the challenges faced by the characters as they navigate their relationships. The movie features a unique blend of Indian and American cultures, with a memorable soundtrack. The production involved a collaborative effort between Indian and American filmmakers, with a notable debut performance by Thomas Jane. The film received positive reviews in India and has since been recognized as a pioneering work in exploring themes of international romance and cultural identity.

Sandhya then narrates what happened beforehand. 20 years earlier, Sandhya arrives with her family in the United States after her father is given a job by his younger brother there. Sandhya's father Adinarayana, a staunch traditionalist, is confused by American culture and sticks to his traditions despite Ramarao's attempts to make him assimilate and everyone else's bemusement. They also meet Seshagiri Rao, an ice cream shop owner who is also Indian, and his son Ganapathi, a big eater. One day, Ganapathi takes Sandhya to the supermarket but abandons her after hearing of a new ice cream shop, causing her to panic. After nearly getting run over by his car, she meets Chris. Because of the language barrier, he decides to take her an Indian family he knows and they end up arriving as Seshagiri Rao's house, where they learn they are neighbours. Later, she meets her other neighbour Ronald, a black drummer. They both get closer to her, to Adinarayana's disapproval. As they fall in love with Sandhya, they get Ganapathi to teach them Telugu, but humorously mangle the language on their first attempts. Both of them quickly improve and end up proposing to her on the same day. After thinking about it, she comes outside the next day with a white sari, signalling her acceptance of Chris to his celebration and Ronald's frustration. Adinarayana tries to arrange her marriage with an Indian doctor named Ravi. Ravi is progressive, however, and encourages her to continue pursuing Chris. Later, Chris and Sandhya secretly meet up and he proposes they elope, to which Sandhya reluctantly agrees. Adinarayana learns about their love and tries to catch them with Ronald's help, so they run away in a motorcycle and then steal an RV when that stops working. After losing them, the couple realise they have no money and manage to satiate their hunger with some milk found in the RV's fridge. Escaping a close call with the police the next working, they luckily find other Indians who let them stay in their house. Adinarayana consents to their marriage, but the couple get into an argument on whose customs to follow. After Ronald spots them and tells Ramarao, he goes to them and ends up resolving the matter by suggesting holding two ceremonies – one at a church and another at a temple. Thus, Chris and Sandhya finally get married. In the present, Sandhya gives a message on how all humans are equal, proceeded by Chris talking about his appreciation of Indian culture. They then offer Anitha the opportunity to go to America and live with them. As Chris and Sandhya leave for the airport the day after, Anitha wistfully sits in her room with the door closed. Right before they get on the plane, she shows up, asks Chris to forgive her, and joins them on the flight. Additional cast: Johnson, Godman, Elizabeth, Bindu, Jyothy, Baby Rohini, Vijay Kothari, Bhushan Rao, Rama Sastry, Seetha Sastry, Mrunalini, Joshua York. M.Bala Muralikrishna Meer Abdulla, then an international student from India who already aspired to be a filmmaker, started working in the performing arts after meeting Gummuluri Sastry, an engineer already living in the United States, as an amateur stage actor in the plays he directed. As the leader of a Telugu association, Sastry had the opportunity to invite the crew of the Indian film "Sankarabharanam" to tour the United States in 1984. This ended up giving Sastry and Abdulla the chance to meet Jandhyala and S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, leading to the ideas of the film being conceived and developed. After a variety of other names were suggested for the film, Balasubrahmanyam's received approved by everyone and became the final title, with Jandhyala even giving Balasubrahmanyam to show his gratitude. Balasubrahmanyam also proposed that Sivamani play Ronald. Finding an actor for Chris was a different matter entirely. Instead of using an established actor, a long campaign involving multiple talent agents was initiated. However, the initial actor chosen dropped out under uncertain circumstances, with Abdulla claiming that he had left after getting a last-minute offer from Hollywood in 2006 but then stating that he did not know the reason in 2010. Thomas Jane, at the time a teenage acting student in Maryland, was the final choice for the role, which was his film debut. Because the production ran out of money, he was paid with an RV used to make the film. Shooting for "Padamati Sandhya Ragam" commenced on 3 August 1986. The American portion was filmed first, with most of the scenes being shot in the residences and shops of Sastry and Abdulla's friends and neighbours in the Washington metropolitan area. The other segments were shot all across the country. Filming lasted two months. "The Washington Post" stated the film "attracted rave reviews in India" in a 1989 article. In retrospect, it has been identified as one of a number of films made by Telugu Americans in the 1980s that explored life in the country. Jahnavi Reddy of "The News Minute" analysed "Padamati Sandhya Ragam" as being a precursor to Indian films about international romance that have been released after the country's liberalisation and mass migration to the United States began. She also stated that the casting of Sivamani, an Indian musician, as the black American character Ronald in the film was "problematic" and discussed how he was mostly played off as comic relief compared to Chris, pondering if he would have been accepted by Sandhya's family if she fell in love with him instead. One song from the film, "Life is Shabby", gained renewed attention in the late 2010s due to its odd English lyrics and use of rap, which is significantly different from S. P. Balasubrahmanyam's usual style.

Padamati Sandhya Ragam

S a n d h y a a r r i v e s i n I n d i a w i t h h e r h u s b a n d C h r i s t o v i s i t t h e i r f a m i l y a f t e r h e r f a t h e r ' s d e a t h . T h e y a r e r e c e i v e d c o l d l y a t t h e a i r p o r t b y h i s g r a n d d a u g h t e r A n i t h a , w h o e s c o r t s t h e m t o h e r f a t h e r ' s h o m e . A s h e h a d n o s o n s , t h e f a m i l y a r e a f r a i d t h a t C h r i s , w h o i s w h i t e , w o n ' t b e a b l e t o c o n d u c t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l a s t r i t e s a s t h e d e c e a s e d ' s c l o s e s t m a l e r e l a t i v e , b u t h e i n s i s t s o n t a k i n g t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d c r e m a t e s h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w ' s b o d y a s t h e s u n s e t s . A f t e r c o m i n g b a c k t h a t n i g h t , h e t r i e s t o t a l k t o A n i t h a b u t s h e s c o l d s h i m i n s t e a d , b l a m i n g h i m f o r d i s r u p t i n g h e r g r a n d f a t h e r ' s p e a c e . S a n d h y a i n t e r v e n e s b y s l a p p i n g h e r a n d r e v e a l s t h a t A n i t h a i s a c t u a l l y t h e i r d a u g h t e r w h o w a s t a k e n a w a y b y h e r g r a n d f a t h e r w h e n s h e w a s f i v e y e a r s o l d . S a n d h y a t h e n n a r r a t e s w h a t h a p p e n e d b e f o r e h a n d . 2 0 y e a r s e a r l i e r , S a n d h y a a r r i v e s w i t h h e r f a m i l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a f t e r h e r f a t h e r i s g i v e n a j o b b y h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r t h e r e . S a n d h y a ' s f a t h e r A d i n a r a y a n a , a s t a u n c h t r a d i t i o n a l i s t , i s c o n f u s e d b y A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e a n d s t i c k s t o h i s t r a d i t i o n s d e s p i t e R a m a r a o ' s a t t e m p t s t o m a k e h i m a s s i m i l a t e a n d e v e r y o n e e l s e ' s b e m u s e m e n t . T h e y a l s o m e e t S e s h a g i r i R a o , a n i c e c r e a m s h o p o w n e r w h o i s a l s o I n d i a n , a n d h i s s o n G a n a p a t h i , a b i g e a t e r . O n e d a y , G a n a p a t h i t a k e s S a n d h y a t o t h e s u p e r m a r k e t b u t a b a n d o n s h e r a f t e r h e a r i n g o f a n e w i c e c r e a m s h o p , c a u s i n g h e r t o p a n i c . A f t e r n e a r l y g e t t i n g r u n o v e r b y h i s c a r , s h e m e e t s C h r i s . B e c a u s e o f t h e l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r , h e d e c i d e s t o t a k e h e r a n I n d i a n f a m i l y h e k n o w s a n d t h e y e n d u p a r r i v i n g a s S e s h a g i r i R a o ' s h o u s e , w h e r e t h e y l e a r n t h e y a r e n e i g h b o u r s . L a t e r , s h e m e e t s h e r o t h e r n e i g h b o u r R o n a l d , a b l a c k d r u m m e r . T h e y b o t h g e t c l o s e r t o h e r , t o A d i n a r a y a n a ' s d i s a p p r o v a l . 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L a t e r , C h r i s a n d S a n d h y a s e c r e t l y m e e t u p a n d h e p r o p o s e s t h e y e l o p e , t o w h i c h S a n d h y a r e l u c t a n t l y a g r e e s . A d i n a r a y a n a l e a r n s a b o u t t h e i r l o v e a n d t r i e s t o c a t c h t h e m w i t h R o n a l d ' s h e l p , s o t h e y r u n a w a y i n a m o t o r c y c l e a n d t h e n s t e a l a n R V w h e n t h a t s t o p s w o r k i n g . A f t e r l o s i n g t h e m , t h e c o u p l e r e a l i s e t h e y h a v e n o m o n e y a n d m a n a g e t o s a t i a t e t h e i r h u n g e r w i t h s o m e m i l k f o u n d i n t h e R V ' s f r i d g e . E s c a p i n g a c l o s e c a l l w i t h t h e p o l i c e t h e n e x t w o r k i n g , t h e y l u c k i l y f i n d o t h e r I n d i a n s w h o l e t t h e m s t a y i n t h e i r h o u s e . A d i n a r a y a n a c o n s e n t s t o t h e i r m a r r i a g e , b u t t h e c o u p l e g e t i n t o a n a r g u m e n t o n w h o s e c u s t o m s t o f o l l o w . A f t e r R o n a l d s p o t s t h e m a n d t e l l s R a m a r a o , h e g o e s t o t h e m a n d e n d s u p r e s o l v i n g t h e m a t t e r b y s u g g e s t i n g h o l d i n g t w o c e r e m o n i e s   – o n e a t a c h u r c h a n d a n o t h e r a t a t e m p l e . T h u s , C h r i s a n d S a n d h y a f i n a l l y g e t m a r r i e d . I n t h e p r e s e n t , S a n d h y a g i v e s a m e s s a g e o n h o w a l l h u m a n s a r e e q u a l , p r o c e e d e d b y C h r i s t a l k i n g a b o u t h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e . T h e y t h e n o f f e r A n i t h a t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o g o t o A m e r i c a a n d l i v e w i t h t h e m . A s C h r i s a n d S a n d h y a l e a v e f o r t h e a i r p o r t t h e d a y a f t e r , A n i t h a w i s t f u l l y s i t s i n h e r r o o m w i t h t h e d o o r c l o s e d . R i g h t b e f o r e t h e y g e t o n t h e p l a n e , s h e s h o w s u p , a s k s C h r i s t o f o r g i v e h e r , a n d j o i n s t h e m o n t h e f l i g h t . A d d i t i o n a l c a s t : J o h n s o n , G o d m a n , E l i z a b e t h , B i n d u , J y o t h y , B a b y R o h i n i , V i j a y K o t h a r i , B h u s h a n R a o , R a m a S a s t r y , S e e t h a S a s t r y , M r u n a l i n i , J o s h u a Y o r k . M . B a l a M u r a l i k r i s h n a M e e r A b d u l l a , t h e n a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t f r o m I n d i a w h o a l r e a d y a s p i r e d t o b e a f i l m m a k e r , s t a r t e d w o r k i n g i n t h e p e r f o r m i n g a r t s a f t e r m e e t i n g G u m m u l u r i S a s t r y , a n e n g i n e e r a l r e a d y l i v i n g i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a s a n a m a t e u r s t a g e a c t o r i n t h e p l a y s h e d i r e c t e d . A s t h e l e a d e r o f a T e l u g u a s s o c i a t i o n , S a s t r y h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n v i t e t h e c r e w o f t h e I n d i a n f i l m " S a n k a r a b h a r a n a m " t o t o u r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1 9 8 4 . T h i s e n d e d u p g i v i n g S a s t r y a n d A b d u l l a t h e c h a n c e t o m e e t J a n d h y a l a a n d S . P . B a l a s u b r a h m a n y a m , l e a d i n g t o t h e i d e a s o f t h e f i l m b e i n g c o n c e i v e d a n d d e v e l o p e d . A f t e r a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r n a m e s w e r e s u g g e s t e d f o r t h e f i l m , B a l a s u b r a h m a n y a m ' s r e c e i v e d a p p r o v e d b y e v e r y o n e a n d b e c a m e t h e f i n a l t i t l e , w i t h J a n d h y a l a e v e n g i v i n g B a l a s u b r a h m a n y a m t o s h o w h i s g r a t i t u d e . B a l a s u b r a h m a n y a m a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t S i v a m a n i p l a y R o n a l d . F i n d i n g a n a c t o r f o r C h r i s w a s a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r e n t i r e l y . I n s t e a d o f u s i n g a n e s t a b l i s h e d a c t o r , a l o n g c a m p a i g n i n v o l v i n g m u l t i p l e t a l e n t a g e n t s w a s i n i t i a t e d . H o w e v e r , t h e i n i t i a l a c t o r c h o s e n d r o p p e d o u t u n d e r u n c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w i t h A b d u l l a c l a i m i n g t h a t h e h a d l e f t a f t e r g e t t i n g a l a s t - m i n u t e o f f e r f r o m H o l l y w o o d i n 2 0 0 6 b u t t h e n s t a t i n g t h a t h e d i d n o t k n o w t h e r e a s o n i n 2 0 1 0 . T h o m a s J a n e , a t t h e t i m e a t e e n a g e a c t i n g s t u d e n t i n M a r y l a n d , w a s t h e f i n a l c h o i c e f o r t h e r o l e , w h i c h w a s h i s f i l m d e b u t . B e c a u s e t h e p r o d u c t i o n r a n o u t o f m o n e y , h e w a s p a i d w i t h a n R V u s e d t o m a k e t h e f i l m . S h o o t i n g f o r " P a d a m a t i S a n d h y a R a g a m " c o m m e n c e d o n 3 A u g u s t 1 9 8 6 . T h e A m e r i c a n p o r t i o n w a s f i l m e d f i r s t , w i t h m o s t o f t h e s c e n e s b e i n g s h o t i n t h e r e s i d e n c e s a n d s h o p s o f S a s t r y a n d A b d u l l a ' s f r i e n d s a n d n e i g h b o u r s i n t h e W a s h i n g t o n m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a . T h e o t h e r s e g m e n t s w e r e s h o t a l l a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y . F i l m i n g l a s t e d t w o m o n t h s . " T h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t " s t a t e d t h e f i l m " a t t r a c t e d r a v e r e v i e w s i n I n d i a " i n a 1 9 8 9 a r t i c l e . I n r e t r o s p e c t , i t h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s o n e o f a n u m b e r o f f i l m s m a d e b y T e l u g u A m e r i c a n s i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s t h a t e x p l o r e d l i f e i n t h e c o u n t r y . J a h n a v i R e d d y o f " T h e N e w s M i n u t e " a n a l y s e d " P a d a m a t i S a n d h y a R a g a m " a s b e i n g a p r e c u r s o r t o I n d i a n f i l m s a b o u t i n t e r n a t i o n a l r o m a n c e t h a t h a v e b e e n r e l e a s e d a f t e r t h e c o u n t r y ' s l i b e r a l i s a t i o n a n d m a s s m i g r a t i o n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e g a n . S h e a l s o s t a t e d t h a t t h e c a s t i n g o f S i v a m a n i , a n I n d i a n m u s i c i a n , a s t h e b l a c k A m e r i c a n c h a r a c t e r R o n a l d i n t h e f i l m w a s " p r o b l e m a t i c " a n d d i s c u s s e d h o w h e w a s m o s t l y p l a y e d o f f a s c o m i c r e l i e f c o m p a r e d t o C h r i s , p o n d e r i n g i f h e w o u l d h a v e b e e n a c c e p t e d b y S a n d h y a ' s f a m i l y i f s h e f e l l i n l o v e w i t h h i m i n s t e a d . O n e s o n g f r o m t h e f i l m , " L i f e i s S h a b b y " , g a i n e d r e n e w e d a t t e n t i o n i n t h e l a t e 2 0 1 0 s d u e t o i t s o d d E n g l i s h l y r i c s a n d u s e o f r a p , w h i c h i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m S . P . B a l a s u b r a h m a n y a m ' s u s u a l s t y l e .

Reception and analysis

The story revolves around Sandhya, an Indian woman who falls in love with Chris, a white man, in the US. Despite cultural differences, they get married and have a daughter, Anitha. Years later, Sandhya returns to India with Chris to perform her father's last rites, but Anitha is upset with Chris for disrupting her grandfather's peace. Through flashbacks, the story unfolds, showing how Sandhya met Chris, their cultural clashes, and their eventual marriage. The film explores themes of cultural identity, love, and acceptance.

Sandhya arrives in India with her husband Chris to visit their family after her father's death. They are received coldly at the airport by his granddaughter Anitha, who escorts them to her father's home. As he had no sons, the family are afraid that Chris, who is white, won't be able to conduct the traditional last rites as the deceased's closest male relative, but he insists on taking the responsibility and cremates his father-in-law's body as the sun sets. After coming back that night, he tries to talk to Anitha but she scolds him instead, blaming him for disrupting her grandfather's peace. Sandhya intervenes by slapping her and reveals that Anitha is actually their daughter who was taken away by her grandfather when she was five years old. Sandhya then narrates what happened beforehand. 20 years earlier, Sandhya arrives with her family in the United States after her father is given a job by his younger brother there. Sandhya's father Adinarayana, a staunch traditionalist, is confused by American culture and sticks to his traditions despite Ramarao's attempts to make him assimilate and everyone else's bemusement. They also meet Seshagiri Rao, an ice cream shop owner who is also Indian, and his son Ganapathi, a big eater. One day, Ganapathi takes Sandhya to the supermarket but abandons her after hearing of a new ice cream shop, causing her to panic. After nearly getting run over by his car, she meets Chris. Because of the language barrier, he decides to take her an Indian family he knows and they end up arriving as Seshagiri Rao's house, where they learn they are neighbours. Later, she meets her other neighbour Ronald, a black drummer. They both get closer to her, to Adinarayana's disapproval. As they fall in love with Sandhya, they get Ganapathi to teach them Telugu, but humorously mangle the language on their first attempts. Both of them quickly improve and end up proposing to her on the same day. After thinking about it, she comes outside the next day with a white sari, signalling her acceptance of Chris to his celebration and Ronald's frustration. Adinarayana tries to arrange her marriage with an Indian doctor named Ravi. Ravi is progressive, however, and encourages her to continue pursuing Chris. Later, Chris and Sandhya secretly meet up and he proposes they elope, to which Sandhya reluctantly agrees. Adinarayana learns about their love and tries to catch them with Ronald's help, so they run away in a motorcycle and then steal an RV when that stops working. After losing them, the couple realise they have no money and manage to satiate their hunger with some milk found in the RV's fridge. Escaping a close call with the police the next working, they luckily find other Indians who let them stay in their house. Adinarayana consents to their marriage, but the couple get into an argument on whose customs to follow. After Ronald spots them and tells Ramarao, he goes to them and ends up resolving the matter by suggesting holding two ceremonies – one at a church and another at a temple. Thus, Chris and Sandhya finally get married. In the present, Sandhya gives a message on how all humans are equal, proceeded by Chris talking about his appreciation of Indian culture. They then offer Anitha the opportunity to go to America and live with them. As Chris and Sandhya leave for the airport the day after, Anitha wistfully sits in her room with the door closed. Right before they get on the plane, she shows up, asks Chris to forgive her, and joins them on the flight. Additional cast: Johnson, Godman, Elizabeth, Bindu, Jyothy, Baby Rohini, Vijay Kothari, Bhushan Rao, Rama Sastry, Seetha Sastry, Mrunalini, Joshua York. M.Bala Muralikrishna Meer Abdulla, then an international student from India who already aspired to be a filmmaker, started working in the performing arts after meeting Gummuluri Sastry, an engineer already living in the United States, as an amateur stage actor in the plays he directed. As the leader of a Telugu association, Sastry had the opportunity to invite the crew of the Indian film "Sankarabharanam" to tour the United States in 1984. This ended up giving Sastry and Abdulla the chance to meet Jandhyala and S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, leading to the ideas of the film being conceived and developed. After a variety of other names were suggested for the film, Balasubrahmanyam's received approved by everyone and became the final title, with Jandhyala even giving Balasubrahmanyam to show his gratitude. Balasubrahmanyam also proposed that Sivamani play Ronald. Finding an actor for Chris was a different matter entirely. neighbours in the Washington metropolitan area. The other segments were shot all across the country. Filming lasted two months. "The Washington Post" stated the film "attracted rave reviews in India" in a 1989 article. In retrospect, it has been identified as one of a number of films made by Telugu Americans in the 1980s that explored life in the country. Jahnavi Reddy of "The News Minute" analysed "Padamati Sandhya Ragam" as being a precursor to Indian films about international romance that have been released after the country's liberalisation and mass migration to the United States began. She also stated that the casting of Sivamani, an Indian musician, as the black American character Ronald in the film was "problematic" and discussed how he was mostly played off as comic relief compared to Chris, pondering if he would have been accepted by Sandhya's family if she fell in love with him instead. One song from the film, "Life is Shabby", gained renewed attention in the late 2010s due to its odd English lyrics and use of rap, which is significantly different from S. P. Balasubrahmanyam's usual style.

Garvin Cross

G a r v i n C r o s s s t a r t e d h i s c a r e e r a s E d H a r r i s ' s s t u n t m a n i n t h e f i l m " N e e d f u l T h i n g s " . H e l a t e r p e r f o r m e d a s a s t u n t m a n i n f i l m s a n d t e l e v i s i o n s h o w s i n c l u d i n g " C a r p o o l " , " D e e p R i s i n g " , " S h a n g h a i N o o n " , " T r o n : L e g a c y , F a n t a s t i c 4 " a n d " M i s s i o n : I m p o s s i b l e – G h o s t P r o t o c o l " . C r o s s h a s p e r f o r m e d s t u n t s f o r a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g D a n i e l C r a i g a n d J e r e m y R e n n e r . C r o s s h a s a c t e d i n f i l m s a n d t e l e v i s i o n s h o w s i n c l u d i n g " R u m b l e i n t h e B r o n x " , " B l a d e : T r i n i t y " , " B a t t l e s t a r : G a l a c t i c a " , a n d " M a r m a d u k e " . H e i s u n c r e d i t e d a s t h e " M i l i t a r y S n o w C o m m a n d e r " i n C h r i s t o p h e r N o l a n ' s " I n c e p t i o n " . H e i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e " G u i n n e s s B o o k o f W o r l d R e c o r d s " f o r h i s s k i l l s a s a p r e c i s i o n s t u n t d r i v e r , a n d h e h a s w o r k e d o n f i l m s a n d t e l e v i s i o n s p o t s f o r a u t o m o b i l e c o m p a n i e s s u c h a s F o r d , P o r s c h e , T o y o t a , D o d g e , M e r c e d e s , L i n c o l n , N i s s a n a n d L e x u s . C r o s s i s a l s o a n e x p e r i e n c e d s t u n t c o o r d i n a t o r ; h e h a s w o r k e d o n f i l m a n d t e l e v i s i o n p r o j e c t s i n c l u d i n g S t e v e n S p i e l b e r g ' s " T a k e n " , " L o s t B o y s : T h e T r i b e " , " B i g T i m e R u s h " , a n d " S e a o f M o n s t e r s " .

Career

Garvin Cross began his career as a stuntman for Ed Harris in "Needful Things" and went on to work on numerous films and TV shows, performing stunts for notable actors like Daniel Craig and Jeremy Renner. He has also acted in various productions, holds a Guinness World Record for precision stunt driving, and has worked as a stunt coordinator on several projects.

Garvin Cross started his career as Ed Harris's stuntman in the film "Needful Things". He later performed as a stuntman in films and television shows including "Carpool", "Deep Rising", "Shanghai Noon", "Tron: Legacy, Fantastic 4" and "Mission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol". Cross has performed stunts for actors including Daniel Craig and Jeremy Renner. Cross has acted in films and television shows including "Rumble in the Bronx", "Blade: Trinity", "Battlestar: Galactica", and "Marmaduke". He is uncredited as the "Military Snow Commander" in Christopher Nolan's "Inception". He is included in the "Guinness Book of World Records" for his skills as a precision stunt driver, and he has worked on films and television spots for automobile companies such as Ford, Porsche, Toyota, Dodge, Mercedes, Lincoln, Nissan and Lexus. Cross is also an experienced stunt coordinator; he has worked on film and television projects including Steven Spielberg's "Taken", "Lost Boys: The Tribe", "Big Time Rush", and "Sea of Monsters".

Cindy Dyer

D y e r g r a d u a t e d f r o m T e x a s A & M U n i v e r s i t y a n d B a y l o r U n i v e r s i t y L a w S c h o o l . D y e r i s a p r o s e c u t o r a n d a r e c o g n i z e d a u t h o r i t y o n t h e t o p i c o f f a m i l y v i o l e n c e a n d s e x u a l a s s a u l t . P r i o r t o h e r a p p o i n t m e n t s h e w a s w i t h t h e D a l l a s C o u n t y , T e x a s , D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y ' s O f f i c e . S h e w a s t h e f i r s t p r o s e c u t o r t o j o i n t h e F a m i l y V i o l e n c e D i v i s i o n d u r i n g i t s i n c e p t i o n i n 1 9 9 4 a n d b e c a m e t h e C h i e f P r o s e c u t o r o f t h a t d i v i s i o n i n 1 9 9 8 . S h e h a s r e c e i v e d n u m e r o u s a w a r d s a n d r e c o g n i t i o n f o r h e r s e r v i c e t o v i c t i m s , i n c l u d i n g t h e H e n r y W a d e P r o s e c u t o r o f t h e Y e a r a w a r d f r o m t h e G r e a t e r D a l l a s C r i m e C o m m i s s i o n , t h e E q u a l J u s t i c e A w a r d f r o m t h e L e g a l S e r v i c e s o f N o r t h W e s t T e x a s ( N o w t h e L e g a l A i d o f N o r t h W e s t T e x a s ) , a n d t h e S t e p h e n V o n R i e s e n L e c t u r e r o f M e r i t A w a r d f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l C o l l e g e o f D i s t r i c t A t t o r n e y s . A s d i r e c t o r o f t h e O f f i c e o n V i o l e n c e A g a i n s t W o m e n , D y e r s e r v e s a s t h e l i a i s o n b e t w e e n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f J u s t i c e a n d F e d e r a l , S t a t e a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t s o n t h e c r i m e s o f d o m e s t i c v i o l e n c e , s e x u a l a s s a u l t , d a t i n g v i o l e n c e a n d s t a l k i n g . I n t h i s r o l e , s h e i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h a n d l i n g t h e D e p a r t m e n t ' s l e g a l a n d p o l i c y i s s u e s r e g a r d i n g t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e V i o l e n c e A g a i n s t W o m e n A c t a n d o v e r s e e s a n a n n u a l b u d g e t o f a l m o s t $ 4 0 0 m i l l i o n . A s a n a c t i v e m e m b e r o f h e r c o m m u n i t y i n D a l l a s , s h e h a s s e r v e d o n t h e b o a r d o f t h e T e x a s C o u n c i l o n F a m i l y V i o l e n c e , a s s i s t e d i n p r o p o s i n g a n d d r a f t i n g l e g i s l a t i o n t o h e l p v i c t i m s o f d o m e s t i c v i o l e n c e a n d s e x u a l a s s a u l t , a n d v o l u n t e e r e d f o r l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g a n o n - p r o f i t w o m e n ' s s h e l t e r . I n A p r i l 2 0 2 2 , D y e r w a s n o m i n a t e d b y P r e s i d e n t J o e B i d e n t o s e r v e a s d i r e c t o r o f t h e O f f i c e t o M o n i t o r a n d C o m b a t T r a f f i c k i n g i n P e r s o n s .

Career

Dyer is a seasoned prosecutor and expert on family violence and sexual assault. She has held various roles, including Chief Prosecutor of the Family Violence Division in Dallas County and Director of the Office on Violence Against Women. Throughout her career, she has received numerous awards for her service to victims and has been involved in shaping legislation and policies related to domestic violence and sexual assault.

Dyer graduated from Texas A&M University and Baylor University Law School. Dyer is a prosecutor and a recognized authority on the topic of family violence and sexual assault. Prior to her appointment she was with the Dallas County, Texas, District Attorney's Office. She was the first prosecutor to join the Family Violence Division during its inception in 1994 and became the Chief Prosecutor of that division in 1998. She has received numerous awards and recognition for her service to victims, including the Henry Wade Prosecutor of the Year award from the Greater Dallas Crime Commission, the Equal Justice Award from the Legal Services of NorthWest Texas (Now the Legal Aid of NorthWest Texas), and the Stephen Von Riesen Lecturer of Merit Award from the National College of District Attorneys. As director of the Office on Violence Against Women, Dyer serves as the liaison between the Department of Justice and Federal, State and International governments on the crimes of domestic violence, sexual assault, dating violence and stalking. In this role, she is responsible for handling the Department's legal and policy issues regarding the implementation of the Violence Against Women Act and oversees an annual budget of almost $400 million. As an active member of her community in Dallas, she has served on the board of the Texas Council on Family Violence, assisted in proposing and drafting legislation to help victims of domestic violence and sexual assault, and volunteered for local organizations, including a non-profit women's shelter. In April 2022, Dyer was nominated by President Joe Biden to serve as director of the Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons.

Visalia Mall

V i s a l i a M a l l w a s t h e f i r s t e n c l o s e d s h o p p i n g m a l l i n C a l i f o r n i a w h e n i t o p e n e d i n 1 9 6 4 . I n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 7 , t h e m a l l f i n i s h e d i t s $ 3 0 m i l l i o n r e n o v a t i o n . T h i s a d d e d a 4 5 0 - s e a t f o o d c o u r t , a n a d d i t i o n a l o f s p a c e w i t h a n e w a n c h o r s t o r e G o t t s c h a l k s , a n d a 3 - s t o r y p a r k i n g g a r a g e . T h e m a l l w a s a c q u i r e d i n 1 9 8 8 b y N e w m a n B r e t t i n P r o p e r t i e s . I n 1 9 9 7 i t w a s p u r c h a s e d b y J P R e a l t y I n c . o f S a l t L a k e C i t y . M a c y ' s o p e n e d a t t h e m a l l i n 2 0 0 9 i n t h e f o r m e r G o t t s c h a l k s s p a c e w h i c h c l o s e d e a r l y t h a t y e a r . I n 2 0 1 8 , M a c y ' s a d d e d a B a c k s t a g e d i s c o u n t s t o r e i n i t s l o c a t i o n . I n 2 0 1 6 , B l a z e P i z z a o p e n e d a t t h e m a l l .

History

Visalia Mall, California's first enclosed shopping mall, opened in 1964. It underwent a major renovation in 1997, adding a food court, new anchor store, and parking garage. Over the years, ownership changed hands several times, with notable additions including Macy's in 2009 and Blaze Pizza in 2016.

Visalia Mall was the first enclosed shopping mall in California when it opened in 1964. In September 1997, the mall finished its $30 million renovation. This added a 450-seat food court, an additional of space with a new anchor store Gottschalks, and a 3-story parking garage. The mall was acquired in 1988 by Newman Brettin Properties. In 1997 it was purchased by JP Realty Inc. of Salt Lake City. Macy's opened at the mall in 2009 in the former Gottschalks space which closed early that year. In 2018, Macy's added a Backstage discount store in its location. In 2016, Blaze Pizza opened at the mall.

John Petty (primitive Methodist minister)

P e t t y w a s o n e o f t h e t e n c h i l d r e n o f M i c a h P e t t y a n d h i s w i f e M a r y N e l s o n . M i c a h w a s a t a i l o r a n d t h e g r a n d s o n o f S i l v e s t e r P e t t y o f L a n g b a r n e a r I l k l e y . J o h n P e t t y m a r r i e d T h i r z a S p r o s t o n ( 1 8 0 8 – 1 8 7 1 ) a t B r a d f o r d i n 1 8 3 2 a n d t h e y h a d e i g h t c h i l d r e n . J o h n h a d a t a s t e f o r l e a r n i n g a n d i n t h i s h i s f a t h e r e n c o u r a g e d h i m . H e a t t e n d e d t h e s c h o o l o f J o h n D r i v e r , a B a p t i s t m i n i s t e r , w h o , b e s i d e s f o l l o w i n g h i s c a l l i n g a s a h a n d - l o o m w e a v e r , u n d e r t o o k t o i n s t r u c t y o u n g P e t t y , a s o n o f h i s o w n , a n d t h e s o n a n d d a u g h t e r o f t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g s q u i r e . P r i m i t i v e M e t h o d i s t p r e a c h e r s b e g a n t o v i s i t S a l t e r f o r t h f r o m 1 8 2 2 a n d t h e P e t t y h o u s e h o l d w a s o p e n t o t h e m f o r h o s p i t a l i t y . I t w a s u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e p r e a c h e r s t h a t P e t t y w a s p e r s u a d e d t o c o m m i t h i s l i f e t o C h r i s t . F r o m t h e t i m e o f h i s c o n v e r s i o n a t t h e a g e o f s i x t e e n h e b e g a n t o p r e a c h t o l o c a l c o n g r e g a t i o n s . W i t h i n t w o y e a r s h e w a s c a l l e d t o w o r k a s a h i r e d ( i . e . p a i d ) l o c a l p r e a c h e r i n t h e K e i g h l e y C i r c u i t , a n d i n 1 8 2 6 w h e n h e w a s e i g h t e e n h e w a s c a l l e d t o t h e w o r k o f t h e i t i n e r a n t m i n i s t r y . H i s f i r s t c i r c u i t ( 1 8 2 6 – 1 8 2 8 ) w a s t h e P e m b r o k e s h i r e m i s s i o n b a s e d o n H a v e r f o r d w e s t , w h i c h w a s f o l l o w e d b y a y e a r a t S t r o u d . I n 1 8 2 9 w h e n h e w a s t w e n t y - o n e h e w a s a p p o i n t e d t o T u n s t a l l , t h e m o t h e r c i r c u i t o f t h e P r i m i t i v e M e t h o d i s t C o n n e x i o n , a n d f o u n d t h a t h e w a s n a m e d o n t h e p l a n a s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e h i g h r e g a r d i n w h i c h h e w a s h e l d v e r y e a r l y i n h i s m i n i s t r y . I n 1 8 3 1 h e w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o W e a r s i d e a n d i n 1 8 3 2 t o G u e r n s e y t o t a k e o v e r t h e C h a n n e l I s l a n d s m i s s i o n . F r o m 1 8 3 5 t o 1 8 5 0 h e w o r k e d i n c i r c u i t s o n t h e W e l s h b o r d e r a n d i n t h e M i d l a n d s u n t i l i n 1 8 5 0 h e w a s m o v e d t o L o n d o n t o t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e P M C o n n e x i o n . I n 1 8 5 7 h e w a s a s k e d t o u n d e r t a k e a h i s t o r y o f t h e C o n n e x i o n t o b e p u b l i s h e d t o m a r k i t s g o l d e n j u b i l e e i n 1 8 6 0 . B e t w e e n 1 8 5 7 a n d 1 8 6 3 P e t t y w a s i n v o l v e d w i t h w o r k a t H u l l w h e r e h e w a s b e h i n d b u i l d i n g t h e J u b i l e e C h a p e l o n S p r i n g B a n k . T h e n t h e c o n n e x i o n h o n o u r e d P e t t y b y a s k i n g h i m t o a s s u m e t h e g o v e r n o r s h i p o f t h e E l m f i e l d r e s i d e n t i a l s c h o o l s f o r b o y s o p e n e d a t Y o r k e a r l y i n 1 8 6 4 . T h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r i t w a s d e c i d e d t o a c c e p t i n t o E l m f i e l d a n u m b e r o f y o u n g m i n i s t e r i a l c a n d i d a t e s a n d P e t t y a d d e d t o h i s d u t i e s t h o s e o f t h e o l o g i c a l t u t o r . A p a r t f r o m h i s " H i s t o r y o f t h e P r i m i t i v e M e t h o d i s t C o n n e x i o n " p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 6 0 P e t t y w r o t e m a n y o t h e r b o o k s . H e w r o t e a m e m o i r o f T h o m a s B a t t y , t h r e e c a t e c h i s m s f o r t h e u s e w i t h t h e y o u n g , s e v e r a l v o l u m e s o f s e r m o n s , a n d a s e t o f l e c t u r e s , w h i c h h a d b e e n d e l i v e r e d , t o t h e m i n i s t e r i a l c a n d i d a t e s a t E l m f i e l d S c h o o l . S e e a l s o

Life and character

John Petty was born into a family of modest means but was encouraged by his father to pursue education. He became a Primitive Methodist preacher at 16 after being influenced by visiting preachers. He went on to become a prominent figure in the denomination, serving in various circuits and eventually becoming responsible for publications and writing a history of the Connexion. He later became governor of Elmfield residential schools and theological tutor, writing several books including memoirs, catechisms, sermons, and lectures.

Petty was one of the ten children of Micah Petty and his wife Mary Nelson. Micah was a tailor and the grandson of Silvester Petty of Langbar near Ilkley. John Petty married Thirza Sproston (1808–1871) at Bradford in 1832 and they had eight children. John had a taste for learning and in this his father encouraged him. He attended the school of John Driver, a Baptist minister, who, besides following his calling as a hand-loom weaver, undertook to instruct young Petty, a son of his own, and the son and daughter of the neighbouring squire. Primitive Methodist preachers began to visit Salterforth from 1822 and the Petty household was open to them for hospitality. It was under the influence of these preachers that Petty was persuaded to commit his life to Christ. From the time of his conversion at the age of sixteen he began to preach to local congregations. Within two years he was called to work as a hired (i.e. paid) local preacher in the Keighley Circuit, and in 1826 when he was eighteen he was called to the work of the itinerant ministry. His first circuit (1826–1828) was the Pembrokeshire mission based on Haverfordwest, which was followed by a year at Stroud. In 1829 when he was twenty-one he was appointed to Tunstall, the mother circuit of the Primitive Methodist Connexion, and found that he was named on the plan as superintendent, an indication of the high regard in which he was held very early in his ministry. In 1831 he was transferred to Wearside and in 1832 to Guernsey to take over the Channel Islands mission. From 1835 to 1850 he worked in circuits on the Welsh border and in the Midlands until in 1850 he was moved to London to take responsibility for the publications of the PM Connexion. In 1857 he was asked to undertake a history of the Connexion to be published to mark its golden jubilee in 1860. Between 1857 and 1863 Petty was involved with work at Hull where he was behind building the Jubilee Chapel on Spring Bank. Then the connexion honoured Petty by asking him to assume the governorship of the Elmfield residential schools for boys opened at York early in 1864. The following year it was decided to accept into Elmfield a number of young ministerial candidates and Petty added to his duties those of theological tutor. Apart from his "History of the Primitive Methodist Connexion" published in 1860 Petty wrote many other books. He wrote a memoir of Thomas Batty, three catechisms for the use with the young, several volumes of sermons, and a set of lectures, which had been delivered, to the ministerial candidates at Elmfield School. See also

Tacitus

D e t a i l s a b o u t t h e p e r s o n a l l i f e o f T a c i t u s a r e s c a r c e . W h a t l i t t l e i s k n o w n c o m e s f r o m s c a t t e r e d h i n t s t h r o u g h o u t h i s w o r k , t h e l e t t e r s o f h i s f r i e n d a n d a d m i r e r P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r , a n d a n i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M y l a s a i n C a r i a . T a c i t u s w a s b o r n i n 5 6 o r 5 7 t o a n e q u e s t r i a n f a m i l y . T h e p l a c e a n d d a t e o f h i s b i r t h , a s w e l l a s h i s p r a e n o m e n ( f i r s t n a m e ) a r e n o t k n o w n . I n t h e l e t t e r s o f S i d o n i u s A p o l l i n a r i s h i s n a m e i s " G a i u s " , b u t i n t h e m a j o r s u r v i v i n g m a n u s c r i p t o f h i s w o r k h i s n a m e i s g i v e n a s " P u b l i u s " . O n e s c h o l a r ' s s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e n a m e " S e x t u s " h a s b e e n l a r g e l y r e j e c t e d . M o s t o f t h e o l d e r a r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l i e s f a i l e d t o s u r v i v e t h e p r o s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h t o o k p l a c e a t t h e e n d o f t h e R e p u b l i c , a n d T a c i t u s m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t h e o w e d h i s r a n k t o t h e F l a v i a n e m p e r o r s ( " H i s t . " 1 . 1 ) . T h e c l a i m t h a t h e w a s d e s c e n d e d f r o m a f r e e d m a n i s d e r i v e d f r o m a s p e e c h i n h i s w r i t i n g s w h i c h a s s e r t s t h a t m a n y s e n a t o r s a n d k n i g h t s w e r e d e s c e n d e d f r o m f r e e d m e n ( " A n n . " 1 3 . 2 7 ) , b u t t h i s i s g e n e r a l l y d i s p u t e d . H i s f a t h e r m a y h a v e b e e n t h e C o r n e l i u s T a c i t u s w h o s e r v e d a s p r o c u r a t o r o f B e l g i c a a n d G e r m a n i a ; P l i n y t h e E l d e r m e n t i o n s t h a t C o r n e l i u s h a d a s o n w h o a g e d r a p i d l y ( N H 7 . 7 6 ) , w h i c h i m p l i e s a n e a r l y d e a t h . T h e r e i s n o m e n t i o n o f T a c i t u s ' s s u f f e r i n g s u c h a c o n d i t i o n , b u t i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s r e f e r s t o a b r o t h e r — i f C o r n e l i u s w a s i n d e e d h i s f a t h e r . T h e f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n t h e y o u n g e r P l i n y a n d T a c i t u s l e a d s s o m e s c h o l a r s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e y w e r e b o t h t h e o f f s p r i n g o f w e a l t h y p r o v i n c i a l f a m i l i e s . T h e p r o v i n c e o f h i s b i r t h r e m a i n s u n k n o w n , t h o u g h v a r i o u s c o n j e c t u r e s s u g g e s t G a l l i a B e l g i c a , G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s , o r N o r t h e r n I t a l y . H i s m a r r i a g e t o t h e d a u g h t e r o f N a r b o n e n s i a n s e n a t o r G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a i m p l i e s t h a t h e c a m e f r o m G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s . T a c i t u s ' s d e d i c a t i o n t o L u c i u s F a b i u s J u s t u s i n t h e " D i a l o g u s " m a y i n d i c a t e a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h S p a i n , a n d h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h P l i n y s u g g e s t s o r i g i n s i n n o r t h e r n I t a l y . N o e v i d e n c e e x i s t s , h o w e v e r , t h a t P l i n y ' s f r i e n d s f r o m n o r t h e r n I t a l y k n e w T a c i t u s , n o r d o P l i n y ' s l e t t e r s h i n t t h a t t h e t w o m e n h a d a c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d . P l i n y B o o k 9 , L e t t e r 2 3 , r e p o r t s t h a t w h e n a s k e d w h e t h e r h e w a s I t a l i a n o r p r o v i n c i a l , h e g a v e a n u n c l e a r a n s w e r a n d s o w a s a s k e d w h e t h e r h e w a s T a c i t u s o r P l i n y . S i n c e P l i n y w a s f r o m I t a l y , s o m e i n f e r t h a t T a c i t u s w a s f r o m t h e p r o v i n c e s , p r o b a b l y G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s . H i s a n c e s t r y , h i s s k i l l i n o r a t o r y , a n d h i s s y m p a t h e t i c d e p i c t i o n o f b a r b a r i a n s w h o r e s i s t e d R o m a n r u l e ( e . g . , " A n n . " 2 . 9 ) h a v e l e d s o m e t o s u g g e s t t h a t h e w a s a C e l t . T h i s b e l i e f s t e m s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C e l t s w h o h a d o c c u p i e d G a u l p r i o r t o t h e R o m a n i n v a s i o n w e r e f a m o u s f o r t h e i r s k i l l i n o r a t o r y a n d h a d b e e n s u b j u g a t e d b y R o m e . A s a y o u n g m a n , T a c i t u s s t u d i e d r h e t o r i c i n R o m e t o p r e p a r e f o r a c a r e e r i n l a w a n d p o l i t i c s ; l i k e P l i n y , h e m a y h a v e s t u d i e d u n d e r Q u i n t i l i a n ( – ) . I n 7 7 o r 7 8 , h e m a r r i e d J u l i a A g r i c o l a , d a u g h t e r o f t h e f a m o u s g e n e r a l A g r i c o l a . L i t t l e i s k n o w n o f t h e i r d o m e s t i c l i f e , s a v e t h a t T a c i t u s l o v e d h u n t i n g a n d t h e o u t d o o r s . H e s t a r t e d h i s c a r e e r ( p r o b a b l y t h e " l a t u s c l a v u s " , m a r k o f t h e s e n a t o r ) u n d e r V e s p a s i a n ( r . 6 9 – 7 9 ) , b u t e n t e r e d p o l i t i c a l l i f e a s a q u a e s t o r i n 8 1 o r 8 2 u n d e r T i t u s . H e a d v a n c e d s t e a d i l y t h r o u g h t h e " c u r s u s h o n o r u m " , b e c o m i n g p r a e t o r i n 8 8 a n d a q u i n d e c i m v i r , a m e m b e r o f t h e p r i e s t l y c o l l e g e i n c h a r g e o f t h e " S i b y l l i n e B o o k s " a n d t h e S e c u l a r G a m e s . H e g a i n e d a c c l a i m a s a l a w y e r a n d a s a n o r a t o r ; h i s s k i l l i n p u b l i c s p e a k i n g i r o n i c a l l y c o u n t e r p o i n t s h i s c o g n o m e n , " T a c i t u s " ( " s i l e n t " ) . H e s e r v e d i n t h e p r o v i n c e s f r o m t o , e i t h e r i n c o m m a n d o f a l e g i o n o r i n a c i v i l i a n p o s t . H e a n d h i s p r o p e r t y s u r v i v e d D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n o f t e r r o r ( 8 1 – 9 6 ) , b u t t h e e x p e r i e n c e l e f t h i m j a d e d a n d p e r h a p s a s h a m e d a t h i s o w n c o m p l i c i t y , i n s t a l l i n g i n h i m t h e h a t r e d o f t y r a n n y e v i d e n t i n h i s w o r k s . T h e " A g r i c o l a " , c h s . 4 4 – 4 5 , i s i l l u s t r a t i v e : A g r i c o l a w a s s p a r e d t h o s e l a t e r y e a r s d u r i n g w h i c h D o m i t i a n , l e a v i n g n o w n o i n t e r v a l o r b r e a t h i n g s p a c e o f t i m e , b u t , a s i t w e r e , w i t h o n e c o n t i n u o u s b l o w , d r a i n e d t h e l i f e - b l o o d o f t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h . . . I t w a s n o t l o n g b e f o r e o u r h a n d s d r a g g e d H e l v i d i u s t o p r i s o n , b e f o r e w e g a z e d o n t h e d y i n g l o o k s o f M a u r i c u s a n d R u s t i c u s , b e f o r e w e w e r e s t e e p e d i n S e n e c i o ' s i n n o c e n t b l o o d . E v e n N e r o t u r n e d h i s e y e s a w a y , a n d d i d n o t g a z e u p o n t h e a t r o c i t i e s w h i c h h e o r d e r e d ; w i t h D o m i t i a n i t w a s t h e c h i e f p a r t o f o u r m i s e r i e s t o s e e a n d t o b e s e e n , t o k n o w t h a t o u r s i g h s w e r e b e i n g r e c o r d e d . . . F r o m h i s s e a t i n t h e S e n a t e , h e b e c a m e s u f f e c t c o n s u l i n 9 7 d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f N e r v a , b e i n g t h e f i r s t o f h i s f a m i l y t o d o s o . D u r i n g h i s t e n u r e , h e r e a c h e d t h e h e i g h t o f h i s f a m e a s a n o r a t o r w h e n h e d e l i v e r e d t h e f u n e r a l o r a t i o n f o r t h e f a m o u s v e t e r a n s o l d i e r L u c i u s V e r g i n i u s R u f u s . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , h e w r o t e a n d p u b l i s h e d t h e " A g r i c o l a " a n d " G e r m a n i a " , f o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e l i t e r a r y e n d e a v o r s t h a t w o u l d o c c u p y h i m u n t i l h i s d e a t h . A f t e r w a r d , h e a b s e n t e d h i m s e l f f r o m p u b l i c l i f e , b u t r e t u r n e d d u r i n g T r a j a n ' s r e i g n ( 9 8 – 1 1 7 ) . I n 1 0 0 , h e a n d h i s f r i e n d P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r p r o s e c u t e d ( p r o c o n s u l o f A f r i c a ) f o r c o r r u p t i o n . P r i s c u s w a s f o u n d g u i l t y a n d s e n t i n t o e x i l e ; P l i n y w r o t e a f e w d a y s l a t e r t h a t T a c i t u s h a d s p o k e n " w i t h a l l t h e m a j e s t y w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s h i s u s u a l s t y l e o f o r a t o r y " . A l e n g t h y a b s e n c e f r o m p o l i t i c s a n d l a w f o l l o w e d w h i l e h e w r o t e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " a n d t h e " A n n a l s " . I n 1 1 2 t o 1 1 3 , h e h e l d t h e h i g h e s t c i v i l i a n g o v e r n o r s h i p , t h a t o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f A s i a i n w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a , r e c o r d e d i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M y l a s a m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . A p a s s a g e i n t h e " A n n a l s " f i x e s 1 1 6 a s t h e " t e r m i n u s p o s t q u e m " o f h i s d e a t h , w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n a s l a t e a s 1 2 5 o r e v e n 1 3 0 . I t s e e m s t h a t h e s u r v i v e d b o t h P l i n y ( d i e d ) a n d T r a j a n ( d i e d 1 1 7 ) . I t r e m a i n s u n k n o w n w h e t h e r T a c i t u s h a d a n y c h i l d r e n . T h e " A u g u s t a n H i s t o r y " r e p o r t s t h a t E m p e r o r M a r c u s C l a u d i u s T a c i t u s ( r . 2 7 5 – 2 7 6 ) c l a i m e d h i m f o r a n a n c e s t o r a n d p r o v i d e d f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f h i s w o r k s , b u t t h i s s t o r y m a y b e f r a u d u l e n t , l i k e m u c h o f t h e " A u g u s t a n H i s t o r y " . F i v e w o r k s a s c r i b e d t o T a c i t u s h a v e s u r v i v e d ( a l b e i t w i t h g a p s ) , t h e m o s t s u b s t a n t i a l o f w h i c h a r e t h e " A n n a l s " a n d t h e " H i s t o r i e s " . T h i s c a n o n ( w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e d a t e s ) c o n s i s t s o f : T h e " A n n a l s " a n d t h e " H i s t o r i e s " , p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y , w e r e m e a n t t o f o r m a s i n g l e e d i t i o n o f t h i r t y b o o k s . A l t h o u g h T a c i t u s w r o t e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " b e f o r e t h e " A n n a l s " , t h e e v e n t s i n t h e " A n n a l s " p r e c e d e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " ; t o g e t h e r t h e y f o r m a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e f r o m t h e d e a t h o f A u g u s t u s ( 1 4 ) t o t h e d e a t h o f D o m i t i a n ( 9 6 ) . T h o u g h m o s t h a s b e e n l o s t , w h a t r e m a i n s i s a n i n v a l u a b l e r e c o r d o f t h e e r a . T h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e " A n n a l s " s u r v i v e d i n a s i n g l e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m C o r v e y A b b e y i n G e r m a n y , a n d t h e s e c o n d h a l f i n a s i n g l e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m M o n t e C a s s i n o i n I t a l y , a n d i t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e y s u r v i v e d a t a l l . I n a n e a r l y c h a p t e r o f t h e " A g r i c o l a " , T a c i t u s a s s e r t s t h a t h e w i s h e s t o s p e a k a b o u t t h e y e a r s o f D o m i t i a n , N e r v a a n d T r a j a n . I n t h e " H i s t o r i e s " t h e s c o p e h a s c h a n g e d ; T a c i t u s s a y s t h a t h e w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e a g e o f N e r v a a n d T r a j a n a t a l a t e r t i m e . I n s t e a d , h e w i l l c o v e r t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e c i v i l w a r s o f t h e Y e a r o f t h e F o u r E m p e r o r s a n d e n d w i t h t h e d e s p o t i s m o f t h e F l a v i a n s . O n l y t h e f i r s t f o u r b o o k s a n d t w e n t y - s i x c h a p t e r s o f t h e f i f t h b o o k s u r v i v e , c o v e r i n g t h e y e a r 6 9 a n d t h e f i r s t p a r t o f 7 0 . T h e w o r k i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e c o n t i n u e d u p t o t h e d e a t h o f D o m i t i a n o n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 , 9 6 . T h e f i f t h b o o k c o n t a i n s — a s a p r e l u d e t o t h e a c c o u n t o f T i t u s ' s s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e F i r s t J e w i s h – R o m a n W a r — a s h o r t e t h n o g r a p h i c s u r v e y o f t h e a n c i e n t J e w s , ( a l t h o u g h e n t i r e l y i n a c c u r a t e ) a n d i t i s a n i n v a l u a b l e r e c o r d o f R o m a n a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e m . T h e " A n n a l s " , T a c i t u s ' s f i n a l w o r k , c o v e r s t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e d e a t h o f A u g u s t u s i n A D   1 4 . H e w r o t e a t l e a s t s i x t e e n b o o k s , b u t b o o k s   7 – 1 0 a n d p a r t s o f b o o k s   5 , 6 , 1 1 , a n d 1 6 a r e m i s s i n g . B o o k   6 e n d s w i t h t h e d e a t h o f T i b e r i u s , a n d b o o k s 7 – 1 2 p r e s u m a b l y c o v e r e d t h e r e i g n s o f C a l i g u l a a n d C l a u d i u s . T h e r e m a i n i n g b o o k s c o v e r t h e r e i g n o f N e r o , p e r h a p s u n t i l h i s d e a t h i n J u n e 6 8 o r u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h a t y e a r t o c o n n e c t w i t h t h e " H i s t o r i e s " . T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f b o o k   1 6 i s m i s s i n g , e n d i n g w i t h t h e e v e n t s o f 6 6 . I t i s n o t k n o w n w h e t h e r T a c i t u s c o m p l e t e d t h e w o r k ; h e d i e d b e f o r e h e c o u l d c o m p l e t e h i s p l a n n e d h i s t o r i e s o f N e r v a a n d T r a j a n , a n d n o r e c o r d s u r v i v e s o f t h e w o r k o n A u g u s t u s a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , w i t h w h i c h h e h a d p l a n n e d t o f i n i s h h i s w o r k . T h e " A n n a l s " i s o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t s e c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s t o m e n t i o n C h r i s t , w h i c h T a c i t u s d o e s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h N e r o ' s p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s . T a c i t u s w r o t e t h r e e w o r k s w i t h a m o r e l i m i t e d s c o p e : " A g r i c o l a " , a b i o g r a p h y o f h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w , G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a ; t h e " G e r m a n i a " , a m o n o g r a p h o n t h e l a n d s a n d t r i b e s o f b a r b a r i a n G e r m a n i a ; a n d t h e " D i a l o g u s " , a d i a l o g u e o n t h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c . T h e " G e r m a n i a " ( L a t i n t i t l e : " D e O r i g i n e e t s i t u G e r m a n o r u m " ) i s a n e t h n o g r a p h i c w o r k o n t h e G e r m a n i c t r i b e s o u t s i d e t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . T h e " G e r m a n i a " f i t s w i t h i n a c l a s s i c a l e t h n o g r a p h i c t r a d i t i o n w h i c h i n c l u d e s a u t h o r s s u c h a s H e r o d o t u s a n d J u l i u s C a e s a r . T h e b o o k b e g i n s ( c h a p t e r s 1 – 2 7 ) w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l a n d s , l a w s , a n d c u s t o m s o f t h e v a r i o u s t r i b e s . L a t e r c h a p t e r s f o c u s o n d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p a r t i c u l a r t r i b e s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h o s e w h o l i v e d c l o s e s t t o t h e R o m a n e m p i r e , a n d e n d i n g w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h o s e w h o l i v e d o n t h e s h o r e s o f t h e B a l t i c S e a , s u c h a s t h e F e n n i . T a c i t u s h a d w r i t t e n a s i m i l a r , a l b e i t s h o r t e r , p i e c e i n h i s " A g r i c o l a " ( c h a p t e r s 1 0 – 1 3 ) . T h e " A g r i c o l a " ( w r i t t e n ) r e c o u n t s t h e l i f e o f G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a , a n e m i n e n t R o m a n g e n e r a l a n d T a c i t u s ' s f a t h e r - i n - l a w ; i t a l s o c o v e r s , b r i e f l y , t h e g e o g r a p h y a n d e t h n o g r a p h y o f a n c i e n t B r i t a i n . A s i n t h e " G e r m a n i a " , T a c i t u s f a v o r a b l y c o n t r a s t s t h e l i b e r t y o f t h e n a t i v e B r i t o n s w i t h t h e t y r a n n y a n d c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e E m p i r e ; t h e b o o k a l s o c o n t a i n s e l o q u e n t p o l e m i c s a g a i n s t t h e g r e e d o f R o m e , o n e o f w h i c h , t h a t T a c i t u s c l a i m s i s f r o m a s p e e c h b y C a l g a c u s , e n d s b y a s s e r t i n g , " A u f e r r e t r u c i d a r e r a p e r e f a l s i s n o m i n i b u s i m p e r i u m , a t q u e u b i s o l i t u d i n e m f a c i u n t , p a c e m a p p e l l a n t . " ( " T o r a v a g e , t o s l a u g h t e r , t o u s u r p u n d e r f a l s e t i t l e s , t h e y c a l l e m p i r e ; a n d w h e r e t h e y m a k e a d e s e r t , t h e y c a l l i t p e a c e . " — O x f o r d R e v i s e d T r a n s l a t i o n ) . T h e r e i s u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t w h e n T a c i t u s w r o t e " D i a l o g u s d e o r a t o r i b u s " . M a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s e t i t a p a r t f r o m t h e o t h e r w o r k s o f T a c i t u s , s o t h a t i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y h a s a t v a r i o u s t i m e s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d . I t i s l i k e l y t o b e e a r l y w o r k , i n d e b t e d t o t h e a u t h o r ' s r h e t o r i c a l t r a i n i n g , s i n c e i t s s t y l e i m i t a t e s t h a t o f t h e f o r e m o s t R o m a n o r a t o r C i c e r o . I t l a c k s ( f o r e x a m p l e ) t h e i n c o n g r u i t i e s t h a t a r e t y p i c a l o f h i s m a t u r e h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s . T h e " D i a l o g u s " i s d e d i c a t e d t o F a b i u s I u s t u s , a c o n s u l i n 1 0 2 A D . T a c i t u s ' s w r i t i n g s a r e k n o w n f o r t h e i r d e n s e p r o s e t h a t s e l d o m g l o s s e s t h e f a c t s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t y l e o f s o m e o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , s u c h a s P l u t a r c h . W h e n h e w r i t e s a b o u t a n e a r d e f e a t o f t h e R o m a n a r m y i n " A n n a l s " I , 6 3 , h e d o e s s o w i t h b r e v i t y o f d e s c r i p t i o n r a t h e r t h a n e m b e l l i s h m e n t . I n m o s t o f h i s w r i t i n g s , h e k e e p s t o a c h r o n o l o g i c a l n a r r a t i v e o r d e r , o n l y s e l d o m o u t l i n i n g t h e b i g g e r p i c t u r e , l e a v i n g t h e r e a d e r s t o c o n s t r u c t t h a t p i c t u r e f o r t h e m s e l v e s . N o n e t h e l e s s , w h e r e h e d o e s u s e b r o a d s t r o k e s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h s o f t h e " A n n a l s " , h e u s e s a f e w c o n d e n s e d p h r a s e s w h i c h t a k e t h e r e a d e r t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e s t o r y . T a c i t u s ' s h i s t o r i c a l s t y l e o w e s s o m e d e b t t o S a l l u s t . H i s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f f e r s p e n e t r a t i n g — o f t e n p e s s i m i s t i c — i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f p o w e r p o l i t i c s , b l e n d i n g s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f e v e n t s , m o r a l l e s s o n s , a n d t i g h t l y f o c u s e d d r a m a t i c a c c o u n t s . T a c i t u s ' s o w n d e c l a r a t i o n r e g a r d i n g h i s a p p r o a c h t o h i s t o r y ( " A n n a l s " I , 1 ) i s w e l l k n o w n : " i n d e c o n s i l i u m m i h i . . . t r a d e r e . . . s i n e i r a e t s t u d i o , q u o r u m c a u s a s p r o c u l h a b e o . " m y p u r p o s e i s . . . t o r e l a t e . . . w i t h o u t e i t h e r a n g e r o r z e a l , m o t i v e s f r o m w h i c h I a m f a r r e m o v e d . T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h s c h o l a r l y d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t T a c i t u s ' s " n e u t r a l i t y " . T h r o u g h o u t h i s w r i t i n g , h e i s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r b e t w e e n t h e S e n a t e a n d t h e e m p e r o r s , a n d t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n i n g c l a s s e s o f R o m e a s t h e y a d j u s t e d t o t h e e v e r - g r o w i n g w e a l t h a n d p o w e r o f t h e e m p i r e . I n T a c i t u s ' s v i e w , s e n a t o r s s q u a n d e r e d t h e i r c u l t u r a l i n h e r i t a n c e — t h a t o f f r e e s p e e c h — t o p l a c a t e t h e i r ( r a r e l y b e n i g n ) e m p e r o r . T a c i t u s n o t e d t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e e m p e r o r o n t h e g o o d w i l l o f h i s a r m i e s . T h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n s e v e n t u a l l y g a v e w a y t o g e n e r a l s , w h o f o l l o w e d J u l i u s C a e s a r ( a n d S u l l a a n d P o m p e y ) i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t m i l i t a r y m i g h t c o u l d s e c u r e t h e m t h e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r i n R o m e . ( " H i s t . " 1 . 4 ) W e l c o m e a s t h e d e a t h o f N e r o h a d b e e n i n t h e f i r s t b u r s t o f j o y , y e t i t h a d n o t o n l y r o u s e d v a r i o u s e m o t i o n s i n R o m e , a m o n g t h e S e n a t o r s , t h e p e o p l e , o r t h e s o l d i e r y o f t h e c a p i t a l , i t h a d a l s o e x c i t e d a l l t h e l e g i o n s a n d t h e i r g e n e r a l s ; f o r n o w h a d b e e n d i v u l g e d t h a t s e c r e t o f t h e e m p i r e , t h a t e m p e r o r s c o u l d b e m a d e e l s e w h e r e t h a n a t R o m e . T a c i t u s ' s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r w a s l a r g e l y l i v e d o u t u n d e r t h e e m p e r o r D o m i t i a n . H i s e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e t y r a n n y , c o r r u p t i o n , a n d d e c a d e n c e o f t h a t e r a ( 8 1 – 9 6 ) m a y e x p l a i n t h e b i t t e r n e s s a n d i r o n y o f h i s p o l i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . H e d r a w s o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d a n g e r s o f p o w e r w i t h o u t a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , l o v e o f p o w e r u n t e m p e r e d b y p r i n c i p l e , a n d t h e a p a t h y a n d c o r r u p t i o n e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f w e a l t h g e n e r a t e d t h r o u g h t r a d e a n d c o n q u e s t b y t h e e m p i r e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e i m a g e h e b u i l d s o f T i b e r i u s t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i r s t s i x b o o k s o f t h e " A n n a l s " i s n e i t h e r e x c l u s i v e l y b l e a k n o r a p p r o v i n g : m o s t s c h o l a r s v i e w t h e i m a g e o f T i b e r i u s a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y " p o s i t i v e " i n t h e f i r s t b o o k s , a n d p r e d o m i n a n t l y " n e g a t i v e " a f t e r t h e i n t r i g u e s o f S e j a n u s . T h e e n t r a n c e o f T i b e r i u s i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r s o f t h e f i r s t b o o k i s d o m i n a t e d b y t h e h y p o c r i s y o f t h e n e w e m p e r o r a n d h i s c o u r t i e r s . I n t h e l a t e r b o o k s , s o m e r e s p e c t i s e v i d e n t f o r t h e c l e v e r n e s s o f t h e o l d e m p e r o r i n s e c u r i n g h i s p o s i t i o n . I n g e n e r a l , T a c i t u s d o e s n o t f e a r t o p r a i s e a n d t o c r i t i c i z e t h e s a m e p e r s o n , o f t e n n o t i n g w h a t h e t a k e s t o b e t h e i r m o r e a d m i r a b l e a n d l e s s a d m i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s . O n e o f T a c i t u s ' s h a l l m a r k s i s r e f r a i n i n g f r o m " c o n c l u s i v e l y " t a k i n g s i d e s f o r o r a g a i n s t p e r s o n s h e d e s c r i b e s , w h i c h h a s l e d s o m e t o i n t e r p r e t h i s w o r k s a s b o t h s u p p o r t i n g a n d r e j e c t i n g t h e i m p e r i a l s y s t e m ( s e e T a c i t e a n s t u d i e s , " B l a c k " v s . " R e d " T a c i t i s t s ) . H i s L a t i n s t y l e i s h i g h l y p r a i s e d . H i s s t y l e , a l t h o u g h i t h a s a g r a n d e u r a n d e l o q u e n c e ( t h a n k s t o T a c i t u s ' s e d u c a t i o n i n r h e t o r i c ) , i s e x t r e m e l y c o n c i s e , e v e n e p i g r a m m a t i c — t h e s e n t e n c e s a r e r a r e l y f l o w i n g o r b e a u t i f u l , b u t t h e i r p o i n t i s a l w a y s c l e a r . T h e s t y l e h a s b e e n b o t h d e r i d e d a s " h a r s h , u n p l e a s a n t , a n d t h o r n y " a n d p r a i s e d a s " g r a v e , c o n c i s e , a n d p i t h i l y e l o q u e n t " . A p a s s a g e o f " A n n a l s " 1 . 1 , w h e r e T a c i t u s l a m e n t s t h e s t a t e o f t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y r e g a r d i n g t h e l a s t f o u r e m p e r o r s o f t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n d y n a s t y , i l l u s t r a t e s h i s s t y l e : " T h e h i s t o r i e s o f T i b e r i u s , G a i u s , C l a u d i u s a n d N e r o , w h i l e t h e y w e r e i n p o w e r , w e r e f a l s i f i e d t h r o u g h t e r r o r a n d a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h w e r e w r i t t e n u n d e r t h e i r r i t a t i o n o f a r e c e n t h a t r e d " , o r i n a w o r d - f o r - w o r d t r a n s l a t i o n : C o m p a r e d t o t h e C i c e r o n i a n p e r i o d , w h e r e s e n t e n c e s w e r e u s u a l l y t h e l e n g t h o f a p a r a g r a p h a n d a r t f u l l y c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h n e s t e d p a i r s o f c a r e f u l l y m a t c h e d s o n o r o u s p h r a s e s , t h i s i s s h o r t a n d t o t h e p o i n t . B u t i t i s a l s o v e r y i n d i v i d u a l . N o t e t h e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f s a y i n g " a n d " i n t h e f i r s t l i n e ( " - q u e " , " e t " , " a c " ) , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e m a t c h e d s e c o n d a n d t h i r d l i n e s . T h e y a r e p a r a l l e l i n s e n s e b u t n o t i n s o u n d ; t h e p a i r s o f w o r d s e n d i n g " " - e n t i b u s " … " - i s " " a r e c r o s s e d o v e r i n a w a y t h a t d e l i b e r a t e l y b r e a k s t h e C i c e r o n i a n c o n v e n t i o n s — w h i c h o n e w o u l d , h o w e v e r , n e e d t o b e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t o s e e t h e n o v e l t y o f T a c i t u s ' s s t y l e . S o m e r e a d e r s , t h e n a n d n o w , f i n d t h i s t e a s i n g o f t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s m e r e l y i r r i t a t i n g . O t h e r s f i n d t h e d e l i b e r a t e d i s c o r d , p l a y i n g a g a i n s t t h e e v i d e n t p a r a l l e l i s m o f t h e t w o l i n e s , s t i m u l a t i n g a n d i n t r i g u i n g . H i s h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s f o c u s o n t h e m o t i v e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s , o f t e n w i t h p e n e t r a t i n g i n s i g h t — t h o u g h i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e h o w m u c h o f h i s i n s i g h t i s c o r r e c t , a n d h o w m u c h i s c o n v i n c i n g o n l y b e c a u s e o f h i s r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l . H e i s a t h i s b e s t w h e n e x p o s i n g h y p o c r i s y a n d d i s s i m u l a t i o n ; f o r e x a m p l e , h e f o l l o w s a n a r r a t i v e r e c o u n t i n g T i b e r i u s ' s r e f u s a l o f t h e t i t l e " p a t e r p a t r i a e " b y r e c a l l i n g t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f a l a w f o r b i d d i n g a n y " t r e a s o n o u s " s p e e c h o r w r i t i n g s — a n d t h e f r i v o l o u s p r o s e c u t i o n s w h i c h r e s u l t e d ( " A n n a l s " , 1 . 7 2 ) . E l s e w h e r e ( " A n n a l s " 4 . 6 4 – 6 6 ) h e c o m p a r e s T i b e r i u s ' s p u b l i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f i r e r e l i e f t o h i s f a i l u r e t o s t o p t h e p e r v e r s i o n s a n d a b u s e s o f j u s t i c e w h i c h h e h a d b e g u n . A l t h o u g h t h i s k i n d o f i n s i g h t h a s e a r n e d h i m p r a i s e , h e h a s a l s o b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r i g n o r i n g t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t . T a c i t u s o w e s m o s t , b o t h i n l a n g u a g e a n d i n m e t h o d , t o S a l l u s t , a n d A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s i s t h e l a t e r h i s t o r i a n w h o s e w o r k m o s t c l o s e l y a p p r o a c h e s h i m i n s t y l e . T a c i t u s m a k e s u s e o f t h e o f f i c i a l s o u r c e s o f t h e R o m a n s t a t e : t h e " a c t a s e n a t u s " ( t h e m i n u t e s o f t h e s e s s i o n s o f t h e S e n a t e ) a n d t h e " a c t a d i u r n a p o p u l i R o m a n i " ( a c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e a c t s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d n e w s o f t h e c o u r t a n d c a p i t a l ) . H e a l s o r e a d c o l l e c t i o n s o f e m p e r o r s ' s p e e c h e s , s u c h a s t h o s e o f T i b e r i u s a n d C l a u d i u s . H e i s g e n e r a l l y s e e n a s a s c r u p u l o u s h i s t o r i a n w h o p a i d c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n t o h i s s o u r c e s . T a c i t u s c i t e s s o m e o f h i s s o u r c e s d i r e c t l y , a m o n g t h e m C l u v i u s R u f u s , F a b i u s R u s t i c u s a n d P l i n y t h e E l d e r , w h o h a d w r i t t e n " B e l l a G e r m a n i a e " a n d a h i s t o r i c a l w o r k w h i c h w a s t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h a t o f A u f i d i u s B a s s u s . T a c i t u s a l s o u s e s c o l l e c t i o n s o f l e t t e r s ( " e p i s t o l a r i u m " ) . H e a l s o t o o k i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m " e x i t u s i l l u s t r i u m v i r o r u m " . T h e s e w e r e a c o l l e c t i o n o f b o o k s b y t h o s e w h o w e r e a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h e e m p e r o r s . T h e y t e l l o f s a c r i f i c e s b y m a r t y r s t o f r e e d o m , e s p e c i a l l y t h e m e n w h o c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e . W h i l e h e p l a c e s n o v a l u e o n t h e S t o i c t h e o r y o f s u i c i d e a n d v i e w s s u i c i d e s a s o s t e n t a t i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l l y u s e l e s s , T a c i t u s o f t e n g i v e s p r o m i n e n c e t o s p e e c h e s m a d e b y t h o s e a b o u t t o c o m m i t s u i c i d e , f o r e x a m p l e C r e m u t i u s C o r d u s ' s p e e c h i n " A n n . " I V , 3 4 – 3 5 .

Life

Tacitus was born around 56-57 AD into an equestrian family. Little is known about his early life, but he rose through the ranks of Roman politics, becoming a quaestor, praetor, and eventually a suffect consul. He wrote several historical works, including the Annals and Histories, which provide valuable insights into the workings of the Roman Empire. His writing style is characterized by its conciseness, eloquence, and ability to convey complex ideas and emotions. Through his works, Tacitus critiques the corruption and abuse of power within the Roman Empire, while also providing nuanced portrayals of historical figures like Tiberius.

Details about the personal life of Tacitus are scarce. What little is known comes from scattered hints throughout his work, the letters of his friend and admirer Pliny the Younger, and an inscription found at Mylasa in Caria. Tacitus was born in 56 or 57 to an equestrian family. The place and date of his birth, as well as his praenomen (first name) are not known. In the letters of Sidonius Apollinaris his name is "Gaius", but in the major surviving manuscript of his work his name is given as "Publius". One scholar's suggestion of the name "Sextus" has been largely rejected. Most of the older aristocratic families failed to survive the proscriptions which took place at the end of the Republic, and Tacitus makes it clear that "latus clavus", mark of the senator) under Vespasian (r. 69–79), but entered political life as a quaestor in 81 or 82 under Titus. He advanced steadily through the "cursus honorum", becoming praetor in 88 and a quindecimvir, a member of the priestly college in charge of the "Sibylline Books" and the Secular Games. He gained acclaim as a lawyer and as an orator; his skill in public speaking ironically counterpoints his cognomen, "Tacitus" ("silent"). He served in the provinces from to , either in command of a legion or in a civilian post. He and his property survived Domitian's reign of terror (81–96), but the experience left him jaded and perhaps ashamed at his own complicity, installing in him the hatred of tyranny evident in his works. The "Agricola", chs. 44–45, is illustrative: Agricola was spared those later years during which Domitian, leaving now no interval or breathing space of time, but, as it were, with one continuous blow, drained the life-blood of the Commonwealth... It was not long before our hands dragged Helvidius to prison, before we gazed on the dying looks of Mauricus and Rusticus, before we were steeped in Senecio's innocent blood. Even Nero turned his eyes away, and did not gaze upon the atrocities which he ordered; with Domitian it was the chief part of our miseries to see and to be seen, to know that our sighs were being recorded... From his seat in the Senate, he became suffect consul in 97 during the reign of Nerva, being the first of psychology of power politics, blending straightforward descriptions of events, moral lessons, and tightly focused dramatic accounts. Tacitus's own declaration regarding his approach to history ("Annals" I,1) is well known: "inde consilium mihi ... tradere ... sine ira et studio, quorum causas procul habeo. " my purpose is ... to relate ... without either anger or zeal, motives from which I am far removed. There has been much scholarly discussion about Tacitus's "neutrality". Throughout his writing, he is preoccupied with the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors, and the increasing corruption of the governing classes of Rome as they adjusted to the ever-growing wealth and power of the empire. In Tacitus's view, senators squandered their cultural inheritance—that of free speech—to placate their (rarely benign) emperor. Tacitus noted the increasing dependence of the emperor on the goodwill of his armies. The Julio-Claudians eventually gave way to generals, who followed Julius Caesar (and Sulla and Pompey) in recognizing that military might could secure them the political power in Rome. ("Hist." 1.4) Welcome as the death of Nero had been in the first burst of joy, yet it had not only roused various emotions in Rome, among the Senators, the people, or the soldiery of the capital, it had also excited all the legions and their generals; for now had been divulged that secret of the empire, that emperors could be made elsewhere than at Rome. Tacitus's political career was largely lived out under the emperor Domitian. His experience of the tyranny, corruption, and decadence of that era (81–96) may explain the bitterness and irony of his political analysis. He draws our attention to the dangers of power without accountability, love of power untempered by principle, and the apathy and corruption engendered by the concentration of wealth generated through trade and conquest by the empire. Nonetheless, the image he builds of Tiberius throughout the first six books of the "Annals" is neither exclusively bleak nor approving: most scholars view the image of Tiberius as predominantly "positive" in the first books, and predominantly "negative" after the intrigues of Sejanus. The entrance of Tiberius in the first chapters of the first book is dominated by the hypocrisy of the new emperor and his courtiers. In the later books, some respect is evident for the cleverness of the old emperor in securing his position. In general, Tacitus does not fear to praise and to criticize the same person, often noting what he takes to be their more admirable and less admirable properties. One of Tacitus's hallmarks is refraining from "conclusively" taking sides for or against persons he describes, which has led some to interpret his works as both supporting and rejecting the imperial system (see Tacitean studies, "Black" vs. "Red" Tacitists). His Latin style is highly praised. His style, although it has a grandeur and eloquence (thanks to Tacitus's education in rhetoric), is extremely concise, even epigrammatic—the sentences are rarely flowing or beautiful, but their point is always clear. The style has been both derided as "harsh, unpleasant, and thorny" and praised as "grave, concise, and ostentatious and politically useless, Tacitus often gives prominence to speeches made by those about to commit suicide, for example Cremutius Cordus' speech in "Ann." IV, 34–35.

Tacitus

D e t a i l s a b o u t t h e p e r s o n a l l i f e o f T a c i t u s a r e s c a r c e . W h a t l i t t l e i s k n o w n c o m e s f r o m s c a t t e r e d h i n t s t h r o u g h o u t h i s w o r k , t h e l e t t e r s o f h i s f r i e n d a n d a d m i r e r P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r , a n d a n i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M y l a s a i n C a r i a . T a c i t u s w a s b o r n i n 5 6 o r 5 7 t o a n e q u e s t r i a n f a m i l y . T h e p l a c e a n d d a t e o f h i s b i r t h , a s w e l l a s h i s p r a e n o m e n ( f i r s t n a m e ) a r e n o t k n o w n . I n t h e l e t t e r s o f S i d o n i u s A p o l l i n a r i s h i s n a m e i s " G a i u s " , b u t i n t h e m a j o r s u r v i v i n g m a n u s c r i p t o f h i s w o r k h i s n a m e i s g i v e n a s " P u b l i u s " . O n e s c h o l a r ' s s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e n a m e " S e x t u s " h a s b e e n l a r g e l y r e j e c t e d . M o s t o f t h e o l d e r a r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l i e s f a i l e d t o s u r v i v e t h e p r o s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h t o o k p l a c e a t t h e e n d o f t h e R e p u b l i c , a n d T a c i t u s m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t h e o w e d h i s r a n k t o t h e F l a v i a n e m p e r o r s ( " H i s t . " 1 . 1 ) . T h e c l a i m t h a t h e w a s d e s c e n d e d f r o m a f r e e d m a n i s d e r i v e d f r o m a s p e e c h i n h i s w r i t i n g s w h i c h a s s e r t s t h a t m a n y s e n a t o r s a n d k n i g h t s w e r e d e s c e n d e d f r o m f r e e d m e n ( " A n n . " 1 3 . 2 7 ) , b u t t h i s i s g e n e r a l l y d i s p u t e d . H i s f a t h e r m a y h a v e b e e n t h e C o r n e l i u s T a c i t u s w h o s e r v e d a s p r o c u r a t o r o f B e l g i c a a n d G e r m a n i a ; P l i n y t h e E l d e r m e n t i o n s t h a t C o r n e l i u s h a d a s o n w h o a g e d r a p i d l y ( N H 7 . 7 6 ) , w h i c h i m p l i e s a n e a r l y d e a t h . T h e r e i s n o m e n t i o n o f T a c i t u s ' s s u f f e r i n g s u c h a c o n d i t i o n , b u t i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s r e f e r s t o a b r o t h e r — i f C o r n e l i u s w a s i n d e e d h i s f a t h e r . T h e f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n t h e y o u n g e r P l i n y a n d T a c i t u s l e a d s s o m e s c h o l a r s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e y w e r e b o t h t h e o f f s p r i n g o f w e a l t h y p r o v i n c i a l f a m i l i e s . T h e p r o v i n c e o f h i s b i r t h r e m a i n s u n k n o w n , t h o u g h v a r i o u s c o n j e c t u r e s s u g g e s t G a l l i a B e l g i c a , G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s , o r N o r t h e r n I t a l y . H i s m a r r i a g e t o t h e d a u g h t e r o f N a r b o n e n s i a n s e n a t o r G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a i m p l i e s t h a t h e c a m e f r o m G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s . T a c i t u s ' s d e d i c a t i o n t o L u c i u s F a b i u s J u s t u s i n t h e " D i a l o g u s " m a y i n d i c a t e a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h S p a i n , a n d h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h P l i n y s u g g e s t s o r i g i n s i n n o r t h e r n I t a l y . N o e v i d e n c e e x i s t s , h o w e v e r , t h a t P l i n y ' s f r i e n d s f r o m n o r t h e r n I t a l y k n e w T a c i t u s , n o r d o P l i n y ' s l e t t e r s h i n t t h a t t h e t w o m e n h a d a c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d . P l i n y B o o k 9 , L e t t e r 2 3 , r e p o r t s t h a t w h e n a s k e d w h e t h e r h e w a s I t a l i a n o r p r o v i n c i a l , h e g a v e a n u n c l e a r a n s w e r a n d s o w a s a s k e d w h e t h e r h e w a s T a c i t u s o r P l i n y . S i n c e P l i n y w a s f r o m I t a l y , s o m e i n f e r t h a t T a c i t u s w a s f r o m t h e p r o v i n c e s , p r o b a b l y G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s . H i s a n c e s t r y , h i s s k i l l i n o r a t o r y , a n d h i s s y m p a t h e t i c d e p i c t i o n o f b a r b a r i a n s w h o r e s i s t e d R o m a n r u l e ( e . g . , " A n n . " 2 . 9 ) h a v e l e d s o m e t o s u g g e s t t h a t h e w a s a C e l t . T h i s b e l i e f s t e m s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C e l t s w h o h a d o c c u p i e d G a u l p r i o r t o t h e R o m a n i n v a s i o n w e r e f a m o u s f o r t h e i r s k i l l i n o r a t o r y a n d h a d b e e n s u b j u g a t e d b y R o m e . A s a y o u n g m a n , T a c i t u s s t u d i e d r h e t o r i c i n R o m e t o p r e p a r e f o r a c a r e e r i n l a w a n d p o l i t i c s ; l i k e P l i n y , h e m a y h a v e s t u d i e d u n d e r Q u i n t i l i a n ( – ) . I n 7 7 o r 7 8 , h e m a r r i e d J u l i a A g r i c o l a , d a u g h t e r o f t h e f a m o u s g e n e r a l A g r i c o l a . L i t t l e i s k n o w n o f t h e i r d o m e s t i c l i f e , s a v e t h a t T a c i t u s l o v e d h u n t i n g a n d t h e o u t d o o r s . H e s t a r t e d h i s c a r e e r ( p r o b a b l y t h e " l a t u s c l a v u s " , m a r k o f t h e s e n a t o r ) u n d e r V e s p a s i a n ( r . 6 9 – 7 9 ) , b u t e n t e r e d p o l i t i c a l l i f e a s a q u a e s t o r i n 8 1 o r 8 2 u n d e r T i t u s . H e a d v a n c e d s t e a d i l y t h r o u g h t h e " c u r s u s h o n o r u m " , b e c o m i n g p r a e t o r i n 8 8 a n d a q u i n d e c i m v i r , a m e m b e r o f t h e p r i e s t l y c o l l e g e i n c h a r g e o f t h e " S i b y l l i n e B o o k s " a n d t h e S e c u l a r G a m e s . H e g a i n e d a c c l a i m a s a l a w y e r a n d a s a n o r a t o r ; h i s s k i l l i n p u b l i c s p e a k i n g i r o n i c a l l y c o u n t e r p o i n t s h i s c o g n o m e n , " T a c i t u s " ( " s i l e n t " ) . H e s e r v e d i n t h e p r o v i n c e s f r o m t o , e i t h e r i n c o m m a n d o f a l e g i o n o r i n a c i v i l i a n p o s t . H e a n d h i s p r o p e r t y s u r v i v e d D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n o f t e r r o r ( 8 1 – 9 6 ) , b u t t h e e x p e r i e n c e l e f t h i m j a d e d a n d p e r h a p s a s h a m e d a t h i s o w n c o m p l i c i t y , i n s t a l l i n g i n h i m t h e h a t r e d o f t y r a n n y e v i d e n t i n h i s w o r k s . T h e " A g r i c o l a " , c h s . 4 4 – 4 5 , i s i l l u s t r a t i v e : A g r i c o l a w a s s p a r e d t h o s e l a t e r y e a r s d u r i n g w h i c h D o m i t i a n , l e a v i n g n o w n o i n t e r v a l o r b r e a t h i n g s p a c e o f t i m e , b u t , a s i t w e r e , w i t h o n e c o n t i n u o u s b l o w , d r a i n e d t h e l i f e - b l o o d o f t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h . . . I t w a s n o t l o n g b e f o r e o u r h a n d s d r a g g e d H e l v i d i u s t o p r i s o n , b e f o r e w e g a z e d o n t h e d y i n g l o o k s o f M a u r i c u s a n d R u s t i c u s , b e f o r e w e w e r e s t e e p e d i n S e n e c i o ' s i n n o c e n t b l o o d . E v e n N e r o t u r n e d h i s e y e s a w a y , a n d d i d n o t g a z e u p o n t h e a t r o c i t i e s w h i c h h e o r d e r e d ; w i t h D o m i t i a n i t w a s t h e c h i e f p a r t o f o u r m i s e r i e s t o s e e a n d t o b e s e e n , t o k n o w t h a t o u r s i g h s w e r e b e i n g r e c o r d e d . . . F r o m h i s s e a t i n t h e S e n a t e , h e b e c a m e s u f f e c t c o n s u l i n 9 7 d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f N e r v a , b e i n g t h e f i r s t o f h i s f a m i l y t o d o s o . D u r i n g h i s t e n u r e , h e r e a c h e d t h e h e i g h t o f h i s f a m e a s a n o r a t o r w h e n h e d e l i v e r e d t h e f u n e r a l o r a t i o n f o r t h e f a m o u s v e t e r a n s o l d i e r L u c i u s V e r g i n i u s R u f u s . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , h e w r o t e a n d p u b l i s h e d t h e " A g r i c o l a " a n d " G e r m a n i a " , f o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e l i t e r a r y e n d e a v o r s t h a t w o u l d o c c u p y h i m u n t i l h i s d e a t h . A f t e r w a r d , h e a b s e n t e d h i m s e l f f r o m p u b l i c l i f e , b u t r e t u r n e d d u r i n g T r a j a n ' s r e i g n ( 9 8 – 1 1 7 ) . I n 1 0 0 , h e a n d h i s f r i e n d P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r p r o s e c u t e d ( p r o c o n s u l o f A f r i c a ) f o r c o r r u p t i o n . P r i s c u s w a s f o u n d g u i l t y a n d s e n t i n t o e x i l e ; P l i n y w r o t e a f e w d a y s l a t e r t h a t T a c i t u s h a d s p o k e n " w i t h a l l t h e m a j e s t y w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s h i s u s u a l s t y l e o f o r a t o r y " . A l e n g t h y a b s e n c e f r o m p o l i t i c s a n d l a w f o l l o w e d w h i l e h e w r o t e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " a n d t h e " A n n a l s " . I n 1 1 2 t o 1 1 3 , h e h e l d t h e h i g h e s t c i v i l i a n g o v e r n o r s h i p , t h a t o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f A s i a i n w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a , r e c o r d e d i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M y l a s a m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . A p a s s a g e i n t h e " A n n a l s " f i x e s 1 1 6 a s t h e " t e r m i n u s p o s t q u e m " o f h i s d e a t h , w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n a s l a t e a s 1 2 5 o r e v e n 1 3 0 . I t s e e m s t h a t h e s u r v i v e d b o t h P l i n y ( d i e d ) a n d T r a j a n ( d i e d 1 1 7 ) . I t r e m a i n s u n k n o w n w h e t h e r T a c i t u s h a d a n y c h i l d r e n . T h e " A u g u s t a n H i s t o r y " r e p o r t s t h a t E m p e r o r M a r c u s C l a u d i u s T a c i t u s ( r . 2 7 5 – 2 7 6 ) c l a i m e d h i m f o r a n a n c e s t o r a n d p r o v i d e d f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f h i s w o r k s , b u t t h i s s t o r y m a y b e f r a u d u l e n t , l i k e m u c h o f t h e " A u g u s t a n H i s t o r y " . F i v e w o r k s a s c r i b e d t o T a c i t u s h a v e s u r v i v e d ( a l b e i t w i t h g a p s ) , t h e m o s t s u b s t a n t i a l o f w h i c h a r e t h e " A n n a l s " a n d t h e " H i s t o r i e s " . T h i s c a n o n ( w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e d a t e s ) c o n s i s t s o f : T h e " A n n a l s " a n d t h e " H i s t o r i e s " , p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y , w e r e m e a n t t o f o r m a s i n g l e e d i t i o n o f t h i r t y b o o k s . A l t h o u g h T a c i t u s w r o t e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " b e f o r e t h e " A n n a l s " , t h e e v e n t s i n t h e " A n n a l s " p r e c e d e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " ; t o g e t h e r t h e y f o r m a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e f r o m t h e d e a t h o f A u g u s t u s ( 1 4 ) t o t h e d e a t h o f D o m i t i a n ( 9 6 ) . T h o u g h m o s t h a s b e e n l o s t , w h a t r e m a i n s i s a n i n v a l u a b l e r e c o r d o f t h e e r a . T h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e " A n n a l s " s u r v i v e d i n a s i n g l e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m C o r v e y A b b e y i n G e r m a n y , a n d t h e s e c o n d h a l f i n a s i n g l e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m M o n t e C a s s i n o i n I t a l y , a n d i t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e y s u r v i v e d a t a l l . I n a n e a r l y c h a p t e r o f t h e " A g r i c o l a " , T a c i t u s a s s e r t s t h a t h e w i s h e s t o s p e a k a b o u t t h e y e a r s o f D o m i t i a n , N e r v a a n d T r a j a n . I n t h e " H i s t o r i e s " t h e s c o p e h a s c h a n g e d ; T a c i t u s s a y s t h a t h e w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e a g e o f N e r v a a n d T r a j a n a t a l a t e r t i m e . I n s t e a d , h e w i l l c o v e r t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e c i v i l w a r s o f t h e Y e a r o f t h e F o u r E m p e r o r s a n d e n d w i t h t h e d e s p o t i s m o f t h e F l a v i a n s . O n l y t h e f i r s t f o u r b o o k s a n d t w e n t y - s i x c h a p t e r s o f t h e f i f t h b o o k s u r v i v e , c o v e r i n g t h e y e a r 6 9 a n d t h e f i r s t p a r t o f 7 0 . T h e w o r k i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e c o n t i n u e d u p t o t h e d e a t h o f D o m i t i a n o n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 , 9 6 . T h e f i f t h b o o k c o n t a i n s — a s a p r e l u d e t o t h e a c c o u n t o f T i t u s ' s s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e F i r s t J e w i s h – R o m a n W a r — a s h o r t e t h n o g r a p h i c s u r v e y o f t h e a n c i e n t J e w s , ( a l t h o u g h e n t i r e l y i n a c c u r a t e ) a n d i t i s a n i n v a l u a b l e r e c o r d o f R o m a n a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e m . T h e " A n n a l s " , T a c i t u s ' s f i n a l w o r k , c o v e r s t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e d e a t h o f A u g u s t u s i n A D   1 4 . H e w r o t e a t l e a s t s i x t e e n b o o k s , b u t b o o k s   7 – 1 0 a n d p a r t s o f b o o k s   5 , 6 , 1 1 , a n d 1 6 a r e m i s s i n g . B o o k   6 e n d s w i t h t h e d e a t h o f T i b e r i u s , a n d b o o k s 7 – 1 2 p r e s u m a b l y c o v e r e d t h e r e i g n s o f C a l i g u l a a n d C l a u d i u s . T h e r e m a i n i n g b o o k s c o v e r t h e r e i g n o f N e r o , p e r h a p s u n t i l h i s d e a t h i n J u n e 6 8 o r u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h a t y e a r t o c o n n e c t w i t h t h e " H i s t o r i e s " . T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f b o o k   1 6 i s m i s s i n g , e n d i n g w i t h t h e e v e n t s o f 6 6 . I t i s n o t k n o w n w h e t h e r T a c i t u s c o m p l e t e d t h e w o r k ; h e d i e d b e f o r e h e c o u l d c o m p l e t e h i s p l a n n e d h i s t o r i e s o f N e r v a a n d T r a j a n , a n d n o r e c o r d s u r v i v e s o f t h e w o r k o n A u g u s t u s a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , w i t h w h i c h h e h a d p l a n n e d t o f i n i s h h i s w o r k . T h e " A n n a l s " i s o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t s e c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s t o m e n t i o n C h r i s t , w h i c h T a c i t u s d o e s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h N e r o ' s p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s . T a c i t u s w r o t e t h r e e w o r k s w i t h a m o r e l i m i t e d s c o p e : " A g r i c o l a " , a b i o g r a p h y o f h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w , G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a ; t h e " G e r m a n i a " , a m o n o g r a p h o n t h e l a n d s a n d t r i b e s o f b a r b a r i a n G e r m a n i a ; a n d t h e " D i a l o g u s " , a d i a l o g u e o n t h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c . T h e " G e r m a n i a " ( L a t i n t i t l e : " D e O r i g i n e e t s i t u G e r m a n o r u m " ) i s a n e t h n o g r a p h i c w o r k o n t h e G e r m a n i c t r i b e s o u t s i d e t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . T h e " G e r m a n i a " f i t s w i t h i n a c l a s s i c a l e t h n o g r a p h i c t r a d i t i o n w h i c h i n c l u d e s a u t h o r s s u c h a s H e r o d o t u s a n d J u l i u s C a e s a r . T h e b o o k b e g i n s ( c h a p t e r s 1 – 2 7 ) w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l a n d s , l a w s , a n d c u s t o m s o f t h e v a r i o u s t r i b e s . L a t e r c h a p t e r s f o c u s o n d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p a r t i c u l a r t r i b e s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h o s e w h o l i v e d c l o s e s t t o t h e R o m a n e m p i r e , a n d e n d i n g w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h o s e w h o l i v e d o n t h e s h o r e s o f t h e B a l t i c S e a , s u c h a s t h e F e n n i . T a c i t u s h a d w r i t t e n a s i m i l a r , a l b e i t s h o r t e r , p i e c e i n h i s " A g r i c o l a " ( c h a p t e r s 1 0 – 1 3 ) . T h e " A g r i c o l a " ( w r i t t e n ) r e c o u n t s t h e l i f e o f G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a , a n e m i n e n t R o m a n g e n e r a l a n d T a c i t u s ' s f a t h e r - i n - l a w ; i t a l s o c o v e r s , b r i e f l y , t h e g e o g r a p h y a n d e t h n o g r a p h y o f a n c i e n t B r i t a i n . A s i n t h e " G e r m a n i a " , T a c i t u s f a v o r a b l y c o n t r a s t s t h e l i b e r t y o f t h e n a t i v e B r i t o n s w i t h t h e t y r a n n y a n d c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e E m p i r e ; t h e b o o k a l s o c o n t a i n s e l o q u e n t p o l e m i c s a g a i n s t t h e g r e e d o f R o m e , o n e o f w h i c h , t h a t T a c i t u s c l a i m s i s f r o m a s p e e c h b y C a l g a c u s , e n d s b y a s s e r t i n g , " A u f e r r e t r u c i d a r e r a p e r e f a l s i s n o m i n i b u s i m p e r i u m , a t q u e u b i s o l i t u d i n e m f a c i u n t , p a c e m a p p e l l a n t . " ( " T o r a v a g e , t o s l a u g h t e r , t o u s u r p u n d e r f a l s e t i t l e s , t h e y c a l l e m p i r e ; a n d w h e r e t h e y m a k e a d e s e r t , t h e y c a l l i t p e a c e . " — O x f o r d R e v i s e d T r a n s l a t i o n ) . T h e r e i s u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t w h e n T a c i t u s w r o t e " D i a l o g u s d e o r a t o r i b u s " . M a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s e t i t a p a r t f r o m t h e o t h e r w o r k s o f T a c i t u s , s o t h a t i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y h a s a t v a r i o u s t i m e s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d . I t i s l i k e l y t o b e e a r l y w o r k , i n d e b t e d t o t h e a u t h o r ' s r h e t o r i c a l t r a i n i n g , s i n c e i t s s t y l e i m i t a t e s t h a t o f t h e f o r e m o s t R o m a n o r a t o r C i c e r o . I t l a c k s ( f o r e x a m p l e ) t h e i n c o n g r u i t i e s t h a t a r e t y p i c a l o f h i s m a t u r e h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s . T h e " D i a l o g u s " i s d e d i c a t e d t o F a b i u s I u s t u s , a c o n s u l i n 1 0 2 A D . T a c i t u s ' s w r i t i n g s a r e k n o w n f o r t h e i r d e n s e p r o s e t h a t s e l d o m g l o s s e s t h e f a c t s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t y l e o f s o m e o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , s u c h a s P l u t a r c h . W h e n h e w r i t e s a b o u t a n e a r d e f e a t o f t h e R o m a n a r m y i n " A n n a l s " I , 6 3 , h e d o e s s o w i t h b r e v i t y o f d e s c r i p t i o n r a t h e r t h a n e m b e l l i s h m e n t . I n m o s t o f h i s w r i t i n g s , h e k e e p s t o a c h r o n o l o g i c a l n a r r a t i v e o r d e r , o n l y s e l d o m o u t l i n i n g t h e b i g g e r p i c t u r e , l e a v i n g t h e r e a d e r s t o c o n s t r u c t t h a t p i c t u r e f o r t h e m s e l v e s . N o n e t h e l e s s , w h e r e h e d o e s u s e b r o a d s t r o k e s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h s o f t h e " A n n a l s " , h e u s e s a f e w c o n d e n s e d p h r a s e s w h i c h t a k e t h e r e a d e r t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e s t o r y . T a c i t u s ' s h i s t o r i c a l s t y l e o w e s s o m e d e b t t o S a l l u s t . H i s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f f e r s p e n e t r a t i n g — o f t e n p e s s i m i s t i c — i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f p o w e r p o l i t i c s , b l e n d i n g s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f e v e n t s , m o r a l l e s s o n s , a n d t i g h t l y f o c u s e d d r a m a t i c a c c o u n t s . T a c i t u s ' s o w n d e c l a r a t i o n r e g a r d i n g h i s a p p r o a c h t o h i s t o r y ( " A n n a l s " I , 1 ) i s w e l l k n o w n : " i n d e c o n s i l i u m m i h i . . . t r a d e r e . . . s i n e i r a e t s t u d i o , q u o r u m c a u s a s p r o c u l h a b e o . " m y p u r p o s e i s . . . t o r e l a t e . . . w i t h o u t e i t h e r a n g e r o r z e a l , m o t i v e s f r o m w h i c h I a m f a r r e m o v e d . T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h s c h o l a r l y d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t T a c i t u s ' s " n e u t r a l i t y " . T h r o u g h o u t h i s w r i t i n g , h e i s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r b e t w e e n t h e S e n a t e a n d t h e e m p e r o r s , a n d t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n i n g c l a s s e s o f R o m e a s t h e y a d j u s t e d t o t h e e v e r - g r o w i n g w e a l t h a n d p o w e r o f t h e e m p i r e . I n T a c i t u s ' s v i e w , s e n a t o r s s q u a n d e r e d t h e i r c u l t u r a l i n h e r i t a n c e — t h a t o f f r e e s p e e c h — t o p l a c a t e t h e i r ( r a r e l y b e n i g n ) e m p e r o r . T a c i t u s n o t e d t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e e m p e r o r o n t h e g o o d w i l l o f h i s a r m i e s . T h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n s e v e n t u a l l y g a v e w a y t o g e n e r a l s , w h o f o l l o w e d J u l i u s C a e s a r ( a n d S u l l a a n d P o m p e y ) i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t m i l i t a r y m i g h t c o u l d s e c u r e t h e m t h e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r i n R o m e . ( " H i s t . " 1 . 4 ) W e l c o m e a s t h e d e a t h o f N e r o h a d b e e n i n t h e f i r s t b u r s t o f j o y , y e t i t h a d n o t o n l y r o u s e d v a r i o u s e m o t i o n s i n R o m e , a m o n g t h e S e n a t o r s , t h e p e o p l e , o r t h e s o l d i e r y o f t h e c a p i t a l , i t h a d a l s o e x c i t e d a l l t h e l e g i o n s a n d t h e i r g e n e r a l s ; f o r n o w h a d b e e n d i v u l g e d t h a t s e c r e t o f t h e e m p i r e , t h a t e m p e r o r s c o u l d b e m a d e e l s e w h e r e t h a n a t R o m e . T a c i t u s ' s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r w a s l a r g e l y l i v e d o u t u n d e r t h e e m p e r o r D o m i t i a n . H i s e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e t y r a n n y , c o r r u p t i o n , a n d d e c a d e n c e o f t h a t e r a ( 8 1 – 9 6 ) m a y e x p l a i n t h e b i t t e r n e s s a n d i r o n y o f h i s p o l i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . H e d r a w s o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d a n g e r s o f p o w e r w i t h o u t a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , l o v e o f p o w e r u n t e m p e r e d b y p r i n c i p l e , a n d t h e a p a t h y a n d c o r r u p t i o n e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f w e a l t h g e n e r a t e d t h r o u g h t r a d e a n d c o n q u e s t b y t h e e m p i r e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e i m a g e h e b u i l d s o f T i b e r i u s t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i r s t s i x b o o k s o f t h e " A n n a l s " i s n e i t h e r e x c l u s i v e l y b l e a k n o r a p p r o v i n g : m o s t s c h o l a r s v i e w t h e i m a g e o f T i b e r i u s a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y " p o s i t i v e " i n t h e f i r s t b o o k s , a n d p r e d o m i n a n t l y " n e g a t i v e " a f t e r t h e i n t r i g u e s o f S e j a n u s . T h e e n t r a n c e o f T i b e r i u s i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r s o f t h e f i r s t b o o k i s d o m i n a t e d b y t h e h y p o c r i s y o f t h e n e w e m p e r o r a n d h i s c o u r t i e r s . I n t h e l a t e r b o o k s , s o m e r e s p e c t i s e v i d e n t f o r t h e c l e v e r n e s s o f t h e o l d e m p e r o r i n s e c u r i n g h i s p o s i t i o n . I n g e n e r a l , T a c i t u s d o e s n o t f e a r t o p r a i s e a n d t o c r i t i c i z e t h e s a m e p e r s o n , o f t e n n o t i n g w h a t h e t a k e s t o b e t h e i r m o r e a d m i r a b l e a n d l e s s a d m i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s . O n e o f T a c i t u s ' s h a l l m a r k s i s r e f r a i n i n g f r o m " c o n c l u s i v e l y " t a k i n g s i d e s f o r o r a g a i n s t p e r s o n s h e d e s c r i b e s , w h i c h h a s l e d s o m e t o i n t e r p r e t h i s w o r k s a s b o t h s u p p o r t i n g a n d r e j e c t i n g t h e i m p e r i a l s y s t e m ( s e e T a c i t e a n s t u d i e s , " B l a c k " v s . " R e d " T a c i t i s t s ) . H i s L a t i n s t y l e i s h i g h l y p r a i s e d . H i s s t y l e , a l t h o u g h i t h a s a g r a n d e u r a n d e l o q u e n c e ( t h a n k s t o T a c i t u s ' s e d u c a t i o n i n r h e t o r i c ) , i s e x t r e m e l y c o n c i s e , e v e n e p i g r a m m a t i c — t h e s e n t e n c e s a r e r a r e l y f l o w i n g o r b e a u t i f u l , b u t t h e i r p o i n t i s a l w a y s c l e a r . T h e s t y l e h a s b e e n b o t h d e r i d e d a s " h a r s h , u n p l e a s a n t , a n d t h o r n y " a n d p r a i s e d a s " g r a v e , c o n c i s e , a n d p i t h i l y e l o q u e n t " . A p a s s a g e o f " A n n a l s " 1 . 1 , w h e r e T a c i t u s l a m e n t s t h e s t a t e o f t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y r e g a r d i n g t h e l a s t f o u r e m p e r o r s o f t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n d y n a s t y , i l l u s t r a t e s h i s s t y l e : " T h e h i s t o r i e s o f T i b e r i u s , G a i u s , C l a u d i u s a n d N e r o , w h i l e t h e y w e r e i n p o w e r , w e r e f a l s i f i e d t h r o u g h t e r r o r a n d a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h w e r e w r i t t e n u n d e r t h e i r r i t a t i o n o f a r e c e n t h a t r e d " , o r i n a w o r d - f o r - w o r d t r a n s l a t i o n : C o m p a r e d t o t h e C i c e r o n i a n p e r i o d , w h e r e s e n t e n c e s w e r e u s u a l l y t h e l e n g t h o f a p a r a g r a p h a n d a r t f u l l y c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h n e s t e d p a i r s o f c a r e f u l l y m a t c h e d s o n o r o u s p h r a s e s , t h i s i s s h o r t a n d t o t h e p o i n t . B u t i t i s a l s o v e r y i n d i v i d u a l . N o t e t h e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f s a y i n g " a n d " i n t h e f i r s t l i n e ( " - q u e " , " e t " , " a c " ) , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e m a t c h e d s e c o n d a n d t h i r d l i n e s . T h e y a r e p a r a l l e l i n s e n s e b u t n o t i n s o u n d ; t h e p a i r s o f w o r d s e n d i n g " " - e n t i b u s " … " - i s " " a r e c r o s s e d o v e r i n a w a y t h a t d e l i b e r a t e l y b r e a k s t h e C i c e r o n i a n c o n v e n t i o n s — w h i c h o n e w o u l d , h o w e v e r , n e e d t o b e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t o s e e t h e n o v e l t y o f T a c i t u s ' s s t y l e . S o m e r e a d e r s , t h e n a n d n o w , f i n d t h i s t e a s i n g o f t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s m e r e l y i r r i t a t i n g . O t h e r s f i n d t h e d e l i b e r a t e d i s c o r d , p l a y i n g a g a i n s t t h e e v i d e n t p a r a l l e l i s m o f t h e t w o l i n e s , s t i m u l a t i n g a n d i n t r i g u i n g . H i s h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s f o c u s o n t h e m o t i v e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s , o f t e n w i t h p e n e t r a t i n g i n s i g h t — t h o u g h i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e h o w m u c h o f h i s i n s i g h t i s c o r r e c t , a n d h o w m u c h i s c o n v i n c i n g o n l y b e c a u s e o f h i s r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l . H e i s a t h i s b e s t w h e n e x p o s i n g h y p o c r i s y a n d d i s s i m u l a t i o n ; f o r e x a m p l e , h e f o l l o w s a n a r r a t i v e r e c o u n t i n g T i b e r i u s ' s r e f u s a l o f t h e t i t l e " p a t e r p a t r i a e " b y r e c a l l i n g t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f a l a w f o r b i d d i n g a n y " t r e a s o n o u s " s p e e c h o r w r i t i n g s — a n d t h e f r i v o l o u s p r o s e c u t i o n s w h i c h r e s u l t e d ( " A n n a l s " , 1 . 7 2 ) . E l s e w h e r e ( " A n n a l s " 4 . 6 4 – 6 6 ) h e c o m p a r e s T i b e r i u s ' s p u b l i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f i r e r e l i e f t o h i s f a i l u r e t o s t o p t h e p e r v e r s i o n s a n d a b u s e s o f j u s t i c e w h i c h h e h a d b e g u n . A l t h o u g h t h i s k i n d o f i n s i g h t h a s e a r n e d h i m p r a i s e , h e h a s a l s o b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r i g n o r i n g t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t . T a c i t u s o w e s m o s t , b o t h i n l a n g u a g e a n d i n m e t h o d , t o S a l l u s t , a n d A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s i s t h e l a t e r h i s t o r i a n w h o s e w o r k m o s t c l o s e l y a p p r o a c h e s h i m i n s t y l e . T a c i t u s m a k e s u s e o f t h e o f f i c i a l s o u r c e s o f t h e R o m a n s t a t e : t h e " a c t a s e n a t u s " ( t h e m i n u t e s o f t h e s e s s i o n s o f t h e S e n a t e ) a n d t h e " a c t a d i u r n a p o p u l i R o m a n i " ( a c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e a c t s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d n e w s o f t h e c o u r t a n d c a p i t a l ) . H e a l s o r e a d c o l l e c t i o n s o f e m p e r o r s ' s p e e c h e s , s u c h a s t h o s e o f T i b e r i u s a n d C l a u d i u s . H e i s g e n e r a l l y s e e n a s a s c r u p u l o u s h i s t o r i a n w h o p a i d c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n t o h i s s o u r c e s . T a c i t u s c i t e s s o m e o f h i s s o u r c e s d i r e c t l y , a m o n g t h e m C l u v i u s R u f u s , F a b i u s R u s t i c u s a n d P l i n y t h e E l d e r , w h o h a d w r i t t e n " B e l l a G e r m a n i a e " a n d a h i s t o r i c a l w o r k w h i c h w a s t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h a t o f A u f i d i u s B a s s u s . T a c i t u s a l s o u s e s c o l l e c t i o n s o f l e t t e r s ( " e p i s t o l a r i u m " ) . H e a l s o t o o k i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m " e x i t u s i l l u s t r i u m v i r o r u m " . T h e s e w e r e a c o l l e c t i o n o f b o o k s b y t h o s e w h o w e r e a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h e e m p e r o r s . T h e y t e l l o f s a c r i f i c e s b y m a r t y r s t o f r e e d o m , e s p e c i a l l y t h e m e n w h o c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e . W h i l e h e p l a c e s n o v a l u e o n t h e S t o i c t h e o r y o f s u i c i d e a n d v i e w s s u i c i d e s a s o s t e n t a t i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l l y u s e l e s s , T a c i t u s o f t e n g i v e s p r o m i n e n c e t o s p e e c h e s m a d e b y t h o s e a b o u t t o c o m m i t s u i c i d e , f o r e x a m p l e C r e m u t i u s C o r d u s ' s p e e c h i n " A n n . " I V , 3 4 – 3 5 .

Life ; Family and early life

Tacitus was born around 56-57 AD to an equestrian family. Little is known about his personal life, except that he was married to Julia Agricola, daughter of a famous general. He studied rhetoric in Rome and began his career in law and politics. He became a renowned orator and wrote several works, including "Agricola" and "Germania", which described the geography and ethnography of ancient Britain and Germany. He also wrote "Histories" and "Annals", which covered Roman history and politics. Throughout his writing, Tacitus emphasized the importance of accountability and criticized the corruption of the Roman Empire.

Details about the personal life of Tacitus are scarce. What little is known comes from scattered hints throughout his work, the letters of his friend and admirer Pliny the Younger, and an inscription found at Mylasa in Caria. Tacitus was born in 56 or 57 to an equestrian family. The place and date of his birth, as well as his praenomen (first name) are not known. In the letters of Sidonius Apollinaris his name is "Gaius", but in the major surviving manuscript of his work his name is given as "Publius". One scholar's suggestion of the name "Sextus" has been largely rejected. Most of the older aristocratic families failed to survive the proscriptions which took place at the end of the Republic, and Tacitus makes it clear that he owed his rank to the Flavian emperors ("Hist." 1.1). The claim that he was descended from a freedman is derived from a speech in his writings which asserts that many senators and knights were descended from freedmen ("Ann." 13.27), but this is generally disputed. His father may have been the Cornelius Tacitus who served as procurator of Belgica and Germania; Pliny the Elder mentions that Cornelius had a son who aged rapidly (NH 7.76), which implies an early death. There is no mention of Tacitus's suffering such a condition, but it is possible that this refers to a brother—if Cornelius was indeed his father. The friendship between the younger Pliny and Tacitus leads some scholars to conclude that they were both the offspring of wealthy provincial families. The province of his birth remains unknown, though various conjectures suggest Gallia Belgica, Gallia Narbonensis, or Northern Italy. His marriage to the daughter of Narbonensian senator Gnaeus Julius Agricola implies that he came from Gallia Narbonensis. Tacitus's dedication to Lucius Fabius Justus in the "Dialogus" may indicate a connection with Spain, and his friendship with Pliny suggests origins in northern Italy. No evidence exists, however, that Pliny's friends from northern Italy knew Tacitus, nor do Pliny's letters hint that the two men had a common background. Pliny Book 9, Letter 23, reports that when asked whether he was Italian or provincial, he gave an unclear answer and so was asked whether he was Tacitus or Pliny. Since Pliny was from Italy, some infer that Tacitus was from the provinces, probably Gallia Narbonensis. His ancestry, his skill in oratory, and his sympathetic depiction of barbarians who resisted Roman rule (e.g., "Ann." 2.9) have led some to suggest that he was a Celt. This belief stems from the fact that the Celts who had occupied Gaul prior to the Roman invasion were famous for their skill in oratory and had been subjugated by Rome. As a young man, Tacitus studied rhetoric in Rome to prepare for a career in law and politics; like Pliny, he may have studied under Quintilian ( – ). In 77 or 78, he married Julia Agricola, daughter of the famous general Agricola. Little is known of their domestic life, save that Tacitus loved hunting and the outdoors. He started his career (probably the his family to do so. During his tenure, he reached the height of his fame as an orator when he delivered the funeral oration for the famous veteran soldier Lucius Verginius Rufus. In the following year, he wrote and published the "Agricola" and "Germania", foreshadowing the literary endeavors that would occupy him until his death. Afterward, he absented himself from public life, but returned during Trajan's reign (98–117). In 100, he and his friend Pliny the Younger prosecuted (proconsul of Africa) for corruption. Priscus was found guilty and sent into exile; Pliny wrote a few days later that Tacitus had spoken "with all the majesty which characterizes his usual style of oratory". A lengthy absence from politics and law followed while he wrote the "Histories" and the "Annals". (chapters 1–27) with a description of the lands, laws, and customs of the various tribes. Later chapters focus on descriptions of particular tribes, beginning with those who lived closest to the Roman empire, and ending with a description of those who lived on the shores of the Baltic Sea, such as the Fenni. Tacitus had written a similar, albeit shorter, piece in his "Agricola" (chapters 10–13). The "Agricola" (written ) recounts the life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, an eminent Roman general and Tacitus's father-in-law; it also covers, briefly, the geography and ethnography of ancient Britain. As in the "Germania", Tacitus favorably contrasts the liberty of the native Britons with the tyranny and corruption of the Empire; the book also contains eloquent polemics against the greed of Rome, one psychology of power politics, blending straightforward descriptions of events, moral lessons, and tightly focused dramatic accounts. Tacitus's own declaration regarding his approach to history ("Annals" I,1) is well known: "inde consilium mihi ... tradere ... sine ira et studio, quorum causas procul habeo. " my purpose is ... to relate ... without either anger or zeal, motives from which I am far removed. There has been much scholarly discussion about Tacitus's "neutrality". Throughout his writing, he is preoccupied with the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors, and the increasing corruption of the governing classes of Rome as they adjusted to the ever-growing wealth and power of the empire. In Tacitus's view, senators squandered their cultural inheritance—that of free speech—to placate their (rarely benign) emperor. Tacitus era (81–96) may explain the bitterness and irony of his political analysis. He draws our attention to the dangers of power without accountability, love of power untempered by principle, and the apathy and corruption engendered by the concentration of wealth generated through trade and conquest by the empire. Nonetheless, the image he builds of Tiberius throughout the first six books of the "Annals" is neither exclusively bleak nor approving: most scholars view the image of Tiberius as predominantly "positive" in the first books, and predominantly "negative" after the intrigues of Sejanus. The entrance of Tiberius in the first chapters of the first book is dominated by the hypocrisy of the new emperor and his courtiers. In the later books, some respect is evident for the cleverness of the

Tacitus

D e t a i l s a b o u t t h e p e r s o n a l l i f e o f T a c i t u s a r e s c a r c e . W h a t l i t t l e i s k n o w n c o m e s f r o m s c a t t e r e d h i n t s t h r o u g h o u t h i s w o r k , t h e l e t t e r s o f h i s f r i e n d a n d a d m i r e r P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r , a n d a n i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M y l a s a i n C a r i a . T a c i t u s w a s b o r n i n 5 6 o r 5 7 t o a n e q u e s t r i a n f a m i l y . T h e p l a c e a n d d a t e o f h i s b i r t h , a s w e l l a s h i s p r a e n o m e n ( f i r s t n a m e ) a r e n o t k n o w n . I n t h e l e t t e r s o f S i d o n i u s A p o l l i n a r i s h i s n a m e i s " G a i u s " , b u t i n t h e m a j o r s u r v i v i n g m a n u s c r i p t o f h i s w o r k h i s n a m e i s g i v e n a s " P u b l i u s " . O n e s c h o l a r ' s s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e n a m e " S e x t u s " h a s b e e n l a r g e l y r e j e c t e d . M o s t o f t h e o l d e r a r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l i e s f a i l e d t o s u r v i v e t h e p r o s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h t o o k p l a c e a t t h e e n d o f t h e R e p u b l i c , a n d T a c i t u s m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t h e o w e d h i s r a n k t o t h e F l a v i a n e m p e r o r s ( " H i s t . " 1 . 1 ) . T h e c l a i m t h a t h e w a s d e s c e n d e d f r o m a f r e e d m a n i s d e r i v e d f r o m a s p e e c h i n h i s w r i t i n g s w h i c h a s s e r t s t h a t m a n y s e n a t o r s a n d k n i g h t s w e r e d e s c e n d e d f r o m f r e e d m e n ( " A n n . " 1 3 . 2 7 ) , b u t t h i s i s g e n e r a l l y d i s p u t e d . H i s f a t h e r m a y h a v e b e e n t h e C o r n e l i u s T a c i t u s w h o s e r v e d a s p r o c u r a t o r o f B e l g i c a a n d G e r m a n i a ; P l i n y t h e E l d e r m e n t i o n s t h a t C o r n e l i u s h a d a s o n w h o a g e d r a p i d l y ( N H 7 . 7 6 ) , w h i c h i m p l i e s a n e a r l y d e a t h . T h e r e i s n o m e n t i o n o f T a c i t u s ' s s u f f e r i n g s u c h a c o n d i t i o n , b u t i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s r e f e r s t o a b r o t h e r — i f C o r n e l i u s w a s i n d e e d h i s f a t h e r . T h e f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n t h e y o u n g e r P l i n y a n d T a c i t u s l e a d s s o m e s c h o l a r s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e y w e r e b o t h t h e o f f s p r i n g o f w e a l t h y p r o v i n c i a l f a m i l i e s . T h e p r o v i n c e o f h i s b i r t h r e m a i n s u n k n o w n , t h o u g h v a r i o u s c o n j e c t u r e s s u g g e s t G a l l i a B e l g i c a , G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s , o r N o r t h e r n I t a l y . H i s m a r r i a g e t o t h e d a u g h t e r o f N a r b o n e n s i a n s e n a t o r G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a i m p l i e s t h a t h e c a m e f r o m G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s . T a c i t u s ' s d e d i c a t i o n t o L u c i u s F a b i u s J u s t u s i n t h e " D i a l o g u s " m a y i n d i c a t e a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h S p a i n , a n d h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h P l i n y s u g g e s t s o r i g i n s i n n o r t h e r n I t a l y . N o e v i d e n c e e x i s t s , h o w e v e r , t h a t P l i n y ' s f r i e n d s f r o m n o r t h e r n I t a l y k n e w T a c i t u s , n o r d o P l i n y ' s l e t t e r s h i n t t h a t t h e t w o m e n h a d a c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d . P l i n y B o o k 9 , L e t t e r 2 3 , r e p o r t s t h a t w h e n a s k e d w h e t h e r h e w a s I t a l i a n o r p r o v i n c i a l , h e g a v e a n u n c l e a r a n s w e r a n d s o w a s a s k e d w h e t h e r h e w a s T a c i t u s o r P l i n y . S i n c e P l i n y w a s f r o m I t a l y , s o m e i n f e r t h a t T a c i t u s w a s f r o m t h e p r o v i n c e s , p r o b a b l y G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s . H i s a n c e s t r y , h i s s k i l l i n o r a t o r y , a n d h i s s y m p a t h e t i c d e p i c t i o n o f b a r b a r i a n s w h o r e s i s t e d R o m a n r u l e ( e . g . , " A n n . " 2 . 9 ) h a v e l e d s o m e t o s u g g e s t t h a t h e w a s a C e l t . T h i s b e l i e f s t e m s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C e l t s w h o h a d o c c u p i e d G a u l p r i o r t o t h e R o m a n i n v a s i o n w e r e f a m o u s f o r t h e i r s k i l l i n o r a t o r y a n d h a d b e e n s u b j u g a t e d b y R o m e . A s a y o u n g m a n , T a c i t u s s t u d i e d r h e t o r i c i n R o m e t o p r e p a r e f o r a c a r e e r i n l a w a n d p o l i t i c s ; l i k e P l i n y , h e m a y h a v e s t u d i e d u n d e r Q u i n t i l i a n ( – ) . I n 7 7 o r 7 8 , h e m a r r i e d J u l i a A g r i c o l a , d a u g h t e r o f t h e f a m o u s g e n e r a l A g r i c o l a . L i t t l e i s k n o w n o f t h e i r d o m e s t i c l i f e , s a v e t h a t T a c i t u s l o v e d h u n t i n g a n d t h e o u t d o o r s . H e s t a r t e d h i s c a r e e r ( p r o b a b l y t h e " l a t u s c l a v u s " , m a r k o f t h e s e n a t o r ) u n d e r V e s p a s i a n ( r . 6 9 – 7 9 ) , b u t e n t e r e d p o l i t i c a l l i f e a s a q u a e s t o r i n 8 1 o r 8 2 u n d e r T i t u s . H e a d v a n c e d s t e a d i l y t h r o u g h t h e " c u r s u s h o n o r u m " , b e c o m i n g p r a e t o r i n 8 8 a n d a q u i n d e c i m v i r , a m e m b e r o f t h e p r i e s t l y c o l l e g e i n c h a r g e o f t h e " S i b y l l i n e B o o k s " a n d t h e S e c u l a r G a m e s . H e g a i n e d a c c l a i m a s a l a w y e r a n d a s a n o r a t o r ; h i s s k i l l i n p u b l i c s p e a k i n g i r o n i c a l l y c o u n t e r p o i n t s h i s c o g n o m e n , " T a c i t u s " ( " s i l e n t " ) . H e s e r v e d i n t h e p r o v i n c e s f r o m t o , e i t h e r i n c o m m a n d o f a l e g i o n o r i n a c i v i l i a n p o s t . H e a n d h i s p r o p e r t y s u r v i v e d D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n o f t e r r o r ( 8 1 – 9 6 ) , b u t t h e e x p e r i e n c e l e f t h i m j a d e d a n d p e r h a p s a s h a m e d a t h i s o w n c o m p l i c i t y , i n s t a l l i n g i n h i m t h e h a t r e d o f t y r a n n y e v i d e n t i n h i s w o r k s . T h e " A g r i c o l a " , c h s . 4 4 – 4 5 , i s i l l u s t r a t i v e : A g r i c o l a w a s s p a r e d t h o s e l a t e r y e a r s d u r i n g w h i c h D o m i t i a n , l e a v i n g n o w n o i n t e r v a l o r b r e a t h i n g s p a c e o f t i m e , b u t , a s i t w e r e , w i t h o n e c o n t i n u o u s b l o w , d r a i n e d t h e l i f e - b l o o d o f t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h . . . I t w a s n o t l o n g b e f o r e o u r h a n d s d r a g g e d H e l v i d i u s t o p r i s o n , b e f o r e w e g a z e d o n t h e d y i n g l o o k s o f M a u r i c u s a n d R u s t i c u s , b e f o r e w e w e r e s t e e p e d i n S e n e c i o ' s i n n o c e n t b l o o d . E v e n N e r o t u r n e d h i s e y e s a w a y , a n d d i d n o t g a z e u p o n t h e a t r o c i t i e s w h i c h h e o r d e r e d ; w i t h D o m i t i a n i t w a s t h e c h i e f p a r t o f o u r m i s e r i e s t o s e e a n d t o b e s e e n , t o k n o w t h a t o u r s i g h s w e r e b e i n g r e c o r d e d . . . F r o m h i s s e a t i n t h e S e n a t e , h e b e c a m e s u f f e c t c o n s u l i n 9 7 d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f N e r v a , b e i n g t h e f i r s t o f h i s f a m i l y t o d o s o . D u r i n g h i s t e n u r e , h e r e a c h e d t h e h e i g h t o f h i s f a m e a s a n o r a t o r w h e n h e d e l i v e r e d t h e f u n e r a l o r a t i o n f o r t h e f a m o u s v e t e r a n s o l d i e r L u c i u s V e r g i n i u s R u f u s . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , h e w r o t e a n d p u b l i s h e d t h e " A g r i c o l a " a n d " G e r m a n i a " , f o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e l i t e r a r y e n d e a v o r s t h a t w o u l d o c c u p y h i m u n t i l h i s d e a t h . A f t e r w a r d , h e a b s e n t e d h i m s e l f f r o m p u b l i c l i f e , b u t r e t u r n e d d u r i n g T r a j a n ' s r e i g n ( 9 8 – 1 1 7 ) . I n 1 0 0 , h e a n d h i s f r i e n d P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r p r o s e c u t e d ( p r o c o n s u l o f A f r i c a ) f o r c o r r u p t i o n . P r i s c u s w a s f o u n d g u i l t y a n d s e n t i n t o e x i l e ; P l i n y w r o t e a f e w d a y s l a t e r t h a t T a c i t u s h a d s p o k e n " w i t h a l l t h e m a j e s t y w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s h i s u s u a l s t y l e o f o r a t o r y " . A l e n g t h y a b s e n c e f r o m p o l i t i c s a n d l a w f o l l o w e d w h i l e h e w r o t e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " a n d t h e " A n n a l s " . I n 1 1 2 t o 1 1 3 , h e h e l d t h e h i g h e s t c i v i l i a n g o v e r n o r s h i p , t h a t o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f A s i a i n w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a , r e c o r d e d i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M y l a s a m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . A p a s s a g e i n t h e " A n n a l s " f i x e s 1 1 6 a s t h e " t e r m i n u s p o s t q u e m " o f h i s d e a t h , w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n a s l a t e a s 1 2 5 o r e v e n 1 3 0 . I t s e e m s t h a t h e s u r v i v e d b o t h P l i n y ( d i e d ) a n d T r a j a n ( d i e d 1 1 7 ) . I t r e m a i n s u n k n o w n w h e t h e r T a c i t u s h a d a n y c h i l d r e n . T h e " A u g u s t a n H i s t o r y " r e p o r t s t h a t E m p e r o r M a r c u s C l a u d i u s T a c i t u s ( r . 2 7 5 – 2 7 6 ) c l a i m e d h i m f o r a n a n c e s t o r a n d p r o v i d e d f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f h i s w o r k s , b u t t h i s s t o r y m a y b e f r a u d u l e n t , l i k e m u c h o f t h e " A u g u s t a n H i s t o r y " . F i v e w o r k s a s c r i b e d t o T a c i t u s h a v e s u r v i v e d ( a l b e i t w i t h g a p s ) , t h e m o s t s u b s t a n t i a l o f w h i c h a r e t h e " A n n a l s " a n d t h e " H i s t o r i e s " . T h i s c a n o n ( w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e d a t e s ) c o n s i s t s o f : T h e " A n n a l s " a n d t h e " H i s t o r i e s " , p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y , w e r e m e a n t t o f o r m a s i n g l e e d i t i o n o f t h i r t y b o o k s . A l t h o u g h T a c i t u s w r o t e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " b e f o r e t h e " A n n a l s " , t h e e v e n t s i n t h e " A n n a l s " p r e c e d e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " ; t o g e t h e r t h e y f o r m a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e f r o m t h e d e a t h o f A u g u s t u s ( 1 4 ) t o t h e d e a t h o f D o m i t i a n ( 9 6 ) . T h o u g h m o s t h a s b e e n l o s t , w h a t r e m a i n s i s a n i n v a l u a b l e r e c o r d o f t h e e r a . T h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e " A n n a l s " s u r v i v e d i n a s i n g l e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m C o r v e y A b b e y i n G e r m a n y , a n d t h e s e c o n d h a l f i n a s i n g l e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m M o n t e C a s s i n o i n I t a l y , a n d i t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e y s u r v i v e d a t a l l . I n a n e a r l y c h a p t e r o f t h e " A g r i c o l a " , T a c i t u s a s s e r t s t h a t h e w i s h e s t o s p e a k a b o u t t h e y e a r s o f D o m i t i a n , N e r v a a n d T r a j a n . I n t h e " H i s t o r i e s " t h e s c o p e h a s c h a n g e d ; T a c i t u s s a y s t h a t h e w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e a g e o f N e r v a a n d T r a j a n a t a l a t e r t i m e . I n s t e a d , h e w i l l c o v e r t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e c i v i l w a r s o f t h e Y e a r o f t h e F o u r E m p e r o r s a n d e n d w i t h t h e d e s p o t i s m o f t h e F l a v i a n s . O n l y t h e f i r s t f o u r b o o k s a n d t w e n t y - s i x c h a p t e r s o f t h e f i f t h b o o k s u r v i v e , c o v e r i n g t h e y e a r 6 9 a n d t h e f i r s t p a r t o f 7 0 . T h e w o r k i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e c o n t i n u e d u p t o t h e d e a t h o f D o m i t i a n o n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 , 9 6 . T h e f i f t h b o o k c o n t a i n s — a s a p r e l u d e t o t h e a c c o u n t o f T i t u s ' s s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e F i r s t J e w i s h – R o m a n W a r — a s h o r t e t h n o g r a p h i c s u r v e y o f t h e a n c i e n t J e w s , ( a l t h o u g h e n t i r e l y i n a c c u r a t e ) a n d i t i s a n i n v a l u a b l e r e c o r d o f R o m a n a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e m . T h e " A n n a l s " , T a c i t u s ' s f i n a l w o r k , c o v e r s t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e d e a t h o f A u g u s t u s i n A D   1 4 . H e w r o t e a t l e a s t s i x t e e n b o o k s , b u t b o o k s   7 – 1 0 a n d p a r t s o f b o o k s   5 , 6 , 1 1 , a n d 1 6 a r e m i s s i n g . B o o k   6 e n d s w i t h t h e d e a t h o f T i b e r i u s , a n d b o o k s 7 – 1 2 p r e s u m a b l y c o v e r e d t h e r e i g n s o f C a l i g u l a a n d C l a u d i u s . T h e r e m a i n i n g b o o k s c o v e r t h e r e i g n o f N e r o , p e r h a p s u n t i l h i s d e a t h i n J u n e 6 8 o r u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h a t y e a r t o c o n n e c t w i t h t h e " H i s t o r i e s " . T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f b o o k   1 6 i s m i s s i n g , e n d i n g w i t h t h e e v e n t s o f 6 6 . I t i s n o t k n o w n w h e t h e r T a c i t u s c o m p l e t e d t h e w o r k ; h e d i e d b e f o r e h e c o u l d c o m p l e t e h i s p l a n n e d h i s t o r i e s o f N e r v a a n d T r a j a n , a n d n o r e c o r d s u r v i v e s o f t h e w o r k o n A u g u s t u s a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , w i t h w h i c h h e h a d p l a n n e d t o f i n i s h h i s w o r k . T h e " A n n a l s " i s o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t s e c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s t o m e n t i o n C h r i s t , w h i c h T a c i t u s d o e s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h N e r o ' s p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s . T a c i t u s w r o t e t h r e e w o r k s w i t h a m o r e l i m i t e d s c o p e : " A g r i c o l a " , a b i o g r a p h y o f h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w , G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a ; t h e " G e r m a n i a " , a m o n o g r a p h o n t h e l a n d s a n d t r i b e s o f b a r b a r i a n G e r m a n i a ; a n d t h e " D i a l o g u s " , a d i a l o g u e o n t h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c . T h e " G e r m a n i a " ( L a t i n t i t l e : " D e O r i g i n e e t s i t u G e r m a n o r u m " ) i s a n e t h n o g r a p h i c w o r k o n t h e G e r m a n i c t r i b e s o u t s i d e t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . T h e " G e r m a n i a " f i t s w i t h i n a c l a s s i c a l e t h n o g r a p h i c t r a d i t i o n w h i c h i n c l u d e s a u t h o r s s u c h a s H e r o d o t u s a n d J u l i u s C a e s a r . T h e b o o k b e g i n s ( c h a p t e r s 1 – 2 7 ) w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l a n d s , l a w s , a n d c u s t o m s o f t h e v a r i o u s t r i b e s . L a t e r c h a p t e r s f o c u s o n d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p a r t i c u l a r t r i b e s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h o s e w h o l i v e d c l o s e s t t o t h e R o m a n e m p i r e , a n d e n d i n g w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h o s e w h o l i v e d o n t h e s h o r e s o f t h e B a l t i c S e a , s u c h a s t h e F e n n i . T a c i t u s h a d w r i t t e n a s i m i l a r , a l b e i t s h o r t e r , p i e c e i n h i s " A g r i c o l a " ( c h a p t e r s 1 0 – 1 3 ) . T h e " A g r i c o l a " ( w r i t t e n ) r e c o u n t s t h e l i f e o f G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a , a n e m i n e n t R o m a n g e n e r a l a n d T a c i t u s ' s f a t h e r - i n - l a w ; i t a l s o c o v e r s , b r i e f l y , t h e g e o g r a p h y a n d e t h n o g r a p h y o f a n c i e n t B r i t a i n . A s i n t h e " G e r m a n i a " , T a c i t u s f a v o r a b l y c o n t r a s t s t h e l i b e r t y o f t h e n a t i v e B r i t o n s w i t h t h e t y r a n n y a n d c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e E m p i r e ; t h e b o o k a l s o c o n t a i n s e l o q u e n t p o l e m i c s a g a i n s t t h e g r e e d o f R o m e , o n e o f w h i c h , t h a t T a c i t u s c l a i m s i s f r o m a s p e e c h b y C a l g a c u s , e n d s b y a s s e r t i n g , " A u f e r r e t r u c i d a r e r a p e r e f a l s i s n o m i n i b u s i m p e r i u m , a t q u e u b i s o l i t u d i n e m f a c i u n t , p a c e m a p p e l l a n t . " ( " T o r a v a g e , t o s l a u g h t e r , t o u s u r p u n d e r f a l s e t i t l e s , t h e y c a l l e m p i r e ; a n d w h e r e t h e y m a k e a d e s e r t , t h e y c a l l i t p e a c e . " — O x f o r d R e v i s e d T r a n s l a t i o n ) . T h e r e i s u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t w h e n T a c i t u s w r o t e " D i a l o g u s d e o r a t o r i b u s " . M a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s e t i t a p a r t f r o m t h e o t h e r w o r k s o f T a c i t u s , s o t h a t i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y h a s a t v a r i o u s t i m e s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d . I t i s l i k e l y t o b e e a r l y w o r k , i n d e b t e d t o t h e a u t h o r ' s r h e t o r i c a l t r a i n i n g , s i n c e i t s s t y l e i m i t a t e s t h a t o f t h e f o r e m o s t R o m a n o r a t o r C i c e r o . I t l a c k s ( f o r e x a m p l e ) t h e i n c o n g r u i t i e s t h a t a r e t y p i c a l o f h i s m a t u r e h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s . T h e " D i a l o g u s " i s d e d i c a t e d t o F a b i u s I u s t u s , a c o n s u l i n 1 0 2 A D . T a c i t u s ' s w r i t i n g s a r e k n o w n f o r t h e i r d e n s e p r o s e t h a t s e l d o m g l o s s e s t h e f a c t s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t y l e o f s o m e o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , s u c h a s P l u t a r c h . W h e n h e w r i t e s a b o u t a n e a r d e f e a t o f t h e R o m a n a r m y i n " A n n a l s " I , 6 3 , h e d o e s s o w i t h b r e v i t y o f d e s c r i p t i o n r a t h e r t h a n e m b e l l i s h m e n t . I n m o s t o f h i s w r i t i n g s , h e k e e p s t o a c h r o n o l o g i c a l n a r r a t i v e o r d e r , o n l y s e l d o m o u t l i n i n g t h e b i g g e r p i c t u r e , l e a v i n g t h e r e a d e r s t o c o n s t r u c t t h a t p i c t u r e f o r t h e m s e l v e s . N o n e t h e l e s s , w h e r e h e d o e s u s e b r o a d s t r o k e s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h s o f t h e " A n n a l s " , h e u s e s a f e w c o n d e n s e d p h r a s e s w h i c h t a k e t h e r e a d e r t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e s t o r y . T a c i t u s ' s h i s t o r i c a l s t y l e o w e s s o m e d e b t t o S a l l u s t . H i s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f f e r s p e n e t r a t i n g — o f t e n p e s s i m i s t i c — i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f p o w e r p o l i t i c s , b l e n d i n g s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f e v e n t s , m o r a l l e s s o n s , a n d t i g h t l y f o c u s e d d r a m a t i c a c c o u n t s . T a c i t u s ' s o w n d e c l a r a t i o n r e g a r d i n g h i s a p p r o a c h t o h i s t o r y ( " A n n a l s " I , 1 ) i s w e l l k n o w n : " i n d e c o n s i l i u m m i h i . . . t r a d e r e . . . s i n e i r a e t s t u d i o , q u o r u m c a u s a s p r o c u l h a b e o . " m y p u r p o s e i s . . . t o r e l a t e . . . w i t h o u t e i t h e r a n g e r o r z e a l , m o t i v e s f r o m w h i c h I a m f a r r e m o v e d . T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h s c h o l a r l y d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t T a c i t u s ' s " n e u t r a l i t y " . T h r o u g h o u t h i s w r i t i n g , h e i s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r b e t w e e n t h e S e n a t e a n d t h e e m p e r o r s , a n d t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n i n g c l a s s e s o f R o m e a s t h e y a d j u s t e d t o t h e e v e r - g r o w i n g w e a l t h a n d p o w e r o f t h e e m p i r e . I n T a c i t u s ' s v i e w , s e n a t o r s s q u a n d e r e d t h e i r c u l t u r a l i n h e r i t a n c e — t h a t o f f r e e s p e e c h — t o p l a c a t e t h e i r ( r a r e l y b e n i g n ) e m p e r o r . T a c i t u s n o t e d t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e e m p e r o r o n t h e g o o d w i l l o f h i s a r m i e s . T h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n s e v e n t u a l l y g a v e w a y t o g e n e r a l s , w h o f o l l o w e d J u l i u s C a e s a r ( a n d S u l l a a n d P o m p e y ) i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t m i l i t a r y m i g h t c o u l d s e c u r e t h e m t h e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r i n R o m e . ( " H i s t . " 1 . 4 ) W e l c o m e a s t h e d e a t h o f N e r o h a d b e e n i n t h e f i r s t b u r s t o f j o y , y e t i t h a d n o t o n l y r o u s e d v a r i o u s e m o t i o n s i n R o m e , a m o n g t h e S e n a t o r s , t h e p e o p l e , o r t h e s o l d i e r y o f t h e c a p i t a l , i t h a d a l s o e x c i t e d a l l t h e l e g i o n s a n d t h e i r g e n e r a l s ; f o r n o w h a d b e e n d i v u l g e d t h a t s e c r e t o f t h e e m p i r e , t h a t e m p e r o r s c o u l d b e m a d e e l s e w h e r e t h a n a t R o m e . T a c i t u s ' s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r w a s l a r g e l y l i v e d o u t u n d e r t h e e m p e r o r D o m i t i a n . H i s e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e t y r a n n y , c o r r u p t i o n , a n d d e c a d e n c e o f t h a t e r a ( 8 1 – 9 6 ) m a y e x p l a i n t h e b i t t e r n e s s a n d i r o n y o f h i s p o l i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . H e d r a w s o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d a n g e r s o f p o w e r w i t h o u t a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , l o v e o f p o w e r u n t e m p e r e d b y p r i n c i p l e , a n d t h e a p a t h y a n d c o r r u p t i o n e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f w e a l t h g e n e r a t e d t h r o u g h t r a d e a n d c o n q u e s t b y t h e e m p i r e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e i m a g e h e b u i l d s o f T i b e r i u s t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i r s t s i x b o o k s o f t h e " A n n a l s " i s n e i t h e r e x c l u s i v e l y b l e a k n o r a p p r o v i n g : m o s t s c h o l a r s v i e w t h e i m a g e o f T i b e r i u s a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y " p o s i t i v e " i n t h e f i r s t b o o k s , a n d p r e d o m i n a n t l y " n e g a t i v e " a f t e r t h e i n t r i g u e s o f S e j a n u s . T h e e n t r a n c e o f T i b e r i u s i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r s o f t h e f i r s t b o o k i s d o m i n a t e d b y t h e h y p o c r i s y o f t h e n e w e m p e r o r a n d h i s c o u r t i e r s . I n t h e l a t e r b o o k s , s o m e r e s p e c t i s e v i d e n t f o r t h e c l e v e r n e s s o f t h e o l d e m p e r o r i n s e c u r i n g h i s p o s i t i o n . I n g e n e r a l , T a c i t u s d o e s n o t f e a r t o p r a i s e a n d t o c r i t i c i z e t h e s a m e p e r s o n , o f t e n n o t i n g w h a t h e t a k e s t o b e t h e i r m o r e a d m i r a b l e a n d l e s s a d m i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s . O n e o f T a c i t u s ' s h a l l m a r k s i s r e f r a i n i n g f r o m " c o n c l u s i v e l y " t a k i n g s i d e s f o r o r a g a i n s t p e r s o n s h e d e s c r i b e s , w h i c h h a s l e d s o m e t o i n t e r p r e t h i s w o r k s a s b o t h s u p p o r t i n g a n d r e j e c t i n g t h e i m p e r i a l s y s t e m ( s e e T a c i t e a n s t u d i e s , " B l a c k " v s . " R e d " T a c i t i s t s ) . H i s L a t i n s t y l e i s h i g h l y p r a i s e d . H i s s t y l e , a l t h o u g h i t h a s a g r a n d e u r a n d e l o q u e n c e ( t h a n k s t o T a c i t u s ' s e d u c a t i o n i n r h e t o r i c ) , i s e x t r e m e l y c o n c i s e , e v e n e p i g r a m m a t i c — t h e s e n t e n c e s a r e r a r e l y f l o w i n g o r b e a u t i f u l , b u t t h e i r p o i n t i s a l w a y s c l e a r . T h e s t y l e h a s b e e n b o t h d e r i d e d a s " h a r s h , u n p l e a s a n t , a n d t h o r n y " a n d p r a i s e d a s " g r a v e , c o n c i s e , a n d p i t h i l y e l o q u e n t " . A p a s s a g e o f " A n n a l s " 1 . 1 , w h e r e T a c i t u s l a m e n t s t h e s t a t e o f t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y r e g a r d i n g t h e l a s t f o u r e m p e r o r s o f t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n d y n a s t y , i l l u s t r a t e s h i s s t y l e : " T h e h i s t o r i e s o f T i b e r i u s , G a i u s , C l a u d i u s a n d N e r o , w h i l e t h e y w e r e i n p o w e r , w e r e f a l s i f i e d t h r o u g h t e r r o r a n d a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h w e r e w r i t t e n u n d e r t h e i r r i t a t i o n o f a r e c e n t h a t r e d " , o r i n a w o r d - f o r - w o r d t r a n s l a t i o n : C o m p a r e d t o t h e C i c e r o n i a n p e r i o d , w h e r e s e n t e n c e s w e r e u s u a l l y t h e l e n g t h o f a p a r a g r a p h a n d a r t f u l l y c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h n e s t e d p a i r s o f c a r e f u l l y m a t c h e d s o n o r o u s p h r a s e s , t h i s i s s h o r t a n d t o t h e p o i n t . B u t i t i s a l s o v e r y i n d i v i d u a l . N o t e t h e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f s a y i n g " a n d " i n t h e f i r s t l i n e ( " - q u e " , " e t " , " a c " ) , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e m a t c h e d s e c o n d a n d t h i r d l i n e s . T h e y a r e p a r a l l e l i n s e n s e b u t n o t i n s o u n d ; t h e p a i r s o f w o r d s e n d i n g " " - e n t i b u s " … " - i s " " a r e c r o s s e d o v e r i n a w a y t h a t d e l i b e r a t e l y b r e a k s t h e C i c e r o n i a n c o n v e n t i o n s — w h i c h o n e w o u l d , h o w e v e r , n e e d t o b e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t o s e e t h e n o v e l t y o f T a c i t u s ' s s t y l e . S o m e r e a d e r s , t h e n a n d n o w , f i n d t h i s t e a s i n g o f t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s m e r e l y i r r i t a t i n g . O t h e r s f i n d t h e d e l i b e r a t e d i s c o r d , p l a y i n g a g a i n s t t h e e v i d e n t p a r a l l e l i s m o f t h e t w o l i n e s , s t i m u l a t i n g a n d i n t r i g u i n g . H i s h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s f o c u s o n t h e m o t i v e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s , o f t e n w i t h p e n e t r a t i n g i n s i g h t — t h o u g h i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e h o w m u c h o f h i s i n s i g h t i s c o r r e c t , a n d h o w m u c h i s c o n v i n c i n g o n l y b e c a u s e o f h i s r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l . H e i s a t h i s b e s t w h e n e x p o s i n g h y p o c r i s y a n d d i s s i m u l a t i o n ; f o r e x a m p l e , h e f o l l o w s a n a r r a t i v e r e c o u n t i n g T i b e r i u s ' s r e f u s a l o f t h e t i t l e " p a t e r p a t r i a e " b y r e c a l l i n g t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f a l a w f o r b i d d i n g a n y " t r e a s o n o u s " s p e e c h o r w r i t i n g s — a n d t h e f r i v o l o u s p r o s e c u t i o n s w h i c h r e s u l t e d ( " A n n a l s " , 1 . 7 2 ) . E l s e w h e r e ( " A n n a l s " 4 . 6 4 – 6 6 ) h e c o m p a r e s T i b e r i u s ' s p u b l i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f i r e r e l i e f t o h i s f a i l u r e t o s t o p t h e p e r v e r s i o n s a n d a b u s e s o f j u s t i c e w h i c h h e h a d b e g u n . A l t h o u g h t h i s k i n d o f i n s i g h t h a s e a r n e d h i m p r a i s e , h e h a s a l s o b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r i g n o r i n g t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t . T a c i t u s o w e s m o s t , b o t h i n l a n g u a g e a n d i n m e t h o d , t o S a l l u s t , a n d A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s i s t h e l a t e r h i s t o r i a n w h o s e w o r k m o s t c l o s e l y a p p r o a c h e s h i m i n s t y l e . T a c i t u s m a k e s u s e o f t h e o f f i c i a l s o u r c e s o f t h e R o m a n s t a t e : t h e " a c t a s e n a t u s " ( t h e m i n u t e s o f t h e s e s s i o n s o f t h e S e n a t e ) a n d t h e " a c t a d i u r n a p o p u l i R o m a n i " ( a c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e a c t s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d n e w s o f t h e c o u r t a n d c a p i t a l ) . H e a l s o r e a d c o l l e c t i o n s o f e m p e r o r s ' s p e e c h e s , s u c h a s t h o s e o f T i b e r i u s a n d C l a u d i u s . H e i s g e n e r a l l y s e e n a s a s c r u p u l o u s h i s t o r i a n w h o p a i d c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n t o h i s s o u r c e s . T a c i t u s c i t e s s o m e o f h i s s o u r c e s d i r e c t l y , a m o n g t h e m C l u v i u s R u f u s , F a b i u s R u s t i c u s a n d P l i n y t h e E l d e r , w h o h a d w r i t t e n " B e l l a G e r m a n i a e " a n d a h i s t o r i c a l w o r k w h i c h w a s t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h a t o f A u f i d i u s B a s s u s . T a c i t u s a l s o u s e s c o l l e c t i o n s o f l e t t e r s ( " e p i s t o l a r i u m " ) . H e a l s o t o o k i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m " e x i t u s i l l u s t r i u m v i r o r u m " . T h e s e w e r e a c o l l e c t i o n o f b o o k s b y t h o s e w h o w e r e a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h e e m p e r o r s . T h e y t e l l o f s a c r i f i c e s b y m a r t y r s t o f r e e d o m , e s p e c i a l l y t h e m e n w h o c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e . W h i l e h e p l a c e s n o v a l u e o n t h e S t o i c t h e o r y o f s u i c i d e a n d v i e w s s u i c i d e s a s o s t e n t a t i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l l y u s e l e s s , T a c i t u s o f t e n g i v e s p r o m i n e n c e t o s p e e c h e s m a d e b y t h o s e a b o u t t o c o m m i t s u i c i d e , f o r e x a m p l e C r e m u t i u s C o r d u s ' s p e e c h i n " A n n . " I V , 3 4 – 3 5 .

Works

Tacitus was a Roman historian who lived during the 1st century AD. He held public office and served in the provinces before turning to writing. His major works include the "Annals" and "Histories", which cover the period from the death of Augustus to the death of Domitian. He also wrote three shorter works: "Agricola", a biography of his father-in-law; "Germania", an ethnographic study of the Germanic tribes; and "Dialogus", a dialogue on the art of rhetoric. Tacitus's writing style is characterized by its conciseness, precision, and use of irony. He is known for his critical portrayal of the Roman Empire and its rulers, and his emphasis on the importance of individual character and morality.

"latus clavus", mark of the senator) under Vespasian (r. 69–79), but entered political life as a quaestor in 81 or 82 under Titus. He advanced steadily through the "cursus honorum", becoming praetor in 88 and a quindecimvir, a member of the priestly college in charge of the "Sibylline Books" and the Secular Games. He gained acclaim as a lawyer and as an orator; his skill in public speaking ironically counterpoints his cognomen, "Tacitus" ("silent"). He served in the provinces from to , either in command of a legion or in a civilian post. He and his property survived Domitian's reign of terror (81–96), but the experience left him jaded and perhaps ashamed at his own complicity, installing in him the hatred of tyranny evident in his works. The record survives of the work on Augustus and the beginnings of the Roman Empire, with which he had planned to finish his work. The "Annals" is one of the earliest secular historical records to mention Christ, which Tacitus does in connection with Nero's persecution of the Christians. Tacitus wrote three works with a more limited scope: "Agricola", a biography of his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola; the "Germania", a monograph on the lands and tribes of barbarian Germania; and the "Dialogus", a dialogue on the art of rhetoric. The "Germania" (Latin title: "De Origine et situ Germanorum") is an ethnographic work on the Germanic tribes outside the Roman Empire. The "Germania" fits within a classical ethnographic tradition which includes authors such as Herodotus and Julius Caesar. The book begins of which, that Tacitus claims is from a speech by Calgacus, ends by asserting, "Auferre trucidare rapere falsis nominibus imperium, atque ubi solitudinem faciunt, pacem appellant." ("To ravage, to slaughter, to usurp under false titles, they call empire; and where they make a desert, they call it peace. "—Oxford Revised Translation). There is uncertainty about when Tacitus wrote "Dialogus de oratoribus". Many characteristics set it apart from the other works of Tacitus, so that its authenticity has at various times been questioned. It is likely to be early work, indebted to the author's rhetorical training, since its style imitates that of the foremost Roman orator Cicero. It lacks (for example) the incongruities that are typical of his mature historical works. The "Dialogus" is dedicated to Fabius Iustus, a psychology of power politics, blending straightforward descriptions of events, moral lessons, and tightly focused dramatic accounts. Tacitus's own declaration regarding his approach to history ("Annals" I,1) is well known: "inde consilium mihi ... tradere ... sine ira et studio, quorum causas procul habeo. " my purpose is ... to relate ... without either anger or zeal, motives from which I am far removed. There has been much scholarly discussion about Tacitus's "neutrality". Throughout his writing, he is preoccupied with the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors, and the increasing corruption of the governing classes of Rome as they adjusted to the ever-growing wealth and power of the empire. In Tacitus's view, senators squandered their cultural inheritance—that of free speech—to placate their (rarely benign) emperor. Tacitus era (81–96) may explain the bitterness and irony of his political analysis. He draws our attention to the dangers of power without accountability, love of power untempered by principle, and the apathy and corruption engendered by the concentration of wealth generated through trade and conquest by the empire. Nonetheless, the image he builds of Tiberius throughout the first six books of the "Annals" is neither exclusively bleak nor approving: most scholars view the image of Tiberius as predominantly "positive" in the first books, and predominantly "negative" after the intrigues of Sejanus. The entrance of Tiberius in the first chapters of the first book is dominated by the hypocrisy of the new emperor and his courtiers. In the later books, some respect is evident for the cleverness of the old emperor in securing his position. In general, Tacitus does not fear to praise and to criticize the same person, often noting what he takes to be their more admirable and less admirable properties. One of Tacitus's hallmarks is refraining from "conclusively" taking sides for or against persons he describes, which has led some to interpret his works as both supporting and rejecting the imperial system (see Tacitean studies, "Black" vs. "Red" Tacitists). His Latin style is highly praised. His style, although it has a grandeur and eloquence (thanks to Tacitus's education in rhetoric), is extremely concise, even epigrammatic—the sentences are rarely flowing or beautiful, but their point is always clear. The style has been both derided as "harsh, unpleasant, and thorny" and praised as "grave, concise, and but not in sound; the pairs of words ending ""-entibus" … "-is"" are crossed over in a way that deliberately breaks the Ciceronian conventions—which one would, however, need to be acquainted with to see the novelty of Tacitus's style. Some readers, then and now, find this teasing of their expectations merely irritating. Others find the deliberate discord, playing against the evident parallelism of the two lines, stimulating and intriguing. His historical works focus on the motives of the characters, often with penetrating insight—though it is questionable how much of his insight is correct, and how much is convincing only because of his rhetorical skill. He is at his best when exposing hypocrisy and dissimulation; for example, he follows a narrative recounting Tiberius's refusal of the title "pater patriae" ostentatious and politically useless, Tacitus often gives prominence to speeches made by those about to commit suicide, for example Cremutius Cordus' speech in "Ann." IV, 34–35.

Tacitus

D e t a i l s a b o u t t h e p e r s o n a l l i f e o f T a c i t u s a r e s c a r c e . W h a t l i t t l e i s k n o w n c o m e s f r o m s c a t t e r e d h i n t s t h r o u g h o u t h i s w o r k , t h e l e t t e r s o f h i s f r i e n d a n d a d m i r e r P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r , a n d a n i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M y l a s a i n C a r i a . T a c i t u s w a s b o r n i n 5 6 o r 5 7 t o a n e q u e s t r i a n f a m i l y . T h e p l a c e a n d d a t e o f h i s b i r t h , a s w e l l a s h i s p r a e n o m e n ( f i r s t n a m e ) a r e n o t k n o w n . I n t h e l e t t e r s o f S i d o n i u s A p o l l i n a r i s h i s n a m e i s " G a i u s " , b u t i n t h e m a j o r s u r v i v i n g m a n u s c r i p t o f h i s w o r k h i s n a m e i s g i v e n a s " P u b l i u s " . O n e s c h o l a r ' s s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e n a m e " S e x t u s " h a s b e e n l a r g e l y r e j e c t e d . M o s t o f t h e o l d e r a r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l i e s f a i l e d t o s u r v i v e t h e p r o s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h t o o k p l a c e a t t h e e n d o f t h e R e p u b l i c , a n d T a c i t u s m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t h e o w e d h i s r a n k t o t h e F l a v i a n e m p e r o r s ( " H i s t . " 1 . 1 ) . T h e c l a i m t h a t h e w a s d e s c e n d e d f r o m a f r e e d m a n i s d e r i v e d f r o m a s p e e c h i n h i s w r i t i n g s w h i c h a s s e r t s t h a t m a n y s e n a t o r s a n d k n i g h t s w e r e d e s c e n d e d f r o m f r e e d m e n ( " A n n . " 1 3 . 2 7 ) , b u t t h i s i s g e n e r a l l y d i s p u t e d . H i s f a t h e r m a y h a v e b e e n t h e C o r n e l i u s T a c i t u s w h o s e r v e d a s p r o c u r a t o r o f B e l g i c a a n d G e r m a n i a ; P l i n y t h e E l d e r m e n t i o n s t h a t C o r n e l i u s h a d a s o n w h o a g e d r a p i d l y ( N H 7 . 7 6 ) , w h i c h i m p l i e s a n e a r l y d e a t h . T h e r e i s n o m e n t i o n o f T a c i t u s ' s s u f f e r i n g s u c h a c o n d i t i o n , b u t i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s r e f e r s t o a b r o t h e r — i f C o r n e l i u s w a s i n d e e d h i s f a t h e r . T h e f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n t h e y o u n g e r P l i n y a n d T a c i t u s l e a d s s o m e s c h o l a r s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e y w e r e b o t h t h e o f f s p r i n g o f w e a l t h y p r o v i n c i a l f a m i l i e s . T h e p r o v i n c e o f h i s b i r t h r e m a i n s u n k n o w n , t h o u g h v a r i o u s c o n j e c t u r e s s u g g e s t G a l l i a B e l g i c a , G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s , o r N o r t h e r n I t a l y . H i s m a r r i a g e t o t h e d a u g h t e r o f N a r b o n e n s i a n s e n a t o r G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a i m p l i e s t h a t h e c a m e f r o m G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s . T a c i t u s ' s d e d i c a t i o n t o L u c i u s F a b i u s J u s t u s i n t h e " D i a l o g u s " m a y i n d i c a t e a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h S p a i n , a n d h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h P l i n y s u g g e s t s o r i g i n s i n n o r t h e r n I t a l y . N o e v i d e n c e e x i s t s , h o w e v e r , t h a t P l i n y ' s f r i e n d s f r o m n o r t h e r n I t a l y k n e w T a c i t u s , n o r d o P l i n y ' s l e t t e r s h i n t t h a t t h e t w o m e n h a d a c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d . P l i n y B o o k 9 , L e t t e r 2 3 , r e p o r t s t h a t w h e n a s k e d w h e t h e r h e w a s I t a l i a n o r p r o v i n c i a l , h e g a v e a n u n c l e a r a n s w e r a n d s o w a s a s k e d w h e t h e r h e w a s T a c i t u s o r P l i n y . S i n c e P l i n y w a s f r o m I t a l y , s o m e i n f e r t h a t T a c i t u s w a s f r o m t h e p r o v i n c e s , p r o b a b l y G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s . H i s a n c e s t r y , h i s s k i l l i n o r a t o r y , a n d h i s s y m p a t h e t i c d e p i c t i o n o f b a r b a r i a n s w h o r e s i s t e d R o m a n r u l e ( e . g . , " A n n . " 2 . 9 ) h a v e l e d s o m e t o s u g g e s t t h a t h e w a s a C e l t . T h i s b e l i e f s t e m s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C e l t s w h o h a d o c c u p i e d G a u l p r i o r t o t h e R o m a n i n v a s i o n w e r e f a m o u s f o r t h e i r s k i l l i n o r a t o r y a n d h a d b e e n s u b j u g a t e d b y R o m e . A s a y o u n g m a n , T a c i t u s s t u d i e d r h e t o r i c i n R o m e t o p r e p a r e f o r a c a r e e r i n l a w a n d p o l i t i c s ; l i k e P l i n y , h e m a y h a v e s t u d i e d u n d e r Q u i n t i l i a n ( – ) . I n 7 7 o r 7 8 , h e m a r r i e d J u l i a A g r i c o l a , d a u g h t e r o f t h e f a m o u s g e n e r a l A g r i c o l a . L i t t l e i s k n o w n o f t h e i r d o m e s t i c l i f e , s a v e t h a t T a c i t u s l o v e d h u n t i n g a n d t h e o u t d o o r s . H e s t a r t e d h i s c a r e e r ( p r o b a b l y t h e " l a t u s c l a v u s " , m a r k o f t h e s e n a t o r ) u n d e r V e s p a s i a n ( r . 6 9 – 7 9 ) , b u t e n t e r e d p o l i t i c a l l i f e a s a q u a e s t o r i n 8 1 o r 8 2 u n d e r T i t u s . H e a d v a n c e d s t e a d i l y t h r o u g h t h e " c u r s u s h o n o r u m " , b e c o m i n g p r a e t o r i n 8 8 a n d a q u i n d e c i m v i r , a m e m b e r o f t h e p r i e s t l y c o l l e g e i n c h a r g e o f t h e " S i b y l l i n e B o o k s " a n d t h e S e c u l a r G a m e s . H e g a i n e d a c c l a i m a s a l a w y e r a n d a s a n o r a t o r ; h i s s k i l l i n p u b l i c s p e a k i n g i r o n i c a l l y c o u n t e r p o i n t s h i s c o g n o m e n , " T a c i t u s " ( " s i l e n t " ) . H e s e r v e d i n t h e p r o v i n c e s f r o m t o , e i t h e r i n c o m m a n d o f a l e g i o n o r i n a c i v i l i a n p o s t . H e a n d h i s p r o p e r t y s u r v i v e d D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n o f t e r r o r ( 8 1 – 9 6 ) , b u t t h e e x p e r i e n c e l e f t h i m j a d e d a n d p e r h a p s a s h a m e d a t h i s o w n c o m p l i c i t y , i n s t a l l i n g i n h i m t h e h a t r e d o f t y r a n n y e v i d e n t i n h i s w o r k s . T h e " A g r i c o l a " , c h s . 4 4 – 4 5 , i s i l l u s t r a t i v e : A g r i c o l a w a s s p a r e d t h o s e l a t e r y e a r s d u r i n g w h i c h D o m i t i a n , l e a v i n g n o w n o i n t e r v a l o r b r e a t h i n g s p a c e o f t i m e , b u t , a s i t w e r e , w i t h o n e c o n t i n u o u s b l o w , d r a i n e d t h e l i f e - b l o o d o f t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h . . . I t w a s n o t l o n g b e f o r e o u r h a n d s d r a g g e d H e l v i d i u s t o p r i s o n , b e f o r e w e g a z e d o n t h e d y i n g l o o k s o f M a u r i c u s a n d R u s t i c u s , b e f o r e w e w e r e s t e e p e d i n S e n e c i o ' s i n n o c e n t b l o o d . E v e n N e r o t u r n e d h i s e y e s a w a y , a n d d i d n o t g a z e u p o n t h e a t r o c i t i e s w h i c h h e o r d e r e d ; w i t h D o m i t i a n i t w a s t h e c h i e f p a r t o f o u r m i s e r i e s t o s e e a n d t o b e s e e n , t o k n o w t h a t o u r s i g h s w e r e b e i n g r e c o r d e d . . . F r o m h i s s e a t i n t h e S e n a t e , h e b e c a m e s u f f e c t c o n s u l i n 9 7 d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f N e r v a , b e i n g t h e f i r s t o f h i s f a m i l y t o d o s o . D u r i n g h i s t e n u r e , h e r e a c h e d t h e h e i g h t o f h i s f a m e a s a n o r a t o r w h e n h e d e l i v e r e d t h e f u n e r a l o r a t i o n f o r t h e f a m o u s v e t e r a n s o l d i e r L u c i u s V e r g i n i u s R u f u s . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , h e w r o t e a n d p u b l i s h e d t h e " A g r i c o l a " a n d " G e r m a n i a " , f o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e l i t e r a r y e n d e a v o r s t h a t w o u l d o c c u p y h i m u n t i l h i s d e a t h . A f t e r w a r d , h e a b s e n t e d h i m s e l f f r o m p u b l i c l i f e , b u t r e t u r n e d d u r i n g T r a j a n ' s r e i g n ( 9 8 – 1 1 7 ) . I n 1 0 0 , h e a n d h i s f r i e n d P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r p r o s e c u t e d ( p r o c o n s u l o f A f r i c a ) f o r c o r r u p t i o n . P r i s c u s w a s f o u n d g u i l t y a n d s e n t i n t o e x i l e ; P l i n y w r o t e a f e w d a y s l a t e r t h a t T a c i t u s h a d s p o k e n " w i t h a l l t h e m a j e s t y w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s h i s u s u a l s t y l e o f o r a t o r y " . A l e n g t h y a b s e n c e f r o m p o l i t i c s a n d l a w f o l l o w e d w h i l e h e w r o t e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " a n d t h e " A n n a l s " . I n 1 1 2 t o 1 1 3 , h e h e l d t h e h i g h e s t c i v i l i a n g o v e r n o r s h i p , t h a t o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f A s i a i n w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a , r e c o r d e d i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M y l a s a m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . A p a s s a g e i n t h e " A n n a l s " f i x e s 1 1 6 a s t h e " t e r m i n u s p o s t q u e m " o f h i s d e a t h , w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n a s l a t e a s 1 2 5 o r e v e n 1 3 0 . I t s e e m s t h a t h e s u r v i v e d b o t h P l i n y ( d i e d ) a n d T r a j a n ( d i e d 1 1 7 ) . I t r e m a i n s u n k n o w n w h e t h e r T a c i t u s h a d a n y c h i l d r e n . T h e " A u g u s t a n H i s t o r y " r e p o r t s t h a t E m p e r o r M a r c u s C l a u d i u s T a c i t u s ( r . 2 7 5 – 2 7 6 ) c l a i m e d h i m f o r a n a n c e s t o r a n d p r o v i d e d f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f h i s w o r k s , b u t t h i s s t o r y m a y b e f r a u d u l e n t , l i k e m u c h o f t h e " A u g u s t a n H i s t o r y " . F i v e w o r k s a s c r i b e d t o T a c i t u s h a v e s u r v i v e d ( a l b e i t w i t h g a p s ) , t h e m o s t s u b s t a n t i a l o f w h i c h a r e t h e " A n n a l s " a n d t h e " H i s t o r i e s " . T h i s c a n o n ( w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e d a t e s ) c o n s i s t s o f : T h e " A n n a l s " a n d t h e " H i s t o r i e s " , p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y , w e r e m e a n t t o f o r m a s i n g l e e d i t i o n o f t h i r t y b o o k s . A l t h o u g h T a c i t u s w r o t e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " b e f o r e t h e " A n n a l s " , t h e e v e n t s i n t h e " A n n a l s " p r e c e d e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " ; t o g e t h e r t h e y f o r m a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e f r o m t h e d e a t h o f A u g u s t u s ( 1 4 ) t o t h e d e a t h o f D o m i t i a n ( 9 6 ) . T h o u g h m o s t h a s b e e n l o s t , w h a t r e m a i n s i s a n i n v a l u a b l e r e c o r d o f t h e e r a . T h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e " A n n a l s " s u r v i v e d i n a s i n g l e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m C o r v e y A b b e y i n G e r m a n y , a n d t h e s e c o n d h a l f i n a s i n g l e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m M o n t e C a s s i n o i n I t a l y , a n d i t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e y s u r v i v e d a t a l l . I n a n e a r l y c h a p t e r o f t h e " A g r i c o l a " , T a c i t u s a s s e r t s t h a t h e w i s h e s t o s p e a k a b o u t t h e y e a r s o f D o m i t i a n , N e r v a a n d T r a j a n . I n t h e " H i s t o r i e s " t h e s c o p e h a s c h a n g e d ; T a c i t u s s a y s t h a t h e w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e a g e o f N e r v a a n d T r a j a n a t a l a t e r t i m e . I n s t e a d , h e w i l l c o v e r t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e c i v i l w a r s o f t h e Y e a r o f t h e F o u r E m p e r o r s a n d e n d w i t h t h e d e s p o t i s m o f t h e F l a v i a n s . O n l y t h e f i r s t f o u r b o o k s a n d t w e n t y - s i x c h a p t e r s o f t h e f i f t h b o o k s u r v i v e , c o v e r i n g t h e y e a r 6 9 a n d t h e f i r s t p a r t o f 7 0 . T h e w o r k i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e c o n t i n u e d u p t o t h e d e a t h o f D o m i t i a n o n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 , 9 6 . T h e f i f t h b o o k c o n t a i n s — a s a p r e l u d e t o t h e a c c o u n t o f T i t u s ' s s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e F i r s t J e w i s h – R o m a n W a r — a s h o r t e t h n o g r a p h i c s u r v e y o f t h e a n c i e n t J e w s , ( a l t h o u g h e n t i r e l y i n a c c u r a t e ) a n d i t i s a n i n v a l u a b l e r e c o r d o f R o m a n a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e m . T h e " A n n a l s " , T a c i t u s ' s f i n a l w o r k , c o v e r s t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e d e a t h o f A u g u s t u s i n A D   1 4 . H e w r o t e a t l e a s t s i x t e e n b o o k s , b u t b o o k s   7 – 1 0 a n d p a r t s o f b o o k s   5 , 6 , 1 1 , a n d 1 6 a r e m i s s i n g . B o o k   6 e n d s w i t h t h e d e a t h o f T i b e r i u s , a n d b o o k s 7 – 1 2 p r e s u m a b l y c o v e r e d t h e r e i g n s o f C a l i g u l a a n d C l a u d i u s . T h e r e m a i n i n g b o o k s c o v e r t h e r e i g n o f N e r o , p e r h a p s u n t i l h i s d e a t h i n J u n e 6 8 o r u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h a t y e a r t o c o n n e c t w i t h t h e " H i s t o r i e s " . T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f b o o k   1 6 i s m i s s i n g , e n d i n g w i t h t h e e v e n t s o f 6 6 . I t i s n o t k n o w n w h e t h e r T a c i t u s c o m p l e t e d t h e w o r k ; h e d i e d b e f o r e h e c o u l d c o m p l e t e h i s p l a n n e d h i s t o r i e s o f N e r v a a n d T r a j a n , a n d n o r e c o r d s u r v i v e s o f t h e w o r k o n A u g u s t u s a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , w i t h w h i c h h e h a d p l a n n e d t o f i n i s h h i s w o r k . T h e " A n n a l s " i s o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t s e c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s t o m e n t i o n C h r i s t , w h i c h T a c i t u s d o e s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h N e r o ' s p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s . T a c i t u s w r o t e t h r e e w o r k s w i t h a m o r e l i m i t e d s c o p e : " A g r i c o l a " , a b i o g r a p h y o f h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w , G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a ; t h e " G e r m a n i a " , a m o n o g r a p h o n t h e l a n d s a n d t r i b e s o f b a r b a r i a n G e r m a n i a ; a n d t h e " D i a l o g u s " , a d i a l o g u e o n t h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c . T h e " G e r m a n i a " ( L a t i n t i t l e : " D e O r i g i n e e t s i t u G e r m a n o r u m " ) i s a n e t h n o g r a p h i c w o r k o n t h e G e r m a n i c t r i b e s o u t s i d e t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . T h e " G e r m a n i a " f i t s w i t h i n a c l a s s i c a l e t h n o g r a p h i c t r a d i t i o n w h i c h i n c l u d e s a u t h o r s s u c h a s H e r o d o t u s a n d J u l i u s C a e s a r . T h e b o o k b e g i n s ( c h a p t e r s 1 – 2 7 ) w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l a n d s , l a w s , a n d c u s t o m s o f t h e v a r i o u s t r i b e s . L a t e r c h a p t e r s f o c u s o n d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p a r t i c u l a r t r i b e s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h o s e w h o l i v e d c l o s e s t t o t h e R o m a n e m p i r e , a n d e n d i n g w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h o s e w h o l i v e d o n t h e s h o r e s o f t h e B a l t i c S e a , s u c h a s t h e F e n n i . T a c i t u s h a d w r i t t e n a s i m i l a r , a l b e i t s h o r t e r , p i e c e i n h i s " A g r i c o l a " ( c h a p t e r s 1 0 – 1 3 ) . T h e " A g r i c o l a " ( w r i t t e n ) r e c o u n t s t h e l i f e o f G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a , a n e m i n e n t R o m a n g e n e r a l a n d T a c i t u s ' s f a t h e r - i n - l a w ; i t a l s o c o v e r s , b r i e f l y , t h e g e o g r a p h y a n d e t h n o g r a p h y o f a n c i e n t B r i t a i n . A s i n t h e " G e r m a n i a " , T a c i t u s f a v o r a b l y c o n t r a s t s t h e l i b e r t y o f t h e n a t i v e B r i t o n s w i t h t h e t y r a n n y a n d c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e E m p i r e ; t h e b o o k a l s o c o n t a i n s e l o q u e n t p o l e m i c s a g a i n s t t h e g r e e d o f R o m e , o n e o f w h i c h , t h a t T a c i t u s c l a i m s i s f r o m a s p e e c h b y C a l g a c u s , e n d s b y a s s e r t i n g , " A u f e r r e t r u c i d a r e r a p e r e f a l s i s n o m i n i b u s i m p e r i u m , a t q u e u b i s o l i t u d i n e m f a c i u n t , p a c e m a p p e l l a n t . " ( " T o r a v a g e , t o s l a u g h t e r , t o u s u r p u n d e r f a l s e t i t l e s , t h e y c a l l e m p i r e ; a n d w h e r e t h e y m a k e a d e s e r t , t h e y c a l l i t p e a c e . " — O x f o r d R e v i s e d T r a n s l a t i o n ) . T h e r e i s u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t w h e n T a c i t u s w r o t e " D i a l o g u s d e o r a t o r i b u s " . M a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s e t i t a p a r t f r o m t h e o t h e r w o r k s o f T a c i t u s , s o t h a t i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y h a s a t v a r i o u s t i m e s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d . I t i s l i k e l y t o b e e a r l y w o r k , i n d e b t e d t o t h e a u t h o r ' s r h e t o r i c a l t r a i n i n g , s i n c e i t s s t y l e i m i t a t e s t h a t o f t h e f o r e m o s t R o m a n o r a t o r C i c e r o . I t l a c k s ( f o r e x a m p l e ) t h e i n c o n g r u i t i e s t h a t a r e t y p i c a l o f h i s m a t u r e h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s . T h e " D i a l o g u s " i s d e d i c a t e d t o F a b i u s I u s t u s , a c o n s u l i n 1 0 2 A D . T a c i t u s ' s w r i t i n g s a r e k n o w n f o r t h e i r d e n s e p r o s e t h a t s e l d o m g l o s s e s t h e f a c t s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t y l e o f s o m e o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , s u c h a s P l u t a r c h . W h e n h e w r i t e s a b o u t a n e a r d e f e a t o f t h e R o m a n a r m y i n " A n n a l s " I , 6 3 , h e d o e s s o w i t h b r e v i t y o f d e s c r i p t i o n r a t h e r t h a n e m b e l l i s h m e n t . I n m o s t o f h i s w r i t i n g s , h e k e e p s t o a c h r o n o l o g i c a l n a r r a t i v e o r d e r , o n l y s e l d o m o u t l i n i n g t h e b i g g e r p i c t u r e , l e a v i n g t h e r e a d e r s t o c o n s t r u c t t h a t p i c t u r e f o r t h e m s e l v e s . N o n e t h e l e s s , w h e r e h e d o e s u s e b r o a d s t r o k e s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h s o f t h e " A n n a l s " , h e u s e s a f e w c o n d e n s e d p h r a s e s w h i c h t a k e t h e r e a d e r t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e s t o r y . T a c i t u s ' s h i s t o r i c a l s t y l e o w e s s o m e d e b t t o S a l l u s t . H i s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f f e r s p e n e t r a t i n g — o f t e n p e s s i m i s t i c — i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f p o w e r p o l i t i c s , b l e n d i n g s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f e v e n t s , m o r a l l e s s o n s , a n d t i g h t l y f o c u s e d d r a m a t i c a c c o u n t s . T a c i t u s ' s o w n d e c l a r a t i o n r e g a r d i n g h i s a p p r o a c h t o h i s t o r y ( " A n n a l s " I , 1 ) i s w e l l k n o w n : " i n d e c o n s i l i u m m i h i . . . t r a d e r e . . . s i n e i r a e t s t u d i o , q u o r u m c a u s a s p r o c u l h a b e o . " m y p u r p o s e i s . . . t o r e l a t e . . . w i t h o u t e i t h e r a n g e r o r z e a l , m o t i v e s f r o m w h i c h I a m f a r r e m o v e d . T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h s c h o l a r l y d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t T a c i t u s ' s " n e u t r a l i t y " . T h r o u g h o u t h i s w r i t i n g , h e i s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r b e t w e e n t h e S e n a t e a n d t h e e m p e r o r s , a n d t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n i n g c l a s s e s o f R o m e a s t h e y a d j u s t e d t o t h e e v e r - g r o w i n g w e a l t h a n d p o w e r o f t h e e m p i r e . I n T a c i t u s ' s v i e w , s e n a t o r s s q u a n d e r e d t h e i r c u l t u r a l i n h e r i t a n c e — t h a t o f f r e e s p e e c h — t o p l a c a t e t h e i r ( r a r e l y b e n i g n ) e m p e r o r . T a c i t u s n o t e d t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e e m p e r o r o n t h e g o o d w i l l o f h i s a r m i e s . T h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n s e v e n t u a l l y g a v e w a y t o g e n e r a l s , w h o f o l l o w e d J u l i u s C a e s a r ( a n d S u l l a a n d P o m p e y ) i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t m i l i t a r y m i g h t c o u l d s e c u r e t h e m t h e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r i n R o m e . ( " H i s t . " 1 . 4 ) W e l c o m e a s t h e d e a t h o f N e r o h a d b e e n i n t h e f i r s t b u r s t o f j o y , y e t i t h a d n o t o n l y r o u s e d v a r i o u s e m o t i o n s i n R o m e , a m o n g t h e S e n a t o r s , t h e p e o p l e , o r t h e s o l d i e r y o f t h e c a p i t a l , i t h a d a l s o e x c i t e d a l l t h e l e g i o n s a n d t h e i r g e n e r a l s ; f o r n o w h a d b e e n d i v u l g e d t h a t s e c r e t o f t h e e m p i r e , t h a t e m p e r o r s c o u l d b e m a d e e l s e w h e r e t h a n a t R o m e . T a c i t u s ' s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r w a s l a r g e l y l i v e d o u t u n d e r t h e e m p e r o r D o m i t i a n . H i s e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e t y r a n n y , c o r r u p t i o n , a n d d e c a d e n c e o f t h a t e r a ( 8 1 – 9 6 ) m a y e x p l a i n t h e b i t t e r n e s s a n d i r o n y o f h i s p o l i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . H e d r a w s o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d a n g e r s o f p o w e r w i t h o u t a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , l o v e o f p o w e r u n t e m p e r e d b y p r i n c i p l e , a n d t h e a p a t h y a n d c o r r u p t i o n e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f w e a l t h g e n e r a t e d t h r o u g h t r a d e a n d c o n q u e s t b y t h e e m p i r e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e i m a g e h e b u i l d s o f T i b e r i u s t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i r s t s i x b o o k s o f t h e " A n n a l s " i s n e i t h e r e x c l u s i v e l y b l e a k n o r a p p r o v i n g : m o s t s c h o l a r s v i e w t h e i m a g e o f T i b e r i u s a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y " p o s i t i v e " i n t h e f i r s t b o o k s , a n d p r e d o m i n a n t l y " n e g a t i v e " a f t e r t h e i n t r i g u e s o f S e j a n u s . T h e e n t r a n c e o f T i b e r i u s i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r s o f t h e f i r s t b o o k i s d o m i n a t e d b y t h e h y p o c r i s y o f t h e n e w e m p e r o r a n d h i s c o u r t i e r s . I n t h e l a t e r b o o k s , s o m e r e s p e c t i s e v i d e n t f o r t h e c l e v e r n e s s o f t h e o l d e m p e r o r i n s e c u r i n g h i s p o s i t i o n . I n g e n e r a l , T a c i t u s d o e s n o t f e a r t o p r a i s e a n d t o c r i t i c i z e t h e s a m e p e r s o n , o f t e n n o t i n g w h a t h e t a k e s t o b e t h e i r m o r e a d m i r a b l e a n d l e s s a d m i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s . O n e o f T a c i t u s ' s h a l l m a r k s i s r e f r a i n i n g f r o m " c o n c l u s i v e l y " t a k i n g s i d e s f o r o r a g a i n s t p e r s o n s h e d e s c r i b e s , w h i c h h a s l e d s o m e t o i n t e r p r e t h i s w o r k s a s b o t h s u p p o r t i n g a n d r e j e c t i n g t h e i m p e r i a l s y s t e m ( s e e T a c i t e a n s t u d i e s , " B l a c k " v s . " R e d " T a c i t i s t s ) . H i s L a t i n s t y l e i s h i g h l y p r a i s e d . H i s s t y l e , a l t h o u g h i t h a s a g r a n d e u r a n d e l o q u e n c e ( t h a n k s t o T a c i t u s ' s e d u c a t i o n i n r h e t o r i c ) , i s e x t r e m e l y c o n c i s e , e v e n e p i g r a m m a t i c — t h e s e n t e n c e s a r e r a r e l y f l o w i n g o r b e a u t i f u l , b u t t h e i r p o i n t i s a l w a y s c l e a r . T h e s t y l e h a s b e e n b o t h d e r i d e d a s " h a r s h , u n p l e a s a n t , a n d t h o r n y " a n d p r a i s e d a s " g r a v e , c o n c i s e , a n d p i t h i l y e l o q u e n t " . A p a s s a g e o f " A n n a l s " 1 . 1 , w h e r e T a c i t u s l a m e n t s t h e s t a t e o f t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y r e g a r d i n g t h e l a s t f o u r e m p e r o r s o f t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n d y n a s t y , i l l u s t r a t e s h i s s t y l e : " T h e h i s t o r i e s o f T i b e r i u s , G a i u s , C l a u d i u s a n d N e r o , w h i l e t h e y w e r e i n p o w e r , w e r e f a l s i f i e d t h r o u g h t e r r o r a n d a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h w e r e w r i t t e n u n d e r t h e i r r i t a t i o n o f a r e c e n t h a t r e d " , o r i n a w o r d - f o r - w o r d t r a n s l a t i o n : C o m p a r e d t o t h e C i c e r o n i a n p e r i o d , w h e r e s e n t e n c e s w e r e u s u a l l y t h e l e n g t h o f a p a r a g r a p h a n d a r t f u l l y c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h n e s t e d p a i r s o f c a r e f u l l y m a t c h e d s o n o r o u s p h r a s e s , t h i s i s s h o r t a n d t o t h e p o i n t . B u t i t i s a l s o v e r y i n d i v i d u a l . N o t e t h e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f s a y i n g " a n d " i n t h e f i r s t l i n e ( " - q u e " , " e t " , " a c " ) , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e m a t c h e d s e c o n d a n d t h i r d l i n e s . T h e y a r e p a r a l l e l i n s e n s e b u t n o t i n s o u n d ; t h e p a i r s o f w o r d s e n d i n g " " - e n t i b u s " … " - i s " " a r e c r o s s e d o v e r i n a w a y t h a t d e l i b e r a t e l y b r e a k s t h e C i c e r o n i a n c o n v e n t i o n s — w h i c h o n e w o u l d , h o w e v e r , n e e d t o b e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t o s e e t h e n o v e l t y o f T a c i t u s ' s s t y l e . S o m e r e a d e r s , t h e n a n d n o w , f i n d t h i s t e a s i n g o f t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s m e r e l y i r r i t a t i n g . O t h e r s f i n d t h e d e l i b e r a t e d i s c o r d , p l a y i n g a g a i n s t t h e e v i d e n t p a r a l l e l i s m o f t h e t w o l i n e s , s t i m u l a t i n g a n d i n t r i g u i n g . H i s h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s f o c u s o n t h e m o t i v e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s , o f t e n w i t h p e n e t r a t i n g i n s i g h t — t h o u g h i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e h o w m u c h o f h i s i n s i g h t i s c o r r e c t , a n d h o w m u c h i s c o n v i n c i n g o n l y b e c a u s e o f h i s r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l . H e i s a t h i s b e s t w h e n e x p o s i n g h y p o c r i s y a n d d i s s i m u l a t i o n ; f o r e x a m p l e , h e f o l l o w s a n a r r a t i v e r e c o u n t i n g T i b e r i u s ' s r e f u s a l o f t h e t i t l e " p a t e r p a t r i a e " b y r e c a l l i n g t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f a l a w f o r b i d d i n g a n y " t r e a s o n o u s " s p e e c h o r w r i t i n g s — a n d t h e f r i v o l o u s p r o s e c u t i o n s w h i c h r e s u l t e d ( " A n n a l s " , 1 . 7 2 ) . E l s e w h e r e ( " A n n a l s " 4 . 6 4 – 6 6 ) h e c o m p a r e s T i b e r i u s ' s p u b l i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f i r e r e l i e f t o h i s f a i l u r e t o s t o p t h e p e r v e r s i o n s a n d a b u s e s o f j u s t i c e w h i c h h e h a d b e g u n . A l t h o u g h t h i s k i n d o f i n s i g h t h a s e a r n e d h i m p r a i s e , h e h a s a l s o b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r i g n o r i n g t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t . T a c i t u s o w e s m o s t , b o t h i n l a n g u a g e a n d i n m e t h o d , t o S a l l u s t , a n d A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s i s t h e l a t e r h i s t o r i a n w h o s e w o r k m o s t c l o s e l y a p p r o a c h e s h i m i n s t y l e . T a c i t u s m a k e s u s e o f t h e o f f i c i a l s o u r c e s o f t h e R o m a n s t a t e : t h e " a c t a s e n a t u s " ( t h e m i n u t e s o f t h e s e s s i o n s o f t h e S e n a t e ) a n d t h e " a c t a d i u r n a p o p u l i R o m a n i " ( a c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e a c t s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d n e w s o f t h e c o u r t a n d c a p i t a l ) . H e a l s o r e a d c o l l e c t i o n s o f e m p e r o r s ' s p e e c h e s , s u c h a s t h o s e o f T i b e r i u s a n d C l a u d i u s . H e i s g e n e r a l l y s e e n a s a s c r u p u l o u s h i s t o r i a n w h o p a i d c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n t o h i s s o u r c e s . T a c i t u s c i t e s s o m e o f h i s s o u r c e s d i r e c t l y , a m o n g t h e m C l u v i u s R u f u s , F a b i u s R u s t i c u s a n d P l i n y t h e E l d e r , w h o h a d w r i t t e n " B e l l a G e r m a n i a e " a n d a h i s t o r i c a l w o r k w h i c h w a s t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h a t o f A u f i d i u s B a s s u s . T a c i t u s a l s o u s e s c o l l e c t i o n s o f l e t t e r s ( " e p i s t o l a r i u m " ) . H e a l s o t o o k i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m " e x i t u s i l l u s t r i u m v i r o r u m " . T h e s e w e r e a c o l l e c t i o n o f b o o k s b y t h o s e w h o w e r e a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h e e m p e r o r s . T h e y t e l l o f s a c r i f i c e s b y m a r t y r s t o f r e e d o m , e s p e c i a l l y t h e m e n w h o c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e . W h i l e h e p l a c e s n o v a l u e o n t h e S t o i c t h e o r y o f s u i c i d e a n d v i e w s s u i c i d e s a s o s t e n t a t i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l l y u s e l e s s , T a c i t u s o f t e n g i v e s p r o m i n e n c e t o s p e e c h e s m a d e b y t h o s e a b o u t t o c o m m i t s u i c i d e , f o r e x a m p l e C r e m u t i u s C o r d u s ' s p e e c h i n " A n n . " I V , 3 4 – 3 5 .

Works ; History of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus

Tacitus was a Roman senator, historian, and philosopher who lived during the 1st century AD. He served as governor of Asia and wrote several influential works, including the Annals and Histories, which provide valuable insights into the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus to the death of Domitian. His writings are characterized by their neutrality, objectivity, and focus on the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors. He drew upon various sources, including speeches, letters, and historical accounts, to create a comprehensive and accurate record of Roman history.

In 112 to 113, he held the highest civilian governorship, that of the Roman province of Asia in western Anatolia, recorded in the inscription found at Mylasa mentioned above. A passage in the "Annals" fixes 116 as the "terminus post quem" of his death, which may have been as late as 125 or even 130. It seems that he survived both Pliny (died ) and Trajan (died 117). It remains unknown whether Tacitus had any children. The "Augustan History" reports that Emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus (r. 275–276) claimed him for an ancestor and provided for the preservation of his works, but this story may be fraudulent, like much of the "Augustan History". Five works ascribed to Tacitus have survived (albeit with gaps), the most substantial of which are the "Annals" and the "Histories". This canon (with approximate dates) consists of: The "Annals" and the "Histories", published separately, were meant to form a single edition of thirty books. Although Tacitus wrote the "Histories" before the "Annals", the events in the "Annals" precede the "Histories"; together they form a continuous narrative from the death of Augustus (14) to the death of Domitian (96). Though most has been lost, what remains is an invaluable record of the era. The first half of the "Annals" survived in a single manuscript from Corvey Abbey in Germany, and the second half in a single manuscript from Monte Cassino in Italy, and it is remarkable that they survived at all. In an early chapter of the "Agricola", Tacitus asserts that he wishes to speak about the years of Domitian, Nerva and Trajan. In the "Histories" the scope has changed; Tacitus says that he will deal with the age of Nerva and Trajan at a later time. Instead, he will cover the period from the civil wars of the Year of the Four Emperors and end with the despotism of the Flavians. Only the first four books and twenty-six chapters of the fifth book survive, covering the year 69 and the first part of 70. The work is believed to have continued up to the death of Domitian on September 18, 96. The fifth book contains—as a prelude to the account of Titus's suppression of the First Jewish–Roman War—a short ethnographic survey of the ancient Jews, (although entirely inaccurate) and it is an invaluable record of Roman attitudes towards them. The "Annals", Tacitus's final work, covers the period from the death of Augustus in AD 14. He wrote at least sixteen books, but books 7–10 and parts of books 5, 6, 11, and 16 are missing. Book 6 ends with the death of Tiberius, and books 7–12 presumably covered the reigns of Caligula and Claudius. The remaining books cover the reign of Nero, perhaps until his death in June 68 or until the end of that year to connect with the "Histories". The second half of book 16 is missing, ending with the events of 66. It is not known whether Tacitus completed the work; he died before he could complete his planned histories of Nerva and Trajan, and no record survives of the work on Augustus and the beginnings of the Roman Empire, with which he had planned to finish his work. The "Annals" is one of the earliest secular historical records to mention Christ, which Tacitus does in connection with Nero's persecution of the Christians. Tacitus wrote three works with a more limited scope: "Agricola", a biography of his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola; the "Germania", a monograph on the lands and tribes of barbarian Germania; and the "Dialogus", a dialogue on the art of rhetoric. The "Germania" (Latin title: "De Origine et situ Germanorum") is an ethnographic work on the Germanic tribes outside the Roman Empire. The "Germania" fits within a classical ethnographic tradition which includes authors such as Herodotus and Julius Caesar. The book begins psychology of power politics, blending straightforward descriptions of events, moral lessons, and tightly focused dramatic accounts. Tacitus's own declaration regarding his approach to history ("Annals" I,1) is well known: "inde consilium mihi ... tradere ... sine ira et studio, quorum causas procul habeo. " my purpose is ... to relate ... without either anger or zeal, motives from which I am far removed. There has been much scholarly discussion about Tacitus's "neutrality". Throughout his writing, he is preoccupied with the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors, and the increasing corruption of the governing classes of Rome as they adjusted to the ever-growing wealth and power of the empire. In Tacitus's view, senators squandered their cultural inheritance—that of free speech—to placate their (rarely benign) emperor. Tacitus noted the increasing dependence of the emperor on the goodwill of his armies. The Julio-Claudians eventually gave way to generals, who followed Julius Caesar (and Sulla and Pompey) in recognizing that military might could secure them the political power in Rome. ("Hist." 1.4) Welcome as the death of Nero had been in the first burst of joy, yet it had not only roused various emotions in Rome, among the Senators, the people, or the soldiery of the capital, it had also excited all the legions and their generals; for now had been divulged that secret of the empire, that emperors could be made elsewhere than at Rome. Tacitus's political career was largely lived out under the emperor Domitian. His experience of the tyranny, corruption, and decadence of that news of the court and capital). He also read collections of emperors' speeches, such as those of Tiberius and Claudius. He is generally seen as a scrupulous historian who paid careful attention to his sources. Tacitus cites some of his sources directly, among them Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Pliny the Elder, who had written "Bella Germaniae" and a historical work which was the continuation of that of Aufidius Bassus. Tacitus also uses collections of letters ("epistolarium"). He also took information from "exitus illustrium virorum". These were a collection of books by those who were antithetical to the emperors. They tell of sacrifices by martyrs to freedom, especially the men who committed suicide. While he places no value on the Stoic theory of suicide and views suicides as

Tacitus

D e t a i l s a b o u t t h e p e r s o n a l l i f e o f T a c i t u s a r e s c a r c e . W h a t l i t t l e i s k n o w n c o m e s f r o m s c a t t e r e d h i n t s t h r o u g h o u t h i s w o r k , t h e l e t t e r s o f h i s f r i e n d a n d a d m i r e r P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r , a n d a n i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M y l a s a i n C a r i a . T a c i t u s w a s b o r n i n 5 6 o r 5 7 t o a n e q u e s t r i a n f a m i l y . T h e p l a c e a n d d a t e o f h i s b i r t h , a s w e l l a s h i s p r a e n o m e n ( f i r s t n a m e ) a r e n o t k n o w n . I n t h e l e t t e r s o f S i d o n i u s A p o l l i n a r i s h i s n a m e i s " G a i u s " , b u t i n t h e m a j o r s u r v i v i n g m a n u s c r i p t o f h i s w o r k h i s n a m e i s g i v e n a s " P u b l i u s " . O n e s c h o l a r ' s s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e n a m e " S e x t u s " h a s b e e n l a r g e l y r e j e c t e d . M o s t o f t h e o l d e r a r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l i e s f a i l e d t o s u r v i v e t h e p r o s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h t o o k p l a c e a t t h e e n d o f t h e R e p u b l i c , a n d T a c i t u s m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t h e o w e d h i s r a n k t o t h e F l a v i a n e m p e r o r s ( " H i s t . " 1 . 1 ) . T h e c l a i m t h a t h e w a s d e s c e n d e d f r o m a f r e e d m a n i s d e r i v e d f r o m a s p e e c h i n h i s w r i t i n g s w h i c h a s s e r t s t h a t m a n y s e n a t o r s a n d k n i g h t s w e r e d e s c e n d e d f r o m f r e e d m e n ( " A n n . " 1 3 . 2 7 ) , b u t t h i s i s g e n e r a l l y d i s p u t e d . H i s f a t h e r m a y h a v e b e e n t h e C o r n e l i u s T a c i t u s w h o s e r v e d a s p r o c u r a t o r o f B e l g i c a a n d G e r m a n i a ; P l i n y t h e E l d e r m e n t i o n s t h a t C o r n e l i u s h a d a s o n w h o a g e d r a p i d l y ( N H 7 . 7 6 ) , w h i c h i m p l i e s a n e a r l y d e a t h . T h e r e i s n o m e n t i o n o f T a c i t u s ' s s u f f e r i n g s u c h a c o n d i t i o n , b u t i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s r e f e r s t o a b r o t h e r — i f C o r n e l i u s w a s i n d e e d h i s f a t h e r . T h e f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n t h e y o u n g e r P l i n y a n d T a c i t u s l e a d s s o m e s c h o l a r s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e y w e r e b o t h t h e o f f s p r i n g o f w e a l t h y p r o v i n c i a l f a m i l i e s . T h e p r o v i n c e o f h i s b i r t h r e m a i n s u n k n o w n , t h o u g h v a r i o u s c o n j e c t u r e s s u g g e s t G a l l i a B e l g i c a , G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s , o r N o r t h e r n I t a l y . H i s m a r r i a g e t o t h e d a u g h t e r o f N a r b o n e n s i a n s e n a t o r G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a i m p l i e s t h a t h e c a m e f r o m G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s . T a c i t u s ' s d e d i c a t i o n t o L u c i u s F a b i u s J u s t u s i n t h e " D i a l o g u s " m a y i n d i c a t e a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h S p a i n , a n d h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h P l i n y s u g g e s t s o r i g i n s i n n o r t h e r n I t a l y . N o e v i d e n c e e x i s t s , h o w e v e r , t h a t P l i n y ' s f r i e n d s f r o m n o r t h e r n I t a l y k n e w T a c i t u s , n o r d o P l i n y ' s l e t t e r s h i n t t h a t t h e t w o m e n h a d a c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d . P l i n y B o o k 9 , L e t t e r 2 3 , r e p o r t s t h a t w h e n a s k e d w h e t h e r h e w a s I t a l i a n o r p r o v i n c i a l , h e g a v e a n u n c l e a r a n s w e r a n d s o w a s a s k e d w h e t h e r h e w a s T a c i t u s o r P l i n y . S i n c e P l i n y w a s f r o m I t a l y , s o m e i n f e r t h a t T a c i t u s w a s f r o m t h e p r o v i n c e s , p r o b a b l y G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s . H i s a n c e s t r y , h i s s k i l l i n o r a t o r y , a n d h i s s y m p a t h e t i c d e p i c t i o n o f b a r b a r i a n s w h o r e s i s t e d R o m a n r u l e ( e . g . , " A n n . " 2 . 9 ) h a v e l e d s o m e t o s u g g e s t t h a t h e w a s a C e l t . T h i s b e l i e f s t e m s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C e l t s w h o h a d o c c u p i e d G a u l p r i o r t o t h e R o m a n i n v a s i o n w e r e f a m o u s f o r t h e i r s k i l l i n o r a t o r y a n d h a d b e e n s u b j u g a t e d b y R o m e . A s a y o u n g m a n , T a c i t u s s t u d i e d r h e t o r i c i n R o m e t o p r e p a r e f o r a c a r e e r i n l a w a n d p o l i t i c s ; l i k e P l i n y , h e m a y h a v e s t u d i e d u n d e r Q u i n t i l i a n ( – ) . I n 7 7 o r 7 8 , h e m a r r i e d J u l i a A g r i c o l a , d a u g h t e r o f t h e f a m o u s g e n e r a l A g r i c o l a . L i t t l e i s k n o w n o f t h e i r d o m e s t i c l i f e , s a v e t h a t T a c i t u s l o v e d h u n t i n g a n d t h e o u t d o o r s . H e s t a r t e d h i s c a r e e r ( p r o b a b l y t h e " l a t u s c l a v u s " , m a r k o f t h e s e n a t o r ) u n d e r V e s p a s i a n ( r . 6 9 – 7 9 ) , b u t e n t e r e d p o l i t i c a l l i f e a s a q u a e s t o r i n 8 1 o r 8 2 u n d e r T i t u s . H e a d v a n c e d s t e a d i l y t h r o u g h t h e " c u r s u s h o n o r u m " , b e c o m i n g p r a e t o r i n 8 8 a n d a q u i n d e c i m v i r , a m e m b e r o f t h e p r i e s t l y c o l l e g e i n c h a r g e o f t h e " S i b y l l i n e B o o k s " a n d t h e S e c u l a r G a m e s . H e g a i n e d a c c l a i m a s a l a w y e r a n d a s a n o r a t o r ; h i s s k i l l i n p u b l i c s p e a k i n g i r o n i c a l l y c o u n t e r p o i n t s h i s c o g n o m e n , " T a c i t u s " ( " s i l e n t " ) . H e s e r v e d i n t h e p r o v i n c e s f r o m t o , e i t h e r i n c o m m a n d o f a l e g i o n o r i n a c i v i l i a n p o s t . H e a n d h i s p r o p e r t y s u r v i v e d D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n o f t e r r o r ( 8 1 – 9 6 ) , b u t t h e e x p e r i e n c e l e f t h i m j a d e d a n d p e r h a p s a s h a m e d a t h i s o w n c o m p l i c i t y , i n s t a l l i n g i n h i m t h e h a t r e d o f t y r a n n y e v i d e n t i n h i s w o r k s . T h e " A g r i c o l a " , c h s . 4 4 – 4 5 , i s i l l u s t r a t i v e : A g r i c o l a w a s s p a r e d t h o s e l a t e r y e a r s d u r i n g w h i c h D o m i t i a n , l e a v i n g n o w n o i n t e r v a l o r b r e a t h i n g s p a c e o f t i m e , b u t , a s i t w e r e , w i t h o n e c o n t i n u o u s b l o w , d r a i n e d t h e l i f e - b l o o d o f t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h . . . I t w a s n o t l o n g b e f o r e o u r h a n d s d r a g g e d H e l v i d i u s t o p r i s o n , b e f o r e w e g a z e d o n t h e d y i n g l o o k s o f M a u r i c u s a n d R u s t i c u s , b e f o r e w e w e r e s t e e p e d i n S e n e c i o ' s i n n o c e n t b l o o d . E v e n N e r o t u r n e d h i s e y e s a w a y , a n d d i d n o t g a z e u p o n t h e a t r o c i t i e s w h i c h h e o r d e r e d ; w i t h D o m i t i a n i t w a s t h e c h i e f p a r t o f o u r m i s e r i e s t o s e e a n d t o b e s e e n , t o k n o w t h a t o u r s i g h s w e r e b e i n g r e c o r d e d . . . F r o m h i s s e a t i n t h e S e n a t e , h e b e c a m e s u f f e c t c o n s u l i n 9 7 d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f N e r v a , b e i n g t h e f i r s t o f h i s f a m i l y t o d o s o . D u r i n g h i s t e n u r e , h e r e a c h e d t h e h e i g h t o f h i s f a m e a s a n o r a t o r w h e n h e d e l i v e r e d t h e f u n e r a l o r a t i o n f o r t h e f a m o u s v e t e r a n s o l d i e r L u c i u s V e r g i n i u s R u f u s . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , h e w r o t e a n d p u b l i s h e d t h e " A g r i c o l a " a n d " G e r m a n i a " , f o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e l i t e r a r y e n d e a v o r s t h a t w o u l d o c c u p y h i m u n t i l h i s d e a t h . A f t e r w a r d , h e a b s e n t e d h i m s e l f f r o m p u b l i c l i f e , b u t r e t u r n e d d u r i n g T r a j a n ' s r e i g n ( 9 8 – 1 1 7 ) . I n 1 0 0 , h e a n d h i s f r i e n d P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r p r o s e c u t e d ( p r o c o n s u l o f A f r i c a ) f o r c o r r u p t i o n . P r i s c u s w a s f o u n d g u i l t y a n d s e n t i n t o e x i l e ; P l i n y w r o t e a f e w d a y s l a t e r t h a t T a c i t u s h a d s p o k e n " w i t h a l l t h e m a j e s t y w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s h i s u s u a l s t y l e o f o r a t o r y " . A l e n g t h y a b s e n c e f r o m p o l i t i c s a n d l a w f o l l o w e d w h i l e h e w r o t e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " a n d t h e " A n n a l s " . I n 1 1 2 t o 1 1 3 , h e h e l d t h e h i g h e s t c i v i l i a n g o v e r n o r s h i p , t h a t o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f A s i a i n w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a , r e c o r d e d i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M y l a s a m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . A p a s s a g e i n t h e " A n n a l s " f i x e s 1 1 6 a s t h e " t e r m i n u s p o s t q u e m " o f h i s d e a t h , w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n a s l a t e a s 1 2 5 o r e v e n 1 3 0 . I t s e e m s t h a t h e s u r v i v e d b o t h P l i n y ( d i e d ) a n d T r a j a n ( d i e d 1 1 7 ) . I t r e m a i n s u n k n o w n w h e t h e r T a c i t u s h a d a n y c h i l d r e n . T h e " A u g u s t a n H i s t o r y " r e p o r t s t h a t E m p e r o r M a r c u s C l a u d i u s T a c i t u s ( r . 2 7 5 – 2 7 6 ) c l a i m e d h i m f o r a n a n c e s t o r a n d p r o v i d e d f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f h i s w o r k s , b u t t h i s s t o r y m a y b e f r a u d u l e n t , l i k e m u c h o f t h e " A u g u s t a n H i s t o r y " . F i v e w o r k s a s c r i b e d t o T a c i t u s h a v e s u r v i v e d ( a l b e i t w i t h g a p s ) , t h e m o s t s u b s t a n t i a l o f w h i c h a r e t h e " A n n a l s " a n d t h e " H i s t o r i e s " . T h i s c a n o n ( w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e d a t e s ) c o n s i s t s o f : T h e " A n n a l s " a n d t h e " H i s t o r i e s " , p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y , w e r e m e a n t t o f o r m a s i n g l e e d i t i o n o f t h i r t y b o o k s . A l t h o u g h T a c i t u s w r o t e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " b e f o r e t h e " A n n a l s " , t h e e v e n t s i n t h e " A n n a l s " p r e c e d e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " ; t o g e t h e r t h e y f o r m a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e f r o m t h e d e a t h o f A u g u s t u s ( 1 4 ) t o t h e d e a t h o f D o m i t i a n ( 9 6 ) . T h o u g h m o s t h a s b e e n l o s t , w h a t r e m a i n s i s a n i n v a l u a b l e r e c o r d o f t h e e r a . T h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e " A n n a l s " s u r v i v e d i n a s i n g l e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m C o r v e y A b b e y i n G e r m a n y , a n d t h e s e c o n d h a l f i n a s i n g l e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m M o n t e C a s s i n o i n I t a l y , a n d i t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e y s u r v i v e d a t a l l . I n a n e a r l y c h a p t e r o f t h e " A g r i c o l a " , T a c i t u s a s s e r t s t h a t h e w i s h e s t o s p e a k a b o u t t h e y e a r s o f D o m i t i a n , N e r v a a n d T r a j a n . I n t h e " H i s t o r i e s " t h e s c o p e h a s c h a n g e d ; T a c i t u s s a y s t h a t h e w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e a g e o f N e r v a a n d T r a j a n a t a l a t e r t i m e . I n s t e a d , h e w i l l c o v e r t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e c i v i l w a r s o f t h e Y e a r o f t h e F o u r E m p e r o r s a n d e n d w i t h t h e d e s p o t i s m o f t h e F l a v i a n s . O n l y t h e f i r s t f o u r b o o k s a n d t w e n t y - s i x c h a p t e r s o f t h e f i f t h b o o k s u r v i v e , c o v e r i n g t h e y e a r 6 9 a n d t h e f i r s t p a r t o f 7 0 . T h e w o r k i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e c o n t i n u e d u p t o t h e d e a t h o f D o m i t i a n o n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 , 9 6 . T h e f i f t h b o o k c o n t a i n s — a s a p r e l u d e t o t h e a c c o u n t o f T i t u s ' s s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e F i r s t J e w i s h – R o m a n W a r — a s h o r t e t h n o g r a p h i c s u r v e y o f t h e a n c i e n t J e w s , ( a l t h o u g h e n t i r e l y i n a c c u r a t e ) a n d i t i s a n i n v a l u a b l e r e c o r d o f R o m a n a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e m . T h e " A n n a l s " , T a c i t u s ' s f i n a l w o r k , c o v e r s t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e d e a t h o f A u g u s t u s i n A D   1 4 . H e w r o t e a t l e a s t s i x t e e n b o o k s , b u t b o o k s   7 – 1 0 a n d p a r t s o f b o o k s   5 , 6 , 1 1 , a n d 1 6 a r e m i s s i n g . B o o k   6 e n d s w i t h t h e d e a t h o f T i b e r i u s , a n d b o o k s 7 – 1 2 p r e s u m a b l y c o v e r e d t h e r e i g n s o f C a l i g u l a a n d C l a u d i u s . T h e r e m a i n i n g b o o k s c o v e r t h e r e i g n o f N e r o , p e r h a p s u n t i l h i s d e a t h i n J u n e 6 8 o r u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h a t y e a r t o c o n n e c t w i t h t h e " H i s t o r i e s " . T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f b o o k   1 6 i s m i s s i n g , e n d i n g w i t h t h e e v e n t s o f 6 6 . I t i s n o t k n o w n w h e t h e r T a c i t u s c o m p l e t e d t h e w o r k ; h e d i e d b e f o r e h e c o u l d c o m p l e t e h i s p l a n n e d h i s t o r i e s o f N e r v a a n d T r a j a n , a n d n o r e c o r d s u r v i v e s o f t h e w o r k o n A u g u s t u s a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , w i t h w h i c h h e h a d p l a n n e d t o f i n i s h h i s w o r k . T h e " A n n a l s " i s o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t s e c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s t o m e n t i o n C h r i s t , w h i c h T a c i t u s d o e s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h N e r o ' s p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s . T a c i t u s w r o t e t h r e e w o r k s w i t h a m o r e l i m i t e d s c o p e : " A g r i c o l a " , a b i o g r a p h y o f h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w , G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a ; t h e " G e r m a n i a " , a m o n o g r a p h o n t h e l a n d s a n d t r i b e s o f b a r b a r i a n G e r m a n i a ; a n d t h e " D i a l o g u s " , a d i a l o g u e o n t h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c . T h e " G e r m a n i a " ( L a t i n t i t l e : " D e O r i g i n e e t s i t u G e r m a n o r u m " ) i s a n e t h n o g r a p h i c w o r k o n t h e G e r m a n i c t r i b e s o u t s i d e t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . T h e " G e r m a n i a " f i t s w i t h i n a c l a s s i c a l e t h n o g r a p h i c t r a d i t i o n w h i c h i n c l u d e s a u t h o r s s u c h a s H e r o d o t u s a n d J u l i u s C a e s a r . T h e b o o k b e g i n s ( c h a p t e r s 1 – 2 7 ) w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l a n d s , l a w s , a n d c u s t o m s o f t h e v a r i o u s t r i b e s . L a t e r c h a p t e r s f o c u s o n d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p a r t i c u l a r t r i b e s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h o s e w h o l i v e d c l o s e s t t o t h e R o m a n e m p i r e , a n d e n d i n g w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h o s e w h o l i v e d o n t h e s h o r e s o f t h e B a l t i c S e a , s u c h a s t h e F e n n i . T a c i t u s h a d w r i t t e n a s i m i l a r , a l b e i t s h o r t e r , p i e c e i n h i s " A g r i c o l a " ( c h a p t e r s 1 0 – 1 3 ) . T h e " A g r i c o l a " ( w r i t t e n ) r e c o u n t s t h e l i f e o f G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a , a n e m i n e n t R o m a n g e n e r a l a n d T a c i t u s ' s f a t h e r - i n - l a w ; i t a l s o c o v e r s , b r i e f l y , t h e g e o g r a p h y a n d e t h n o g r a p h y o f a n c i e n t B r i t a i n . A s i n t h e " G e r m a n i a " , T a c i t u s f a v o r a b l y c o n t r a s t s t h e l i b e r t y o f t h e n a t i v e B r i t o n s w i t h t h e t y r a n n y a n d c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e E m p i r e ; t h e b o o k a l s o c o n t a i n s e l o q u e n t p o l e m i c s a g a i n s t t h e g r e e d o f R o m e , o n e o f w h i c h , t h a t T a c i t u s c l a i m s i s f r o m a s p e e c h b y C a l g a c u s , e n d s b y a s s e r t i n g , " A u f e r r e t r u c i d a r e r a p e r e f a l s i s n o m i n i b u s i m p e r i u m , a t q u e u b i s o l i t u d i n e m f a c i u n t , p a c e m a p p e l l a n t . " ( " T o r a v a g e , t o s l a u g h t e r , t o u s u r p u n d e r f a l s e t i t l e s , t h e y c a l l e m p i r e ; a n d w h e r e t h e y m a k e a d e s e r t , t h e y c a l l i t p e a c e . " — O x f o r d R e v i s e d T r a n s l a t i o n ) . T h e r e i s u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t w h e n T a c i t u s w r o t e " D i a l o g u s d e o r a t o r i b u s " . M a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s e t i t a p a r t f r o m t h e o t h e r w o r k s o f T a c i t u s , s o t h a t i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y h a s a t v a r i o u s t i m e s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d . I t i s l i k e l y t o b e e a r l y w o r k , i n d e b t e d t o t h e a u t h o r ' s r h e t o r i c a l t r a i n i n g , s i n c e i t s s t y l e i m i t a t e s t h a t o f t h e f o r e m o s t R o m a n o r a t o r C i c e r o . I t l a c k s ( f o r e x a m p l e ) t h e i n c o n g r u i t i e s t h a t a r e t y p i c a l o f h i s m a t u r e h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s . T h e " D i a l o g u s " i s d e d i c a t e d t o F a b i u s I u s t u s , a c o n s u l i n 1 0 2 A D . T a c i t u s ' s w r i t i n g s a r e k n o w n f o r t h e i r d e n s e p r o s e t h a t s e l d o m g l o s s e s t h e f a c t s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t y l e o f s o m e o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , s u c h a s P l u t a r c h . W h e n h e w r i t e s a b o u t a n e a r d e f e a t o f t h e R o m a n a r m y i n " A n n a l s " I , 6 3 , h e d o e s s o w i t h b r e v i t y o f d e s c r i p t i o n r a t h e r t h a n e m b e l l i s h m e n t . I n m o s t o f h i s w r i t i n g s , h e k e e p s t o a c h r o n o l o g i c a l n a r r a t i v e o r d e r , o n l y s e l d o m o u t l i n i n g t h e b i g g e r p i c t u r e , l e a v i n g t h e r e a d e r s t o c o n s t r u c t t h a t p i c t u r e f o r t h e m s e l v e s . N o n e t h e l e s s , w h e r e h e d o e s u s e b r o a d s t r o k e s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h s o f t h e " A n n a l s " , h e u s e s a f e w c o n d e n s e d p h r a s e s w h i c h t a k e t h e r e a d e r t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e s t o r y . T a c i t u s ' s h i s t o r i c a l s t y l e o w e s s o m e d e b t t o S a l l u s t . H i s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f f e r s p e n e t r a t i n g — o f t e n p e s s i m i s t i c — i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f p o w e r p o l i t i c s , b l e n d i n g s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f e v e n t s , m o r a l l e s s o n s , a n d t i g h t l y f o c u s e d d r a m a t i c a c c o u n t s . T a c i t u s ' s o w n d e c l a r a t i o n r e g a r d i n g h i s a p p r o a c h t o h i s t o r y ( " A n n a l s " I , 1 ) i s w e l l k n o w n : " i n d e c o n s i l i u m m i h i . . . t r a d e r e . . . s i n e i r a e t s t u d i o , q u o r u m c a u s a s p r o c u l h a b e o . " m y p u r p o s e i s . . . t o r e l a t e . . . w i t h o u t e i t h e r a n g e r o r z e a l , m o t i v e s f r o m w h i c h I a m f a r r e m o v e d . T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h s c h o l a r l y d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t T a c i t u s ' s " n e u t r a l i t y " . T h r o u g h o u t h i s w r i t i n g , h e i s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r b e t w e e n t h e S e n a t e a n d t h e e m p e r o r s , a n d t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n i n g c l a s s e s o f R o m e a s t h e y a d j u s t e d t o t h e e v e r - g r o w i n g w e a l t h a n d p o w e r o f t h e e m p i r e . I n T a c i t u s ' s v i e w , s e n a t o r s s q u a n d e r e d t h e i r c u l t u r a l i n h e r i t a n c e — t h a t o f f r e e s p e e c h — t o p l a c a t e t h e i r ( r a r e l y b e n i g n ) e m p e r o r . T a c i t u s n o t e d t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e e m p e r o r o n t h e g o o d w i l l o f h i s a r m i e s . T h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n s e v e n t u a l l y g a v e w a y t o g e n e r a l s , w h o f o l l o w e d J u l i u s C a e s a r ( a n d S u l l a a n d P o m p e y ) i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t m i l i t a r y m i g h t c o u l d s e c u r e t h e m t h e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r i n R o m e . ( " H i s t . " 1 . 4 ) W e l c o m e a s t h e d e a t h o f N e r o h a d b e e n i n t h e f i r s t b u r s t o f j o y , y e t i t h a d n o t o n l y r o u s e d v a r i o u s e m o t i o n s i n R o m e , a m o n g t h e S e n a t o r s , t h e p e o p l e , o r t h e s o l d i e r y o f t h e c a p i t a l , i t h a d a l s o e x c i t e d a l l t h e l e g i o n s a n d t h e i r g e n e r a l s ; f o r n o w h a d b e e n d i v u l g e d t h a t s e c r e t o f t h e e m p i r e , t h a t e m p e r o r s c o u l d b e m a d e e l s e w h e r e t h a n a t R o m e . T a c i t u s ' s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r w a s l a r g e l y l i v e d o u t u n d e r t h e e m p e r o r D o m i t i a n . H i s e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e t y r a n n y , c o r r u p t i o n , a n d d e c a d e n c e o f t h a t e r a ( 8 1 – 9 6 ) m a y e x p l a i n t h e b i t t e r n e s s a n d i r o n y o f h i s p o l i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . H e d r a w s o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d a n g e r s o f p o w e r w i t h o u t a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , l o v e o f p o w e r u n t e m p e r e d b y p r i n c i p l e , a n d t h e a p a t h y a n d c o r r u p t i o n e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f w e a l t h g e n e r a t e d t h r o u g h t r a d e a n d c o n q u e s t b y t h e e m p i r e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e i m a g e h e b u i l d s o f T i b e r i u s t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i r s t s i x b o o k s o f t h e " A n n a l s " i s n e i t h e r e x c l u s i v e l y b l e a k n o r a p p r o v i n g : m o s t s c h o l a r s v i e w t h e i m a g e o f T i b e r i u s a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y " p o s i t i v e " i n t h e f i r s t b o o k s , a n d p r e d o m i n a n t l y " n e g a t i v e " a f t e r t h e i n t r i g u e s o f S e j a n u s . T h e e n t r a n c e o f T i b e r i u s i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r s o f t h e f i r s t b o o k i s d o m i n a t e d b y t h e h y p o c r i s y o f t h e n e w e m p e r o r a n d h i s c o u r t i e r s . I n t h e l a t e r b o o k s , s o m e r e s p e c t i s e v i d e n t f o r t h e c l e v e r n e s s o f t h e o l d e m p e r o r i n s e c u r i n g h i s p o s i t i o n . I n g e n e r a l , T a c i t u s d o e s n o t f e a r t o p r a i s e a n d t o c r i t i c i z e t h e s a m e p e r s o n , o f t e n n o t i n g w h a t h e t a k e s t o b e t h e i r m o r e a d m i r a b l e a n d l e s s a d m i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s . O n e o f T a c i t u s ' s h a l l m a r k s i s r e f r a i n i n g f r o m " c o n c l u s i v e l y " t a k i n g s i d e s f o r o r a g a i n s t p e r s o n s h e d e s c r i b e s , w h i c h h a s l e d s o m e t o i n t e r p r e t h i s w o r k s a s b o t h s u p p o r t i n g a n d r e j e c t i n g t h e i m p e r i a l s y s t e m ( s e e T a c i t e a n s t u d i e s , " B l a c k " v s . " R e d " T a c i t i s t s ) . H i s L a t i n s t y l e i s h i g h l y p r a i s e d . H i s s t y l e , a l t h o u g h i t h a s a g r a n d e u r a n d e l o q u e n c e ( t h a n k s t o T a c i t u s ' s e d u c a t i o n i n r h e t o r i c ) , i s e x t r e m e l y c o n c i s e , e v e n e p i g r a m m a t i c — t h e s e n t e n c e s a r e r a r e l y f l o w i n g o r b e a u t i f u l , b u t t h e i r p o i n t i s a l w a y s c l e a r . T h e s t y l e h a s b e e n b o t h d e r i d e d a s " h a r s h , u n p l e a s a n t , a n d t h o r n y " a n d p r a i s e d a s " g r a v e , c o n c i s e , a n d p i t h i l y e l o q u e n t " . A p a s s a g e o f " A n n a l s " 1 . 1 , w h e r e T a c i t u s l a m e n t s t h e s t a t e o f t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y r e g a r d i n g t h e l a s t f o u r e m p e r o r s o f t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n d y n a s t y , i l l u s t r a t e s h i s s t y l e : " T h e h i s t o r i e s o f T i b e r i u s , G a i u s , C l a u d i u s a n d N e r o , w h i l e t h e y w e r e i n p o w e r , w e r e f a l s i f i e d t h r o u g h t e r r o r a n d a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h w e r e w r i t t e n u n d e r t h e i r r i t a t i o n o f a r e c e n t h a t r e d " , o r i n a w o r d - f o r - w o r d t r a n s l a t i o n : C o m p a r e d t o t h e C i c e r o n i a n p e r i o d , w h e r e s e n t e n c e s w e r e u s u a l l y t h e l e n g t h o f a p a r a g r a p h a n d a r t f u l l y c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h n e s t e d p a i r s o f c a r e f u l l y m a t c h e d s o n o r o u s p h r a s e s , t h i s i s s h o r t a n d t o t h e p o i n t . B u t i t i s a l s o v e r y i n d i v i d u a l . N o t e t h e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f s a y i n g " a n d " i n t h e f i r s t l i n e ( " - q u e " , " e t " , " a c " ) , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e m a t c h e d s e c o n d a n d t h i r d l i n e s . T h e y a r e p a r a l l e l i n s e n s e b u t n o t i n s o u n d ; t h e p a i r s o f w o r d s e n d i n g " " - e n t i b u s " … " - i s " " a r e c r o s s e d o v e r i n a w a y t h a t d e l i b e r a t e l y b r e a k s t h e C i c e r o n i a n c o n v e n t i o n s — w h i c h o n e w o u l d , h o w e v e r , n e e d t o b e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t o s e e t h e n o v e l t y o f T a c i t u s ' s s t y l e . S o m e r e a d e r s , t h e n a n d n o w , f i n d t h i s t e a s i n g o f t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s m e r e l y i r r i t a t i n g . O t h e r s f i n d t h e d e l i b e r a t e d i s c o r d , p l a y i n g a g a i n s t t h e e v i d e n t p a r a l l e l i s m o f t h e t w o l i n e s , s t i m u l a t i n g a n d i n t r i g u i n g . H i s h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s f o c u s o n t h e m o t i v e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s , o f t e n w i t h p e n e t r a t i n g i n s i g h t — t h o u g h i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e h o w m u c h o f h i s i n s i g h t i s c o r r e c t , a n d h o w m u c h i s c o n v i n c i n g o n l y b e c a u s e o f h i s r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l . H e i s a t h i s b e s t w h e n e x p o s i n g h y p o c r i s y a n d d i s s i m u l a t i o n ; f o r e x a m p l e , h e f o l l o w s a n a r r a t i v e r e c o u n t i n g T i b e r i u s ' s r e f u s a l o f t h e t i t l e " p a t e r p a t r i a e " b y r e c a l l i n g t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f a l a w f o r b i d d i n g a n y " t r e a s o n o u s " s p e e c h o r w r i t i n g s — a n d t h e f r i v o l o u s p r o s e c u t i o n s w h i c h r e s u l t e d ( " A n n a l s " , 1 . 7 2 ) . E l s e w h e r e ( " A n n a l s " 4 . 6 4 – 6 6 ) h e c o m p a r e s T i b e r i u s ' s p u b l i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f i r e r e l i e f t o h i s f a i l u r e t o s t o p t h e p e r v e r s i o n s a n d a b u s e s o f j u s t i c e w h i c h h e h a d b e g u n . A l t h o u g h t h i s k i n d o f i n s i g h t h a s e a r n e d h i m p r a i s e , h e h a s a l s o b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r i g n o r i n g t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t . T a c i t u s o w e s m o s t , b o t h i n l a n g u a g e a n d i n m e t h o d , t o S a l l u s t , a n d A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s i s t h e l a t e r h i s t o r i a n w h o s e w o r k m o s t c l o s e l y a p p r o a c h e s h i m i n s t y l e . T a c i t u s m a k e s u s e o f t h e o f f i c i a l s o u r c e s o f t h e R o m a n s t a t e : t h e " a c t a s e n a t u s " ( t h e m i n u t e s o f t h e s e s s i o n s o f t h e S e n a t e ) a n d t h e " a c t a d i u r n a p o p u l i R o m a n i " ( a c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e a c t s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d n e w s o f t h e c o u r t a n d c a p i t a l ) . H e a l s o r e a d c o l l e c t i o n s o f e m p e r o r s ' s p e e c h e s , s u c h a s t h o s e o f T i b e r i u s a n d C l a u d i u s . H e i s g e n e r a l l y s e e n a s a s c r u p u l o u s h i s t o r i a n w h o p a i d c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n t o h i s s o u r c e s . T a c i t u s c i t e s s o m e o f h i s s o u r c e s d i r e c t l y , a m o n g t h e m C l u v i u s R u f u s , F a b i u s R u s t i c u s a n d P l i n y t h e E l d e r , w h o h a d w r i t t e n " B e l l a G e r m a n i a e " a n d a h i s t o r i c a l w o r k w h i c h w a s t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h a t o f A u f i d i u s B a s s u s . T a c i t u s a l s o u s e s c o l l e c t i o n s o f l e t t e r s ( " e p i s t o l a r i u m " ) . H e a l s o t o o k i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m " e x i t u s i l l u s t r i u m v i r o r u m " . T h e s e w e r e a c o l l e c t i o n o f b o o k s b y t h o s e w h o w e r e a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h e e m p e r o r s . T h e y t e l l o f s a c r i f i c e s b y m a r t y r s t o f r e e d o m , e s p e c i a l l y t h e m e n w h o c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e . W h i l e h e p l a c e s n o v a l u e o n t h e S t o i c t h e o r y o f s u i c i d e a n d v i e w s s u i c i d e s a s o s t e n t a t i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l l y u s e l e s s , T a c i t u s o f t e n g i v e s p r o m i n e n c e t o s p e e c h e s m a d e b y t h o s e a b o u t t o c o m m i t s u i c i d e , f o r e x a m p l e C r e m u t i u s C o r d u s ' s p e e c h i n " A n n . " I V , 3 4 – 3 5 .

Works ; History of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus ; The "Annals"

Tacitus was a Roman historian and politician who lived during the 1st century AD. He served as a governor and senator, and his writings provide valuable insights into the Roman Empire during its peak. His surviving works include the "Annals" and "Histories", which cover the period from the death of Augustus to the death of Domitian. Tacitus's writing style is characterized by his objective and neutral tone, and his focus on the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors. He critiques the corruption and decadence of the Roman elite and highlights the dangers of unchecked power.

In 112 to 113, he held the highest civilian governorship, that of the Roman province of Asia in western Anatolia, recorded in the inscription found at Mylasa mentioned above. A passage in the "Annals" fixes 116 as the "terminus post quem" of his death, which may have been as late as 125 or even 130. It seems that he survived both Pliny (died ) and Trajan (died 117). It remains unknown whether Tacitus had any children. The "Augustan History" reports that Emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus (r. 275–276) claimed him for an ancestor and provided for the preservation of his works, but this story may be fraudulent, like much of the "Augustan History". Five works ascribed to Tacitus have survived (albeit with gaps), the most substantial of which are the "Annals" and the "Histories". This canon (with approximate dates) consists of: The "Annals" and the "Histories", published separately, were meant to form a single edition of thirty books. Although Tacitus wrote the "Histories" before the "Annals", the events in the "Annals" precede the "Histories"; together they form a continuous narrative from the death of Augustus (14) to the death of Domitian (96). Though most has been lost, what remains is an invaluable record of the era. The first half of the "Annals" survived in a single manuscript from Corvey Abbey in Germany, and the second half in a single manuscript from Monte Cassino in Italy, and it is remarkable that they survived at all. In an early chapter of the "Agricola", Tacitus asserts that he wishes to speak about the years of Domitian, Nerva and Trajan. In the "Histories" the scope has changed; Tacitus says that he will deal with the age of Nerva and Trajan at a later time. Instead, he will cover the period from the civil wars of the Year of the Four Emperors and end with the despotism of the Flavians. Only the first four books and twenty-six chapters of the fifth book survive, covering the year 69 and the first part of 70. The work is believed to have continued up to the death of Domitian on September 18, 96. The fifth book contains—as a prelude to the account of Titus's suppression of the First Jewish–Roman War—a short ethnographic survey of the ancient Jews, (although entirely inaccurate) and it is an invaluable record of Roman attitudes towards them. The "Annals", Tacitus's final work, covers the period from the death of Augustus in AD 14. He wrote at least sixteen books, but books 7–10 and parts of books 5, 6, 11, and 16 are missing. Book 6 ends with the death of Tiberius, and books 7–12 presumably covered the reigns of Caligula and Claudius. The remaining books cover the reign of Nero, perhaps until his death in June 68 or until the end of that year to connect with the "Histories". The second half of book 16 is missing, ending with the events of 66. It is not known whether Tacitus completed the work; he died before he could complete his planned histories of Nerva and Trajan, and no record survives of the work on Augustus and the beginnings of the Roman Empire, with which he had planned to finish his work. The "Annals" is one of the earliest secular historical records to mention Christ, which Tacitus does in connection with Nero's persecution of the Christians. Tacitus wrote three works with a more limited scope: "Agricola", a biography of his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola; the "Germania", a monograph on the lands and tribes of barbarian Germania; and the "Dialogus", a dialogue on the art of rhetoric. The "Germania" (Latin title: "De Origine et situ Germanorum") is an ethnographic work on the Germanic tribes outside the Roman Empire. The "Germania" fits within a classical ethnographic tradition which includes authors such as Herodotus and Julius Caesar. The book begins psychology of power politics, blending straightforward descriptions of events, moral lessons, and tightly focused dramatic accounts. Tacitus's own declaration regarding his approach to history ("Annals" I,1) is well known: "inde consilium mihi ... tradere ... sine ira et studio, quorum causas procul habeo. " my purpose is ... to relate ... without either anger or zeal, motives from which I am far removed. There has been much scholarly discussion about Tacitus's "neutrality". Throughout his writing, he is preoccupied with the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors, and the increasing corruption of the governing classes of Rome as they adjusted to the ever-growing wealth and power of the empire. In Tacitus's view, senators squandered their cultural inheritance—that of free speech—to placate their (rarely benign) emperor. Tacitus noted the increasing dependence of the emperor on the goodwill of his armies. The Julio-Claudians eventually gave way to generals, who followed Julius Caesar (and Sulla and Pompey) in recognizing that military might could secure them the political power in Rome. ("Hist." 1.4) Welcome as the death of Nero had been in the first burst of joy, yet it had not only roused various emotions in Rome, among the Senators, the people, or the soldiery of the capital, it had also excited all the legions and their generals; for now had been divulged that secret of the empire, that emperors could be made elsewhere than at Rome. Tacitus's political career was largely lived out under the emperor Domitian. His experience of the tyranny, corruption, and decadence of that era (81–96) may explain the bitterness and irony of his political analysis. He draws our attention to the dangers of power without accountability, love of power untempered by principle, and the apathy and corruption engendered by the concentration of wealth generated through trade and conquest by the empire. Nonetheless, the image he builds of Tiberius throughout the first six books of the "Annals" is neither exclusively bleak nor approving: most scholars view the image of Tiberius as predominantly "positive" in the first books, and predominantly "negative" after the intrigues of Sejanus. The entrance of Tiberius in the first chapters of the first book is dominated by the hypocrisy of the new emperor and his courtiers. In the later books, some respect is evident for the cleverness of the

Tacitus

D e t a i l s a b o u t t h e p e r s o n a l l i f e o f T a c i t u s a r e s c a r c e . W h a t l i t t l e i s k n o w n c o m e s f r o m s c a t t e r e d h i n t s t h r o u g h o u t h i s w o r k , t h e l e t t e r s o f h i s f r i e n d a n d a d m i r e r P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r , a n d a n i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M y l a s a i n C a r i a . T a c i t u s w a s b o r n i n 5 6 o r 5 7 t o a n e q u e s t r i a n f a m i l y . T h e p l a c e a n d d a t e o f h i s b i r t h , a s w e l l a s h i s p r a e n o m e n ( f i r s t n a m e ) a r e n o t k n o w n . I n t h e l e t t e r s o f S i d o n i u s A p o l l i n a r i s h i s n a m e i s " G a i u s " , b u t i n t h e m a j o r s u r v i v i n g m a n u s c r i p t o f h i s w o r k h i s n a m e i s g i v e n a s " P u b l i u s " . O n e s c h o l a r ' s s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e n a m e " S e x t u s " h a s b e e n l a r g e l y r e j e c t e d . M o s t o f t h e o l d e r a r i s t o c r a t i c f a m i l i e s f a i l e d t o s u r v i v e t h e p r o s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h t o o k p l a c e a t t h e e n d o f t h e R e p u b l i c , a n d T a c i t u s m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t h e o w e d h i s r a n k t o t h e F l a v i a n e m p e r o r s ( " H i s t . " 1 . 1 ) . T h e c l a i m t h a t h e w a s d e s c e n d e d f r o m a f r e e d m a n i s d e r i v e d f r o m a s p e e c h i n h i s w r i t i n g s w h i c h a s s e r t s t h a t m a n y s e n a t o r s a n d k n i g h t s w e r e d e s c e n d e d f r o m f r e e d m e n ( " A n n . " 1 3 . 2 7 ) , b u t t h i s i s g e n e r a l l y d i s p u t e d . H i s f a t h e r m a y h a v e b e e n t h e C o r n e l i u s T a c i t u s w h o s e r v e d a s p r o c u r a t o r o f B e l g i c a a n d G e r m a n i a ; P l i n y t h e E l d e r m e n t i o n s t h a t C o r n e l i u s h a d a s o n w h o a g e d r a p i d l y ( N H 7 . 7 6 ) , w h i c h i m p l i e s a n e a r l y d e a t h . T h e r e i s n o m e n t i o n o f T a c i t u s ' s s u f f e r i n g s u c h a c o n d i t i o n , b u t i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s r e f e r s t o a b r o t h e r — i f C o r n e l i u s w a s i n d e e d h i s f a t h e r . T h e f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n t h e y o u n g e r P l i n y a n d T a c i t u s l e a d s s o m e s c h o l a r s t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e y w e r e b o t h t h e o f f s p r i n g o f w e a l t h y p r o v i n c i a l f a m i l i e s . T h e p r o v i n c e o f h i s b i r t h r e m a i n s u n k n o w n , t h o u g h v a r i o u s c o n j e c t u r e s s u g g e s t G a l l i a B e l g i c a , G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s , o r N o r t h e r n I t a l y . H i s m a r r i a g e t o t h e d a u g h t e r o f N a r b o n e n s i a n s e n a t o r G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a i m p l i e s t h a t h e c a m e f r o m G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s . T a c i t u s ' s d e d i c a t i o n t o L u c i u s F a b i u s J u s t u s i n t h e " D i a l o g u s " m a y i n d i c a t e a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h S p a i n , a n d h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h P l i n y s u g g e s t s o r i g i n s i n n o r t h e r n I t a l y . N o e v i d e n c e e x i s t s , h o w e v e r , t h a t P l i n y ' s f r i e n d s f r o m n o r t h e r n I t a l y k n e w T a c i t u s , n o r d o P l i n y ' s l e t t e r s h i n t t h a t t h e t w o m e n h a d a c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d . P l i n y B o o k 9 , L e t t e r 2 3 , r e p o r t s t h a t w h e n a s k e d w h e t h e r h e w a s I t a l i a n o r p r o v i n c i a l , h e g a v e a n u n c l e a r a n s w e r a n d s o w a s a s k e d w h e t h e r h e w a s T a c i t u s o r P l i n y . S i n c e P l i n y w a s f r o m I t a l y , s o m e i n f e r t h a t T a c i t u s w a s f r o m t h e p r o v i n c e s , p r o b a b l y G a l l i a N a r b o n e n s i s . H i s a n c e s t r y , h i s s k i l l i n o r a t o r y , a n d h i s s y m p a t h e t i c d e p i c t i o n o f b a r b a r i a n s w h o r e s i s t e d R o m a n r u l e ( e . g . , " A n n . " 2 . 9 ) h a v e l e d s o m e t o s u g g e s t t h a t h e w a s a C e l t . T h i s b e l i e f s t e m s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C e l t s w h o h a d o c c u p i e d G a u l p r i o r t o t h e R o m a n i n v a s i o n w e r e f a m o u s f o r t h e i r s k i l l i n o r a t o r y a n d h a d b e e n s u b j u g a t e d b y R o m e . A s a y o u n g m a n , T a c i t u s s t u d i e d r h e t o r i c i n R o m e t o p r e p a r e f o r a c a r e e r i n l a w a n d p o l i t i c s ; l i k e P l i n y , h e m a y h a v e s t u d i e d u n d e r Q u i n t i l i a n ( – ) . I n 7 7 o r 7 8 , h e m a r r i e d J u l i a A g r i c o l a , d a u g h t e r o f t h e f a m o u s g e n e r a l A g r i c o l a . L i t t l e i s k n o w n o f t h e i r d o m e s t i c l i f e , s a v e t h a t T a c i t u s l o v e d h u n t i n g a n d t h e o u t d o o r s . H e s t a r t e d h i s c a r e e r ( p r o b a b l y t h e " l a t u s c l a v u s " , m a r k o f t h e s e n a t o r ) u n d e r V e s p a s i a n ( r . 6 9 – 7 9 ) , b u t e n t e r e d p o l i t i c a l l i f e a s a q u a e s t o r i n 8 1 o r 8 2 u n d e r T i t u s . H e a d v a n c e d s t e a d i l y t h r o u g h t h e " c u r s u s h o n o r u m " , b e c o m i n g p r a e t o r i n 8 8 a n d a q u i n d e c i m v i r , a m e m b e r o f t h e p r i e s t l y c o l l e g e i n c h a r g e o f t h e " S i b y l l i n e B o o k s " a n d t h e S e c u l a r G a m e s . H e g a i n e d a c c l a i m a s a l a w y e r a n d a s a n o r a t o r ; h i s s k i l l i n p u b l i c s p e a k i n g i r o n i c a l l y c o u n t e r p o i n t s h i s c o g n o m e n , " T a c i t u s " ( " s i l e n t " ) . H e s e r v e d i n t h e p r o v i n c e s f r o m t o , e i t h e r i n c o m m a n d o f a l e g i o n o r i n a c i v i l i a n p o s t . H e a n d h i s p r o p e r t y s u r v i v e d D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n o f t e r r o r ( 8 1 – 9 6 ) , b u t t h e e x p e r i e n c e l e f t h i m j a d e d a n d p e r h a p s a s h a m e d a t h i s o w n c o m p l i c i t y , i n s t a l l i n g i n h i m t h e h a t r e d o f t y r a n n y e v i d e n t i n h i s w o r k s . T h e " A g r i c o l a " , c h s . 4 4 – 4 5 , i s i l l u s t r a t i v e : A g r i c o l a w a s s p a r e d t h o s e l a t e r y e a r s d u r i n g w h i c h D o m i t i a n , l e a v i n g n o w n o i n t e r v a l o r b r e a t h i n g s p a c e o f t i m e , b u t , a s i t w e r e , w i t h o n e c o n t i n u o u s b l o w , d r a i n e d t h e l i f e - b l o o d o f t h e C o m m o n w e a l t h . . . I t w a s n o t l o n g b e f o r e o u r h a n d s d r a g g e d H e l v i d i u s t o p r i s o n , b e f o r e w e g a z e d o n t h e d y i n g l o o k s o f M a u r i c u s a n d R u s t i c u s , b e f o r e w e w e r e s t e e p e d i n S e n e c i o ' s i n n o c e n t b l o o d . E v e n N e r o t u r n e d h i s e y e s a w a y , a n d d i d n o t g a z e u p o n t h e a t r o c i t i e s w h i c h h e o r d e r e d ; w i t h D o m i t i a n i t w a s t h e c h i e f p a r t o f o u r m i s e r i e s t o s e e a n d t o b e s e e n , t o k n o w t h a t o u r s i g h s w e r e b e i n g r e c o r d e d . . . F r o m h i s s e a t i n t h e S e n a t e , h e b e c a m e s u f f e c t c o n s u l i n 9 7 d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f N e r v a , b e i n g t h e f i r s t o f h i s f a m i l y t o d o s o . D u r i n g h i s t e n u r e , h e r e a c h e d t h e h e i g h t o f h i s f a m e a s a n o r a t o r w h e n h e d e l i v e r e d t h e f u n e r a l o r a t i o n f o r t h e f a m o u s v e t e r a n s o l d i e r L u c i u s V e r g i n i u s R u f u s . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , h e w r o t e a n d p u b l i s h e d t h e " A g r i c o l a " a n d " G e r m a n i a " , f o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e l i t e r a r y e n d e a v o r s t h a t w o u l d o c c u p y h i m u n t i l h i s d e a t h . A f t e r w a r d , h e a b s e n t e d h i m s e l f f r o m p u b l i c l i f e , b u t r e t u r n e d d u r i n g T r a j a n ' s r e i g n ( 9 8 – 1 1 7 ) . I n 1 0 0 , h e a n d h i s f r i e n d P l i n y t h e Y o u n g e r p r o s e c u t e d ( p r o c o n s u l o f A f r i c a ) f o r c o r r u p t i o n . P r i s c u s w a s f o u n d g u i l t y a n d s e n t i n t o e x i l e ; P l i n y w r o t e a f e w d a y s l a t e r t h a t T a c i t u s h a d s p o k e n " w i t h a l l t h e m a j e s t y w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s h i s u s u a l s t y l e o f o r a t o r y " . A l e n g t h y a b s e n c e f r o m p o l i t i c s a n d l a w f o l l o w e d w h i l e h e w r o t e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " a n d t h e " A n n a l s " . I n 1 1 2 t o 1 1 3 , h e h e l d t h e h i g h e s t c i v i l i a n g o v e r n o r s h i p , t h a t o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f A s i a i n w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a , r e c o r d e d i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t M y l a s a m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . A p a s s a g e i n t h e " A n n a l s " f i x e s 1 1 6 a s t h e " t e r m i n u s p o s t q u e m " o f h i s d e a t h , w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n a s l a t e a s 1 2 5 o r e v e n 1 3 0 . I t s e e m s t h a t h e s u r v i v e d b o t h P l i n y ( d i e d ) a n d T r a j a n ( d i e d 1 1 7 ) . I t r e m a i n s u n k n o w n w h e t h e r T a c i t u s h a d a n y c h i l d r e n . T h e " A u g u s t a n H i s t o r y " r e p o r t s t h a t E m p e r o r M a r c u s C l a u d i u s T a c i t u s ( r . 2 7 5 – 2 7 6 ) c l a i m e d h i m f o r a n a n c e s t o r a n d p r o v i d e d f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f h i s w o r k s , b u t t h i s s t o r y m a y b e f r a u d u l e n t , l i k e m u c h o f t h e " A u g u s t a n H i s t o r y " . F i v e w o r k s a s c r i b e d t o T a c i t u s h a v e s u r v i v e d ( a l b e i t w i t h g a p s ) , t h e m o s t s u b s t a n t i a l o f w h i c h a r e t h e " A n n a l s " a n d t h e " H i s t o r i e s " . T h i s c a n o n ( w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e d a t e s ) c o n s i s t s o f : T h e " A n n a l s " a n d t h e " H i s t o r i e s " , p u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y , w e r e m e a n t t o f o r m a s i n g l e e d i t i o n o f t h i r t y b o o k s . A l t h o u g h T a c i t u s w r o t e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " b e f o r e t h e " A n n a l s " , t h e e v e n t s i n t h e " A n n a l s " p r e c e d e t h e " H i s t o r i e s " ; t o g e t h e r t h e y f o r m a c o n t i n u o u s n a r r a t i v e f r o m t h e d e a t h o f A u g u s t u s ( 1 4 ) t o t h e d e a t h o f D o m i t i a n ( 9 6 ) . T h o u g h m o s t h a s b e e n l o s t , w h a t r e m a i n s i s a n i n v a l u a b l e r e c o r d o f t h e e r a . T h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e " A n n a l s " s u r v i v e d i n a s i n g l e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m C o r v e y A b b e y i n G e r m a n y , a n d t h e s e c o n d h a l f i n a s i n g l e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m M o n t e C a s s i n o i n I t a l y , a n d i t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e y s u r v i v e d a t a l l . I n a n e a r l y c h a p t e r o f t h e " A g r i c o l a " , T a c i t u s a s s e r t s t h a t h e w i s h e s t o s p e a k a b o u t t h e y e a r s o f D o m i t i a n , N e r v a a n d T r a j a n . I n t h e " H i s t o r i e s " t h e s c o p e h a s c h a n g e d ; T a c i t u s s a y s t h a t h e w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e a g e o f N e r v a a n d T r a j a n a t a l a t e r t i m e . I n s t e a d , h e w i l l c o v e r t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e c i v i l w a r s o f t h e Y e a r o f t h e F o u r E m p e r o r s a n d e n d w i t h t h e d e s p o t i s m o f t h e F l a v i a n s . O n l y t h e f i r s t f o u r b o o k s a n d t w e n t y - s i x c h a p t e r s o f t h e f i f t h b o o k s u r v i v e , c o v e r i n g t h e y e a r 6 9 a n d t h e f i r s t p a r t o f 7 0 . T h e w o r k i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e c o n t i n u e d u p t o t h e d e a t h o f D o m i t i a n o n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 , 9 6 . T h e f i f t h b o o k c o n t a i n s — a s a p r e l u d e t o t h e a c c o u n t o f T i t u s ' s s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e F i r s t J e w i s h – R o m a n W a r — a s h o r t e t h n o g r a p h i c s u r v e y o f t h e a n c i e n t J e w s , ( a l t h o u g h e n t i r e l y i n a c c u r a t e ) a n d i t i s a n i n v a l u a b l e r e c o r d o f R o m a n a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e m . T h e " A n n a l s " , T a c i t u s ' s f i n a l w o r k , c o v e r s t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e d e a t h o f A u g u s t u s i n A D   1 4 . H e w r o t e a t l e a s t s i x t e e n b o o k s , b u t b o o k s   7 – 1 0 a n d p a r t s o f b o o k s   5 , 6 , 1 1 , a n d 1 6 a r e m i s s i n g . B o o k   6 e n d s w i t h t h e d e a t h o f T i b e r i u s , a n d b o o k s 7 – 1 2 p r e s u m a b l y c o v e r e d t h e r e i g n s o f C a l i g u l a a n d C l a u d i u s . T h e r e m a i n i n g b o o k s c o v e r t h e r e i g n o f N e r o , p e r h a p s u n t i l h i s d e a t h i n J u n e 6 8 o r u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h a t y e a r t o c o n n e c t w i t h t h e " H i s t o r i e s " . T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f b o o k   1 6 i s m i s s i n g , e n d i n g w i t h t h e e v e n t s o f 6 6 . I t i s n o t k n o w n w h e t h e r T a c i t u s c o m p l e t e d t h e w o r k ; h e d i e d b e f o r e h e c o u l d c o m p l e t e h i s p l a n n e d h i s t o r i e s o f N e r v a a n d T r a j a n , a n d n o r e c o r d s u r v i v e s o f t h e w o r k o n A u g u s t u s a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , w i t h w h i c h h e h a d p l a n n e d t o f i n i s h h i s w o r k . T h e " A n n a l s " i s o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t s e c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s t o m e n t i o n C h r i s t , w h i c h T a c i t u s d o e s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h N e r o ' s p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s . T a c i t u s w r o t e t h r e e w o r k s w i t h a m o r e l i m i t e d s c o p e : " A g r i c o l a " , a b i o g r a p h y o f h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w , G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a ; t h e " G e r m a n i a " , a m o n o g r a p h o n t h e l a n d s a n d t r i b e s o f b a r b a r i a n G e r m a n i a ; a n d t h e " D i a l o g u s " , a d i a l o g u e o n t h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c . T h e " G e r m a n i a " ( L a t i n t i t l e : " D e O r i g i n e e t s i t u G e r m a n o r u m " ) i s a n e t h n o g r a p h i c w o r k o n t h e G e r m a n i c t r i b e s o u t s i d e t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . T h e " G e r m a n i a " f i t s w i t h i n a c l a s s i c a l e t h n o g r a p h i c t r a d i t i o n w h i c h i n c l u d e s a u t h o r s s u c h a s H e r o d o t u s a n d J u l i u s C a e s a r . T h e b o o k b e g i n s ( c h a p t e r s 1 – 2 7 ) w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l a n d s , l a w s , a n d c u s t o m s o f t h e v a r i o u s t r i b e s . L a t e r c h a p t e r s f o c u s o n d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p a r t i c u l a r t r i b e s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h o s e w h o l i v e d c l o s e s t t o t h e R o m a n e m p i r e , a n d e n d i n g w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h o s e w h o l i v e d o n t h e s h o r e s o f t h e B a l t i c S e a , s u c h a s t h e F e n n i . T a c i t u s h a d w r i t t e n a s i m i l a r , a l b e i t s h o r t e r , p i e c e i n h i s " A g r i c o l a " ( c h a p t e r s 1 0 – 1 3 ) . T h e " A g r i c o l a " ( w r i t t e n ) r e c o u n t s t h e l i f e o f G n a e u s J u l i u s A g r i c o l a , a n e m i n e n t R o m a n g e n e r a l a n d T a c i t u s ' s f a t h e r - i n - l a w ; i t a l s o c o v e r s , b r i e f l y , t h e g e o g r a p h y a n d e t h n o g r a p h y o f a n c i e n t B r i t a i n . A s i n t h e " G e r m a n i a " , T a c i t u s f a v o r a b l y c o n t r a s t s t h e l i b e r t y o f t h e n a t i v e B r i t o n s w i t h t h e t y r a n n y a n d c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e E m p i r e ; t h e b o o k a l s o c o n t a i n s e l o q u e n t p o l e m i c s a g a i n s t t h e g r e e d o f R o m e , o n e o f w h i c h , t h a t T a c i t u s c l a i m s i s f r o m a s p e e c h b y C a l g a c u s , e n d s b y a s s e r t i n g , " A u f e r r e t r u c i d a r e r a p e r e f a l s i s n o m i n i b u s i m p e r i u m , a t q u e u b i s o l i t u d i n e m f a c i u n t , p a c e m a p p e l l a n t . " ( " T o r a v a g e , t o s l a u g h t e r , t o u s u r p u n d e r f a l s e t i t l e s , t h e y c a l l e m p i r e ; a n d w h e r e t h e y m a k e a d e s e r t , t h e y c a l l i t p e a c e . " — O x f o r d R e v i s e d T r a n s l a t i o n ) . T h e r e i s u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t w h e n T a c i t u s w r o t e " D i a l o g u s d e o r a t o r i b u s " . M a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s e t i t a p a r t f r o m t h e o t h e r w o r k s o f T a c i t u s , s o t h a t i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y h a s a t v a r i o u s t i m e s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d . I t i s l i k e l y t o b e e a r l y w o r k , i n d e b t e d t o t h e a u t h o r ' s r h e t o r i c a l t r a i n i n g , s i n c e i t s s t y l e i m i t a t e s t h a t o f t h e f o r e m o s t R o m a n o r a t o r C i c e r o . I t l a c k s ( f o r e x a m p l e ) t h e i n c o n g r u i t i e s t h a t a r e t y p i c a l o f h i s m a t u r e h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s . T h e " D i a l o g u s " i s d e d i c a t e d t o F a b i u s I u s t u s , a c o n s u l i n 1 0 2 A D . T a c i t u s ' s w r i t i n g s a r e k n o w n f o r t h e i r d e n s e p r o s e t h a t s e l d o m g l o s s e s t h e f a c t s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s t y l e o f s o m e o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , s u c h a s P l u t a r c h . W h e n h e w r i t e s a b o u t a n e a r d e f e a t o f t h e R o m a n a r m y i n " A n n a l s " I , 6 3 , h e d o e s s o w i t h b r e v i t y o f d e s c r i p t i o n r a t h e r t h a n e m b e l l i s h m e n t . I n m o s t o f h i s w r i t i n g s , h e k e e p s t o a c h r o n o l o g i c a l n a r r a t i v e o r d e r , o n l y s e l d o m o u t l i n i n g t h e b i g g e r p i c t u r e , l e a v i n g t h e r e a d e r s t o c o n s t r u c t t h a t p i c t u r e f o r t h e m s e l v e s . N o n e t h e l e s s , w h e r e h e d o e s u s e b r o a d s t r o k e s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h s o f t h e " A n n a l s " , h e u s e s a f e w c o n d e n s e d p h r a s e s w h i c h t a k e t h e r e a d e r t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e s t o r y . T a c i t u s ' s h i s t o r i c a l s t y l e o w e s s o m e d e b t t o S a l l u s t . H i s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f f e r s p e n e t r a t i n g — o f t e n p e s s i m i s t i c — i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f p o w e r p o l i t i c s , b l e n d i n g s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f e v e n t s , m o r a l l e s s o n s , a n d t i g h t l y f o c u s e d d r a m a t i c a c c o u n t s . T a c i t u s ' s o w n d e c l a r a t i o n r e g a r d i n g h i s a p p r o a c h t o h i s t o r y ( " A n n a l s " I , 1 ) i s w e l l k n o w n : " i n d e c o n s i l i u m m i h i . . . t r a d e r e . . . s i n e i r a e t s t u d i o , q u o r u m c a u s a s p r o c u l h a b e o . " m y p u r p o s e i s . . . t o r e l a t e . . . w i t h o u t e i t h e r a n g e r o r z e a l , m o t i v e s f r o m w h i c h I a m f a r r e m o v e d . T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h s c h o l a r l y d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t T a c i t u s ' s " n e u t r a l i t y " . T h r o u g h o u t h i s w r i t i n g , h e i s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r b e t w e e n t h e S e n a t e a n d t h e e m p e r o r s , a n d t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n i n g c l a s s e s o f R o m e a s t h e y a d j u s t e d t o t h e e v e r - g r o w i n g w e a l t h a n d p o w e r o f t h e e m p i r e . I n T a c i t u s ' s v i e w , s e n a t o r s s q u a n d e r e d t h e i r c u l t u r a l i n h e r i t a n c e — t h a t o f f r e e s p e e c h — t o p l a c a t e t h e i r ( r a r e l y b e n i g n ) e m p e r o r . T a c i t u s n o t e d t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e e m p e r o r o n t h e g o o d w i l l o f h i s a r m i e s . T h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n s e v e n t u a l l y g a v e w a y t o g e n e r a l s , w h o f o l l o w e d J u l i u s C a e s a r ( a n d S u l l a a n d P o m p e y ) i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t m i l i t a r y m i g h t c o u l d s e c u r e t h e m t h e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r i n R o m e . ( " H i s t . " 1 . 4 ) W e l c o m e a s t h e d e a t h o f N e r o h a d b e e n i n t h e f i r s t b u r s t o f j o y , y e t i t h a d n o t o n l y r o u s e d v a r i o u s e m o t i o n s i n R o m e , a m o n g t h e S e n a t o r s , t h e p e o p l e , o r t h e s o l d i e r y o f t h e c a p i t a l , i t h a d a l s o e x c i t e d a l l t h e l e g i o n s a n d t h e i r g e n e r a l s ; f o r n o w h a d b e e n d i v u l g e d t h a t s e c r e t o f t h e e m p i r e , t h a t e m p e r o r s c o u l d b e m a d e e l s e w h e r e t h a n a t R o m e . T a c i t u s ' s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r w a s l a r g e l y l i v e d o u t u n d e r t h e e m p e r o r D o m i t i a n . H i s e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e t y r a n n y , c o r r u p t i o n , a n d d e c a d e n c e o f t h a t e r a ( 8 1 – 9 6 ) m a y e x p l a i n t h e b i t t e r n e s s a n d i r o n y o f h i s p o l i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . H e d r a w s o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d a n g e r s o f p o w e r w i t h o u t a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , l o v e o f p o w e r u n t e m p e r e d b y p r i n c i p l e , a n d t h e a p a t h y a n d c o r r u p t i o n e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f w e a l t h g e n e r a t e d t h r o u g h t r a d e a n d c o n q u e s t b y t h e e m p i r e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e i m a g e h e b u i l d s o f T i b e r i u s t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i r s t s i x b o o k s o f t h e " A n n a l s " i s n e i t h e r e x c l u s i v e l y b l e a k n o r a p p r o v i n g : m o s t s c h o l a r s v i e w t h e i m a g e o f T i b e r i u s a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y " p o s i t i v e " i n t h e f i r s t b o o k s , a n d p r e d o m i n a n t l y " n e g a t i v e " a f t e r t h e i n t r i g u e s o f S e j a n u s . T h e e n t r a n c e o f T i b e r i u s i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r s o f t h e f i r s t b o o k i s d o m i n a t e d b y t h e h y p o c r i s y o f t h e n e w e m p e r o r a n d h i s c o u r t i e r s . I n t h e l a t e r b o o k s , s o m e r e s p e c t i s e v i d e n t f o r t h e c l e v e r n e s s o f t h e o l d e m p e r o r i n s e c u r i n g h i s p o s i t i o n . I n g e n e r a l , T a c i t u s d o e s n o t f e a r t o p r a i s e a n d t o c r i t i c i z e t h e s a m e p e r s o n , o f t e n n o t i n g w h a t h e t a k e s t o b e t h e i r m o r e a d m i r a b l e a n d l e s s a d m i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s . O n e o f T a c i t u s ' s h a l l m a r k s i s r e f r a i n i n g f r o m " c o n c l u s i v e l y " t a k i n g s i d e s f o r o r a g a i n s t p e r s o n s h e d e s c r i b e s , w h i c h h a s l e d s o m e t o i n t e r p r e t h i s w o r k s a s b o t h s u p p o r t i n g a n d r e j e c t i n g t h e i m p e r i a l s y s t e m ( s e e T a c i t e a n s t u d i e s , " B l a c k " v s . " R e d " T a c i t i s t s ) . H i s L a t i n s t y l e i s h i g h l y p r a i s e d . H i s s t y l e , a l t h o u g h i t h a s a g r a n d e u r a n d e l o q u e n c e ( t h a n k s t o T a c i t u s ' s e d u c a t i o n i n r h e t o r i c ) , i s e x t r e m e l y c o n c i s e , e v e n e p i g r a m m a t i c — t h e s e n t e n c e s a r e r a r e l y f l o w i n g o r b e a u t i f u l , b u t t h e i r p o i n t i s a l w a y s c l e a r . T h e s t y l e h a s b e e n b o t h d e r i d e d a s " h a r s h , u n p l e a s a n t , a n d t h o r n y " a n d p r a i s e d a s " g r a v e , c o n c i s e , a n d p i t h i l y e l o q u e n t " . A p a s s a g e o f " A n n a l s " 1 . 1 , w h e r e T a c i t u s l a m e n t s t h e s t a t e o f t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y r e g a r d i n g t h e l a s t f o u r e m p e r o r s o f t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n d y n a s t y , i l l u s t r a t e s h i s s t y l e : " T h e h i s t o r i e s o f T i b e r i u s , G a i u s , C l a u d i u s a n d N e r o , w h i l e t h e y w e r e i n p o w e r , w e r e f a l s i f i e d t h r o u g h t e r r o r a n d a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h w e r e w r i t t e n u n d e r t h e i r r i t a t i o n o f a r e c e n t h a t r e d " , o r i n a w o r d - f o r - w o r d t r a n s l a t i o n : C o m p a r e d t o t h e C i c e r o n i a n p e r i o d , w h e r e s e n t e n c e s w e r e u s u a l l y t h e l e n g t h o f a p a r a g r a p h a n d a r t f u l l y c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h n e s t e d p a i r s o f c a r e f u l l y m a t c h e d s o n o r o u s p h r a s e s , t h i s i s s h o r t a n d t o t h e p o i n t . B u t i t i s a l s o v e r y i n d i v i d u a l . N o t e t h e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f s a y i n g " a n d " i n t h e f i r s t l i n e ( " - q u e " , " e t " , " a c " ) , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e m a t c h e d s e c o n d a n d t h i r d l i n e s . T h e y a r e p a r a l l e l i n s e n s e b u t n o t i n s o u n d ; t h e p a i r s o f w o r d s e n d i n g " " - e n t i b u s " … " - i s " " a r e c r o s s e d o v e r i n a w a y t h a t d e l i b e r a t e l y b r e a k s t h e C i c e r o n i a n c o n v e n t i o n s — w h i c h o n e w o u l d , h o w e v e r , n e e d t o b e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t o s e e t h e n o v e l t y o f T a c i t u s ' s s t y l e . S o m e r e a d e r s , t h e n a n d n o w , f i n d t h i s t e a s i n g o f t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s m e r e l y i r r i t a t i n g . O t h e r s f i n d t h e d e l i b e r a t e d i s c o r d , p l a y i n g a g a i n s t t h e e v i d e n t p a r a l l e l i s m o f t h e t w o l i n e s , s t i m u l a t i n g a n d i n t r i g u i n g . H i s h i s t o r i c a l w o r k s f o c u s o n t h e m o t i v e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s , o f t e n w i t h p e n e t r a t i n g i n s i g h t — t h o u g h i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e h o w m u c h o f h i s i n s i g h t i s c o r r e c t , a n d h o w m u c h i s c o n v i n c i n g o n l y b e c a u s e o f h i s r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l . H e i s a t h i s b e s t w h e n e x p o s i n g h y p o c r i s y a n d d i s s i m u l a t i o n ; f o r e x a m p l e , h e f o l l o w s a n a r r a t i v e r e c o u n t i n g T i b e r i u s ' s r e f u s a l o f t h e t i t l e " p a t e r p a t r i a e " b y r e c a l l i n g t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f a l a w f o r b i d d i n g a n y " t r e a s o n o u s " s p e e c h o r w r i t i n g s — a n d t h e f r i v o l o u s p r o s e c u t i o n s w h i c h r e s u l t e d ( " A n n a l s " , 1 . 7 2 ) . E l s e w h e r e ( " A n n a l s " 4 . 6 4 – 6 6 ) h e c o m p a r e s T i b e r i u s ' s p u b l i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f i r e r e l i e f t o h i s f a i l u r e t o s t o p t h e p e r v e r s i o n s a n d a b u s e s o f j u s t i c e w h i c h h e h a d b e g u n . A l t h o u g h t h i s k i n d o f i n s i g h t h a s e a r n e d h i m p r a i s e , h e h a s a l s o b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r i g n o r i n g t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t . T a c i t u s o w e s m o s t , b o t h i n l a n g u a g e a n d i n m e t h o d , t o S a l l u s t , a n d A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s i s t h e l a t e r h i s t o r i a n w h o s e w o r k m o s t c l o s e l y a p p r o a c h e s h i m i n s t y l e . T a c i t u s m a k e s u s e o f t h e o f f i c i a l s o u r c e s o f t h e R o m a n s t a t e : t h e " a c t a s e n a t u s " ( t h e m i n u t e s o f t h e s e s s i o n s o f t h e S e n a t e ) a n d t h e " a c t a d i u r n a p o p u l i R o m a n i " ( a c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e a c t s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d n e w s o f t h e c o u r t a n d c a p i t a l ) . H e a l s o r e a d c o l l e c t i o n s o f e m p e r o r s ' s p e e c h e s , s u c h a s t h o s e o f T i b e r i u s a n d C l a u d i u s . H e i s g e n e r a l l y s e e n a s a s c r u p u l o u s h i s t o r i a n w h o p a i d c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n t o h i s s o u r c e s . T a c i t u s c i t e s s o m e o f h i s s o u r c e s d i r e c t l y , a m o n g t h e m C l u v i u s R u f u s , F a b i u s R u s t i c u s a n d P l i n y t h e E l d e r , w h o h a d w r i t t e n " B e l l a G e r m a n i a e " a n d a h i s t o r i c a l w o r k w h i c h w a s t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h a t o f A u f i d i u s B a s s u s . T a c i t u s a l s o u s e s c o l l e c t i o n s o f l e t t e r s ( " e p i s t o l a r i u m " ) . H e a l s o t o o k i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m " e x i t u s i l l u s t r i u m v i r o r u m " . T h e s e w e r e a c o l l e c t i o n o f b o o k s b y t h o s e w h o w e r e a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h e e m p e r o r s . T h e y t e l l o f s a c r i f i c e s b y m a r t y r s t o f r e e d o m , e s p e c i a l l y t h e m e n w h o c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e . W h i l e h e p l a c e s n o v a l u e o n t h e S t o i c t h e o r y o f s u i c i d e a n d v i e w s s u i c i d e s a s o s t e n t a t i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l l y u s e l e s s , T a c i t u s o f t e n g i v e s p r o m i n e n c e t o s p e e c h e s m a d e b y t h o s e a b o u t t o c o m m i t s u i c i d e , f o r e x a m p l e C r e m u t i u s C o r d u s ' s p e e c h i n " A n n . " I V , 3 4 – 3 5 .

Works ; Monographs

Tacitus's surviving works include the "Annals" and the "Histories", which together form a continuous narrative from the death of Augustus (14) to the death of Domitian (96). Additionally, there are three shorter works: "Agricola", a biography of his father-in-law; the "Germania", a monograph on the lands and tribes of barbarian Germania; and the "Dialogus", a dialogue on the art of rhetoric. His historical works focus on the motives of the characters, often with penetrating insight, and expose hypocrisy and dissimulation.

the "Annals" and the "Histories". This canon (with approximate dates) consists of: The "Annals" and the "Histories", published separately, were meant to form a single edition of thirty books. Although Tacitus wrote the "Histories" before the "Annals", the events in the "Annals" precede the "Histories"; together they form a continuous narrative from the death of Augustus (14) to the death of Domitian (96). Though most has been lost, what remains is an invaluable record of the era. The first half of the "Annals" survived in a single manuscript from Corvey Abbey in Germany, and the second half in a single manuscript from Monte Cassino in Italy, and it is remarkable that they survived at all. In an early chapter of the "Agricola", Tacitus asserts that he wishes to an invaluable record of Roman attitudes towards them. The "Annals", Tacitus's final work, covers the period from the death of Augustus in AD 14. He wrote at least sixteen books, but books 7–10 and parts of books 5, 6, 11, and 16 are missing. Book 6 ends with the death of Tiberius, and books 7–12 presumably covered the reigns of Caligula and Claudius. The remaining books cover the reign of Nero, perhaps until his death in June 68 or until the end of that year to connect with the "Histories". The second half of book 16 is missing, ending with the events of 66. It is not known whether Tacitus completed the work; he died before he could complete his planned histories of Nerva and Trajan, and no record survives of the work on Augustus and the beginnings of the Roman Empire, with which he had planned to finish his work. The "Annals" is one of the earliest secular historical records to mention Christ, which Tacitus does in connection with Nero's persecution of the Christians. Tacitus wrote three works with a more limited scope: "Agricola", a biography of his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola; the "Germania", a monograph on the lands and tribes of barbarian Germania; and the "Dialogus", a dialogue on the art of rhetoric. The "Germania" (Latin title: "De Origine et situ Germanorum") is an ethnographic work on the Germanic tribes outside the Roman Empire. The "Germania" fits within a classical ethnographic tradition which includes authors such as Herodotus and Julius Caesar. The book begins psychology of power politics, blending straightforward descriptions of events, moral lessons, and tightly focused dramatic accounts. Tacitus's own declaration regarding his approach to history ("Annals" I,1) is well known: "inde consilium mihi ... tradere ... sine ira et studio, quorum causas procul habeo. " my purpose is ... to relate ... without either anger or zeal, motives from which I am far removed. There has been much scholarly discussion about Tacitus's "neutrality". Throughout his writing, he is preoccupied with the balance of power between the Senate and the emperors, and the increasing corruption of the governing classes of Rome as they adjusted to the ever-growing wealth and power of the empire. In Tacitus's view, senators squandered their cultural inheritance—that of free speech—to placate their (rarely benign) emperor. Tacitus era (81–96) may explain the bitterness and irony of his political analysis. He draws our attention to the dangers of power without accountability, love of power untempered by principle, and the apathy and corruption engendered by the concentration of wealth generated through trade and conquest by the empire. Nonetheless, the image he builds of Tiberius throughout the first six books of the "Annals" is neither exclusively bleak nor approving: most scholars view the image of Tiberius as predominantly "positive" in the first books, and predominantly "negative" after the intrigues of Sejanus. The entrance of Tiberius in the first chapters of the first book is dominated by the hypocrisy of the new emperor and his courtiers. In the later books, some respect is evident for the cleverness of the but not in sound; the pairs of words ending ""-entibus" … "-is"" are crossed over in a way that deliberately breaks the Ciceronian conventions—which one would, however, need to be acquainted with to see the novelty of Tacitus's style. Some readers, then and now, find this teasing of their expectations merely irritating. Others find the deliberate discord, playing against the evident parallelism of the two lines, stimulating and intriguing. His historical works focus on the motives of the characters, often with penetrating insight—though it is questionable how much of his insight is correct, and how much is convincing only because of his rhetorical skill. He is at his best when exposing hypocrisy and dissimulation; for example, he follows a narrative recounting Tiberius's refusal of the title "pater patriae" news of the court and capital). He also read collections of emperors' speeches, such as those of Tiberius and Claudius. He is generally seen as a scrupulous historian who paid careful attention to his sources. Tacitus cites some of his sources directly, among them Cluvius Rufus, Fabius Rusticus and Pliny the Elder, who had written "Bella Germaniae" and a historical work which was the continuation of that of Aufidius Bassus. Tacitus also uses collections of letters ("epistolarium"). He also took information from "exitus illustrium virorum". These were a collection of books by those who were antithetical to the emperors. They tell of sacrifices by martyrs to freedom, especially the men who committed suicide. While he places no value on the Stoic theory of suicide and views suicides as ostentatious and politically useless, Tacitus often gives prominence to speeches made by those about to commit suicide, for example Cremutius Cordus' speech in "Ann." IV, 34–35.

George W. Taylor (general)

T a y l o r w a s b o r n a t " S o l i t u d e , " t h e f a m i l y ' s m a n s i o n n e a r H i g h B r i d g e , N e w J e r s e y , w h i c h w a s t h e h o m e t o f i v e g e n e r a t i o n s o f t h e T a y l o r f a m i l y . H e w a s t h e s o n o f A r c h T a y l o r , a p r o m i n e n t l o c a l b u s i n e s s m a n . T a y l o r g r a d u a t e d f r o m a p r i v a t e m i l i t a r y a c a d e m y i n M i d d l e t o w n , C o n n e c t i c u t . G e o r g e W . T a y l o r j o i n e d h i s f a t h e r ' s c o m p a n y a s a n i r o n w o r k e r w i t h T a y l o r I r o n W o r k s . T a y l o r I r o n W o r k s / T a y l o r W h a r t o n i s t h e o l d e s t f o u n d r y i n U S H i s t o r y a n d t h e 1 3 t h l o n g e s t c o n t i n u a l l y o p e r a t i n g c o m p a n y i n t h e w o r l d h i s t o r y ( E c o n o m i s t 2 0 0 4 ) I n 1 8 2 7 , T a y l o r j o i n e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a v y a s a m i d s h i p m a n , s e r v i n g a b o a r d t h e U S S " F a i r f i e l d " d u r i n g h e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n d e p l o y m e n t f r o m 1 8 2 8 t o 1 8 3 1 . W h e n t h e s h i p r e t u r n e d t o t h e U . S . , h e r e s i g n e d f r o m t h e N a v y a n d e n t e r e d h i s f a m i l y ' s m e r c a n t i l e b u s i n e s s . W i t h t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e w a r w i t h M e x i c o i n 1 8 4 6 , h e b e c a m e a c a p t a i n i n t h e 1 0 t h U . S . I n f a n t r y u n d e r Z a c h a r y T a y l o r t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r . W h i l e i n M e x i c o , h e d e v e l o p e d a r e p u t a t i o n f o r d i s c i p l i n e a n d o r d e r a m o n g h i s m e n . H e a l s o c u l t i v a t e d a s t r o n g f r i e n d s h i p w i t h P h i l i p K e a r n y , a f e l l o w f u t u r e C i v i l W a r g e n e r a l . A f t e r r e c e i v i n g h i s h o n o r a b l e d i s c h a r g e w i t h t h e e n d o f t h e h o s t i l i t i e s , T a y l o r j o i n e d t h e C a l i f o r n i a G o l d R u s h a n d s p e n t t h r e e y e a r s m i n i n g a t C o r t e M a d e r a , C a l i f o r n i a , ( n e a r S a n F r a n c i s c o ) b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g t o N e w J e r s e y , w h e r e h e e n g a g e d i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f i r o n u n t i l t h e C i v i l W a r e r u p t e d i n e a r l y 1 8 6 1 . T a y l o r h e l p e d r e c r u i t a n d o r g a n i z e w h a t b e c a m e t h e 3 r d N e w J e r s e y V o l u n t e e r I n f a n t r y i n M a y 1 8 6 1 a n d w a s a p p o i n t e d b y G o v e r n o r O l d e n a s t h e n e w r e g i m e n t ' s f i r s t c o l o n e l . H i s s o n , A r c h i b a l d I I , s e r v e d a s h i s a i d e - d e - c a m p . T a y l o r w a s i n v o l v e d i n t h e f i g h t i n g a t t h e F i r s t B a t t l e o f B u l l R u n . L a t e r , h i s 3 r d N e w J e r s e y w a s b r i g a d e d w i t h t h e 1 s t , 2 n d , a n d 4 t h N e w J e r s e y V o l u n t e e r I n f a n t r y t o m a k e u p w h a t b e c a m e f a m e d a s t h e " F i r s t N e w J e r s e y B r i g a d e " . T a y l o r ' s r e g i m e n t s e r v e d i n t h e 1 s t B r i g a d e , 1 s t D i v i s i o n o f t h e V I C o r p s , i n n u m e r o u s b a t t l e s i n t h e S e v e n D a y s B a t t l e s d u r i n g t h e e n d o f t h e P e n i n s u l a C a m p a i g n . W h e n h i s m e n t o r a n d f r i e n d K e a r n y w a s e l e v a t e d t o d i v i s i o n c o m m a n d i n J u n e 1 8 6 2 , T a y l o r w a s p r o m o t e d t o b r i g a d i e r g e n e r a l ( d a t e o f r a n k M a y 9 , 1 8 6 2 ) o f t h e 1 s t N e w J e r s e y B r i g a d e , l e a d i n g i t i n t h e S e v e n D a y s B a t t l e s . D u r i n g t h e N o r t h e r n V i r g i n i a C a m p a i g n , h i s b r i g a d e w a s s e n t d o w n f r o m W a s h i n g t o n t o s c o u t o u t C o n f e d e r a t e t r o o p m o v e m e n t s . O n A u g u s t 2 7 , t h e b r i g a d e s t u m b l e d i n t o S t o n e w a l l J a c k s o n ' s e n t i r e c o r p s a n d w a s q u i c k l y r o u t e d . T a y l o r s u f f e r e d a s e v e r e l e g w o u n d f r o m a n a r t i l l e r y s h e l l a n d d i e d i n a W a s h i n g t o n h o s p i t a l f o u r d a y s l a t e r . H i s b o d y w a s t r a n s p o r t e d t o C l i n t o n , N e w J e r s e y , v i a t r a i n , w h e r e h u n d r e d s o f p e o p l e t u r n e d o u t f o r h i s f u n e r a l . H e w a s b u r i e d t h e r e i n R i v e r s i d e C e m e t e r y ( a l s o k n o w n a s C l i n t o n P r e s b y t e r i a n C h u r c h y a r d ) . A y e a r l a t e r , h i s n e p h e w w a s k i l l e d a t t h e B a t t l e o f C h a n c e l l o r s v i l l e a n d b u r i e d b e s i d e h i m .

Civil War service

Brigadier General George W. Taylor fought in the Mexican-American War and later led the 1st New Jersey Brigade during the American Civil War. He was wounded in action on August 27, 1862, and died four days later.

Taylor was born at "Solitude," the family's mansion near High Bridge, New Jersey, which was the home to five generations of the Taylor family. He was the son of Arch Taylor, a prominent local businessman. Taylor graduated from a private military academy in Middletown, Connecticut. George W. Taylor joined his father's company as an ironworker with Taylor Iron Works. Taylor Iron Works/Taylor Wharton is the oldest foundry in US History and the 13th longest continually operating company in the world history (Economist 2004) In 1827, Taylor joined the United States Navy as a midshipman, serving aboard the USS "Fairfield" during her Mediterranean deployment from 1828 to 1831. When the ship returned to the U.S., he resigned from the Navy and entered his family's mercantile business. With the outbreak of the war with Mexico in 1846, he became a captain in the 10th U.S. Infantry under Zachary Taylor the following year. While in Mexico, he developed a reputation for discipline and order among his men. He also cultivated a strong friendship with Philip Kearny, a fellow future Civil War general. After receiving his honorable discharge with the end of the hostilities, Taylor joined the California Gold Rush and spent three years mining at Corte Madera, California, (near San Francisco) before returning to New Jersey, where he engaged in the manufacturing of iron until the Civil War erupted in early 1861. Taylor helped recruit and organize what became the 3rd New Jersey Volunteer Infantry in May 1861 and was appointed by Governor Olden as the new regiment's first colonel. His son, Archibald II, served as his aide-de-camp. Taylor was involved in the fighting at the First Battle of Bull Run. Later, his 3rd New Jersey was brigaded with the 1st, 2nd, and 4th New Jersey Volunteer Infantry to make up what became famed as the "First New Jersey Brigade". Taylor's regiment served in the 1st Brigade, 1st Division of the VI Corps, in numerous battles in the Seven Days Battles during the end of the Peninsula Campaign. When his mentor and friend Kearny was elevated to division command in June 1862, Taylor was promoted to brigadier general (date of rank May 9, 1862) of the 1st New Jersey Brigade, leading it in the Seven Days Battles. During the Northern Virginia Campaign, his brigade was sent down from Washington to scout out Confederate troop movements. On August 27, the brigade stumbled into Stonewall Jackson's entire corps and was quickly routed. Taylor suffered a severe leg wound from an artillery shell and died in a Washington hospital four days later. His body was transported to Clinton, New Jersey, via train, where hundreds of people turned out for his funeral. He was buried there in Riverside Cemetery (also known as Clinton Presbyterian Churchyard). A year later, his nephew was killed at the Battle of Chancellorsville and buried beside him.

Srinivas (singer)

S i n g e r S r i n i v a s w a s b o r n O n 7 N o v e m b e r i n A m b a s a m u d r a m i n T a m i l N a d u . H e w a s b o r n t o D u r a i s w a m y I y e n g a r a n d L a k s h m i . H e l e a r n t C a r n a t i c m u s i c f r o m h i s a u n t P a d m a N a r a y a n a n . T h e g r e a t C a r n a t i c s t a l w a r t s o f t h e 6 0 s i n f l u e n c e d h i s e a r l y d a y s . A f t e r w h i c h H i n d i f i l m m u s i c c h i e f l y t h a t o f K i s h o r e K u m a r & R . D . B u r m a n d e e p l y i n f l u e n c e d h i m i n h i s c h i l d h o o d d a y s . ( L a t e r o n i t w a s t h e g h a z a l s o f M e h d i H a s s a n w h i c h r e d e f i n e d h i s s i n g i n g ) H e c o m p l e t e d h i s B T e c h f r o m U D C T o f U n i v e r s i t y o f B o m b a y ; d u r i n g w h i c h h e r e p r e s e n t e d h i s u n i v e r s i t y i n y o u t h f e s t i v a l s . A f t e r p u r s u i n g h i s c a r e e r a s a c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r a n d a m a r k e t i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l f o r t e n y e a r s , h e d e c i d e d t o f o l l o w h i s p a s s i o n f o r m u s i c . H e s t u d i e d i n K e r a l a a n d w a s c o a c h e d i n C a r n a t i c m u s i c b y h i s a u n t . I n 1 9 8 8 , S r i n i v a s a p p r o a c h e d m u s i c d i r e c t o r I l a i y a r a a j a , w h o w a s a t t h e h e l m o f T a m i l f i l m m u s i c . H e w a s o f f e r e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o w o r k w i t h I l a i y a r a a j a , b u t t h i n g s d i d n o t w o r k o u t , a s h e w a s s u f f e r i n g f r o m s e v e r e t h r o a t i n f e c t i o n t h a t d a y . I n 1 9 9 2 , t h e s o u n d t r a c k o f M a n i R a t n a m ' s T a m i l f i l m " R o j a " r e i g n i t e d h i s d r e a m s o f p l a y b a c k s i n g i n g . M a n i R a t n a m i n t r o d u c e d c o m p o s e r A . R . R a h m a n w i t h t h i s m o v i e , w h o t h e n w e n t o n t o c h a n g e t h e m u s i c s c e n e i n t h e w h o l e I n d i a n f i l m i n d u s t r y . E n c o u r a g e d b y t h e u s e o f f r e s h v o i c e s i n " R o j a " , S r i n i v a s a p p r o a c h e d R a h m a n . R a h m a n t o o k a l i k i n g t o h i s r e n d i t i o n o f M e h d i H a s s a n ' s g h a z a l s a n d o f f e r e d h i m w o r k a t C h e n n a i . I n 1 9 9 4 , S r i n i v a s s h i f t e d b a s e t o m a d r a s a n d s t a r t e d l e n d i n g h i s v o i c e t o a d v e r t i s e m e n t j i n g l e s a n d d e v o t i o n a l a l b u m s . H i s f i r s t f o r a y i n t o p l a y b a c k s i n g i n g b e g a n w i t h t h e s o n g " S o r g a m E n b a t h u N a m a k k u " w i t h S w a r n a l a t h a f r o m t h e m o v i e " N a m m a v a r " , a c t e d b y K a m a l H a a s a n . M u s i c w a s c o m p o s e d b y l a t e M a h e s h . I t w e n t o n t o b e c o m e a r u n a w a y h i t . O n l y i n 1 9 9 6 h e d i d g a i n r e c o g n i t i o n w i t h t h e s o n g " M a a n a M a d u r a i " f r o m A . R . R a h m a n ' s " M i n s a a r a K a n a v u " . T h e n c a m e " E n U y i r e " i n M a n i R a t n a m ' s " U y i r e . . " ( t h e T a m i l v e r s i o n o f " D i l S e . . " ) . T h i s R a h m a n c o m p o s i t i o n c a t a p u l t e d S r i n i v a s i n t o f a m e . S r i n i v a s h a s s u n g f o r l e a d i n g m u s i c d i r e c t o r s l i k e A . R . R a h m a n , I l a i y a r a a j a , D e v a , V i d y a s a g a r , B h a r a d w a j , a n d i n l a n g u a g e s l i k e T a m i l , M a l a y a l a m , e t c . H e h a s m a d e a f o r a y i n t o m u s i c d i r e c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e T a m i l m o v i e Y a i N e e R o m b a A z h a g a I r u k e y , i n w h i c h h e w a s o n e a m o n g t h e f i v e m u s i c d i r e c t o r s . H i s c o m p o s i t i o n " I n i N a a n u m n a a n i l l a i " i n t h a t f i l m i s a m a j o r h i t . H i s f a m o u s a l b u m s i n c l u d e " U s s e l e U s s e l e " a n d " P a a r v a i " . A l s o h e h a s w o r k e d a s a c o - c o m p o s e r t o P r a v e e n M a n i f o r " L i t t l e J o h n " . H e h a s c o m p o s e d m u s i c f o r T w o M a l a y a l a m f i l m s t i t l e d " S e e t h a K a l y a n a m " & T r a i n . T h e p l a y b a c k s i n g e r f r o m t h e s o u t h c u t h i s f i r s t p r i v a t e a l b u m i n H i n d i t i t l e d " Y e h D u n i y a S a b K i " . H i s o t h e r h i t s i n H i n d i i n c l u d e " K a i s i H a i Y e h " f r o m " D i l C h a h t a H a i " a n d " Z i n d a g i " f r o m t h e f i l m " Y u v v r a a j " . S r i n i v a s i s a c l o s e a s s o c i a t e t o A . R . R a h m a n f r o m t h e v e r y f i r s t d a y t h e y g o t i n t r o d u c e d . O n w o r k i n g w i t h R a h m a n , h e s a y s , " T h e r e c a n b e o n l y o n e R a h m a n . T w o y e a r s a g o , h e c a l l e d m e o u t o f t h e b l u e t o s u p e r v i s e h i s r e c o r d i n g s . I c o n s i d e r i t a n h o n o u r . E a r l i e r , h e w o u l d b e t h e r e t o m o n i t o r e v e r y s i n g l e t a k e . I s o m e t i m e s w o n d e r i f I c a n m a t c h h i s p e r f e c t i o n s t a n d a r d s , " a n d a d d s , " H e ' s a t l i g h t n i n g s p e e d w h e n i t c o m e s t o c r e a t i v i t y a n d i n n o v a t i o n s . T h e r e a r e t i m e s w h e n h e c o m p l i m e n t s m e a n d n o t h i n g f e e l s a s g o o d a s t h a t . F o r m e , i t ' s l i k e a n a w a r d . " H e w a s a j u d g e o n " A i r t e l S u p e r S i n g e r " , a i r e d i n V i j a y T V a l o n g w i t h S u j a t h a a n d P . U n n i k r i s h n a n . I n 2 0 1 0 , h e r e l e a s e d a n a l b u m : " T i m e l e s s C l a s s i c s b y S r i n i v a s " . T h i s w a s a t r i b u t e t o M e h d i H a s s a n a n d i n c l u d e d m a j o r g h a z a l s o f h i m s u n g b y S r i n i v a s . I t w a s r e l e a s e d o n S a r e g a m a a n d w a s l a u n c h e d b y A . R . R a h m a n . I n M a y 2 0 1 1 , h e c o m p o s e d m u s i c f o r J a y a r a j ' s M a m m o o t t y - s t a r r e r t h r i l l e r " T h e T r a i n " . I n 2 0 1 3 , h e c o m p o s e d m u s i c f o r t h e T a m i l f i l m ' K a n g a r o o ' . H e w a s a l s o j u d g i n g a f a m o u s m u s i c r e a l i t y s h o w n a m e d J o s c o I n d i a n V o i c e , t e l e c a s t e d i n M a z h a v i l M a n o r a m a a l o n g s i d e S u j a t h a a n d S h a r r e t h . H e w o r k e d o n a p r i v a t e a l b u m n a m e d ' S i r a g a d i p p e n ' , w h i c h f e a t u r e d t o p m u s i c i a n s s u c h a s M . S V i s w a n a t h a n , S P B , S h a n k a r M a h a d e v a n a n d h i m s e l f . A s o f 2 0 1 3 a n d 2 0 1 4 , h i s d i s c o g r a p h y b o a s t s o f b a c k t o b a c k h i t s f r o m S u p e r s t a r R a j i n i k a n t h ' s m o v i e s , K o c h a d a i i y a a n a n d L i n g a a . K o c h a d a i i y a a n h a d h i m c r o o n ' I d h a y a m ' , a p a t h o s s o n g a n d ' E n M a n n a v a ' , a r o m a n t i c d u e t f r o m L i n g a a . H i s s o n g ' P a r a k k i r e n N a a n ' f o r t h e V i j a y S e t h u p a t h i s t a r r e r M e l l i s a i w a s r e l e a s e d i n 2 0 1 5 , w h i c h h a d m u s i c b y S a m C S . i n 2 0 1 6 , S r i n i v a s r e l e a s e d h i s s i n g l e , ' A d a d a d a d a d a a K a d h a i p p o m a ' , a s o n g s a l u t i n g t h e s p i r i t o f T a m i l s a c r o s s t h e w o r l d . W i t h l y r i c s b y e s t e e m e d c o m p o s e r R a m e s h V i n a y a k a m , i t w a s e x t r e m e l y w e l l r e c e i v e d a n d g a r n e r e d a l o t o f p r a i s e . H e a l s o c o m p o s e d a s i n g l e f o r D o o p a d o o t i t l e d ' K o z h a i ' , w i t h h i s d a u g h t e r S h a r a n y a S r i n i v a s o n t h e v o c a l s . I t h a d t h o u g h t p r o v o k i n g l y r i c s b y M a d h a n K a r k y . H i s s o n g ‘ M i n s a r a P o o v e ’ i n ‘ P a d a y a p p a ’ w o n h i m t h e T a m i l N a d u G o v e r n m e n t ' s A w a r d f o r t h e b e s t P l a y b a c k S i n g e r . H e w o n t h e T a m i l N a d u s t a t e a w a r d a g a i n i n 2 0 0 8 f o r t h e s o n g ' M a r g a z h i y i l ' c o m p o s e d b y B h a r a d w a j . H e w o n t h e C i n e m a E x p r e s s A w a r d t w i c e , t h e D i n a k a r a n A w a r d o n c e , a n d t h e F i l m F a n s A w a r d t w i c e f o r t h e b e s t s i n g e r . H e w a s a l s o a w a r d e d t h e b e s t p l a y b a c k s i n g e r a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l T a m i l F i l m A w a r d s h e l d a t M a l a y s i a f o r t h e s o n g ‘ A p p l e P e n n e ’ f r o m R o j a K o o t a m . H e w a s c o n f e r r e d w i t h t h e K a l a i m a m a n i T i t l e b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f T a m i l N a d u i n 2 0 0 6 , a n d K e r a l a S t a t e A w a r d f o r t h e s o n g ‘ B a a n s u r i ’ f r o m t h e m o v i e ‘ R a t h r i m a z h a ’ . I n H i n d i f i l m s , h e w o n t h e A . V M a x A w a r d f o r t h e b e s t p l a y b a c k s i n g e r f o r h i s s p l e n d i d r e n d e r i n g o f t h e s o n g ‘ K a i s i H e Y e h R u t ’ f r o m ‘ D i l C h a h t a H a i ’ . T e l e v i s i o n F i l m s B e i t " V i j a y T e l e v i s i o n " S u p e r s i n g e r o r " Z e e T a m i l " S a r e g a m a p a , w i t h h i s o u t s p o k e n c o m m e n t s a n d t h e c o n t i n u o u s s u p p o r t a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t f o r t h e c o n t e s t a n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e a s o n m a k e s h i m o n e o f t h e m o s t f a v o u r i t e j u d g e s i n t h e r e a l i t y s h o w s o f T a m i l N a d u . T a m i l M a l a y a l a m H e g o t m a r r i e d t o S u j a t h a N a r a y a n a n o n 2 0 A p r i l 1 9 9 0 a t D h a r m a p r a k a s h K a l y a n a M a n d a p a m i n P u r a s a i w a k k a m . H e h a s t w o D a u g h t e r s S h a r a n y a S r i n i v a s a n d S u n a n d a S r i n i v a s .

Career

Singer Srinivas was born on November 7 in Tamil Nadu. He pursued a career in chemical engineering and marketing before following his passion for music. He approached A.R. Rahman after being inspired by the soundtrack of "Roja" and eventually gained recognition with the song "Maana Madurai" from "Minsaara Kanavu". He has since sung for leading music directors and has composed music for several films. He has also judged various music reality shows and has won numerous awards for his contributions to the music industry.

Singer Srinivas was born On 7 November in Ambasamudram in Tamil Nadu. He was born to Duraiswamy Iyengar and Lakshmi. He learnt Carnatic music from his aunt Padma Narayanan. The great Carnatic stalwarts of the 60s influenced his early days. After which Hindi film music chiefly that of Kishore Kumar & R.D.Burman deeply influenced him in his childhood days.(Later on it was the ghazals of Mehdi Hassan which redefined his singing) He completed his BTech from UDCT of University of Bombay; during which he represented his university in youth festivals. After pursuing his career as a chemical engineer and a marketing professional for ten years, he decided to follow his passion for music. He studied in Kerala and was coached in Carnatic music by his aunt. In 1988, Srinivas approached music director Ilaiyaraaja, who was at the helm of Tamil film music. He was offered the opportunity to work with Ilaiyaraaja, but things did not work out, as he was suffering from severe throat infection that day. In 1992, the soundtrack of Mani Ratnam's Tamil film "Roja" reignited his dreams of playback singing. Mani Ratnam introduced composer A. R. Rahman with this movie, who then went on to change the music scene in the whole Indian film industry. Encouraged by the use of fresh voices in "Roja", Srinivas approached Rahman. Rahman took a liking to his rendition of Mehdi Hassan's ghazals and offered him work at Chennai. In 1994, Srinivas shifted base to madras and started lending his voice to advertisement jingles and devotional albums. His first foray into playback singing began with the song "Sorgam Enbathu Namakku" with Swarnalatha from the movie "Nammavar", acted by Kamal Haasan. Music was composed by late Mahesh. It went on to become a runaway hit. Only in 1996 he did gain recognition with the song "Maana Madurai" from A. R. Rahman's "Minsaara Kanavu". Then came "En Uyire" in Mani Ratnam's "Uyire.." (the Tamil version of "Dil Se.."). This Rahman composition catapulted Srinivas into fame. Srinivas has sung for leading music directors like A. R. Rahman, Ilaiyaraaja, Deva, Vidyasagar, Bharadwaj, and in languages like Tamil, Malayalam, etc. He has made a foray into music direction through the Tamil movie Yai Nee Romba Azhaga Irukey, in which he was one among the five music directors. His composition "Ini Naanum naanillai" in that film is a major hit. His famous albums include "Ussele Ussele" and "Paarvai". Also he has worked as a co-composer to Praveen Mani for "Little John". He has composed music for Two Malayalam films titled "Seetha Kalyanam" & Train. The playback singer from the south cut his first private album in Hindi titled "Yeh Duniya Sab Ki". His other hits in Hindi include "Kaisi Hai Yeh" from "Dil Chahta Hai" and "Zindagi" from the film "Yuvvraaj". Srinivas is a close associate to A. R. Rahman from the very first day they got introduced. On working with Rahman, he says, "There can be only one Rahman. Two years ago, he called me out of the blue to supervise his recordings. I consider it an honour. Earlier, he would be there to monitor every single take. I sometimes wonder if I can match his perfection standards," and adds, "He's at lightning speed when it comes to creativity and innovations. There are times when he compliments me and nothing feels as good as that. For me, it's like an award. " He was a judge on "Airtel Super Singer", aired in Vijay TV along with Sujatha and P. Unnikrishnan. In 2010, he released an album: "Timeless Classics by Srinivas". This was a tribute to Mehdi Hassan and included major ghazals of him sung by Srinivas. It was released on Saregama and was launched by A. R. Rahman. In May 2011, he composed music for Jayaraj's Mammootty-starrer thriller "The Train". In 2013, he composed music for the Tamil film 'Kangaroo'. He was also judging a famous music reality show named Josco Indian Voice, telecasted in Mazhavil Manorama alongside Sujatha and Sharreth. He worked on a private album named 'Siragadippen', which featured top musicians such as M.S Viswanathan, SPB, Shankar Mahadevan and himself. As of 2013 and 2014, his discography boasts of back to back hits from Superstar Rajinikanth's movies, Kochadaiiyaan and Lingaa. Kochadaiiyaan had him croon 'Idhayam', a pathos song and 'En Mannava', a romantic duet from Lingaa. His song 'Parakkiren Naan' for the Vijay Sethupathi starrer Mellisai was released in 2015, which had music by Sam CS. in 2016, Srinivas released his single, 'Adadadadadaa Kadhaippoma', a song saluting the spirit of Tamils across the world. With lyrics by esteemed composer Ramesh Vinayakam, it was extremely well received and garnered a lot of praise. He also composed a single for Doopadoo titled 'Kozhai', with his daughter Sharanya Srinivas on the vocals. It had thought provoking lyrics by Madhan Karky. His song ‘Minsara Poove’ in ‘Padayappa’ won him the Tamil Nadu Government's Award for the best Playback Singer . He won the Tamil Nadu state award again in 2008 for the song 'Margazhiyil' composed by Bharadwaj. He won the Cinema Express Award twice, the Dinakaran Award once, and the Film Fans Award twice for the best singer. He was also awarded the best playback singer at the International Tamil Film Awards held at Malaysia for the song ‘Apple Penne’ from Roja Kootam. He was conferred with the Kalaimamani Title by the Government of Tamil Nadu in 2006, and Kerala State Award for the song ‘Baansuri’ from the movie ‘Rathri mazha’ . In Hindi films, he won the A.V Max Award for the best playback singer for his splendid rendering of the song ‘Kaisi He Yeh Rut’ from ‘Dil Chahta Hai’. Television Films Be it "Vijay Television " Super singer or "Zee Tamil" Saregamapa, with his outspoken comments and the continuous support and encouragement for the contestants throughout the season makes him one of the most favourite judges in the reality shows of Tamil Nadu. Tamil Malayalam He got married to Sujatha Narayanan on 20 April 1990 at Dharmaprakash Kalyana Mandapam in Purasaiwakkam. He has two Daughters Sharanya Srinivas and Sunanda Srinivas.

EnServe

T h e C o m p a n y w a s f o u n d e d b y S i m o n R i g b y i n 1 9 9 6 a s a m a n a g e m e n t b u y o u t f r o m Y o r k s h i r e E l e c t r i c i t y i n i t i a l l y t r a d i n g a s " F r e e d o m M a i n t e n a n c e " . I t w a s f i r s t l i s t e d o n t h e A l t e r n a t i v e I n v e s t m e n t M a r k e t i n 2 0 0 4 . I n 2 0 0 6 i t b o u g h t " I n e n c o " a n d " P a r G a s " a n d " A p o l l o H e a t i n g " , i n 2 0 0 7 i t p u r c h a s e d " G a s H e a t i n g U K " a n d i n 2 0 0 8 i t a c q u i r e d " S a t u r n E n e r g y " , " E n e r g y 2 0 0 0 " , " B r i t i s h P o w e r I n t e r n a t i o n a l " a n d t h e " N a t i o n a l I n d u s t r i a l F u e l E f f i c i e n c y S e r v i c e " . T h e C o m p a n y t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e m a i n l i s t o f t h e L o n d o n S t o c k E x c h a n g e i n 2 0 0 8 . S p i c e p l c w a s u n l i s t e d i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 0 a f t e r a b u y o u t b y E u r o p e a n i n v e s t m e n t g r o u p C i n v e n a n d r e n a m e d a s S p i c e l t d . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 S p i c e L i m i t e d w a s r e n a m e d E n S e r v e G r o u p L i m i t e d . R u b i c o n p u r c h a s e d E n s e r v e G r o u p f r o m C i n v e n i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 5 i n s t a l l i n g a n e w m a n a g e m e n t t e a m u n d e r M a r k P e r k i n s ( e x S h e p h e r d G r o u p ) w h o v e r y q u i c k l y c a r r i e d o u t a f u l l G r o u p r e s t r u c t u r e , e s t a b l i s h i n g e a c h b u s i n e s s o n a v i a b l e s t a n d a l o n e b a s i s , a n d c r e a t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s t r a t e g i e s f o r e a c h . T h e s u c c e s s f u l d i v e s t m e n t t h e n b e g a n w i t h M e t r o R o d t o F r a n c h i s e B r a n d s P L C i n a r e v e r s e t a k e o v e r o f t h e A I M l i s t e d b u s i n e s s r u n b y S t e p h e n H e l m s l e y i n M a r c h 2 0 1 7 , f o l l o w e d b y M e t e r - U t o M - G r o u p r u n b y J i m A r n o l d i n J u n e 2 0 1 7 a n d f i n a l l y F r e e d o m G r o u p i t s e l f i n A p r i l 2 0 1 8 f o l l o w i n g a y e a r o f p r o f i t a b l e g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t , t o N G B a i l e y G r o u p r u n b y D a v i d H u r c o m b . T h i s m a r k e d t h e e n d o f P E o w n e r s h i p f o r e a c h o f t h e b u s i n e s s e s a n d t h e s u c c e s s f u l e x e c u t i o n o f t h e R u b i c o n s t r a t e g y t o r e - h o m e e a c h b u s i n e s s w i t h l o n g t e r m s t r a t e g i c o w n e r s . T h e A n a l y t i c s b u s i n e s s E v o l v e w a s r e t a i n e d b y R u b i c o n p a r t n e r s u n t i l i t w a s a c q u i r e d b y G e n t r a c k a s p a r t o f t h e i r g r o w t h s t r a t e g y . T h e C o m p a n y h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g d i v i s i o n s :

History

Spice plc was founded in 1996 by Simon Rigby through a management buyout. It went public in 2004 and made several acquisitions between 2006 and 2008. The company was delisted in 2010 and renamed EnServe Group Limited in 2011. After being acquired by Rubicon in 2015, the company underwent restructuring and divested its businesses, including Metro Rod, Meter-U, and Freedom Group, between 2017 and 2018.

The Company was founded by Simon Rigby in 1996 as a management buy out from Yorkshire Electricity initially trading as "Freedom Maintenance". It was first listed on the Alternative Investment Market in 2004. In 2006 it bought "Inenco" and "ParGas" and "Apollo Heating", in 2007 it purchased "Gas Heating UK" and in 2008 it acquired "Saturn Energy", "Energy 2000", "British Power International" and the "National Industrial Fuel Efficiency Service". The Company transferred to the main list of the London Stock Exchange in 2008. Spice plc was unlisted in December 2010 after a buyout by European investment group Cinven and renamed as Spice ltd. In September 2011 Spice Limited was renamed EnServe Group Limited. Rubicon purchased Enserve Group from Cinven in December 2015 installing a new management team under Mark Perkins (ex Shepherd Group) who very quickly carried out a full Group restructure, establishing each business on a viable standalone basis, and creating development strategies for each. The successful divestment then began with Metro Rod to Franchise Brands PLC in a reverse takeover of the AIM listed business run by Stephen Helmsley in March 2017, followed by Meter-U to M-Group run by Jim Arnold in June 2017 and finally Freedom Group itself in April 2018 following a year of profitable growth and development, to NG Bailey Group run by David Hurcomb. This marked the end of PE ownership for each of the businesses and the successful execution of the Rubicon strategy to re-home each business with long term strategic owners. The Analytics business Evolve was retained by Rubicon partners until it was acquired by Gentrack as part of their growth strategy. The Company has the following divisions:

Columbus Horizon

P l a n s t o b r i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l b a s k e t b a l l t o C o l u m b u s w e r e u n v e i l e d i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 8 8 a n d t h e H o r i z o n b e g a n p l a y i n g i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 9 a t t h e O h i o E x p o C e n t e r C o l i s e u m , w h e r e t h e f r a n c h i s e h a d a f i v e - y e a r l e a s e . O w n e r E l i J a c o b s o n h a d p r e v i o u s l y o w n e d t h e P e n s a c o l a T o r n a d o s a n d w a s a b l e a t t r a c t P e n s a c o l a v e t e r a n s G a r y Y o u m a n s a n d T i m S i s e t o C o l u m b u s a s c o a c h a n d G e n e r a l M a n a g e r r e s p e c t i v e l y . J a c o b s e n w a s a l s o a m e m b e r o f t h e l e a g u e ' s E x p a n s i o n a n d R u l e s C o m m i t t e e s . J a c o b s e n t o l d t h e p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e t h a t t h e H o r i z o n w o u l d b e c o m e i n v o l v e d i n t h e C e n t r a l O h i o c o m m u n i t y a n d s a i d t h e e c o n o m i c i m p a c t o n C o l u m b u s w o u l d b e t o t h e t u n e $ 3 – $ 4 m i l l i o n g e n e r a t e d b a c k i n t o t h e c i t y e a c h y e a r . C B A C o m m i s s i o n e r J a y R a m s d e l l s a i d C o l u m b u s h a d a l l t h e e l e m e n t s t o b e a w i n n i n g C B A f r a n c h i s e . D e s p i t e t h e t e a m b e a r i n g t h e n a m e C o l u m b u s , t e a m o f f i c i a l s s a i d t h e y w a n t e d t h e f r a n c h i s e t o b e c o m e a h o m e t o w n f a v o r i t e t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e C e n t r a l O h i o a r e a . T h e H o u s t o n R o c k e t s a g r e e d t o b e t h e c l u b ' s N B A a f f i l i a t e . J a y R a m s d e l l w a s o n h i s w a y f r o m t h e C B A l e a g u e o f f i c e i n D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o t o C o l u m b u s f o r t h e 1 9 8 9 C o l l e g e P l a y e r D r a f t w h e n h i s U n i t e d A i r l i n e s F l i g h t 2 3 2 p l a n e c r a s h e d i n S i o u x C i t y , I o w a o n J u l y 1 9 , 1 9 8 9 . A c l o s e f r i e n d o f E l i J a c o b s e n , h e w a s i n s t r u m e n t a l i n l a y i n g t h e g r o u n d w o r k w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y l e d t o t h e g r a n t i n g o f a C B A f r a n c h i s e f o r C o l u m b u s . T h e H o r i z o n w a s p l a c e d i n t h e f o u r - t e a m N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e E a s t e r n D i v i s i o n b y t h e C B A . V e t e r a n C B A c o a c h G a r y Y o u m a n s w a s p u t i n c h a r g e . Y o u m a n s , w h o p r e v i o u s l y c o a c h e d t h e C e d a r R a p i d s S i l v e r B u l l e t s a n d w a s g e n e r a l m a n a g e r o f t h e T a m p a B a y T h r i l l e r s , w a s a n A s h l a n d C o l l e g e g r a d u a t e . T i m S i s e , w h o h a d w o r k e d w i t h Y o u m a n s a s p a r t o f t h e P e n s a c o l a T o r n a d o s f r a n c h i s e , w a s a p p o i n t e d G e n e r a l M a n a g e r . I n p r e p a r i n g f o r t h e i r i n a u g u r a l s e a s o n , t h e H o r i z o n l o o k e d t o s e c u r e t h e s e r v i c e s o f a l o c a l c o l l e g e h o o p s s t a r b y m a k i n g t h e m t h e i r f i r s t r o u n d d r a f t p i c k . J a y B u r s o n , w h o a t t h a t t i m e w a s t h e l e a d i n g s c o r e r i n O h i o h i g h s c h o o l h i s t o r y , h a d s u f f e r e d a f r a c t u r e d c e r v i c a l v e r t e b r a i n a c o l l i s i o n w i t h a n I o w a p l a y e r w h i l e p l a y i n g f o r O h i o S t a t e . D e s p i t e b e i n g d r a f t e d b y t h e H o r i z o n , B u r s o n s i g n e d a t h r e e - y e a r c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e H o u s t o n R o c k e t s o f t h e N B A s a y i n g h e w o u l d n o t p l a y f o r C o l u m b u s . H o w e v e r , a f t e r b e i n g r e l e a s e d b y H o u s t o n a n d c l e a r i n g w a i v e r s i n O c t o b e r 1 9 8 9 , h e d e c i d e d t o s i g n w i t h t h e H o r i z o n . B u r s o n w a s n ' t s i g n e d j u s t t o s e l l t i c k e t s , H o r i z o n c o a c h G a r y Y o u m a n s s a i d . " W e w a n t J a y a s a p l a y e r , n o t a s a d r a w i n g c a r d . H e m i g h t a t t r a c t s o m e f a n s b u t w e w a n t h i m s o w e c a n w i n b a l l g a m e s . " I n 3 4 g a m e s w i t h t h e H o r i z o n i n t h e 1 9 8 9 - 9 0 s e a s o n , B u r s o n a v e r a g e d 1 3 . 6 p o i n t s a g a m e . A l s o a m o n g t h e t e a m ' s f i r s t s i g n i n g s w a s a n o t h e r l o c a l c o l l e g e p r o d u c t E r i c N e w s o m e , a 5 - f o o t - 8 g u a r d f r o m T o l e d o , w h o w a s , a t t h a t t i m e , s e c o n d o n M i a m i U n i v e r s i t y ' s c a r e e r s c o r i n g l i s t . T h e n e w t e a m ' s f i r s t g a m e c a m e a t h o m e t o S a n t a B a r b a r a o n N o v e m b e r 1 4 , 1 9 8 9 . C o l u m b u s l o s t 1 2 3 - 1 1 3 i n w h a t w a s b o t h t h e i r a n d S a n t a B a r a b a r a ' s C B A d e b u t . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s e a s o n p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e f l e d g l i n g f r a n c h i s e . I n J a n u a r y 1 9 9 0 , t h e H o r i z o n w e r e f o r c e d t o c h a n g e c o a c h e s a f t e r G a r y Y o u m a n s r e s i g n e d d u e t o i l l h e a l t h . H e w a s r e p l a c e d b y B i l l K l u c a s , a f o r m e r n e w s p a p e r s p o r t s e d i t o r t u r n e d b a s k e t b a l l c o a c h . K l u c a s w a s u n a b l e t o c h a n g e t h e f o r t u n e s o f t h e n e w t e a m , w h i c h f i n i s h e d f o u r t h o u t o f f o u r t e a m s i n i t s d i v i s i o n w i t h a r e c o r d o f 1 8 w i n s a n d 3 8 d e f e a t s . T h e H o r i z o n s p e n t j u s t f o u r m o r e y e a r s i n t h e C B A , f i n i s h i n g i n l a s t p l a c e i n t h r e e o f t h o s e s e a s o n s . I n 1 9 9 0 - 9 1 t h e H o r i z o n f i n i s h e d b o t t o m o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e E a s t e r n D i v i s i o n w i t h a 2 3 - 3 3 r e c o r d . I n b o t h 1 9 9 1 a n d 1 9 9 2 , H o r i z o n p l a y e r s w o n t h e C B A L o n g D i s t a n c e S h o o t o u t . B a r r y S t e v e n s w o n i n 9 1 a n d D u a n e W a s h i n g t o n a y e a r l a t e r . V i n c e C h i c k e r e l l a , w i n n e r o f m o r e t h a n 4 0 0 g a m e s i n a l e n g t h y c a r e e r a t L i n d e n M c K i n l e y , D e S a l e s a n d H i l l i a r d h i g h s c h o o l s i n C e n t r a l O h i o , w a s n a m e d a s t h e n e w h e a d c o a c h i n A p r i l 1 9 9 1 . C h i c k e r e l l a w a s c h o s e n f r o m a f i e l d o f m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 a p p l i c a n t s , w h i c h i n c l u d e d s e v e n N B A a s s i s t a n t s , s e v e r a l C B A h e a d c o a c h e s a n d m a n y N C A A D i v i s i o n I a s s i s t a n t s . I n h i s f i r s t s e a s o n , t h e H o r i z o n , n o w a m e m b e r o f t h e A m e r i c a n C o n f e r e n c e E a s t e r n D i v i s i o n , w o n j u s t 1 8 t i m e s i n a 5 6 - g a m e s e a s o n a n d a g a i n f i n i s h e d d e a d l a s t . T h e H o r i z o n h a d s e l e c t e d K e r m i t H o l m e s o f O k l a h o m a a s i t s f i r s t r o u n d d r a f t p i c k i n 1 9 9 1 . C h i c k e r e l l a r e s i g n e d i n J a n u a r y 1 9 9 2 a n d w a s r e p l a c e d b y F r e d B r y a n , a f o r m e r c o a c h a n d g e n e r a l m a n a g e r o f t h e P e n s a c o l a T o r n a d o s . B e f o r e t h e 9 2 - 9 3 s e a s o n b e g a n , h o w e v e r , f o r m e r M i c h i g a n A l l - A m e r i c a n C a z z i e R u s s e l l , w h o h a d c o a c h e d f o r s e v e n s e a s o n s i n t h e C B A , w a s s i g n e d a s c o a c h . T h e t e a m m o v e d d o w n t o w n t o B a t t e l l e H a l l a n d i m p r o v e d s l i g h t l y t o l i f t i t s e l f o f f t h e f o o t o f t h e d i v i s i o n , b u t s t i l l f i n i s h e d 9 2 - 9 3 w i t h a l o s i n g r e c o r d o f 2 1 - 3 5 . T h e i r r e c o r d w a s o n l y m a r g i n a l l y b e t t e r t h a n t h e 2 0 - 3 6 F o r t W a y n e F u r y . I n 1 9 9 3 M i t c h e l l B u t l e r f r o m U C L A w a s s e l e c t e d a s C o l u m b u s ' f i r s t r o u n d d r a f t p i c k , b u t t h e 6 ' 5 " s h o o t i n g g u a r d i n s t e a d c h o s e t o s i g n u n d r a f t e d w i t h t h e W a s h i n g t o n B u l l e t s o f t h e N B A . T h e H o r i z o n s l u m p e d b a c k i n t o l a s t p l a c e b y t h e 1 9 9 3 – 9 4 s e a s o n , a g a i n m a n a g i n g j u s t 1 8 w i n s . T w i c e i n t h e f r a n c h i s e ' s h i s t o r y d i d a p l a y e r s c o r e 5 0 o r m o r e p o i n t s i n a s i n g l e g a m e . S t e v e H a r r i s s c o r e d 5 4 a g a i n s t t h e L a C r o s s e C a t b i r d s o n J a n u a r y 7 , 1 9 9 0 w h i l e K e v i n W i l l i a m s s c o r e d 5 0 i n a h o m e g a m e a g a i n s t t h e P e n s a c o l a T o r n a d o s j u s t w e e k s l a t e r o n F e b r u a r y 2 8 , 1 9 9 0 . R i c k y C a l l o w a y , w h o h e l p e d I n d i a n a w i n t h e n a t i o n a l c h a m p i o n s h i p i n 1 9 8 7 , w a s s u s p e n d e d b y t h e H o r i z o n b e c a u s e h e f a i l e d t w o C B A d r u g t e s t s . F a c i n g w e a k b u s i n e s s s u p p o r t a n d t h e l o w e s t a v e r a g e a t t e n d a n c e p e r g a m e i n t h e e n t i r e C B A , t h e H o r i z o n a n n o u n c e d i n M a r c h 1 9 9 4 t h a t i t w o u l d l e a v e t o w n . T h e H o r i z o n h a d a v e r a g e d 2 , 6 0 0 f a n s i n i t s f i r s t t w o s e a s o n s , 2 , 9 0 0 i n i t s t h i r d s e a s o n b u t h a d d r o p p e d t o 1 , 7 0 0 b y 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 . I t w a s a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e f r a n c h i s e h a d l o s t $ 2 . 5 m i l l i o n i n C o l u m b u s a n d h a d a d e b t o f a b o u t $ 1 m i l l i o n . T h e f r a n c h i s e d e p a r t e d C o l u m b u s a n d m o v e d t o S h r e v e p o r t , L o u i s i a n a f o r t h e 1 9 9 4 - 9 5 s e a s o n . I n t h e i r f i r s t s e a s o n o f p l a y , t h e H o r i z o n h a d a n u m b e r o f t h e i r g a m e s o n t e l e v i s i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e C e n t r a l O h i o a r e a . T h e g a m e s f e a t u r e d p l a y - b y - p l a y c o m m e n t a r y b y M i k e G l e a s o n a f o r m e r l e t t e r m a n a n d g r a d u a t e o f C e n t r a l M i c h i g a n U n i v e r s i t y . J o i n i n g G l e a s o n t o h a n d l e c o l o r c o m m e n t a r y w a s C o l u m b u s - b o r n f o r m e r N B A a n d A B A p l a y e r L a r r y J o n e s . A l l g a m e s , b o t h h o m e a n d a w a y , w e r e c a r r i e d o n r a d i o o n W C O L A M w i t h p l a y - b y - p l a y d u t i e s h a n d l e d b y v e t e r a n b r o a d c a s t e r B o b F i t z g e r a l d . H o m e g a m e s w e r e t e l e v i s e d l i v e o n W C L S - T V 6 2 , w h o s e s t u d i o s w e r e a l s o l o c a t e d i n t h e O h i o C e n t e r , t w o f l o o r s b e l o w B a t t e l l e H a l l . T h e W C L S - T V c o v e r a g e , w a s l e d b y p l a y - b y - p l a y m a n M i k e R a y m o n d a n d f o r m e r H o r i z o n a n d O h i o S t a t e s t a n d o u t R o n S t o k e s . I n D e c e m b e r o f 1 9 9 2 , R a y m o n d l e f t W C L S - T V a n d t h e i r H o r i z o n c o v e r a g e . T h e t e a m m a d e h i s t o r y w h e n R a y m o n d ' s r e p l a c e m e n t , R o b H a v e n e r b e c a m e t h e y o u n g e s t p l a y - b y - p l a y m a n i n l e a g u e h i s t o r y . H a v e n e r , w h o r e p l a c e d R a y m o n d a s W C L S S p o r t s D i r e c t o r w a s t h r e e w e e k s s h y o f h i s 2 0 t h b i r t h d a y w h e n h e m a d e h i s H o r i z o n d e b u t . H e d i d t w o g a m e s w i t h S t o k e s b e f o r e S t o k e s l e f t W C L S . S t o k e s w a s r e p l a c e d b y T e r r y B r o w n w h o t e a m e d w i t h H a v e n e r o n t h e H o r i z o n t e l e c a s t s f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e 1 9 9 2 - 9 3 s e a s o n . " S o u r c e s "

History

The Columbus Horizon played in the Continental Basketball Association (CBA) from 1989 to 1994. They were founded by Gary Youmans, who served as their first general manager. The team struggled financially and on the court, finishing with a losing record in all five seasons. They had some notable players, including Jay Burson, who was drafted by the team but initially signed with the Houston Rockets, and Eric Newsome, a local college product. The team went through several coaches, including Gary Youmans, Bill Klucas, Vince Chickerella, Fred Bryan, and Cazzie Russell. Despite their struggles, the Horizon did have some bright spots, including having two players score 50 or more points in a single game. The team ultimately folded and relocated to Shreveport, Louisiana in 1994.

and was general manager of the Tampa Bay Thrillers, was an Ashland College graduate. Tim Sise, who had worked with Youmans as part of the Pensacola Tornados franchise, was appointed General Manager. In preparing for their inaugural season, the Horizon looked to secure the services of a local college hoops star by making them their first round draft pick. Jay Burson, who at that time was the leading scorer in Ohio high school history, had suffered a fractured cervical vertebra in a collision with an Iowa player while playing for Ohio State. Despite being drafted by the Horizon, Burson signed a three-year contract with the Houston Rockets of the NBA saying he would not play for Columbus. However, after being released by Houston and clearing waivers in October 1989, he decided to sign with the Horizon. Burson wasn't signed just to sell tickets, Horizon coach Gary Youmans said. "We want Jay as a player, not as a drawing card. He might attract some fans but we want him so we can win ballgames. " In 34 games with the Horizon in the 1989-90 season, Burson averaged 13.6 points a game. Also among the team's first signings was another local college product Eric Newsome, a 5-foot-8 guard from Toledo, who was, at that time, second on Miami University's career scoring list. The new team's first game came at home to Santa Barbara on November 14, 1989. Columbus lost 123-113 in what was both their and Santa Barabara's CBA debut. The remainder of the season proved difficult for the fledgling franchise. In January 1990, the Horizon were forced to change coaches after Gary Youmans resigned due to ill health. He was replaced by Bill Klucas, a former newspaper sports editor turned basketball coach. Klucas was unable to change the fortunes of the new team, which finished fourth out of four teams in its division with a record of 18 wins and 38 defeats. The Horizon spent just four more years in the CBA, finishing in last place in three of those seasons. In 1990-91 the Horizon finished bottom of the National Conference Eastern Division with a 23-33 record. In both 1991 and 1992, Horizon players won the CBA Long Distance Shootout. Barry Stevens won in 91 and Duane Washington a year later. Vince Chickerella, winner of more than 400 games in a lengthy career at Linden McKinley, DeSales and Hilliard high schools in Central Ohio, was named as the new head coach in April 1991. Chickerella was chosen from a field of more than 100 applicants, which included seven NBA assistants, several CBA head coaches and many NCAA Division I assistants. In his first season, the Horizon, now a member of the American Conference Eastern Division, won just 18 times in a 56-game season and again finished dead last. The Horizon had selected Kermit Holmes of Oklahoma as its first round draft pick in 1991. Chickerella resigned in January 1992 and was replaced by Fred Bryan, a former coach and general manager of the Pensacola Tornados. Before the 92-93 season began, however, former Michigan All-American Cazzie Russell, who had coached for seven seasons in the CBA, was signed as coach. The team moved downtown to Battelle Hall and improved slightly to lift itself off the foot of the division, but still finished 92-93 with a losing record of 21-35. Their record was only marginally better than the 20-36 Fort Wayne Fury. In 1993 Mitchell Butler from UCLA was selected as Columbus' first round draft pick, but the 6' 5" shooting guard instead chose to sign undrafted with the Washington Bullets of the NBA. The Horizon slumped back into last place by the 1993–94 season, again managing just 18 wins. Twice in the franchise's history did a player score 50 or more points in a single game. Steve Harris scored 54 against the LaCrosse Catbirds on January 7, 1990 while Kevin Williams scored 50 in a home game against the Pensacola Tornados just weeks later on February 28, 1990. Ricky Calloway, who helped Indiana win the national championship in 1987, was suspended by the Horizon because he failed two CBA drug tests. Facing weak business support and the lowest average attendance per game in the entire CBA, the Horizon announced in March 1994 that it would leave town. The Horizon had averaged 2,600 fans in its first two seasons, 2,900 in its third season but had dropped to 1,700 by 1993-94. It was also reported that the franchise had lost $2.5 million in Columbus and had a debt of about $1 million. The franchise departed Columbus and moved to Shreveport, Louisiana for the 1994-95 season. In their first season of play, the Horizon had a number of their games on television throughout the Central Ohio area. The games featured play-by-play commentary by Mike Gleason a former letterman and graduate of Central Michigan University. Joining Gleason to handle color commentary was Columbus-born former NBA and ABA player Larry Jones. All games, both home and away, were carried on radio on WCOL AM with play-by-play duties handled by veteran broadcaster Bob Fitzgerald. Home games were televised live on WCLS-TV 62, whose studios were also located in the Ohio Center, two floors below Battelle Hall. The WCLS-TV coverage, was led by play-by-play man Mike Raymond and former Horizon and Ohio State standout Ron Stokes. In December of 1992, Raymond left WCLS-TV and their Horizon coverage. The team made history when Raymond's replacement, Rob Havener became the youngest play-by-play man in league history. Havener, who replaced Raymond as WCLS Sports Director was three weeks shy of his 20th birthday when he made his Horizon debut. He did two games with Stokes before Stokes left WCLS. Stokes was replaced by Terry Brown who teamed with Havener on the Horizon telecasts for the remainder of the 1992-93 season. "Sources"

Roman Catholic Diocese of San Miniato

I n 1 2 4 8 S a n G e n e s i o w a s c o m p l e t e l y d e s t r o y e d . I n 1 3 9 7 t h e t o w n w a s t a k e n b y F l o r e n c e , a n d w a s p l a c e d u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f a v i c a r a p p o i n t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f F l o r e n c e . F r o m 2 1 J a n u a r y 1 5 2 9 t o N o v e m b e r 1 5 3 0 S a n M i n i a t o w a s a t t a c k e d a n d b e s i e g e d b y S p a n i s h f o r c e s . M o r e t h a n 3 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s w e r e k i l l e d . F r o m 1 2 4 8 t h e C h a p t e r o f t h e c o l l e g i a t e c h u r c h o f S a n G e n e s i o w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o S a n M i n i a t o , a n d i n 1 5 2 7 t h e h e a d o f t h e C h a p t e r w a s g r a n t e d t h e p r i v i l e g e o f w e a r i n g p o n t i f i c a l v e s t m e n t s , t h e m i t r e , a n d t h e u s e o f t h e p a s t o r a l s t a f f , i n s i d e t h e t e r r i t o r y o f S a n M i n i a t o . I n 1 4 0 8 t h e R e p u b l i c o f F l o r e n c e w i s h e d t o h a v e i t m a d e a n e p i s c o p a l s e e , b e i n g t h e n a t e r r i t o r y i n t h e a r c h d i o c e s e o f L u c c a , b u t t h e e f f o r t f a i l e d . T h e s i t u a t i o n c h a n g e d w h e n M a r i a M a d d e l e n a o f A u s t r i a , t h e w i f e o f D u k e C o s i m o I I o f T u s c a n y t o o k u p r e s i d e n c e i n S . M i n i a t o , a n d m a d e h e r s e l f i t s p a t r o n . S h e s u c c e s s f u l l y p u t p r e s s u r e o n P o p e G r e g o r y X V . O n 5 D e c e m b e r 1 6 2 2 t h e t o w n ( " o p p i d u m " ) o f S a n M i n i a t o w a s r a i s e d t o t h e d i g n i t y o f a c i t y ( " c i v i t a s " ) , a n d w a s n a m e d t h e s e a t o f a b i s h o p b y P o p e G r e g o r y X V . T h e c h u r c h o f S . M a r i a a n d S . G e n e s i u s w a s e l e v a t e d t o t h e s t a t u s o f a c a t h e d r a l . T h e c a t h e d r a l C h a p t e r w a s t o c o n s i s t o f t w o d i g n i t i e s ( t h e P r o v o s t a n d t h e A r c h p r i e s t ) a n d t w e l v e C a n o n s . I n 1 7 5 5 , t h e r e w a s o n l y o n e d i g n i t y , a n d f o u r t e e n C a n o n s . T h e f i r s t b i s h o p w a s F r a n c e s e o N o r i ( 1 6 2 4 ) . A d i o c e s a n s y n o d w a s a n i r r e g u l a r l y h e l d , b u t i m p o r t a n t , m e e t i n g o f t h e b i s h o p o f a d i o c e s e a n d h i s c l e r g y . I t s p u r p o s e w a s ( 1 ) t o p r o c l a i m g e n e r a l l y t h e v a r i o u s d e c r e e s a l r e a d y i s s u e d b y t h e b i s h o p ; ( 2 ) t o d i s c u s s a n d r a t i f y m e a s u r e s o n w h i c h t h e b i s h o p c h o s e t o c o n s u l t w i t h h i s c l e r g y ; ( 3 ) t o p u b l i s h s t a t u t e s a n d d e c r e e s o f t h e d i o c e s a n s y n o d , o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l s y n o d , a n d o f t h e H o l y S e e . B i s h o p A l e s s a n d r o S t r o z z i ( 1 6 3 2 – 1 6 4 8 ) h e l d a d i o c e s a n s y n o d o n 1 D e c e m b e r 1 6 3 8 . O n 1 9 J u n e 1 6 8 5 , B i s h o p M i c h e l e C a r l o C o r t i g i a n i ( 1 6 8 3 – 1 7 0 3 ) h e l d a d i o c e s a n s y n o d ; h e h e l d a n o t h e r o n 3 O c t o b e r 1 6 9 0 ; a n d a n o t h e r o n 1 5 S e p t e m b e r 1 6 9 9 . B i s h o p G i o v a n n i F r a n c e s c o M a r i a P o g g i , O . S . M . ( 1 7 0 3 – 1 7 1 9 ) h e l d a d i o c e s a n s y n o d o n 2 1 – 2 2 M a y 1 7 0 7 . B i s h o p T o r e l l o R o m o l o P i e r a z z i ( 1 8 3 4 – 1 8 5 1 ) h e l d a d i o c e s a n s y n o d i n 1 8 4 3 .

History

San Miniato's history dates back to 1248 when it was destroyed, later coming under Florentine rule. The town suffered attacks and sieges, including a devastating attack by Spanish forces in 1529-30 that killed over 300 inhabitants. Despite this, the town flourished, with the Chapter of San Genesio transferring to San Miniato in 1248. In 1622, Pope Gregory XV elevated San Miniato to a city and designated it as a bishopric, with the church of S. Maria and S. Genesius becoming a cathedral. The diocese held several synods throughout its history, with notable bishops including Franceseo Nori, Alessandro Strozzi, and Torello Romolo Pierazzi.

In 1248 San Genesio was completely destroyed. In 1397 the town was taken by Florence, and was placed under the control of a vicar appointed by the government of Florence. From 21 January 1529 to November 1530 San Miniato was attacked and besieged by Spanish forces. More than 300 inhabitants were killed. From 1248 the Chapter of the collegiate church of San Genesio was transferred to San Miniato, and in 1527 the head of the Chapter was granted the privilege of wearing pontifical vestments, the mitre, and the use of the pastoral staff, inside the territory of San Miniato. In 1408 the Republic of Florence wished to have it made an episcopal see, being then a territory in the archdiocese of Lucca, but the effort failed. The situation changed when Maria Maddelena of Austria, the wife of Duke Cosimo II of Tuscany took up residence in S. Miniato, and made herself its patron. She successfully put pressure on Pope Gregory XV. On 5 December 1622 the town ("oppidum") of San Miniato was raised to the dignity of a city ("civitas"), and was named the seat of a bishop by Pope Gregory XV. The church of S. Maria and S. Genesius was elevated to the status of a cathedral. The cathedral Chapter was to consist of two dignities (the Provost and the Archpriest) and twelve Canons. In 1755, there was only one dignity, and fourteen Canons. The first bishop was Franceseo Nori (1624). A diocesan synod was an irregularly held, but important, meeting of the bishop of a diocese and his clergy. Its purpose was (1) to proclaim generally the various decrees already issued by the bishop; (2) to discuss and ratify measures on which the bishop chose to consult with his clergy; (3) to publish statutes and decrees of the diocesan synod, of the provincial synod, and of the Holy See. Bishop Alessandro Strozzi (1632–1648) held a diocesan synod on 1 December 1638. On 19 June 1685, Bishop Michele Carlo Cortigiani (1683–1703) held a diocesan synod; he held another on 3 October 1690; and another on 15 September 1699. Bishop Giovanni Francesco Maria Poggi, O.S.M. (1703–1719) held a diocesan synod on 21–22 May 1707. Bishop Torello Romolo Pierazzi (1834–1851) held a diocesan synod in 1843.

Henry Poole Is Here

H a v i n g b e e n d i a g n o s e d a s t e r m i n a l l y i l l , H e n r y P o o l e p u r c h a s e s a t r a c t h o u s e i n h i s h o m e t o w n , a w o r k i n g c l a s s s u b u r b o f L o s A n g e l e s , a n d a w a i t s t h e i n e v i t a b l e , f o r t i f i e d w i t h w h i s k e y a n d f r o z e n p i z z a . H i s p e a c e f u l s o l i t u d e a n d s e l f - i m p o s e d e x i l e a r e d i s r u p t e d b y h i s m e d d l i n g n e i g h b o r E s p e r a n z a M a r t i n e z , w h o i n s i s t s s h e s e e s t h e f a c e o f C h r i s t e m b e d d e d i n t h e s t u c c o w a l l o f h i s h o m e a n d i s c o n v i n c e d t h e i m a g e h a s m i r a c u l o u s p o w e r s w h e n i t b e g i n s t o e x u d e d r o p s o f b l o o d . B e f o r e l o n g , s h e i s l e a d i n g p i l g r i m a g e s t o h i s b a c k y a r d a n d i n v i t i n g F a t h e r S a l a z a r f r o m t h e l o c a l p a r i s h t o b l e s s t h e s u p p o s e d l y s a c r o s a n c t b l e m i s h . T o H e n r y t h e i m a g e i s a w a t e r s t a i n . I n a d d i t i o n t o d e a l i n g w i t h E s p e r a n z a , H e n r y f i n d s h i m s e l f i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h D a w n a n d h e r t a c i t u r n s i x - y e a r - o l d d a u g h t e r M i l l i e , w h o h a s n ' t s p o k e n a w o r d s i n c e h e r f a t h e r a b a n d o n e d t h e f a m i l y a y e a r e a r l i e r . D a w n b e c o m e s c o n v i n c e d o f t h e i m a g e ' s h e a l i n g p o w e r s w h e n M i l l i e b e g i n s t o t a l k a f t e r t o u c h i n g i t . A n o t h e r d i s c i p l e i s s u p e r m a r k e t c a s h i e r P a t i e n c e , w h o w e a r s t h i c k g l a s s e s a n d d i s c o v e r s h e r v i s i o n i s p e r f e c t a f t e r s h e t o o c o m e s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s t a i n . W h e n H e n r y l e a r n s t h a t M i l l i e h a s g o n e s i l e n t a f t e r l e a r n i n g o f h i s t e r m i n a l i l l n e s s w h i l e e a v e s d r o p p i n g o n h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h h e r m o t h e r , h e r e s o l v e s t o r e m o v e t h e s t a i n a n d d i s a b u s e t h e f a i t h f u l o f w h a t h e b e l i e v e s t o b e m i s p l a c e d b e l i e f . H e n r y d e s t r o y s t h e i m a g e w i t h a n a x e a n d i n t h e p r o c e s s d e s t r o y s h i s h o u s e . W i t h t h e s t r u c t u r e w e a k e n e d , a c o r n e r o f t h e h o u s e c o l l a p s e s o n h i m . T h e f i l m e n d s w i t h H e n r y r e c o v e r i n g i n t h e h o s p i t a l . U p o n a w a k e n i n g i n h i s h o s p i t a l b e d , h e i s g r e e t e d b y E s p e r a n z a , D a w n a n d a t a l k i n g M i l l i e , w h o i n f o r m h i m t h a t h e i s n o l o n g e r i l l . S u r p r i s e d a n d r e j u v e n a t e d , h e f i n d s h i m s e l f r e a d y t o a c c e p t h o p e a n d b e l i e f a n d e v e n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m i r a c l e s . T h e f i l m w a s s h o t o n l o c a t i o n i n L a M i r a d a , C a l i f o r n i a . T h e s o u n d t r a c k i n c l u d e s " N o t D a r k Y e t " b y B o b D y l a n , " S o n g 2 " b y B l u r , " P r o m i s e s " b y B a d l y D r a w n B o y a n d " A l l r o a d s l e a d h o m e " b y G o l d e n S t a t e . T h e f i l m r e c e i v e d g e n e r a l l y n e g a t i v e r e v i e w s . S t e p h e n H o l d e n o f " T h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s " s a i d t h e f i l m " t r a f f i c s i n t h e k i n d o f i n s p i r a t i o n a l k i t s c h t h a t o n l y a t r u e b e l i e v e r c o u l d s w a l l o w " a n d a d d e d , " M r . W i l s o n o f f e r s a c r e d i b l e p o r t r a i t o f a n a n g r y , d e s p a i r i n g m a n f e n d i n g o f f a c u l t . B u t t h e f i l m ’ s s p i r i t u a l d e c k i s s t a c k e d . I n t h e m a w k i s h t r a d i t i o n o f m o v i e s l i k e " S i m o n B i r c h " , " W i d e A w a k e " , " A u g u s t R u s h " , a n d " H e a r t s i n A t l a n t i s " , " H e n r y P o o l e I s H e r e " i s i n s u f f e r a b l e h o k u m t h a t t a k e s i t s e l f v e r y , v e r y s e r i o u s l y . " R o g e r E b e r t o f t h e " C h i c a g o S u n - T i m e s " r a t e d t h e f i l m 3 ½ o u t o f f o u r s t a r s a n d s a i d i t " a c h i e v e s s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s u n c o m m o n l y d i f f i c u l t . I t i s a s p i r i t u a l m o v i e w i t h t h e p o w e r t o e m o t i o n a l l y t o u c h b e l i e v e r s , a g n o s t i c s a n d a t h e i s t s - i n t h a t d e s c e n d i n g o r d e r , I s u s p e c t . I t d o e s n ' t s a y t h a t r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s a r e r e a l . I t s i m p l y s a y s t h a t b e l i e f i s r e a l . A n d i t ' s a w a r m - h e a r t e d l o v e s t o r y . . . I f e l l f o r i t . " R e y h a n H a r m a n c i o f t h e " S a n F r a n c i s c o C h r o n i c l e " c a l l e d i t " a s t r a n g e a n d t h o u g h t f u l l i t t l e m o v i e " a n d a d d e d , " T h e f i l m m a n a g e s t o b e s u c c e s s f u l l y c h a r a c t e r - d r i v e n , b u t t h e c h a r a c t e r s r i d e o n a f l i m s y p l o t . " S t e v e P e r s a l l o f t h e " S t . P e t e r s b u r g T i m e s " g r a d e d t h e f i l m C - a n d c o m m e n t e d , " " H e n r y P o o l e I s H e r e " i s a i m e d a t t h e B i b l e b u n c h , w h o w i l l b e m o r e t o l e r a n t o f i t s o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o l o g i c a l m y s t e r y . T h e y ' l l s e e H e n r y a s a l o s t s o u l r e s i s t i n g C h r i s t i a n p o w e r u n t i l t h a t b e c o m e s i m p o s s i b l e , t h e n s i n g p r a i s e s w h e n i t d o e s . B u t t h a t d o e s n ' t c h a n g e t h e f a c t t h a t P e l l i n g t o n ' s m o v i e i s d r a g g y - d u l l a n d a b i t a n n o y i n g w i t h i t s p i e t y . H o l l y w o o d s t i l l d o e s s i n m u c h b e t t e r t h a n s a l v a t i o n . " J o s h R o s e n b l a t t o f t h e " A u s t i n C h r o n i c l e " r a t e d t h e f i l m 1 ½ s t a r s a n d a s s e r t e d " g o o d o l d d i s t u r b i n g P e l l i n g t o n h a s o f f i c i a l l y g o n e s o f t . T h o u g h h i s l a t e s t , " H e n r y P o o l e I s H e r e " , i s f u l l o f a l l h i s u s u a l u l t r a s t y l i z e d , u l t r a d a r k v i s u a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n – a n a e s t h e t i c t h a t m a k e s v i e w e r s f e e l l i k e t h e y ’ r e d r o w n i n g i n a n o c e a n o f u n c o m f o r t a b l e c h i l d h o o d m e m o r i e s – i t s s t o r y c o u l d n ’ t b e m o r e c o r n y , r e d e m p t i v e , o r i n s p i r a t i o n a l . . . I d o n ’ t k n o w i f P e l l i n g t o n f o u n d r e l i g i o n r e c e n t l y , b u t I d o k n o w y o u h a v e t o w o n d e r a b o u t t h e a r t i s t i c h e a l t h a n d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a b i l i t i e s o f a n y f i l m m a k e r w h o l o o k s f o r d i v i n i t y i n s h o t s o f s u n l i g h t p o u r i n g o u t f r o m b e h i n d c l o u d s . A l l t h a t ’ s m i s s i n g f r o m t h e d i r e c t o r ’ s n e w v i s i o n o f t h e w o r l d i s t h e p i p e o r g a n a n d t h e c h o i r o f a n g e l s . " R o b e r t K o e h l e r o f " V a r i e t y " o b s e r v e d , " B e c a u s e i t ' s b i l l e d a s a m o r e p e r s o n a l p r o j e c t f o r M a r k P e l l i n g t o n a f t e r a s t r i n g o f i n t e r e s t i n g , i d i o s y n c r a t i c t h r i l l e r s ( " A r l i n g t o n R o a d " , " T h e M o t h m a n P r o p h e c i e s " ) , " H e n r y P o o l e I s H e r e " i s a l l t h e m o r e d i s a p p o i n t i n g . [ I t s ] t e n d e n c y t o l e c t u r e o n t h e p o w e r o f f a i t h a n d r e l i g i o n a n d o n t h e d e m e r i t s o f s c i e n c e s e e m s t o a s s u m e a n a l m o s t c h i l d l i k e a u d i e n c e t h a t n e e d s t o b e s p o o n - f e d P a b l u m . T h i s t a l e . . . w o n ' t a d v a n c e t h e p r o f i l e o f t h e a l w a y s - l i k a b l e L u k e W i l s o n , a n d C h r i s t i a n m o v i e g o e r s w i l l h a v e t o s h o w u p i n g r e a t n u m b e r s t o k e e p t h e f i l m f r o m b e i n g d o o m e d t o s o m e t h i n g f a r l e s s t h a n s l e e p e r s t a t u s . " R o t t e n T o m a t o e s g i v e s t h e f i l m a n a p p r o v a l r a t i n g o f 3 9 % b a s e d o n 9 2 r e v i e w s ; t h e a v e r a g e r a t i n g i s 5 . 2 . T h e c o n s e n s u s r e a d s : " F u l l o f H a l l m a r k - t r u i s m s a n d p o p s o n g s p r e s e n t e d w i t h s t r a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n c e , t h i s c o m i c f o i b l e i n t e n d s l e s s t o c o n v e r t t h a n t o p r e a c h t o t h e c h o i r . " A d r i a n a B a r r a z a w o n t h e G r a c e A w a r d f o r M o v i e s f o r h e r w o r k o n t h e f i l m a t t h e 2 0 0 9 M o v i e g u i d e A w a r d s . A n c h o r B a y E n t e r t a i n m e n t r e l e a s e d t h e f i l m o n R e g i o n 1 D V D o n J a n u a r y 2 0 , 2 0 0 9 . V i e w e r s h a v e t h e o p t i o n o f w a t c h i n g i t i n f u l l s c r e e n o r a n a m o r p h i c w i d e s c r e e n f o r m a t w i t h s u b t i t l e s i n E n g l i s h o r S p a n i s h . B o n u s f e a t u r e s i n c l u d e c o m m e n t a r y b y d i r e c t o r M a r k P e l l i n g t o n a n d s c r e e n w r i t e r A l b e r t T o r r e s , " T h e M a k i n g o f H e n r y P o o l e I s H e r e " , a n d t w o m u s i c v i d e o s . T h e f i l m i s a v a i l a b l e i n C h r i s t i a n b o o k s t o r e s , b u t a s a " F a m i l y E d i t e d V e r s i o n " .

Plot

Henry Poole, a terminally ill man, buys a house in his hometown and prepares to die alone. However, his life is disrupted by his neighbor Esperanza, who claims to see the face of Christ in a water stain on his house. As people begin to visit the supposed miracle, Henry tries to destroy the image, but ultimately finds himself believing in its power.

Having been diagnosed as terminally ill, Henry Poole purchases a tract house in his hometown, a working class suburb of Los Angeles, and awaits the inevitable, fortified with whiskey and frozen pizza. His peaceful solitude and self-imposed exile are disrupted by his meddling neighbor Esperanza Martinez, who insists she sees the face of Christ embedded in the stucco wall of his home and is convinced the image has miraculous powers when it begins to exude drops of blood. Before long, she is leading pilgrimages to his backyard and inviting Father Salazar from the local parish to bless the supposedly sacrosanct blemish. To Henry the image is a water stain. In addition to dealing with Esperanza, Henry finds himself interacting with Dawn and her taciturn six-year-old daughter Millie, who hasn't spoken a word since her father abandoned the family a year earlier. Dawn becomes convinced of the image's healing powers when Millie begins to talk after touching it. Another disciple is supermarket cashier Patience, who wears thick glasses and discovers her vision is perfect after she too comes in contact with the stain. When Henry learns that Millie has gone silent after learning of his terminal illness while eavesdropping on his conversation with her mother, he resolves to remove the stain and disabuse the faithful of what he believes to be misplaced belief. Henry destroys the image with an axe and in the process destroys his house. With the structure weakened, a corner of the house collapses on him. The film ends with Henry recovering in the hospital. Upon awakening in his hospital bed, he is greeted by Esperanza, Dawn and a talking Millie, who inform him that he is no longer ill. Surprised and rejuvenated, he finds himself ready to accept hope and belief and even the possibility of miracles. The film was shot on location in La Mirada, California. The soundtrack includes "Not Dark Yet" by Bob Dylan, "Song 2" by Blur, "Promises" by Badly Drawn Boy and "All roads lead home" by Golden State. The film received generally negative reviews. Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" said the film "traffics in the kind of inspirational kitsch that only a true believer could swallow" and added, "Mr. Wilson offers a credible portrait of an angry, despairing man fending off a cult. But the film’s spiritual deck is stacked. In the mawkish tradition of movies like "Simon Birch", "Wide Awake", "August Rush", and "Hearts in Atlantis", "Henry Poole Is Here" is insufferable hokum that takes itself very, very seriously. " Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" rated the film 3½ out of four stars and said it "achieves something that is uncommonly difficult. It is a spiritual movie with the power to emotionally touch believers, agnostics and atheists - in that descending order, I suspect. It doesn't say that religious beliefs are real. It simply says that belief is real. And it's a warm-hearted love story . . . I fell for it. " Reyhan Harmanci of the "San Francisco Chronicle" called it "a strange and thoughtful little movie" and added, "The film manages to be successfully character-driven, but the characters ride on a flimsy plot. " Steve Persall of the "St. Petersburg Times" graded the film C- and commented, ""Henry Poole Is Here" is aimed at the Bible bunch, who will be more tolerant of its oversimplification of theological mystery. They'll see Henry as a lost soul resisting Christian power until that becomes impossible, then sing praises when it does. But that doesn't change the fact that Pellington's movie is draggy-dull and a bit annoying with its piety. Hollywood still does sin much better than salvation. " Josh Rosenblatt of the "Austin Chronicle" rated the film 1½ stars and asserted "good old disturbing Pellington has officially gone soft. Though his latest, "Henry Poole Is Here", is full of all his usual ultrastylized, ultradark visual experimentation – an aesthetic that makes viewers feel like they’re drowning in an ocean of uncomfortable childhood memories – its story couldn’t be more corny, redemptive, or inspirational . . . I don’t know if Pellington found religion recently, but I do know you have to wonder about the artistic health and decision-making abilities of any filmmaker who looks for divinity in shots of sunlight pouring out from behind clouds. All that’s missing from the director’s new vision of the world is the pipe organ and the choir of angels. " Robert Koehler of "Variety" observed, "Because it's billed as a more personal project for Mark Pellington after a string of interesting, idiosyncratic thrillers ("Arlington Road", "The Mothman Prophecies"), "Henry Poole Is Here" is all the more disappointing. [Its] tendency to lecture on the power of faith and religion and on the demerits of science seems to assume an almost childlike audience that needs to be spoon-fed Pablum. This tale . . . won't advance the profile of the always-likable Luke Wilson, and Christian moviegoers will have to show up in great numbers to keep the film from being doomed to something far less than sleeper status. " Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 39% based on 92 reviews; the average rating is 5.2. The consensus reads: "Full of Hallmark-truisms and pop songs presented with strained significance, this comic foible intends less to convert than to preach to the choir. " Adriana Barraza won the Grace Award for Movies for her work on the film at the 2009 Movieguide Awards. Anchor Bay Entertainment released the film on Region 1 DVD on January 20, 2009. Viewers have the option of watching it in fullscreen or anamorphic widescreen format with subtitles in English or Spanish. Bonus features include commentary by director Mark Pellington and screenwriter Albert Torres, "The Making of Henry Poole Is Here", and two music videos. The film is available in Christian bookstores, but as a "Family Edited Version".

Kharba

K h a r b a i s l o c a t e d a t . I t h a s a n a v e r a g e e l e v a t i o n o f . K h a r b a i s a v i l l a g e p a n c h a y a t u n d e r C h a n c h a l I i n t e r m e d i a t e p a n c h a y a t i n M a l d a d i s t r i c t . : T h e a r e a s h o w n i n t h e a d j a c e n t m a p c o v e r s t w o p h y s i o g r a p h i c r e g i o n s – t h e " B a r i n d " i n t h e e a s t a n d t h e " t a l " i n t h e w e s t . T h e e a s t e r n p a r t i s c o m p a r a t i v e l y h i g h ( u p t o 4 0 m e t r e s a b o v e m e a n s e a l e v e l a t p l a c e s ) a n d u n e v e n . T h e s o i l s o f t h e e a s t e r n r e g i o n a r e “ h a r d s a l t y c l a y s o f a r e d d i s h h u e a n d t h e g r o u n d i s b a k e d h a r d a s i r o n . ” I t l i e s t o t h e e a s t o f t h e M a h a n a n d a R i v e r . T h e a r e a l y i n g t o t h e w e s t o f t h e M a h a n a n d a R i v e r , t h e " t a l " , i s a f l a t l o w l a n d a n d “ i s s t r e w n w i t h i n n u m e r a b l e m a r s h e s , b i l s a n d o x b o w l a k e s . ” T h e " t a l " a r e a i s p r o n e t o f l o o d i n g b y l o c a l r i v e r s . T h e t o t a l a r e a i s o v e r w h e l m i n g l y r u r a l . T h e r e a r e t w o i m p o r t a n t h i s t o r i c a l / a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s i n t h e a r e a – P a n d u a a n d J a g j i v a n p u r . A s p e r t h e 2 0 1 1 C e n s u s o f I n d i a , K h a r b a h a d a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 , 7 4 4 , o f w h i c h 1 , 9 1 4 ( 5 1 % ) w e r e m a l e s a n d 1 , 8 3 0 ( 4 9 % ) w e r e f e m a l e s . P o p u l a t i o n b e l o w 6 y e a r s w a s 4 3 5 . T h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f l i t e r a t e s i n K h a r b w a s 2 , 8 3 5 ( 7 2 . 0 8 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o v e r 6 y e a r s ) . C h a n c h a l s u b d i v i s i o n a l h o s p i t a l a t C h a n c h a l ( w i t h 1 0 0 b e d s ) i s a m a j o r m e d i c a l f a c i l i t y . T h e r e a r e p r i m a r y h e a l t h c e n t r e s i n C h a n c h a l I C D B l o c k a t K h a r b a ( w i t h 1 0 b e d s ) a n d S i n g l a ( N a d i s h i k P H C ) ( w i t h 1 0 b e d s ) .

Geography

Kharba is situated in Malda district with an average elevation of, featuring two distinct geographic regions - the elevated Barind in the east and the low-lying tal in the west. The area is predominantly rural, with a population of 3,744 as of 2011, and has access to healthcare facilities like Chanchal subdivisional hospital and primary health centers.

Kharba is located at . It has an average elevation of . Kharba is a village panchayat under Chanchal I intermediate panchayat in Malda district.: The area shown in the adjacent map covers two physiographic regions – the "Barind" in the east and the "tal" in the west. The eastern part is comparatively high (up to 40 metres above mean sea level at places) and uneven. The soils of the eastern region are “hard salty clays of a reddish hue and the ground is baked hard as iron.” It lies to the east of the Mahananda River. The area lying to the west of the Mahananda River, the "tal", is a flat low land and “is strewn with innumerable marshes, bils and oxbow lakes.” The "tal" area is prone to flooding by local rivers. The total area is overwhelmingly rural. There are two important historical/ archaeological sites in the area – Pandua and Jagjivanpur. As per the 2011 Census of India, Kharba had a total population of 3,744, of which 1,914 (51%) were males and 1,830 (49%) were females. Population below 6 years was 435. The total number of literates in Kharb was 2,835 (72.08% of the population over 6 years). Chanchal subdivisional hospital at Chanchal (with 100 beds) is a major medical facility. There are primary health centres in Chanchal I CD Block at Kharba (with 10 beds) and Singla (Nadishik PHC) (with 10 beds).

China National Materials Group

C h i n a N a t i o n a l M a t e r i a l s C o m p a n y L i m i t e d a n d i t s s u b s i d i a r i e s , p r o v i d e s c e m e n t e q u i p m e n t a n d e n g i n e e r i n g s e r v i c e s , a s w e l l a s m a n u f a c t u r e s c e m e n t , g l a s s f i b e r , a n d n o n - m e t a l m a t e r i a l s . I t o p e r a t e s i n f o u r s e g m e n t s : C e m e n t E q u i p m e n t a n d E n g i n e e r i n g S e r v i c e s , G l a s s F i b e r , C e m e n t , a n d H i g h - T e c h M a t e r i a l s . T h e C e m e n t E q u i p m e n t a n d E n g i n e e r i n g S e r v i c e s s e g m e n t p r o v i d e s e n g i n e e r i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n s e r v i c e s f o r m i n e s , r o a d s , b r i d g e s , a n d t u n n e l s p r o j e c t s ; b u i l d s e q u i p m e n t u s e d i n n e w d r y p r o c e s s c e m e n t p r o d u c t i o n l i n e s ; e n g a g e s i n e q u i p m e n t p u r c h a s i n g ; o f f e r s p r o j e c t r e s e a r c h , d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d d e s i g n s e r v i c e s ; a n d p r o v i d e s t u r n k e y s e r v i c e s . T h e G l a s s F i b e r s e g m e n t e n g a g e s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d s a l e o f g l a s s f i b e r a n d g l a s s f i b e r p r o d u c t s , s u c h a s r o v i n g , g l a s s f i b e r m a t s , e l e c t r o n i c y a r n , c h o p p e d s t r a n d s , a n d w o v e n r o v i n g . T h e C e m e n t s e g m e n t p r o d u c e s a n d s e l l s c e m e n t s , c l i n k e r s , a n d s t a n d a r d s a n d . T h e H i g h - T e c h M a t e r i a l s s e g m e n t i n v o l v e s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d s a l e o f g l a s s m i c r o f i b e r p a p e r , h i g h s t r e n g t h g l a s s f i b e r , h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e f i l t r a t i o n m a t e r i a l s , a n d c o m p o s i t e m a t e r i a l s ; a n d t h e p r o v i s i o n o f d e s i g n , e q u i p m e n t , a n d t e c h n o l o g y s e r v i c e s f o r g l a s s f i b e r p r o d u c t i o n a n d n o n m e t a l m i n e r a l f i n e p r o c e s s i n g . T h i s s e g m e n t a l s o p r o v i d e s m i c r o c r y s t a l l i n e a l u m i n a c e r a m i c s a n d f i n e f u s e d q u a r t z c e r a m i c s ; h i g h p r e s s u r e e l e c t r i c p o r c e l a i n a n d u s e d s i l i c a c e r a m i c c r u c i b l e ; a n d K T P , i n f r a r e d c r y s t a l s , a n d m i c r o c r y s t a l l i n e g l a s s . T h e c o m p a n y s e l l s i t s p r o d u c t s i n t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a , t h e M i d d l e E a s t , E u r o p e , A f r i c a , a n d o t h e r A s i a n c o u n t r i e s .

Business areas

China National Materials Company Limited is a diversified business operating across four main segments: Cement Equipment & Engineering Services, Glass Fiber, Cement, and High-Tech Materials. Its offerings include engineering services, cement production, glass fiber manufacturing, and high-tech material sales, with operations spanning China, the Middle East, Europe, Africa, and Asia.

China National Materials Company Limited and its subsidiaries, provides cement equipment and engineering services, as well as manufactures cement, glass fiber, and non-metal materials. It operates in four segments: Cement Equipment and Engineering Services, Glass Fiber, Cement, and High-Tech Materials. The Cement Equipment and Engineering Services segment provides engineering and construction services for mines, roads, bridges, and tunnels projects; builds equipment used in new dry process cement production lines; engages in equipment purchasing; offers project research, development, and design services; and provides turnkey services. The Glass Fiber segment engages in the production and sale of glass fiber and glass fiber products, such as roving, glass fiber mats, electronic yarn, chopped strands, and woven roving. The Cement segment produces and sells cements, clinkers, and standard sand. The High-Tech Materials segment involves in the production and sale of glass microfiber paper, high strength glass fiber, high temperature filtration materials, and composite materials; and the provision of design, equipment, and technology services for glass fiber production and non metal mineral fine processing. This segment also provides microcrystalline alumina ceramics and fine fused quartz ceramics; high pressure electric porcelain and used silica ceramic crucible; and KTP, infrared crystals, and microcrystalline glass. The company sells its products in the People's Republic of China, the Middle East, Europe, Africa, and other Asian countries.

Robert Fullerton

H e w a s b o r n i n E d i n b u r g h t h e s o n o f W i l l i a m F u l l e r t o n o f C a r s t a i r s a n d r a i s e d o n N i c o l s o n S t r e e t i n t h e c i t y ' s s o u t h s i d e . H e w a s o n e o f t w e l v e c h i l d r e n i n c l u d i n g h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r J o h n F u l l e r t o n , L o r d F u l l e r t o n . H i s e l d e r s i s t e r E l i z a b e t h m a r r i e d W i l l i a m F u l l e r t o n E l p h i n s t o n e , a d i r e c t o r o f t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y . T h i s i n f l u e n t i a l c o n n e c t i o n p r o b a b l y c o n t r i b u t e d g r e a t l y t o h i s c a r e e r . F u l l e r t o n r e c e i v e d h i s o r i g i n a l a p p o i n t m e n t o n 4 F e b r u a r y 1 8 2 4 a n d w a s g o v e r n o r o f P r i n c e o f W a l e s I s l e f r o m 2 0 A u g u s t 1 8 2 4 t o 1 8 2 6 , a f t e r w h i c h h e b e c a m e t h e g o v e r n o r o f t h e n e w l y i n c o r p o r a t e d S t r a i t s S e t t l e m e n t s o f S i n g a p o r e ( i n c l u d i n g C h r i s t m a s I s l a n d a n d t h e C o c o s - K e e l i n g g r o u p ) , P e n a n g ( i n c l u d i n g P r o v i n c e W e l l e s l e y ) , a n d M a l a c c a u n d e r t h e B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n I n d i a . T h e g o v e r n o r o f t h e S t r a i t s S e t t l e m e n t s w a s a s s i s t e d b y t h r e e r e s i d e n t c o u n c i l l o r s ; t h e r e s i d e n t c o u n c i l l o r o f P e n a n g , t h e r e s i d e n t c o u n c i l l o r o f M a l a c c a a n d t h e r e s i d e n t c o u n c i l l o r o f S i n g a p o r e . R o b e r t F u l l e r t o n b e c a m e t h e f i r s t g o v e r n o r o f t h e S t r a i t s S e t t l e m e n t s , b a s e d i n P e n a n g , a n d s e r v e d i n t h a t c a p a c i t y f r o m 2 7 N o v e m b e r 1 8 2 6 t o 1 2 N o v e m b e r 1 8 3 0 . T h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e l a s t g o v e r n o r i s a l s o r e c o r d e d i n t h e G a z e t t e . T h e i s s u e o f 2 9 A u g u s t 1 8 3 0 c a r r i e s t h e f o l l o w i n g n o t i f i c a t i o n : " T h e H o n o r a b l e t h e G o v e r n o r , b e i n g a b o u t t o p r o c e e d t o S i n g a p o r e a n d M a l a c c a , N O T I C E i s h e r e b y g i v e n t h a t t h i s s t a t i o n w i l l c e a s e t o b e t h e s e a t o f G o v e r n m e n t f r o m t h e d a t e o f h i s d e p a r t u r e , a n d t h e c h a r g e o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t w i l l d e v o l v e u p o n t h e H o n o r a b l e R o b e r t I b b e t s o n , R e s i d e n t C o u n c i l l o r ; t o w h o m a l l l o c a l r e f e r e n c e s w i l l b e m a d e . " H e i s c r e d i t e d w i t h t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e m u n i c i p a l s y s t e m i n t h e S t r a i t s S e t t l e m e n t s – B u c k l e y s t a t e d t h a t t h e f i r s t t r a c e o f s u b s e q u e n t m u n i c i p a l i t i e s c a n b e t r a c e d t o 1 8 2 7 . F u l l e r t o n , w i t h t h e s a n c t i o n o f t h e C o u r t o f D i r e c t o r s a n d B o a r d o f C o n t r o l , r e g u l a t e d f o r t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f " T h e C o m m i t t e e o f A s s e s s o r s , " f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f e n s u r i n g t h e s t r e e t s o f P e n a n g w e r e c l e a r e d , w a t c h e d a n d k e p t i n r e p a i r . H e d i e d i n L o n d o n , E n g l a n d i n 1 8 3 1 .

Penang (1824–1830)

Robert Fullerton was appointed as the governor of Prince of Wales Isle (Penang) in 1824 and later became the first governor of the Straits Settlements in 1826, serving until 1830. During his tenure, he established the municipal system in the Straits Settlements, regulating the appointment of "The Committee of Assessors" to maintain the streets of Penang.

He was born in Edinburgh the son of William Fullerton of Carstairs and raised on Nicolson Street in the city's south side. He was one of twelve children including his younger brother John Fullerton, Lord Fullerton. His elder sister Elizabeth married William Fullerton Elphinstone, a director of the East India Company. This influential connection probably contributed greatly to his career. Fullerton received his original appointment on 4 February 1824 and was governor of Prince of Wales Isle from 20 August 1824 to 1826, after which he became the governor of the newly incorporated Straits Settlements of Singapore (including Christmas Island and the Cocos-Keeling group), Penang (including Province Wellesley), and Malacca under the British administration in India. The governor of the Straits Settlements was assisted by three resident councillors; the resident councillor of Penang, the resident councillor of Malacca and the resident councillor of Singapore. Robert Fullerton became the first governor of the Straits Settlements, based in Penang, and served in that capacity from 27 November 1826 to 12 November 1830. The departure of the last governor is also recorded in the Gazette. The issue of 29 August 1830 carries the following notification: "The Honorable the Governor, being about to proceed to Singapore and Malacca, NOTICE is hereby given that this station will cease to be the seat of Government from the date of his departure, and the charge of the settlement will devolve upon the Honorable Robert Ibbetson, Resident Councillor; to whom all local references will be made. " He is credited with the creation of the municipal system in the Straits Settlements – Buckley stated that the first trace of subsequent municipalities can be traced to 1827. Fullerton, with the sanction of the Court of Directors and Board of Control, regulated for the appointment of "The Committee of Assessors," for the purposes of ensuring the streets of Penang were cleared, watched and kept in repair. He died in London, England in 1831.

Mongolia–Taiwan relations

T h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y , r e g i m e s o n t h e M o n g o l i a n s t e p p e a n d C h i n a h a v e w a g e d w a r o n n u m e r o u s o c c a s i o n s . C h i n a ' s G r e a t W a l l w a s c o n s t r u c t e d t o w a r d o f f i n v a d i n g h o r d e s f r o m t h e M o n g o l i a n s t e p p e a n d C e n t r a l A s i a . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e M o n g o l s u n d e r K u b l a i K h a n c o n q u e r e d m u c h o f C h i n a a n d e s t a b l i s h e d t h e Y u a n d y n a s t y , a n d M o n g o l i a l a t e r f e l l u n d e r c o n t r o l o f t h e Q i n g d y n a s t y o f C h i n a . D u r i n g t h e X i n h a i R e v o l u t i o n i n 1 9 1 1 , O u t e r M o n g o l i a d e c l a r e d i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m C h i n a a n d f o r m e d t h e B o g d K h a n a t e . I n 1 9 1 2 , t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a w a s e s t a b l i s h e d . A l t h o u g h m a n y p e o p l e o f I n n e r M o n g o l i a s o u g h t t o a c c e d e t o t h e n e w s t a t e , C h i n a r e t a i n e d i t s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e a r e a a n d r e a s s e r t e d c o n t r o l o v e r O u t e r M o n g o l i a i n 1 9 1 9 . C o n s e q u e n t l y , M o n g o l i a s o u g h t S o v i e t R u s s i a n s u p p o r t t o r e c l a i m i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e . I n 1 9 2 1 , b o t h C h i n e s e a n d W h i t e R u s s i a n f o r c e s w e r e d r i v e n o u t b y t h e R e d A r m y o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a n d p r o - S o v i e t M o n g o l i a n f o r c e s . I n 1 9 2 4 , t h e M o n g o l i a n P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c w a s f o r m e d . U n d e r t h e t e r m s o f t h e 1 9 4 6 S i n o - S o v i e t T r e a t y o f F r i e n d s h i p , t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a w a s t o r e c o g n i z e b o t h M o n g o l i a n s o v e r e i g n t y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e . H o w e v e r , d u e t o a b o r d e r c o n f l i c t o n t h e K h o v d / S i n k i a n g b o r d e r , n o d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n 1 9 4 6 a n d 1 9 4 9 . I n 1 9 5 2 , t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a ' s r e t r e a t t o t h e i s l a n d o f T a i w a n ( w h i c h w a s r e t r o c e d e d f r o m J a p a n i n 1 9 4 5 ) , t h e R O C g o v e r n m e n t a c c u s e d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n o f v i o l a t i n g t h e 1 9 4 6 S i n o - S o v i e t T r e a t y o f F r i e n d s h i p . T h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e L e g i s l a t i v e Y u a n v o t e d t o a b r o g a t e t h e t r e a t y . T h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a c o n t i n u e d t o r e p r e s e n t C h i n a a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s ( U N ) u n t i l 1 9 7 1 a n d u s e d i t s p o s i t i o n a s a p e r m a n e n t m e m b e r o f t h e U N S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l t o b l o c k t h e a d m i s s i o n o f t h e M o n g o l i a n P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c i n t o t h e U N t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 5 0 s . T h e o n l y v e t o c a s t b y t h e R O C d u r i n g i t s m e m b e r s h i p i n t h e U N w a s i n 1 9 5 5 , a g a i n s t t h e a d m i s s i o n o f M o n g o l i a . T h u s , M o n g o l i a w a s e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e U N u n t i l 1 9 6 0 , w h e n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a n n o u n c e d t h a t u n l e s s M o n g o l i a w a s a d m i t t e d , i t w o u l d b l o c k t h e a d m i s s i o n o f a l l o f t h e n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t A f r i c a n s t a t e s . F a c e d w i t h t h i s p r e s s u r e , t h e R O C r e l e n t e d u n d e r p r o t e s t . T h e L e g i s l a t i v e Y u a n a p p l i e d f o r a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n 1 2 A p r i l 1 9 9 3 t o a s k w h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e R O C n a t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y w o u l d b e , w h i l e c o n s i d e r i n g O u t e r M o n g o l i a n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e R O C t e r r i t o r y . H o w e v e r , t h e J u d i c i a l Y u a n i n i t s I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 3 2 8 o n 2 6 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 3 , c a l l e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y b e y o n d t h e r e a c h o f j u d i c i a l r e v i e w a n d t h u s a v o i d e d t h e q u e s t i o n a s w h e t h e r M o n g o l i a s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a . R e l a t i o n s c h a n g e d i n 2 0 0 2 , n i n e t y - o n e y e a r s a f t e r M o n g o l i a ' s f i r s t d e c l a r a t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n c e . A t t h e t i m e , t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a s t i l l d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e M o n g o l i a a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r y ; o f f i c i a l m a p s o f t h e R e p u b l i c s t i l l s h o w e d M o n g o l i a a s i t s t e r r i t o r y . W h e n t h e E x e c u t i v e Y u a n u n d e r t h e D e m o c r a t i c P r o g r e s s i v e P a r t y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n n o u n c e d t h a t M o n g o l i a n n a t i o n a l s w o u l d b e e n t i t l e d t o v i s a s r a t h e r t h a n e n t r y p e r m i t s w h e n t r a v e l i n g t o T a i w a n , t h e s a m e a s i n d i v i d u a l s f r o m f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s , t h e K u o m i n t a n g - c o n t r o l l e d L e g i s l a t i v e Y u a n c r i t i c i z e d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e d e c i s i o n , a s t h e y h a d n o t b e e n c o n s u l t e d i n t h i s r e g a r d . L a t e r , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e t w o g o v e r n m e n t s a g r e e d t o o p e n o f f i c e s i n e a c h o t h e r ' s c a p i t a l s ; R O C ' s o f f i c e i n U l a a n b a a t a r w a s o p e n e d i n S e p t e m b e r o f t h a t y e a r . R O C ' s M i n i s t r y o f t h e I n t e r i o r t h e n d e c i d e d t o d i s c o n t i n u e i n c l u d i n g M o n g o l i a o n i t s o f f i c i a l m a p s o f R O C t e r r i t o r y , a n d o n 3 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 2 , t h e M i n i s t r y o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s a n n o u n c e d t h a t R O C r e c o g n i z e s M o n g o l i a a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r y . A s o f 2 0 0 2 , t h e R O C g o v e r n m e n t r e c o g n i z e d M o n g o l i a a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r y , e x c l u d e s M o n g o l i a f r o m m a p s o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a a n d r e q u i r e s M o n g o l i a n c i t i z e n s v i s i t i n g T a i w a n t o p r o d u c e p a s s p o r t s . I n 2 0 0 6 , o l d l a w s r e g u l a t i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n o f b a n n e r s a n d m o n a s t e r i e s i n O u t e r M o n g o l i a w e r e r e p e a l e d . T h e r e a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 , 4 0 0 M o n g o l i a n s t u d e n t s i n T a i w a n , a s o f 2 0 1 9 . I n 2 0 1 7 , b i l a t e r a l t r a d e b e t w e e n T a i w a n a n d M o n g o l i a w a s v a l u e d a t U S $ 4 4 . 8 4 m i l l i o n .

History

The history of conflicts between China and Mongolia dates back centuries, with the construction of the Great Wall to protect China from Mongolian invasions. Mongolia gained independence from China in 1911 but was later controlled by China again. After World War II, Mongolia became a Soviet-backed republic and China refused to recognize its independence. It wasn't until 2002 that Taiwan officially recognized Mongolia as an independent country, ending decades of tension. Today, there are strong economic ties between Taiwan and Mongolia, with bilateral trade valued at $44.84 million in 2017.

Throughout history, regimes on the Mongolian steppe and China have waged war on numerous occasions. China's Great Wall was constructed to ward off invading hordes from the Mongolian steppe and Central Asia. For example, the Mongols under Kublai Khan conquered much of China and established the Yuan dynasty, and Mongolia later fell under control of the Qing dynasty of China. During the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, Outer Mongolia declared independence from China and formed the Bogd Khanate. In 1912, the Republic of China was established. Although many people of Inner Mongolia sought to accede to the new state, China retained its control over the area and reasserted control over Outer Mongolia in 1919. Consequently, Mongolia sought Soviet Russian support to reclaim its independence. In 1921, both Chinese and White Russian forces were driven out by the Red Army of the Soviet Union and pro-Soviet Mongolian forces. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was formed. Under the terms of the 1946 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, the Republic of China was to recognize both Mongolian sovereignty and independence. However, due to a border conflict on the Khovd/Sinkiang border, no diplomatic relations were established between 1946 and 1949. In 1952, three years after the Republic of China's retreat to the island of Taiwan (which was retroceded from Japan in 1945), the ROC government accused the Soviet Union of violating the 1946 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship. The following year, the Legislative Yuan voted to abrogate the treaty. The Republic of China continued to represent China at the United Nations (UN) until 1971 and used its position as a permanent member of the UN Security Council to block the admission of the Mongolian People's Republic into the UN throughout the 1950s. The only veto cast by the ROC during its membership in the UN was in 1955, against the admission of Mongolia. Thus, Mongolia was excluded from the UN until 1960, when the Soviet Union announced that unless Mongolia was admitted, it would block the admission of all of the newly independent African states. Faced with this pressure, the ROC relented under protest. The Legislative Yuan applied for a constitutional interpretation on 12 April 1993 to ask what the boundaries of the ROC national territory would be, while considering Outer Mongolia not included in the ROC territory. However, the Judicial Yuan in its Interpretation 328 on 26 November 1993, called the constitutional territory beyond the reach of judicial review and thus avoided the question as whether Mongolia should be considered the constitutional territory of the Republic of China. Relations changed in 2002, ninety-one years after Mongolia's first declaration of independence. At the time, the Republic of China still did not recognize Mongolia as an independent country; official maps of the Republic still showed Mongolia as its territory. When the Executive Yuan under the Democratic Progressive Party administration announced that Mongolian nationals would be entitled to visas rather than entry permits when traveling to Taiwan, the same as individuals from foreign countries, the Kuomintang-controlled Legislative Yuan criticized the implementation of the decision, as they had not been consulted in this regard. Later, representatives of the two governments agreed to open offices in each other's capitals; ROC's office in Ulaanbaatar was opened in September of that year. ROC's Ministry of the Interior then decided to discontinue including Mongolia on its official maps of ROC territory, and on 3 October 2002, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that ROC recognizes Mongolia as an independent country. As of 2002, the ROC government recognized Mongolia as an independent country, excludes Mongolia from maps of the Republic of China and requires Mongolian citizens visiting Taiwan to produce passports. In 2006, old laws regulating the formation of banners and monasteries in Outer Mongolia were repealed. There are approximately 1,400 Mongolian students in Taiwan, as of 2019. In 2017, bilateral trade between Taiwan and Mongolia was valued at US$44.84 million.

Mongolia–Taiwan relations

T h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y , r e g i m e s o n t h e M o n g o l i a n s t e p p e a n d C h i n a h a v e w a g e d w a r o n n u m e r o u s o c c a s i o n s . C h i n a ' s G r e a t W a l l w a s c o n s t r u c t e d t o w a r d o f f i n v a d i n g h o r d e s f r o m t h e M o n g o l i a n s t e p p e a n d C e n t r a l A s i a . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e M o n g o l s u n d e r K u b l a i K h a n c o n q u e r e d m u c h o f C h i n a a n d e s t a b l i s h e d t h e Y u a n d y n a s t y , a n d M o n g o l i a l a t e r f e l l u n d e r c o n t r o l o f t h e Q i n g d y n a s t y o f C h i n a . D u r i n g t h e X i n h a i R e v o l u t i o n i n 1 9 1 1 , O u t e r M o n g o l i a d e c l a r e d i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m C h i n a a n d f o r m e d t h e B o g d K h a n a t e . I n 1 9 1 2 , t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a w a s e s t a b l i s h e d . A l t h o u g h m a n y p e o p l e o f I n n e r M o n g o l i a s o u g h t t o a c c e d e t o t h e n e w s t a t e , C h i n a r e t a i n e d i t s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e a r e a a n d r e a s s e r t e d c o n t r o l o v e r O u t e r M o n g o l i a i n 1 9 1 9 . C o n s e q u e n t l y , M o n g o l i a s o u g h t S o v i e t R u s s i a n s u p p o r t t o r e c l a i m i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e . I n 1 9 2 1 , b o t h C h i n e s e a n d W h i t e R u s s i a n f o r c e s w e r e d r i v e n o u t b y t h e R e d A r m y o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a n d p r o - S o v i e t M o n g o l i a n f o r c e s . I n 1 9 2 4 , t h e M o n g o l i a n P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c w a s f o r m e d . U n d e r t h e t e r m s o f t h e 1 9 4 6 S i n o - S o v i e t T r e a t y o f F r i e n d s h i p , t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a w a s t o r e c o g n i z e b o t h M o n g o l i a n s o v e r e i g n t y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e . H o w e v e r , d u e t o a b o r d e r c o n f l i c t o n t h e K h o v d / S i n k i a n g b o r d e r , n o d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n 1 9 4 6 a n d 1 9 4 9 . I n 1 9 5 2 , t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a ' s r e t r e a t t o t h e i s l a n d o f T a i w a n ( w h i c h w a s r e t r o c e d e d f r o m J a p a n i n 1 9 4 5 ) , t h e R O C g o v e r n m e n t a c c u s e d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n o f v i o l a t i n g t h e 1 9 4 6 S i n o - S o v i e t T r e a t y o f F r i e n d s h i p . T h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e L e g i s l a t i v e Y u a n v o t e d t o a b r o g a t e t h e t r e a t y . T h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a c o n t i n u e d t o r e p r e s e n t C h i n a a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s ( U N ) u n t i l 1 9 7 1 a n d u s e d i t s p o s i t i o n a s a p e r m a n e n t m e m b e r o f t h e U N S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l t o b l o c k t h e a d m i s s i o n o f t h e M o n g o l i a n P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c i n t o t h e U N t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 5 0 s . T h e o n l y v e t o c a s t b y t h e R O C d u r i n g i t s m e m b e r s h i p i n t h e U N w a s i n 1 9 5 5 , a g a i n s t t h e a d m i s s i o n o f M o n g o l i a . T h u s , M o n g o l i a w a s e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e U N u n t i l 1 9 6 0 , w h e n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a n n o u n c e d t h a t u n l e s s M o n g o l i a w a s a d m i t t e d , i t w o u l d b l o c k t h e a d m i s s i o n o f a l l o f t h e n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t A f r i c a n s t a t e s . F a c e d w i t h t h i s p r e s s u r e , t h e R O C r e l e n t e d u n d e r p r o t e s t . T h e L e g i s l a t i v e Y u a n a p p l i e d f o r a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n 1 2 A p r i l 1 9 9 3 t o a s k w h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e R O C n a t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y w o u l d b e , w h i l e c o n s i d e r i n g O u t e r M o n g o l i a n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e R O C t e r r i t o r y . H o w e v e r , t h e J u d i c i a l Y u a n i n i t s I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 3 2 8 o n 2 6 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 3 , c a l l e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y b e y o n d t h e r e a c h o f j u d i c i a l r e v i e w a n d t h u s a v o i d e d t h e q u e s t i o n a s w h e t h e r M o n g o l i a s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a . R e l a t i o n s c h a n g e d i n 2 0 0 2 , n i n e t y - o n e y e a r s a f t e r M o n g o l i a ' s f i r s t d e c l a r a t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n c e . A t t h e t i m e , t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a s t i l l d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e M o n g o l i a a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r y ; o f f i c i a l m a p s o f t h e R e p u b l i c s t i l l s h o w e d M o n g o l i a a s i t s t e r r i t o r y . W h e n t h e E x e c u t i v e Y u a n u n d e r t h e D e m o c r a t i c P r o g r e s s i v e P a r t y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n n o u n c e d t h a t M o n g o l i a n n a t i o n a l s w o u l d b e e n t i t l e d t o v i s a s r a t h e r t h a n e n t r y p e r m i t s w h e n t r a v e l i n g t o T a i w a n , t h e s a m e a s i n d i v i d u a l s f r o m f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s , t h e K u o m i n t a n g - c o n t r o l l e d L e g i s l a t i v e Y u a n c r i t i c i z e d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e d e c i s i o n , a s t h e y h a d n o t b e e n c o n s u l t e d i n t h i s r e g a r d . L a t e r , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e t w o g o v e r n m e n t s a g r e e d t o o p e n o f f i c e s i n e a c h o t h e r ' s c a p i t a l s ; R O C ' s o f f i c e i n U l a a n b a a t a r w a s o p e n e d i n S e p t e m b e r o f t h a t y e a r . R O C ' s M i n i s t r y o f t h e I n t e r i o r t h e n d e c i d e d t o d i s c o n t i n u e i n c l u d i n g M o n g o l i a o n i t s o f f i c i a l m a p s o f R O C t e r r i t o r y , a n d o n 3 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 2 , t h e M i n i s t r y o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s a n n o u n c e d t h a t R O C r e c o g n i z e s M o n g o l i a a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r y . A s o f 2 0 0 2 , t h e R O C g o v e r n m e n t r e c o g n i z e d M o n g o l i a a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r y , e x c l u d e s M o n g o l i a f r o m m a p s o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a a n d r e q u i r e s M o n g o l i a n c i t i z e n s v i s i t i n g T a i w a n t o p r o d u c e p a s s p o r t s . I n 2 0 0 6 , o l d l a w s r e g u l a t i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n o f b a n n e r s a n d m o n a s t e r i e s i n O u t e r M o n g o l i a w e r e r e p e a l e d . T h e r e a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 , 4 0 0 M o n g o l i a n s t u d e n t s i n T a i w a n , a s o f 2 0 1 9 . I n 2 0 1 7 , b i l a t e r a l t r a d e b e t w e e n T a i w a n a n d M o n g o l i a w a s v a l u e d a t U S $ 4 4 . 8 4 m i l l i o n .

History ; Before 1949

The history of Mongolia-China relations is marked by periods of conquest, independence, and shifting alliances. From the construction of the Great Wall to ward off Mongol invasions to the modern-day recognition of Mongolia as an independent nation, the relationship has evolved significantly. Key events include the Mongolian declaration of independence in 1911, the establishment of the Mongolian People's Republic in 1924, and the Republic of China's eventual recognition of Mongolia's sovereignty in 2002.

Throughout history, regimes on the Mongolian steppe and China have waged war on numerous occasions. China's Great Wall was constructed to ward off invading hordes from the Mongolian steppe and Central Asia. For example, the Mongols under Kublai Khan conquered much of China and established the Yuan dynasty, and Mongolia later fell under control of the Qing dynasty of China. During the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, Outer Mongolia declared independence from China and formed the Bogd Khanate. In 1912, the Republic of China was established. Although many people of Inner Mongolia sought to accede to the new state, China retained its control over the area and reasserted control over Outer Mongolia in 1919. Consequently, Mongolia sought Soviet Russian support to reclaim its independence. In 1921, both Chinese and White Russian forces were driven out by the Red Army of the Soviet Union and pro-Soviet Mongolian forces. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was formed. Under the terms of the 1946 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, the Republic of China was to recognize both Mongolian sovereignty and independence. However, due to a border conflict on the Khovd/Sinkiang border, no diplomatic relations were established between 1946 and 1949. In 1952, three years after the Republic of China's retreat to the island of Taiwan (which was retroceded from Japan in 1945), the ROC government accused the Soviet Union of violating the 1946 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship. The following year, the Legislative Yuan voted to abrogate the treaty. The Republic of China continued to represent China at the United Nations (UN) until 1971 and used its position as a permanent member of the UN Security Council to block the admission of the Mongolian People's Republic into the UN throughout the 1950s. The only veto cast by the ROC during its membership in the UN was in 1955, against the admission of Mongolia. Thus, Mongolia was excluded from the UN until 1960, when the Soviet Union announced that unless Mongolia was admitted, it would block the admission of all of the newly independent African states. Faced with this pressure, the ROC relented under protest. The Legislative Yuan applied for a constitutional interpretation on 12 April 1993 to ask what the boundaries of the ROC national territory would be, while considering Outer Mongolia not included in the ROC territory. However, the Judicial Yuan in its Interpretation 328 on 26 November 1993, called the constitutional territory beyond the reach of judicial review and thus avoided the question as whether Mongolia should be considered the constitutional territory of the Republic of China. Relations changed in 2002, ninety-one years after Mongolia's first declaration of independence. At the time, the Republic of China still did not recognize Mongolia as an independent country; official maps of the Republic still showed Mongolia as its territory. When the Executive Yuan under the Democratic Progressive Party administration announced that Mongolian nationals would be entitled to visas rather than entry permits when traveling to Taiwan, the same as individuals from foreign countries, the Kuomintang-controlled Legislative Yuan criticized the implementation of the decision, as they had not been consulted in this regard. Later, representatives of the two governments agreed to open offices in each other's capitals; ROC's office in Ulaanbaatar was opened in September of that year. ROC's Ministry of the Interior then decided to discontinue including Mongolia on its official maps of ROC territory, and on 3 October 2002, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that ROC recognizes Mongolia as an independent country. As of 2002, the ROC government recognized Mongolia as an independent country, excludes Mongolia from maps of the Republic of China and requires Mongolian citizens visiting Taiwan to produce passports. In 2006, old laws regulating the formation of banners and monasteries in Outer Mongolia were repealed. There are approximately 1,400 Mongolian students in Taiwan, as of 2019. In 2017, bilateral trade between Taiwan and Mongolia was valued at US$44.84 million.

Mongolia–Taiwan relations

T h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y , r e g i m e s o n t h e M o n g o l i a n s t e p p e a n d C h i n a h a v e w a g e d w a r o n n u m e r o u s o c c a s i o n s . C h i n a ' s G r e a t W a l l w a s c o n s t r u c t e d t o w a r d o f f i n v a d i n g h o r d e s f r o m t h e M o n g o l i a n s t e p p e a n d C e n t r a l A s i a . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e M o n g o l s u n d e r K u b l a i K h a n c o n q u e r e d m u c h o f C h i n a a n d e s t a b l i s h e d t h e Y u a n d y n a s t y , a n d M o n g o l i a l a t e r f e l l u n d e r c o n t r o l o f t h e Q i n g d y n a s t y o f C h i n a . D u r i n g t h e X i n h a i R e v o l u t i o n i n 1 9 1 1 , O u t e r M o n g o l i a d e c l a r e d i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m C h i n a a n d f o r m e d t h e B o g d K h a n a t e . I n 1 9 1 2 , t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a w a s e s t a b l i s h e d . A l t h o u g h m a n y p e o p l e o f I n n e r M o n g o l i a s o u g h t t o a c c e d e t o t h e n e w s t a t e , C h i n a r e t a i n e d i t s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e a r e a a n d r e a s s e r t e d c o n t r o l o v e r O u t e r M o n g o l i a i n 1 9 1 9 . C o n s e q u e n t l y , M o n g o l i a s o u g h t S o v i e t R u s s i a n s u p p o r t t o r e c l a i m i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e . I n 1 9 2 1 , b o t h C h i n e s e a n d W h i t e R u s s i a n f o r c e s w e r e d r i v e n o u t b y t h e R e d A r m y o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a n d p r o - S o v i e t M o n g o l i a n f o r c e s . I n 1 9 2 4 , t h e M o n g o l i a n P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c w a s f o r m e d . U n d e r t h e t e r m s o f t h e 1 9 4 6 S i n o - S o v i e t T r e a t y o f F r i e n d s h i p , t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a w a s t o r e c o g n i z e b o t h M o n g o l i a n s o v e r e i g n t y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e . H o w e v e r , d u e t o a b o r d e r c o n f l i c t o n t h e K h o v d / S i n k i a n g b o r d e r , n o d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n 1 9 4 6 a n d 1 9 4 9 . I n 1 9 5 2 , t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a ' s r e t r e a t t o t h e i s l a n d o f T a i w a n ( w h i c h w a s r e t r o c e d e d f r o m J a p a n i n 1 9 4 5 ) , t h e R O C g o v e r n m e n t a c c u s e d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n o f v i o l a t i n g t h e 1 9 4 6 S i n o - S o v i e t T r e a t y o f F r i e n d s h i p . T h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e L e g i s l a t i v e Y u a n v o t e d t o a b r o g a t e t h e t r e a t y . T h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a c o n t i n u e d t o r e p r e s e n t C h i n a a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s ( U N ) u n t i l 1 9 7 1 a n d u s e d i t s p o s i t i o n a s a p e r m a n e n t m e m b e r o f t h e U N S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l t o b l o c k t h e a d m i s s i o n o f t h e M o n g o l i a n P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c i n t o t h e U N t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 5 0 s . T h e o n l y v e t o c a s t b y t h e R O C d u r i n g i t s m e m b e r s h i p i n t h e U N w a s i n 1 9 5 5 , a g a i n s t t h e a d m i s s i o n o f M o n g o l i a . T h u s , M o n g o l i a w a s e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e U N u n t i l 1 9 6 0 , w h e n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a n n o u n c e d t h a t u n l e s s M o n g o l i a w a s a d m i t t e d , i t w o u l d b l o c k t h e a d m i s s i o n o f a l l o f t h e n e w l y i n d e p e n d e n t A f r i c a n s t a t e s . F a c e d w i t h t h i s p r e s s u r e , t h e R O C r e l e n t e d u n d e r p r o t e s t . T h e L e g i s l a t i v e Y u a n a p p l i e d f o r a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n 1 2 A p r i l 1 9 9 3 t o a s k w h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e R O C n a t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y w o u l d b e , w h i l e c o n s i d e r i n g O u t e r M o n g o l i a n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e R O C t e r r i t o r y . H o w e v e r , t h e J u d i c i a l Y u a n i n i t s I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 3 2 8 o n 2 6 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 3 , c a l l e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y b e y o n d t h e r e a c h o f j u d i c i a l r e v i e w a n d t h u s a v o i d e d t h e q u e s t i o n a s w h e t h e r M o n g o l i a s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a . R e l a t i o n s c h a n g e d i n 2 0 0 2 , n i n e t y - o n e y e a r s a f t e r M o n g o l i a ' s f i r s t d e c l a r a t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n c e . A t t h e t i m e , t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a s t i l l d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e M o n g o l i a a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r y ; o f f i c i a l m a p s o f t h e R e p u b l i c s t i l l s h o w e d M o n g o l i a a s i t s t e r r i t o r y . W h e n t h e E x e c u t i v e Y u a n u n d e r t h e D e m o c r a t i c P r o g r e s s i v e P a r t y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n n o u n c e d t h a t M o n g o l i a n n a t i o n a l s w o u l d b e e n t i t l e d t o v i s a s r a t h e r t h a n e n t r y p e r m i t s w h e n t r a v e l i n g t o T a i w a n , t h e s a m e a s i n d i v i d u a l s f r o m f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s , t h e K u o m i n t a n g - c o n t r o l l e d L e g i s l a t i v e Y u a n c r i t i c i z e d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e d e c i s i o n , a s t h e y h a d n o t b e e n c o n s u l t e d i n t h i s r e g a r d . L a t e r , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e t w o g o v e r n m e n t s a g r e e d t o o p e n o f f i c e s i n e a c h o t h e r ' s c a p i t a l s ; R O C ' s o f f i c e i n U l a a n b a a t a r w a s o p e n e d i n S e p t e m b e r o f t h a t y e a r . R O C ' s M i n i s t r y o f t h e I n t e r i o r t h e n d e c i d e d t o d i s c o n t i n u e i n c l u d i n g M o n g o l i a o n i t s o f f i c i a l m a p s o f R O C t e r r i t o r y , a n d o n 3 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 2 , t h e M i n i s t r y o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s a n n o u n c e d t h a t R O C r e c o g n i z e s M o n g o l i a a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r y . A s o f 2 0 0 2 , t h e R O C g o v e r n m e n t r e c o g n i z e d M o n g o l i a a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r y , e x c l u d e s M o n g o l i a f r o m m a p s o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a a n d r e q u i r e s M o n g o l i a n c i t i z e n s v i s i t i n g T a i w a n t o p r o d u c e p a s s p o r t s . I n 2 0 0 6 , o l d l a w s r e g u l a t i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n o f b a n n e r s a n d m o n a s t e r i e s i n O u t e r M o n g o l i a w e r e r e p e a l e d . T h e r e a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 , 4 0 0 M o n g o l i a n s t u d e n t s i n T a i w a n , a s o f 2 0 1 9 . I n 2 0 1 7 , b i l a t e r a l t r a d e b e t w e e n T a i w a n a n d M o n g o l i a w a s v a l u e d a t U S $ 4 4 . 8 4 m i l l i o n .

History ; After 1949

The history of Mongolia and China has seen multiple conflicts and changes in power dynamics. From the construction of the Great Wall to ward off Mongol invasions to the establishment of the Mongolian People's Republic in 1924, Mongolia has sought independence from China. Despite recognizing Mongolia's sovereignty in 1946, the Republic of China blocked Mongolia's admission to the UN until 1960. It wasn't until 2002 that the ROC officially recognized Mongolia as an independent country, discontinued including it on official maps, and required Mongolian citizens to produce passports when visiting Taiwan. Today, there are around 1,400 Mongolian students in Taiwan, and bilateral trade is valued at $44.84 million.

Throughout history, regimes on the Mongolian steppe and China have waged war on numerous occasions. China's Great Wall was constructed to ward off invading hordes from the Mongolian steppe and Central Asia. For example, the Mongols under Kublai Khan conquered much of China and established the Yuan dynasty, and Mongolia later fell under control of the Qing dynasty of China. During the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, Outer Mongolia declared independence from China and formed the Bogd Khanate. In 1912, the Republic of China was established. Although many people of Inner Mongolia sought to accede to the new state, China retained its control over the area and reasserted control over Outer Mongolia in 1919. Consequently, Mongolia sought Soviet Russian support to reclaim its independence. In 1921, both Chinese and White Russian forces were driven out by the Red Army of the Soviet Union and pro-Soviet Mongolian forces. In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was formed. Under the terms of the 1946 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, the Republic of China was to recognize both Mongolian sovereignty and independence. However, due to a border conflict on the Khovd/Sinkiang border, no diplomatic relations were established between 1946 and 1949. In 1952, three years after the Republic of China's retreat to the island of Taiwan (which was retroceded from Japan in 1945), the ROC government accused the Soviet Union of violating the 1946 Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship. The following year, the Legislative Yuan voted to abrogate the treaty. The Republic of China continued to represent China at the United Nations (UN) until 1971 and used its position as a permanent member of the UN Security Council to block the admission of the Mongolian People's Republic into the UN throughout the 1950s. The only veto cast by the ROC during its membership in the UN was in 1955, against the admission of Mongolia. Thus, Mongolia was excluded from the UN until 1960, when the Soviet Union announced that unless Mongolia was admitted, it would block the admission of all of the newly independent African states. Faced with this pressure, the ROC relented under protest. The Legislative Yuan applied for a constitutional interpretation on 12 April 1993 to ask what the boundaries of the ROC national territory would be, while considering Outer Mongolia not included in the ROC territory. However, the Judicial Yuan in its Interpretation 328 on 26 November 1993, called the constitutional territory beyond the reach of judicial review and thus avoided the question as whether Mongolia should be considered the constitutional territory of the Republic of China. Relations changed in 2002, ninety-one years after Mongolia's first declaration of independence. At the time, the Republic of China still did not recognize Mongolia as an independent country; official maps of the Republic still showed Mongolia as its territory. When the Executive Yuan under the Democratic Progressive Party administration announced that Mongolian nationals would be entitled to visas rather than entry permits when traveling to Taiwan, the same as individuals from foreign countries, the Kuomintang-controlled Legislative Yuan criticized the implementation of the decision, as they had not been consulted in this regard. Later, representatives of the two governments agreed to open offices in each other's capitals; ROC's office in Ulaanbaatar was opened in September of that year. ROC's Ministry of the Interior then decided to discontinue including Mongolia on its official maps of ROC territory, and on 3 October 2002, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that ROC recognizes Mongolia as an independent country. As of 2002, the ROC government recognized Mongolia as an independent country, excludes Mongolia from maps of the Republic of China and requires Mongolian citizens visiting Taiwan to produce passports. In 2006, old laws regulating the formation of banners and monasteries in Outer Mongolia were repealed. There are approximately 1,400 Mongolian students in Taiwan, as of 2019. In 2017, bilateral trade between Taiwan and Mongolia was valued at US$44.84 million.

Betsey (1803 ship)

O n 2 8 D e c e m b e r 1 8 1 4 " B e t s e y " , u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f P h i l i p G o o d e n o u g h , l e f t S y d n e y f o r M a c q u a r i e I s l a n d , w h e r e s h e a r r i v e d o n 1 3 F e b r u a r y 1 8 1 5 . G o o d e n o u g h l a n d e d a s e a l i n g p a r t y o f t h i r t e e n m e n a n d t h e n h e a d e d n o r t h t o t h e A u c k l a n d I s l a n d s t o u n d e r t a k e f u r t h e r s e a l i n g . C o n t r a r y w i n d s m e a n t t h a t " B e t s e y " w a s u n a b l e t o r e t u r n e i t h e r t o M a c q u a r i e I s l a n d o r t o S y d n e y . F o o d a n d w a t e r b e g a n t o r u n o u t a n d t h e c r e w s t a r t e d t o s u f f e r f r o m s c u r v y . H e a v y w i n d s d r o v e h e r t o w a r d s N e w Z e a l a n d a n d o n 1 8 S e p t e m b e r h e a v y s e a s s m a s h e d " B e t s e y ' s " r u d d e r . T w e n t y m i l e s f r o m t h e B a y o f I s l a n d s , w i t h s e v e r a l o f h i s c r e w d e a d f r o m s c u r v y a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g c r e w s t a r v i n g a n d p a r c h e d f r o m l a c k o f w a t e r , G o o d e n o u g h o r d e r e d t h e s h i p a b a n d o n e d . F o u r t e e n E u r o p e a n s a n d s i x l a s c a r s h a d l e f t M a c q u a r i e I s l a n d . A t t h e t i m e o f a b a n d o n m e n t o n l y t w e l v e m e n w e r e a l i v e . G o o d e n o u g h p l a c e d f o u r i n t h e j o l l y b o a t a s t h e y w e r e s o s i c k t h e y c o u l d n o t c r e w a b o a t ; t h e r e m a i n d e r t o o k t o t h e w h a l e b o a t , w h i c h t o w e d t h e j o l l y b o a t . G o o d e n o u g h t h e n h e a d e d f o r N e w Z e a l a n d . P r o g r e s s w a s v e r y s l o w , a n d s o o n a f t e r a b a n d o n i n g " B e t s e y " , G o o d e n o u g h o r d e r e d t h e r o p e b e t w e e n t h e j o l l y b o a t a n d t h e w h a l e b o a t t o b e c u t . T h e f o u r s i c k s a i l o r s w e r e n e v e r s e e n a g a i n . E v e n t u a l l y G o o d e n o u g h m a d e l a n d a n d s h o r t l y a f t e r l a n d i n g a l a s c a r d i e d ; G o o d e n o u g h d i e d s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r , o n 1 N o v e m b e r 1 8 1 5 . M ā o r i c a p t u r e d t h e s i x s u r v i v o r s , w h o m t h e y e v e n t u a l l y r e l e a s e d t o t h e b r i g " A c t i v e " o n 2 3 F e b r u a r y 1 8 1 6 . " B e t s e y " i t s e l f w a s e v e n t u a l l y b l o w n a s h o r e n e a r G r e a t E x h i b i t i o n B a y a n d w e n t t o p i e c e s . " B e t s e y " w a s o w n e d b y J a m e s U n d e r w o o d , b u t b e y o n d t h a t h e r o r i g i n s a r e s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s . O n e s o u r c e s t a t e s t h a t s h e w a s o f s o m e 2 2 2 t o n s , h a d b e e n b u i l t a t C h i t t a g o n g , I n d i a , a n d r e g i s t e r e d a t C a l c u t t a b y H o g u r & C o . A n e a r l i e r s o u r c e h a s t h e o n l y " B e t s e y " b e i n g b u i l t a t C h i t t a g o n g b e i n g l a u n c h e d i n 1 8 0 3 , o f 2 8 0 t o n s , a n d b e i n g l o s t i n t h e D e r w e n t , i n N e w S o u t h W a l e s . C i t a t i o n s R e f e r e n c e s

Loss

The Betsey, captained by Philip Goodenough, set sail from Sydney on Dec 28, 1814, bound for Macquarie Island. After landing a sealing party, it sailed to Auckland Islands, but due to bad weather, couldn't return to Macquarie or Sydney. With food and water running low, the crew suffered from scurvy. On Sept 18, 1815, the ship was wrecked off New Zealand's coast, leaving only 12 survivors. They took to boats, but Goodenough ordered the sickest men to be cut loose, and they were never seen again. The remaining survivors were captured by Maori, but eventually released to another ship on Feb 23, 1816.

On 28 December 1814 "Betsey", under the command of Philip Goodenough, left Sydney for Macquarie Island, where she arrived on 13 February 1815. Goodenough landed a sealing party of thirteen men and then headed north to the Auckland Islands to undertake further sealing. Contrary winds meant that "Betsey" was unable to return either to Macquarie Island or to Sydney. Food and water began to run out and the crew started to suffer from scurvy. Heavy winds drove her towards New Zealand and on 18 September heavy seas smashed "Betsey's" rudder. Twenty miles from the Bay of Islands, with several of his crew dead from scurvy and the remaining crew starving and parched from lack of water, Goodenough ordered the ship abandoned. Fourteen Europeans and six lascars had left Macquarie Island. At the time of abandonment only twelve men were alive. Goodenough placed four in the jollyboat as they were so sick they could not crew a boat; the remainder took to the whaleboat, which towed the jollyboat. Goodenough then headed for New Zealand. Progress was very slow, and soon after abandoning "Betsey", Goodenough ordered the rope between the jollyboat and the whaleboat to be cut. The four sick sailors were never seen again. Eventually Goodenough made land and shortly after landing a lascar died; Goodenough died shortly thereafter, on 1 November 1815. Māori captured the six survivors, whom they eventually released to the brig "Active" on 23 February 1816. "Betsey" itself was eventually blown ashore near Great Exhibition Bay and went to pieces. "Betsey" was owned by James Underwood, but beyond that her origins are somewhat ambiguous. One source states that she was of some 222 tons, had been built at Chittagong, India, and registered at Calcutta by Hogur & Co. An earlier source has the only "Betsey" being built at Chittagong being launched in 1803, of 280 tons, and being lost in the Derwent, in New South Wales. Citations References

Betsey (1803 ship)

O n 2 8 D e c e m b e r 1 8 1 4 " B e t s e y " , u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f P h i l i p G o o d e n o u g h , l e f t S y d n e y f o r M a c q u a r i e I s l a n d , w h e r e s h e a r r i v e d o n 1 3 F e b r u a r y 1 8 1 5 . G o o d e n o u g h l a n d e d a s e a l i n g p a r t y o f t h i r t e e n m e n a n d t h e n h e a d e d n o r t h t o t h e A u c k l a n d I s l a n d s t o u n d e r t a k e f u r t h e r s e a l i n g . C o n t r a r y w i n d s m e a n t t h a t " B e t s e y " w a s u n a b l e t o r e t u r n e i t h e r t o M a c q u a r i e I s l a n d o r t o S y d n e y . F o o d a n d w a t e r b e g a n t o r u n o u t a n d t h e c r e w s t a r t e d t o s u f f e r f r o m s c u r v y . H e a v y w i n d s d r o v e h e r t o w a r d s N e w Z e a l a n d a n d o n 1 8 S e p t e m b e r h e a v y s e a s s m a s h e d " B e t s e y ' s " r u d d e r . T w e n t y m i l e s f r o m t h e B a y o f I s l a n d s , w i t h s e v e r a l o f h i s c r e w d e a d f r o m s c u r v y a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g c r e w s t a r v i n g a n d p a r c h e d f r o m l a c k o f w a t e r , G o o d e n o u g h o r d e r e d t h e s h i p a b a n d o n e d . F o u r t e e n E u r o p e a n s a n d s i x l a s c a r s h a d l e f t M a c q u a r i e I s l a n d . A t t h e t i m e o f a b a n d o n m e n t o n l y t w e l v e m e n w e r e a l i v e . G o o d e n o u g h p l a c e d f o u r i n t h e j o l l y b o a t a s t h e y w e r e s o s i c k t h e y c o u l d n o t c r e w a b o a t ; t h e r e m a i n d e r t o o k t o t h e w h a l e b o a t , w h i c h t o w e d t h e j o l l y b o a t . G o o d e n o u g h t h e n h e a d e d f o r N e w Z e a l a n d . P r o g r e s s w a s v e r y s l o w , a n d s o o n a f t e r a b a n d o n i n g " B e t s e y " , G o o d e n o u g h o r d e r e d t h e r o p e b e t w e e n t h e j o l l y b o a t a n d t h e w h a l e b o a t t o b e c u t . T h e f o u r s i c k s a i l o r s w e r e n e v e r s e e n a g a i n . E v e n t u a l l y G o o d e n o u g h m a d e l a n d a n d s h o r t l y a f t e r l a n d i n g a l a s c a r d i e d ; G o o d e n o u g h d i e d s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r , o n 1 N o v e m b e r 1 8 1 5 . M ā o r i c a p t u r e d t h e s i x s u r v i v o r s , w h o m t h e y e v e n t u a l l y r e l e a s e d t o t h e b r i g " A c t i v e " o n 2 3 F e b r u a r y 1 8 1 6 . " B e t s e y " i t s e l f w a s e v e n t u a l l y b l o w n a s h o r e n e a r G r e a t E x h i b i t i o n B a y a n d w e n t t o p i e c e s . " B e t s e y " w a s o w n e d b y J a m e s U n d e r w o o d , b u t b e y o n d t h a t h e r o r i g i n s a r e s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s . O n e s o u r c e s t a t e s t h a t s h e w a s o f s o m e 2 2 2 t o n s , h a d b e e n b u i l t a t C h i t t a g o n g , I n d i a , a n d r e g i s t e r e d a t C a l c u t t a b y H o g u r & C o . A n e a r l i e r s o u r c e h a s t h e o n l y " B e t s e y " b e i n g b u i l t a t C h i t t a g o n g b e i n g l a u n c h e d i n 1 8 0 3 , o f 2 8 0 t o n s , a n d b e i n g l o s t i n t h e D e r w e n t , i n N e w S o u t h W a l e s . C i t a t i o n s R e f e r e n c e s

Origins

The Betsey, captained by Philip Goodenough, set sail from Sydney on Dec 28, 1814, bound for Macquarie Island. After landing a sealing party, it sailed to the Auckland Islands, but due to bad weather, couldn't return to Macquarie Island or Sydney. With food and water running low, the crew suffered from scurvy, and the ship was eventually abandoned off the coast of New Zealand on Sept 18, 1815. Only 12 of the original 20 crew members survived, with 4 being left behind in a jollyboat and later disappearing. The remaining survivors were captured by Maori, but eventually released to the brig Active on Feb 23, 1816. The ship itself was wrecked near Great Exhibition Bay.

On 28 December 1814 "Betsey", under the command of Philip Goodenough, left Sydney for Macquarie Island, where she arrived on 13 February 1815. Goodenough landed a sealing party of thirteen men and then headed north to the Auckland Islands to undertake further sealing. Contrary winds meant that "Betsey" was unable to return either to Macquarie Island or to Sydney. Food and water began to run out and the crew started to suffer from scurvy. Heavy winds drove her towards New Zealand and on 18 September heavy seas smashed "Betsey's" rudder. Twenty miles from the Bay of Islands, with several of his crew dead from scurvy and the remaining crew starving and parched from lack of water, Goodenough ordered the ship abandoned. Fourteen Europeans and six lascars had left Macquarie Island. At the time of abandonment only twelve men were alive. Goodenough placed four in the jollyboat as they were so sick they could not crew a boat; the remainder took to the whaleboat, which towed the jollyboat. Goodenough then headed for New Zealand. Progress was very slow, and soon after abandoning "Betsey", Goodenough ordered the rope between the jollyboat and the whaleboat to be cut. The four sick sailors were never seen again. Eventually Goodenough made land and shortly after landing a lascar died; Goodenough died shortly thereafter, on 1 November 1815. Māori captured the six survivors, whom they eventually released to the brig "Active" on 23 February 1816. "Betsey" itself was eventually blown ashore near Great Exhibition Bay and went to pieces. "Betsey" was owned by James Underwood, but beyond that her origins are somewhat ambiguous. One source states that she was of some 222 tons, had been built at Chittagong, India, and registered at Calcutta by Hogur & Co. An earlier source has the only "Betsey" being built at Chittagong being launched in 1803, of 280 tons, and being lost in the Derwent, in New South Wales. Citations References

König Ottokars Glück und Ende

T h e t r a g e d y b e g i n s i n t h e y e a r 1 2 6 1 . O t t o k a r i s a t t h e h e i g h t o f h i s p o w e r s , h a v i n g r e c e n t l y d e f e a t e d t h e H u n g a r i a n s a t t h e B a t t l e o f K r e s s e n b r u n n , a n d t h e p l a y o p e n s w i t h n e w s t h a t O t t o k a r i s d i v o r c i n g f r o m h i s w i f e M a r g a r e t e , o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t s h e c a n n o t b e a r a n h e i r , a n d t h a t t h e y a r e i n a n y c a s e d i s t a n t l y r e l a t e d . I n s t e a d , h e i s t o m a r r y K u n i g u n d e , y o u n g r e l a t i v e o f t h e H u n g a r i a n K i n g B e l a , n e w s w h i c h b r e a k s t h e h e a r t o f B e r t a , o n e o f M a r g a r e t e ' s m o s t b e a u t i f u l l a d i e s - i n - w a i t i n g w h o O t t o k a r h a d p r e v i o u s l y s e d u c e d , a s w e l l a s a l i e n a t i n g h e r f a m i l y , t h e R o s e n b e r g s . D e s p i t e r e v e a l i n g t h a t s h e n e v e r l o v e d O t t o k a r , a n d o n l y m a r r i e d h i m a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f h e r f i r s t h u s b a n d o u t o f a s e n s e o f d u t y , M a r g a r e t e i s n e v e r t h e l e s s d e e p l y u p s e t b y t h i s r e j e c t i o n a n d b e t r a y a l , a l t h o u g h s t i l l w a i v e s h e r r i g h t s t o r e t a i n t h e l a n d s o f A u s t r i a a n d S t y r i a i n h e r i t e d f r o m h e r f i r s t m a r r i a g e . O t t o k a r t h e n m a r r i e s K u n i g u n d e , w h o b e c o m e s h i s n e w q u e e n , d e s p i t e t h e a g e d i f f e r e n c e . M e a n w h i l e , Z a w i s c h R o s e n b e r g i s s t r u c k b y h e r b e a u t y , a n d s e t s o u t t o s e d u c e h e r b e h i n d O t t o k a r ' s b a c k . K u n i g u n d e , u n i m p r e s s e d b y O t t o k a r ' s a g e a n d p e r s o n a l i t y , i s a t t r a c t e d b y Z a w i s c h a n d e n c o u r a g e s h i s a d v a n c e s . U n a w a r e o f t h i s , O t t o k a r i s p r o v i s i o n a l l y o f f e r e d t h e c r o w n o f H o l y R o m a n E m p e r o r , h o w e v e r h a u g h t i l y r e p l i e s t h a t h e w i l l t a k e t i m e t o c o n s i d e r t h e o f f e r . I n t h i s i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d , a l e t t e r i s r u s h e d t o a n i n f l u e n t i a l f i g u r e a m o n g t h e e l e c t o r s , t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f M a i n z , o u t l i n i n g O t t o k a r ' s t r e a t m e n t o f M a r g a r e t e , a n d t h e c r o w n i s i n s t e a d o f f e r e d t o t h e m o r e w o r t h y b u t l o w l y D u k e R u d o l f v o n H a b s b u r g . I n a d d i t i o n , i t i s a n n o u n c e d t h a t t h e s t a t e s o f A u s t r i a a n d S t y r i a a r e d e e m e d t o h a v e n o t b e e n p a s s e d o n t o O t t o k a r f o l l o w i n g h i s d i v o r c e f r o m M a r g a r e t e . O t t o k a r i s e n r a g e d b y b o t h t h e s e d e c i s i o n s , a n d b o t h s i d e s d r a w u p f o r c e s o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e D a n u b e . O t t o k a r ' s c h a n c e l l o r p e r s u a d e s h i m t o m e e t w i t h t h e E m p e r o r o n a n i s l a n d o n t h e D a n u b e t o d i s c u s s r e c o n c i l i a t i o n . D u r i n g t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s , O t t o k a r i n d i c a t e s h e i s p r e p a r e d p a y h o m a g e t o t h e i m p e r i a l c r o w n i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f p e a c e , b u t i s n o t p r e p a r e d t o c o n c e d e h i s l a n d s . H o w e v e r i t i s m a d e c l e a r t o h i m t h a t h e h i s b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s M e r e n b e r g a n d M a r g e r e t e h a s a l i e n a t e d b o t h A u s t r i a n a n d S t y r i a n s u b j e c t s , w h o n o w t r a n s f e r t h e i r s u p p o r t t o R u d o l f . A s a r e s u l t , O t t o k a r i s f o r c e d t o w i t h d r a w h i s c l a i m s a n d b e c o n t e n t w i t h r e t a i n i n g t h e r e g i o n s o f M o r a v i a a n d B o h e m i a . T h e c e r e m o n y f o r t h i s r e q u i r e s h i m t o k n e e l b e f o r e R u d o l f , a n d i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f d e c o r u m t h i s i s p e r f o r m e d i n a t e n t e d a r e a . H o w e v e r , t h e m i s c h i e v o u s Z a w i s c h c u t s t h e r o p e s o f t h e t e n t , r e v e a l i n g O t t o k a r o n h i s k n e e s b e f o r e h i s e n e m y , t o a l l i n a t t e n d a n c e , i n c l u d i n g h i s o w n a r m y . O t t o k a r t h e n g o e s i n t o h i d i n g f o r t w o w e e k s , b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g t o P r a g u e w e a k e n e d a n d i n s h a m e . O n h i s r e t u r n , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e E m p e r o r a r r i v e d e m a n d i n g t h e r e l e a s e o f a n u m b e r o f p r i s o n e r s , o n e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e p e a c e t r e a t y . A t f i r s t O t t o k a r a c q u i e s c e s , h o w e v e r o n s e e i n g M e r e n b e r g a m o n g t h e p r i s o n e r s , h i s a n g e r i s p i q u e d , a n d i n s t e a d h e t e a r s u p t h e t r e a t y a n d d e m a n d s t h a t M e r e n b e r g b e e x e c u t e d a s a t r a i t o r , f o r h i s r o l e i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h e l e t t e r t o t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f M a i n z , a n d a c t w h i c h O t t o k a r c o n s i d e r s t o h a v e b e e n t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f a l l t h e s u b s e q u e n t b e t r a y a l s . M e r e n b e r g i s t h e n e x e c u t e d b y O t t o k a r ' s m e n , b y f l i n g i n g h i m f r o m a t o w e r . O t t o k a r i s t h e n s p u r n e d b y K u n i g u n d e , w h o o p e n l y t e l l s h i m s h e h a s n o r e s p e c t f o r a m a n w h o k n e e l s b e f o r e h i s e n e m i e s . T h i s f u r t h e r h u m i l i a t i o n , s p u r s O t t o k a r t o r a i s e a n a r m y a g a i n s t a l l w h o d e f y h i m , a t t e m p t i n g t o r e s t o r e h i s l o s t l a n d s , p o w e r , a n d d i g n i t y . K u n i g u n d e t h e n f l e e s w i t h Z a w i s c h , t o s e e k p r o t e c t i o n f r o m t h e E m p e r o r R u d o l f . O n t h e e v e o f t h e b a t t l e w i t h R u d o l f ' s a r m i e s , O t t o k a r s t u m b l e s u p o n t h e d e a t h b e d o f h i s f o r m e r w i f e M a r g a r e t e . S e e i n g h e r d e a d , h a v i n g s u f f e r e d a t h i s h a n d s , h e r e g r e t s h i s t r e a t m e n t o f h e r . A s t h e b a t t l e d r a w s u p , O t t o k a r ' s r e m a i n i n g l o y a l l o r d s u r g e h i m t o a c t d e c i s i v e l y t o m a k e t h e b e s t o f h i s s t r a t e g i c s t r e n g t h s , h o w e v e r h e i s b y n o w h e s i t a n t a n d i n c a p a b l e o f d e c i s i v e a c t i o n , a s h e b e g i n s t o b e c o m e a w a r e o f h i s t r a g i c f a i l i n g s . M e a n w h i l e , E m p e r o r R u d o l f , r e c o g n i s i n g w i t h p i t y h o w s o m a n y o f O t t o k a r ' s s u p p o r t e r s h a v e d e s e r t e d h i m ( i n c l u d i n g K u n i g u n d e a n d Z a w i s c h ) , o r d e r s t h a t n o o n e s h o u l d k i l l O t t o k a r i n b a t t l e o t h e r t h a n i n s e l f - d e f e n c e . H o w e v e r , w h e n S e y f r i e d v o n M e r e n b e r g e n c o u n t e r s O t t o k a r o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , h e s e e k s r e v e n g e f o r t h e d e a t h o f h i s f a t h e r , a n d f o r c e s O t t o k a r , l a m e t h r o u g h i n j u r y , i n t o a f i g h t , i n w h i c h O t t o k a r i s k i l l e d . O n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , R u d o l f , f o u n d e r o f t h e H a b s b u r g d y n a s t y , b e q u e a t h s t h e s t a t e s o f S t y r i a a n d A u s t r i a t o h i s c h i l d r e n , a n d i s h a i l e d a s a n o b l e a n d g r a c i o u s v i c t o r b y a l l . T h e p l a y i s v e r y m u c h f o c u s e d o n t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r O t t o k a r , h i s p e r s o n a l i t y , a n d h o w h e b e c o m e s t h e v i c t i m o f h i s o w n a c t i o n s . A t t h e s t a r t o f t h e p l a y , h e i s a t t h e h e i g h t o f h i s p o w e r s . H e h a s p r o v e n h i m s e l f o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , a n d h a s b e e n h a i l e d b y a l l a s a h e r o . H o w e v e r h e i s i n c a p a b l e o f m o d e r a t i n g h i s e m o t i o n s o r a c t i o n s , a n d f e e l s b e y o n d r e p r o a c h i n a l l t h a t h e d o e s , a n d l o s e s t h e a b i l i t y t o d i s t i n g u i s h r i g h t f r o m w r o n g , l o y a l t y f r o m t r e a c h e r y , a n d w h a t i s r e a s o n a b l e f r o m w h a t i s u n r e a s o n a b l e . W e d o n o t s e e O t t o k a r d u r i n g h i s r i s e t o p o w e r , h o w e v e r t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e t h a t t h e s a m e e s s e n t i a l t r a i t s t h a t p r o p e l l e d h i m f o r w a r d a r e , w h e n u n m o d e r a t e d , t h o s e t h a t b r i n g h i m d o w n : h i s s e n s e o f g r e a t n e s s a n d h i s t o r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e w o r l d m a r k h i m o u t a s a m i g h t y l e a d e r , y e t a l s o l e a d h i m t o s e e o t h e r s a s m e r e l y p a w n s i n h i s p e r s o n a l g a m e ; h i s p r i d e i s c l e a r l y a s t r o n g m o t i v a t i n g f a c t o r f o r h i m , b u t a l s o c l o u d s h i s j u d g e m e n t ; h e i s a d e t e r m i n e d w a r r i o r , y e t d o e s n o t k n o w w h e n t o f i g h t a n d w h e n t o r e s o r t t o d i p l o m a c y . I n e v i t a b l y , t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e p l a y a r e l e s s f u l l y e x a m i n e d , a n d a r e d e f i n e d m o r e b y t h e r e a c t i o n t h a t t h e y b r i n g a b o u t i n O t t o k a r t h a n h a v i n g r e a l d e p t h i n t h e m s e l v e s . M a r g e r e t e , B e r t a , a n d S e y f r i e d M e r e n b e r g a r e i n t h e i r o w n w a y s l o y a l t o O t t o k a r , h o w e v e r t h e y a r e a l l t u r n e d a g a i n s t h i m w h e n h e d o e s n o t r e t u r n t h e i r l o y a l t y . Z a w i s c h a n d K u n i g u n d e a r e d u p l i c i t o u s , a n d y e t O t t o k a r p l a c e s m u c h f a i t h i n t h e m , a n d i s m o s t h u r t w h e n t h e y b e t r a y h i m a s h i s s t a r f a l l s . R u d o l f i s e v e r y t h i n g a g o o d l e a d e r s h o u l d b e , y e t O t t o k a r i s n o t : s t r o n g y e t j u s t , n o b l e y e t h u m b l e , p e a c e - l o v i n g y e t n o t a f r a i d t o f i g h t w h e n h e n e e d s t o . P e r h a p s i n e v i t a b l y , g i v e n t h e c o n t e x t o f w h e n t h e p l a y w a s w r i t t e n , h i s s t a t u s i s t o o s i m p l y t h a t o f a p a r a g o n o f l e a d e r s h i p , a t h i n l y - v e i l e d a t t e m p t t o p r a i s e t h e H a b s b u r g d y n a s t y s t i l l r u l i n g i n A u s t r i a a t t h e t i m e . T h e p l o t o f t h e p l a y f o l l o w s t h e d e c l i n e i n t h e f o r t u n e s o f O t t o k a r , a n d p o i n t s t o t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h i s b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s o t h e r s , a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r h i m s e l f : O t t o k a r ' s t r e a t m e n t o f M a r g a r e t e c o s t s h i m t h e c r o w n o f H o l y R o m a n E m p e r o r ; b y s p u r n i n g B e r t a , h e a l i e n a t e s t h e R o s e n b e r g s , w h o a r e t h e n a b l e t o u n d e r m i n e h i m ( p a r t i c u l a r l y Z a w i s c h ) i n n u m e r o u s w a y s , n o n e m o r e s o t h a n b y e n s u r i n g t h e l e t t e r t o t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f M a i n z r e a c h e s i t s d e s t i n a t i o n ; b y e x e c u t i n g M e r e n b e r g , h e d r i v e s S e y f r i e d t o k i l l h i m i n r e v e n g e ; a n d b y f a i l i n g t o r e s p o n d r a t i o n a l l y t o t h e p e a c e t r e a t i e s o f R u d o l f , h e i n s t i g a t e s a w a r w i t h d i s a s t r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r h i m a n d h i s p e o p l e . G r i l l p a r z e r w a s k e e n t o e m p h a s i s e t h a t i n h i s t o r i c a l t r a g e d y , m a n i s n o t m e r e l y t h e v i c t i m o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s o r f a t e , b u t h a s t h e p o w e r t o c a r v e o u t h i s o w n d e s t i n y . G r i l l p a r z e r c o n t r a s t s O t t o k a r a c t i o n s w i t h t h o s e o f R u d o l f , w h i c h s h o w t h a t b y b e i n g a g o o d a n d j u s t l e a d e r , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e u n i t y a m o n g r i v a l f a c t i o n s , t o i n s p i r e t r u e l o y a l t y , a n d t o b e v i c t o r i o u s . H o w e v e r , f o r l e s s e r c h a r a c t e r s , t h i s c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s l e s s c l e a r , f o r i n s t a n c e i n t h e c a s e o f ' g o o d ' c h a r a c t e r s s u c h a s M a r g e r e t e a n d ' i n n o c e n t ' o n e s s u c h a s B e r t a , b o t h o f w h o m a r e v i c t i m s o f O t t o k a r ' s e g o t i s m a n d s e l f - i n t e r e s t , a l o n g w i t h M e r e n b e r g a n d h i s s o n , w h o a r e t u r n e d a w a y f r o m O t t o k a r s i m p l y f o r s t a n d i n g u p a g a i n s t h i s w r o n g d o i n g s . M e a n w h i l e , Z a w i s c h a n d K u n i g u n d e a p p e a r t o b e n e f i t f r o m f o l l o w i n g t h e i r o w n d e s i r e s d e s p i t e b e h a v i n g i n a t h o r o u g h l y i m m o r a l f a s h i o n . T h e p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e u s e d b y G r i l l p a r z e r w a s t h e M i d d l e H i g h G e r m a n p i e c e " S t e i r i s c h e R e i m c h r o n i k " ( " R h y m e d C h r o n i c l e o f S t y r i a " ) w r i t t e n i n 1 3 0 6 – 2 0 b y O t t o k a r o f S t y r i a ( O t a c h e r o u z d e r G e u l ) . I t i s l i k e l y t h a t h e a l s o u s e d v a r i o u s p e r i o d i c a l s i n o r d e r t o b u i l d u p a f u l l e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . G r i l l p a r z e r f e l t t h a t a t r u e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t w a s i m p o r t a n t t o a t r a g e d y ' s a b i l i t y t o c r e a t e ' a c e r t a i n c o n s i s t e n c y a n d a p p e a r a n c e o f r e a l i t y , w h i c h i n t u r n w o u l d e v o k e i n t h e a u d i e n c e a g r e a t e r s y m p a t h y w i t h t h e t r a g i c h e r o . H o w e v e r h e a l s o r e c o g n i s e d t h a t i t w a s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o d e p a r t f r o m t h e f a c t s i n o r d e r t o h i g h l i g h t t h e d r a m a t i c t h e m e s . A l t h o u g h w e a r e n o t g i v e n a n e x p l i c i t t i m e l i n e i n t h e p l a y , t h e i n s i n u a t i o n i s t h a t t h e e v e n t s u n f o l d o v e r a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d ( p e r h a p s a f e w m o n t h s , o r e v e n y e a r s ) . H i s t o r i c a l l y , a f u l l 2 2 y e a r s s e p a r a t e s t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e B a t t l e o f K r e s s e n b r u n n i n 1 2 6 0 w i t h O t t o k a r ' s d e a t h i n 1 2 7 8 a n d R u d o l f v o n H a b s b u r g b e q u e a t h i n g t h e l a n d s o f A u s t r i a a n d S t y r i a t o h i s s o n s i n 1 2 8 2 . G r i l l p a r z e r a l s o e m b e l l i s h e s h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s i n o t h e r w a y s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n i m b u i n g m o t i v e s : i n t h e p l a y , O t t o k a r ' s d e s i r e f o r a n h e i r , m e r e l y c l o a k s h i s l u s t f o r K u n i g u n d e . H e h a d p r e v i o u s l y e n t i c e d a w a y B e r t a , a y o u n g n o b l e w o m a n , f r o m S e y f r i e d v o n M e r e n b e r g , w h o m h e m a k e s t h e s o n o f S i e g f r i e d , w h o f i g u r e s i n t h e " C h r o n i c l e . " H i s d e s e r t i o n o f B e r t a h a d a r r a y e d a g a i n s t h i m t h e h o s t i l i t y o f t h e t h r e e R o s e n b e r g s , p o w e r f u l a n d u n s c r u p u l o u s B o h e m i a n n o b l e s – B e n e s c h , t h e f a t h e r , M i l o t a , t h e u n c l e , a n d Z a w i s c h , t h e c o u s i n , o f B e r t h a . Z a w i s c h , i m p e l l e d m a i n l y b y d e s i r e t o w r e a k v e n g e a n c e u p o n t h e k i n g , s e e k s t o g a i n t h e a f f e c t i o n o f t h e q u e e n . O t t o k a r ' s t r e a t m e n t o f M a r g a r e t a l i e n a t e s f r o m h i m t h e n o b l e s o f A u s t r i a a n d S t y r i a . T h e i n d i g n i t i e s h e a p e d u p o n t h e m o p e n t h e e y e s o f t h e d e l e g a t e s w h o h a v e c o m e t o o f f e r h i m t h e i m p e r i a l c r o w n . H i s o v e r w e e n i n g p r i d e i n o s t e n s i b l y d i s d a i n i n g t h e t i t l e o f e m p e r o r p r e p a r e s t h e w a y f o r h i s f i n a l d o w n f a l l . T h e c o n t e x t o f t h e w r i t i n g o f t h e d r a m a w a s v e r y m u c h s h a p e d b y G r i l l p a r z e r ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e A u s t r i a n s t a t e i n w h i c h h e l i v e d . I n s p i r e d b y t h e i n i t i a l d e s i r e t o w r i t e a t r a g e d y a b o u t N a p o l e o n , G r i l l p a r z e r r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e h e a v y - h a n d e d s t a t e c e n s o r s o f t h e M e t t e r n i c h r e g i m e w o u l d n e v e r a l l o w h i m t o u s e s u c h a s e n s i t i v e s u b j e c t . B y c h o o s i n g a f i g u r e f r o m t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , w h o s e r i s e a n d f a l l i n m a n y w a y s e c h o e d t h a t o f N a p o l e o n , G r i l l p a r z e r h o p e d h e w o u l d a v o i d c e n s o r i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , p a r t l y o u t o f a s e n s e o f g e n u i n e p a t r i o t i s m , b u t a l s o p a r t l y t o m a k e t h e p l a y y e t m o r e f a v o u r a b l e t o A u s t r i a n a u t h o r i t i e s , G r i l l p a r z e r i n c l u d e s v a r i o u s p r o - H a b s b u r g e l e m e n t s i n h i s d r a m a . T h e s e i n c l u d e : t h e c h a r a c t e r o f R u d o l f h i m s e l f , f o u n d e r o f t h e H a b s b u r g d y n a s t y s t i l l r u l i n g i n t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y ; t h e m e s s a g e t h a t , u n d e r a j u s t r u l e r , t h e d i s p a r a t e s t a t e s o f A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y c o u l d s u c c e s s f u l l y b e p a r t o f a u n i t e d e m p i r e ( a t a t i m e w h e n t h i s e m p i r e w a s s t a r t i n g t o c r e a k a t t h e j o i n t s ) ; a n d n o t l e a s t i n t h e m o n o l o g u e o f O t t o v o n H o r n e k i n A c t I I I , s i n c e k n o w n a s t h e ' P r a i s e o f A u s t r i a ' ( ' d i e L o b r e d e a u f Ö s t e r r e i c h ' ) , w h i c h h a s b e e n t a u g h t i n i s o l a t i o n t o m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s o f A u s t r i a n s c h o o l c h i l d r e n s i n c e . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f s u b s e q u e n t h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s , n o t a b l y t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n e m p i r e a t t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I , a n d t h e r i s e o f G e r m a n n a t i o n a l i s m l e a d i n g t o W o r l d W a r I I , s u c h o v e r t p a t r i o t i s m s e e m s n o t o n l y a n a c h r o n i s t i c a n d o u t o f p l a c e b u t a l s o p o t e n t i a l l y u n p a l a t a b l e t o m o d e r n t a s t e s . A t t h e t i m e , t h e s e t h e m e s f a i l e d t o a c h i e v e G r i l l p a r z e r ' s a i m s o f b e c o m e t h e n a t i o n ' s f a v o u r i t e p l a y w r i g h t . N o t o n l y d i d t h e c e n s o r s s u p p r e s s p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e p l a y f o r 2 y e a r s o n t h e g r o u n d s o f i t s ' u n f a v o u r a b l e a l l u s i o n t o N a p o l e o n ' s s e c o n d m a r r i a g e t o M a r i a - L o u i s e o f A u s t r i a a n d u n f a v o u r a b l e p o r t r a y a l o f B o h e m i a ' , b u t c r i t i c a l r e c e p t i o n w a s m i x e d a f t e r i t s e v e n t u a l p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e ( a r e s u l t o f t h e d i r e c t i n t e r v e n t i o n o f C a r o l i n e A u g u s t e o f B a v a r i a ) . P r o - H a b s b u r g c r i t i c s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t R u d o l f h a d o n l y a m i n o r r o l e c o m p a r e d t o O t t o k a r , w h i l e i n t u r n t h e C z e c h s d i s a p p r o v e d t h a t t h e p l a y d e p i c t s t h e i r n a t i o n a l h e r o i n a n e g a t i v e l i g h t

Synopsis of plot

The play revolves around Ottokar, a powerful and proud leader who becomes a victim of his own actions. He is initially hailed as a hero after winning battles, but his inability to moderate his emotions and actions leads to his downfall. The play explores how Ottokar's behavior towards others ultimately leads to his demise, including his treatment of Margarete, Berta, and Seyfried Merenberg. Meanwhile, Rudolf is portrayed as a just and noble leader who is able to unite rival factions and inspire loyalty. The play highlights the contrast between Ottokar's actions and Rudolf's, showing that a good leader can create unity and achieve victory through just means.

states of Styria and Austria to his children, and is hailed as a noble and gracious victor by all. The play is very much focused on the central character Ottokar, his personality, and how he becomes the victim of his own actions. At the start of the play, he is at the height of his powers. He has proven himself on the battlefield, and has been hailed by all as a hero. However he is incapable of moderating his emotions or actions, and feels beyond reproach in all that he does, and loses the ability to distinguish right from wrong, loyalty from treachery, and what is reasonable from what is unreasonable. We do not see Ottokar during his rise to power, however the implications are that the same essential traits that propelled him forward are, when unmoderated, those that bring him down: his sense of greatness and historical importance in the world mark him out as a mighty leader, yet also lead him to see others as merely pawns in his personal game; his pride is clearly a strong motivating factor for him, but also clouds his judgement; he is a determined warrior, yet does not know when to fight and when to resort to diplomacy. Inevitably, the other characters in the play are less fully examined, and are defined more by the reaction that they bring about in Ottokar than having real depth in themselves. Margerete, Berta, and Seyfried Merenberg are in their own ways loyal to Ottokar, however they are all turned against him when he does not return their loyalty. Zawisch and Kunigunde are duplicitous, and yet Ottokar places much faith in them, and is most hurt when they betray him as his star falls. Rudolf is everything a good leader should be, yet Ottokar is not: strong yet just, noble yet humble, peace-loving yet not afraid to fight when he needs to. Perhaps inevitably, given the context of when the play was written, his status is too simply that of a paragon of leadership, a thinly-veiled attempt to praise the Habsburg dynasty still ruling in Austria at the time. The plot of the play follows the decline in the fortunes of Ottokar, and points to the causal relationship between his behaviour towards others, and the consequences for himself: Ottokar's treatment of Margarete costs him the crown of Holy Roman Emperor; by spurning Berta, he alienates the Rosenbergs, who are then able to undermine him (particularly Zawisch) in numerous ways, none more so than by ensuring the letter to the Archbishop of Mainz reaches its destination; by executing Merenberg, he drives Seyfried to kill him in revenge; and by failing to respond rationally to the peace treaties of Rudolf, he instigates a war with disastrous consequences for him and his people. Grillparzer was keen to emphasise that in historical tragedy, man is not merely the victim of circumstances or fate, but has the power to carve out his own destiny. Grillparzer contrasts Ottokar actions with those of Rudolf, which show that by being a good and just leader, it is possible to create unity among rival factions, to inspire true loyalty, and to be victorious. However, for lesser characters, this causal relationship is less clear, for instance in the case of 'good' characters such as Margerete and 'innocent' ones such as Berta, both of whom are victims of Ottokar's egotism and self-interest, along with Merenberg and his son, who are turned away from Ottokar simply for standing up against his wrongdoings. Meanwhile, Zawisch and Kunigunde appear to benefit from following their own desires despite behaving in a thoroughly immoral fashion. The principal source used by Grillparzer was the Middle High German piece "Steirische Reimchronik" ("Rhymed Chronicle of Styria") written in 1306–20 by Ottokar of Styria (Otacher ouz der Geul). It is likely that he also used various periodicals in order to build up a fuller understanding of the historical context. Grillparzer felt that a true historical context was important to a tragedy's ability to create 'a certain consistency and appearance of reality, which in turn would evoke in the audience a greater sympathy with the tragic hero. However he also recognised that it was also necessary to depart from the facts in order to highlight the dramatic themes. Although we are not given an explicit timeline in the play, the insinuation is that the events unfold over a relatively short period (perhaps a few months, or even years). Historically, a full 22 years separates the aftermath of the Battle of Kressenbrunn in 1260 with Ottokar's death in 1278 and Rudolf von Habsburg bequeathing the lands them open the eyes of the delegates who have come to offer him the imperial crown. His overweening pride in ostensibly disdaining the title of emperor prepares the way for his final downfall. The context of the writing of the drama was very much shaped by Grillparzer's relationship with the Austrian state in which he lived. Inspired by the initial desire to write a tragedy about Napoleon, Grillparzer realised that the heavy-handed state censors of the Metternich regime would never allow him to use such a sensitive subject. By choosing a figure from the 13th century, whose rise and fall in many ways echoed that of Napoleon, Grillparzer hoped he would avoid censorial intervention. In addition, partly out of a sense of genuine patriotism, but also partly to make the play yet more favourable to Austrian authorities, Grillparzer includes various pro-Habsburg elements in his drama. These include: the character of Rudolf himself, founder of the Habsburg dynasty still ruling in the 19th century; the message that, under a just ruler, the disparate states of Austria-Hungary could successfully be part of a united empire (at a time when this empire was starting to creak at the joints); and not least in the monologue of Otto von Hornek in Act III, since known as the 'Praise of Austria' ('die Lobrede auf Österreich'), which has been taught in isolation to many generations of Austrian schoolchildren since. In the context of subsequent historical events, notably the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian empire at the end of World War I, and the

König Ottokars Glück und Ende

T h e t r a g e d y b e g i n s i n t h e y e a r 1 2 6 1 . O t t o k a r i s a t t h e h e i g h t o f h i s p o w e r s , h a v i n g r e c e n t l y d e f e a t e d t h e H u n g a r i a n s a t t h e B a t t l e o f K r e s s e n b r u n n , a n d t h e p l a y o p e n s w i t h n e w s t h a t O t t o k a r i s d i v o r c i n g f r o m h i s w i f e M a r g a r e t e , o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t s h e c a n n o t b e a r a n h e i r , a n d t h a t t h e y a r e i n a n y c a s e d i s t a n t l y r e l a t e d . I n s t e a d , h e i s t o m a r r y K u n i g u n d e , y o u n g r e l a t i v e o f t h e H u n g a r i a n K i n g B e l a , n e w s w h i c h b r e a k s t h e h e a r t o f B e r t a , o n e o f M a r g a r e t e ' s m o s t b e a u t i f u l l a d i e s - i n - w a i t i n g w h o O t t o k a r h a d p r e v i o u s l y s e d u c e d , a s w e l l a s a l i e n a t i n g h e r f a m i l y , t h e R o s e n b e r g s . D e s p i t e r e v e a l i n g t h a t s h e n e v e r l o v e d O t t o k a r , a n d o n l y m a r r i e d h i m a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f h e r f i r s t h u s b a n d o u t o f a s e n s e o f d u t y , M a r g a r e t e i s n e v e r t h e l e s s d e e p l y u p s e t b y t h i s r e j e c t i o n a n d b e t r a y a l , a l t h o u g h s t i l l w a i v e s h e r r i g h t s t o r e t a i n t h e l a n d s o f A u s t r i a a n d S t y r i a i n h e r i t e d f r o m h e r f i r s t m a r r i a g e . O t t o k a r t h e n m a r r i e s K u n i g u n d e , w h o b e c o m e s h i s n e w q u e e n , d e s p i t e t h e a g e d i f f e r e n c e . M e a n w h i l e , Z a w i s c h R o s e n b e r g i s s t r u c k b y h e r b e a u t y , a n d s e t s o u t t o s e d u c e h e r b e h i n d O t t o k a r ' s b a c k . K u n i g u n d e , u n i m p r e s s e d b y O t t o k a r ' s a g e a n d p e r s o n a l i t y , i s a t t r a c t e d b y Z a w i s c h a n d e n c o u r a g e s h i s a d v a n c e s . U n a w a r e o f t h i s , O t t o k a r i s p r o v i s i o n a l l y o f f e r e d t h e c r o w n o f H o l y R o m a n E m p e r o r , h o w e v e r h a u g h t i l y r e p l i e s t h a t h e w i l l t a k e t i m e t o c o n s i d e r t h e o f f e r . I n t h i s i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d , a l e t t e r i s r u s h e d t o a n i n f l u e n t i a l f i g u r e a m o n g t h e e l e c t o r s , t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f M a i n z , o u t l i n i n g O t t o k a r ' s t r e a t m e n t o f M a r g a r e t e , a n d t h e c r o w n i s i n s t e a d o f f e r e d t o t h e m o r e w o r t h y b u t l o w l y D u k e R u d o l f v o n H a b s b u r g . I n a d d i t i o n , i t i s a n n o u n c e d t h a t t h e s t a t e s o f A u s t r i a a n d S t y r i a a r e d e e m e d t o h a v e n o t b e e n p a s s e d o n t o O t t o k a r f o l l o w i n g h i s d i v o r c e f r o m M a r g a r e t e . O t t o k a r i s e n r a g e d b y b o t h t h e s e d e c i s i o n s , a n d b o t h s i d e s d r a w u p f o r c e s o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e D a n u b e . O t t o k a r ' s c h a n c e l l o r p e r s u a d e s h i m t o m e e t w i t h t h e E m p e r o r o n a n i s l a n d o n t h e D a n u b e t o d i s c u s s r e c o n c i l i a t i o n . D u r i n g t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s , O t t o k a r i n d i c a t e s h e i s p r e p a r e d p a y h o m a g e t o t h e i m p e r i a l c r o w n i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f p e a c e , b u t i s n o t p r e p a r e d t o c o n c e d e h i s l a n d s . H o w e v e r i t i s m a d e c l e a r t o h i m t h a t h e h i s b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s M e r e n b e r g a n d M a r g e r e t e h a s a l i e n a t e d b o t h A u s t r i a n a n d S t y r i a n s u b j e c t s , w h o n o w t r a n s f e r t h e i r s u p p o r t t o R u d o l f . A s a r e s u l t , O t t o k a r i s f o r c e d t o w i t h d r a w h i s c l a i m s a n d b e c o n t e n t w i t h r e t a i n i n g t h e r e g i o n s o f M o r a v i a a n d B o h e m i a . T h e c e r e m o n y f o r t h i s r e q u i r e s h i m t o k n e e l b e f o r e R u d o l f , a n d i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f d e c o r u m t h i s i s p e r f o r m e d i n a t e n t e d a r e a . H o w e v e r , t h e m i s c h i e v o u s Z a w i s c h c u t s t h e r o p e s o f t h e t e n t , r e v e a l i n g O t t o k a r o n h i s k n e e s b e f o r e h i s e n e m y , t o a l l i n a t t e n d a n c e , i n c l u d i n g h i s o w n a r m y . O t t o k a r t h e n g o e s i n t o h i d i n g f o r t w o w e e k s , b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g t o P r a g u e w e a k e n e d a n d i n s h a m e . O n h i s r e t u r n , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e E m p e r o r a r r i v e d e m a n d i n g t h e r e l e a s e o f a n u m b e r o f p r i s o n e r s , o n e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e p e a c e t r e a t y . A t f i r s t O t t o k a r a c q u i e s c e s , h o w e v e r o n s e e i n g M e r e n b e r g a m o n g t h e p r i s o n e r s , h i s a n g e r i s p i q u e d , a n d i n s t e a d h e t e a r s u p t h e t r e a t y a n d d e m a n d s t h a t M e r e n b e r g b e e x e c u t e d a s a t r a i t o r , f o r h i s r o l e i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h e l e t t e r t o t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f M a i n z , a n d a c t w h i c h O t t o k a r c o n s i d e r s t o h a v e b e e n t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f a l l t h e s u b s e q u e n t b e t r a y a l s . M e r e n b e r g i s t h e n e x e c u t e d b y O t t o k a r ' s m e n , b y f l i n g i n g h i m f r o m a t o w e r . O t t o k a r i s t h e n s p u r n e d b y K u n i g u n d e , w h o o p e n l y t e l l s h i m s h e h a s n o r e s p e c t f o r a m a n w h o k n e e l s b e f o r e h i s e n e m i e s . T h i s f u r t h e r h u m i l i a t i o n , s p u r s O t t o k a r t o r a i s e a n a r m y a g a i n s t a l l w h o d e f y h i m , a t t e m p t i n g t o r e s t o r e h i s l o s t l a n d s , p o w e r , a n d d i g n i t y . K u n i g u n d e t h e n f l e e s w i t h Z a w i s c h , t o s e e k p r o t e c t i o n f r o m t h e E m p e r o r R u d o l f . O n t h e e v e o f t h e b a t t l e w i t h R u d o l f ' s a r m i e s , O t t o k a r s t u m b l e s u p o n t h e d e a t h b e d o f h i s f o r m e r w i f e M a r g a r e t e . S e e i n g h e r d e a d , h a v i n g s u f f e r e d a t h i s h a n d s , h e r e g r e t s h i s t r e a t m e n t o f h e r . A s t h e b a t t l e d r a w s u p , O t t o k a r ' s r e m a i n i n g l o y a l l o r d s u r g e h i m t o a c t d e c i s i v e l y t o m a k e t h e b e s t o f h i s s t r a t e g i c s t r e n g t h s , h o w e v e r h e i s b y n o w h e s i t a n t a n d i n c a p a b l e o f d e c i s i v e a c t i o n , a s h e b e g i n s t o b e c o m e a w a r e o f h i s t r a g i c f a i l i n g s . M e a n w h i l e , E m p e r o r R u d o l f , r e c o g n i s i n g w i t h p i t y h o w s o m a n y o f O t t o k a r ' s s u p p o r t e r s h a v e d e s e r t e d h i m ( i n c l u d i n g K u n i g u n d e a n d Z a w i s c h ) , o r d e r s t h a t n o o n e s h o u l d k i l l O t t o k a r i n b a t t l e o t h e r t h a n i n s e l f - d e f e n c e . H o w e v e r , w h e n S e y f r i e d v o n M e r e n b e r g e n c o u n t e r s O t t o k a r o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , h e s e e k s r e v e n g e f o r t h e d e a t h o f h i s f a t h e r , a n d f o r c e s O t t o k a r , l a m e t h r o u g h i n j u r y , i n t o a f i g h t , i n w h i c h O t t o k a r i s k i l l e d . O n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , R u d o l f , f o u n d e r o f t h e H a b s b u r g d y n a s t y , b e q u e a t h s t h e s t a t e s o f S t y r i a a n d A u s t r i a t o h i s c h i l d r e n , a n d i s h a i l e d a s a n o b l e a n d g r a c i o u s v i c t o r b y a l l . T h e p l a y i s v e r y m u c h f o c u s e d o n t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r O t t o k a r , h i s p e r s o n a l i t y , a n d h o w h e b e c o m e s t h e v i c t i m o f h i s o w n a c t i o n s . A t t h e s t a r t o f t h e p l a y , h e i s a t t h e h e i g h t o f h i s p o w e r s . H e h a s p r o v e n h i m s e l f o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , a n d h a s b e e n h a i l e d b y a l l a s a h e r o . H o w e v e r h e i s i n c a p a b l e o f m o d e r a t i n g h i s e m o t i o n s o r a c t i o n s , a n d f e e l s b e y o n d r e p r o a c h i n a l l t h a t h e d o e s , a n d l o s e s t h e a b i l i t y t o d i s t i n g u i s h r i g h t f r o m w r o n g , l o y a l t y f r o m t r e a c h e r y , a n d w h a t i s r e a s o n a b l e f r o m w h a t i s u n r e a s o n a b l e . W e d o n o t s e e O t t o k a r d u r i n g h i s r i s e t o p o w e r , h o w e v e r t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e t h a t t h e s a m e e s s e n t i a l t r a i t s t h a t p r o p e l l e d h i m f o r w a r d a r e , w h e n u n m o d e r a t e d , t h o s e t h a t b r i n g h i m d o w n : h i s s e n s e o f g r e a t n e s s a n d h i s t o r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e w o r l d m a r k h i m o u t a s a m i g h t y l e a d e r , y e t a l s o l e a d h i m t o s e e o t h e r s a s m e r e l y p a w n s i n h i s p e r s o n a l g a m e ; h i s p r i d e i s c l e a r l y a s t r o n g m o t i v a t i n g f a c t o r f o r h i m , b u t a l s o c l o u d s h i s j u d g e m e n t ; h e i s a d e t e r m i n e d w a r r i o r , y e t d o e s n o t k n o w w h e n t o f i g h t a n d w h e n t o r e s o r t t o d i p l o m a c y . I n e v i t a b l y , t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e p l a y a r e l e s s f u l l y e x a m i n e d , a n d a r e d e f i n e d m o r e b y t h e r e a c t i o n t h a t t h e y b r i n g a b o u t i n O t t o k a r t h a n h a v i n g r e a l d e p t h i n t h e m s e l v e s . M a r g e r e t e , B e r t a , a n d S e y f r i e d M e r e n b e r g a r e i n t h e i r o w n w a y s l o y a l t o O t t o k a r , h o w e v e r t h e y a r e a l l t u r n e d a g a i n s t h i m w h e n h e d o e s n o t r e t u r n t h e i r l o y a l t y . Z a w i s c h a n d K u n i g u n d e a r e d u p l i c i t o u s , a n d y e t O t t o k a r p l a c e s m u c h f a i t h i n t h e m , a n d i s m o s t h u r t w h e n t h e y b e t r a y h i m a s h i s s t a r f a l l s . R u d o l f i s e v e r y t h i n g a g o o d l e a d e r s h o u l d b e , y e t O t t o k a r i s n o t : s t r o n g y e t j u s t , n o b l e y e t h u m b l e , p e a c e - l o v i n g y e t n o t a f r a i d t o f i g h t w h e n h e n e e d s t o . P e r h a p s i n e v i t a b l y , g i v e n t h e c o n t e x t o f w h e n t h e p l a y w a s w r i t t e n , h i s s t a t u s i s t o o s i m p l y t h a t o f a p a r a g o n o f l e a d e r s h i p , a t h i n l y - v e i l e d a t t e m p t t o p r a i s e t h e H a b s b u r g d y n a s t y s t i l l r u l i n g i n A u s t r i a a t t h e t i m e . T h e p l o t o f t h e p l a y f o l l o w s t h e d e c l i n e i n t h e f o r t u n e s o f O t t o k a r , a n d p o i n t s t o t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h i s b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s o t h e r s , a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r h i m s e l f : O t t o k a r ' s t r e a t m e n t o f M a r g a r e t e c o s t s h i m t h e c r o w n o f H o l y R o m a n E m p e r o r ; b y s p u r n i n g B e r t a , h e a l i e n a t e s t h e R o s e n b e r g s , w h o a r e t h e n a b l e t o u n d e r m i n e h i m ( p a r t i c u l a r l y Z a w i s c h ) i n n u m e r o u s w a y s , n o n e m o r e s o t h a n b y e n s u r i n g t h e l e t t e r t o t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f M a i n z r e a c h e s i t s d e s t i n a t i o n ; b y e x e c u t i n g M e r e n b e r g , h e d r i v e s S e y f r i e d t o k i l l h i m i n r e v e n g e ; a n d b y f a i l i n g t o r e s p o n d r a t i o n a l l y t o t h e p e a c e t r e a t i e s o f R u d o l f , h e i n s t i g a t e s a w a r w i t h d i s a s t r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r h i m a n d h i s p e o p l e . G r i l l p a r z e r w a s k e e n t o e m p h a s i s e t h a t i n h i s t o r i c a l t r a g e d y , m a n i s n o t m e r e l y t h e v i c t i m o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s o r f a t e , b u t h a s t h e p o w e r t o c a r v e o u t h i s o w n d e s t i n y . G r i l l p a r z e r c o n t r a s t s O t t o k a r a c t i o n s w i t h t h o s e o f R u d o l f , w h i c h s h o w t h a t b y b e i n g a g o o d a n d j u s t l e a d e r , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e u n i t y a m o n g r i v a l f a c t i o n s , t o i n s p i r e t r u e l o y a l t y , a n d t o b e v i c t o r i o u s . H o w e v e r , f o r l e s s e r c h a r a c t e r s , t h i s c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s l e s s c l e a r , f o r i n s t a n c e i n t h e c a s e o f ' g o o d ' c h a r a c t e r s s u c h a s M a r g e r e t e a n d ' i n n o c e n t ' o n e s s u c h a s B e r t a , b o t h o f w h o m a r e v i c t i m s o f O t t o k a r ' s e g o t i s m a n d s e l f - i n t e r e s t , a l o n g w i t h M e r e n b e r g a n d h i s s o n , w h o a r e t u r n e d a w a y f r o m O t t o k a r s i m p l y f o r s t a n d i n g u p a g a i n s t h i s w r o n g d o i n g s . M e a n w h i l e , Z a w i s c h a n d K u n i g u n d e a p p e a r t o b e n e f i t f r o m f o l l o w i n g t h e i r o w n d e s i r e s d e s p i t e b e h a v i n g i n a t h o r o u g h l y i m m o r a l f a s h i o n . T h e p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e u s e d b y G r i l l p a r z e r w a s t h e M i d d l e H i g h G e r m a n p i e c e " S t e i r i s c h e R e i m c h r o n i k " ( " R h y m e d C h r o n i c l e o f S t y r i a " ) w r i t t e n i n 1 3 0 6 – 2 0 b y O t t o k a r o f S t y r i a ( O t a c h e r o u z d e r G e u l ) . I t i s l i k e l y t h a t h e a l s o u s e d v a r i o u s p e r i o d i c a l s i n o r d e r t o b u i l d u p a f u l l e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . G r i l l p a r z e r f e l t t h a t a t r u e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t w a s i m p o r t a n t t o a t r a g e d y ' s a b i l i t y t o c r e a t e ' a c e r t a i n c o n s i s t e n c y a n d a p p e a r a n c e o f r e a l i t y , w h i c h i n t u r n w o u l d e v o k e i n t h e a u d i e n c e a g r e a t e r s y m p a t h y w i t h t h e t r a g i c h e r o . H o w e v e r h e a l s o r e c o g n i s e d t h a t i t w a s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o d e p a r t f r o m t h e f a c t s i n o r d e r t o h i g h l i g h t t h e d r a m a t i c t h e m e s . A l t h o u g h w e a r e n o t g i v e n a n e x p l i c i t t i m e l i n e i n t h e p l a y , t h e i n s i n u a t i o n i s t h a t t h e e v e n t s u n f o l d o v e r a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d ( p e r h a p s a f e w m o n t h s , o r e v e n y e a r s ) . H i s t o r i c a l l y , a f u l l 2 2 y e a r s s e p a r a t e s t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e B a t t l e o f K r e s s e n b r u n n i n 1 2 6 0 w i t h O t t o k a r ' s d e a t h i n 1 2 7 8 a n d R u d o l f v o n H a b s b u r g b e q u e a t h i n g t h e l a n d s o f A u s t r i a a n d S t y r i a t o h i s s o n s i n 1 2 8 2 . G r i l l p a r z e r a l s o e m b e l l i s h e s h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s i n o t h e r w a y s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n i m b u i n g m o t i v e s : i n t h e p l a y , O t t o k a r ' s d e s i r e f o r a n h e i r , m e r e l y c l o a k s h i s l u s t f o r K u n i g u n d e . H e h a d p r e v i o u s l y e n t i c e d a w a y B e r t a , a y o u n g n o b l e w o m a n , f r o m S e y f r i e d v o n M e r e n b e r g , w h o m h e m a k e s t h e s o n o f S i e g f r i e d , w h o f i g u r e s i n t h e " C h r o n i c l e . " H i s d e s e r t i o n o f B e r t a h a d a r r a y e d a g a i n s t h i m t h e h o s t i l i t y o f t h e t h r e e R o s e n b e r g s , p o w e r f u l a n d u n s c r u p u l o u s B o h e m i a n n o b l e s – B e n e s c h , t h e f a t h e r , M i l o t a , t h e u n c l e , a n d Z a w i s c h , t h e c o u s i n , o f B e r t h a . Z a w i s c h , i m p e l l e d m a i n l y b y d e s i r e t o w r e a k v e n g e a n c e u p o n t h e k i n g , s e e k s t o g a i n t h e a f f e c t i o n o f t h e q u e e n . O t t o k a r ' s t r e a t m e n t o f M a r g a r e t a l i e n a t e s f r o m h i m t h e n o b l e s o f A u s t r i a a n d S t y r i a . T h e i n d i g n i t i e s h e a p e d u p o n t h e m o p e n t h e e y e s o f t h e d e l e g a t e s w h o h a v e c o m e t o o f f e r h i m t h e i m p e r i a l c r o w n . H i s o v e r w e e n i n g p r i d e i n o s t e n s i b l y d i s d a i n i n g t h e t i t l e o f e m p e r o r p r e p a r e s t h e w a y f o r h i s f i n a l d o w n f a l l . T h e c o n t e x t o f t h e w r i t i n g o f t h e d r a m a w a s v e r y m u c h s h a p e d b y G r i l l p a r z e r ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e A u s t r i a n s t a t e i n w h i c h h e l i v e d . I n s p i r e d b y t h e i n i t i a l d e s i r e t o w r i t e a t r a g e d y a b o u t N a p o l e o n , G r i l l p a r z e r r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e h e a v y - h a n d e d s t a t e c e n s o r s o f t h e M e t t e r n i c h r e g i m e w o u l d n e v e r a l l o w h i m t o u s e s u c h a s e n s i t i v e s u b j e c t . B y c h o o s i n g a f i g u r e f r o m t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , w h o s e r i s e a n d f a l l i n m a n y w a y s e c h o e d t h a t o f N a p o l e o n , G r i l l p a r z e r h o p e d h e w o u l d a v o i d c e n s o r i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , p a r t l y o u t o f a s e n s e o f g e n u i n e p a t r i o t i s m , b u t a l s o p a r t l y t o m a k e t h e p l a y y e t m o r e f a v o u r a b l e t o A u s t r i a n a u t h o r i t i e s , G r i l l p a r z e r i n c l u d e s v a r i o u s p r o - H a b s b u r g e l e m e n t s i n h i s d r a m a . T h e s e i n c l u d e : t h e c h a r a c t e r o f R u d o l f h i m s e l f , f o u n d e r o f t h e H a b s b u r g d y n a s t y s t i l l r u l i n g i n t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y ; t h e m e s s a g e t h a t , u n d e r a j u s t r u l e r , t h e d i s p a r a t e s t a t e s o f A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y c o u l d s u c c e s s f u l l y b e p a r t o f a u n i t e d e m p i r e ( a t a t i m e w h e n t h i s e m p i r e w a s s t a r t i n g t o c r e a k a t t h e j o i n t s ) ; a n d n o t l e a s t i n t h e m o n o l o g u e o f O t t o v o n H o r n e k i n A c t I I I , s i n c e k n o w n a s t h e ' P r a i s e o f A u s t r i a ' ( ' d i e L o b r e d e a u f Ö s t e r r e i c h ' ) , w h i c h h a s b e e n t a u g h t i n i s o l a t i o n t o m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s o f A u s t r i a n s c h o o l c h i l d r e n s i n c e . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f s u b s e q u e n t h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s , n o t a b l y t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n e m p i r e a t t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I , a n d t h e r i s e o f G e r m a n n a t i o n a l i s m l e a d i n g t o W o r l d W a r I I , s u c h o v e r t p a t r i o t i s m s e e m s n o t o n l y a n a c h r o n i s t i c a n d o u t o f p l a c e b u t a l s o p o t e n t i a l l y u n p a l a t a b l e t o m o d e r n t a s t e s . A t t h e t i m e , t h e s e t h e m e s f a i l e d t o a c h i e v e G r i l l p a r z e r ' s a i m s o f b e c o m e t h e n a t i o n ' s f a v o u r i t e p l a y w r i g h t . N o t o n l y d i d t h e c e n s o r s s u p p r e s s p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e p l a y f o r 2 y e a r s o n t h e g r o u n d s o f i t s ' u n f a v o u r a b l e a l l u s i o n t o N a p o l e o n ' s s e c o n d m a r r i a g e t o M a r i a - L o u i s e o f A u s t r i a a n d u n f a v o u r a b l e p o r t r a y a l o f B o h e m i a ' , b u t c r i t i c a l r e c e p t i o n w a s m i x e d a f t e r i t s e v e n t u a l p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e ( a r e s u l t o f t h e d i r e c t i n t e r v e n t i o n o f C a r o l i n e A u g u s t e o f B a v a r i a ) . P r o - H a b s b u r g c r i t i c s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t R u d o l f h a d o n l y a m i n o r r o l e c o m p a r e d t o O t t o k a r , w h i l e i n t u r n t h e C z e c h s d i s a p p r o v e d t h a t t h e p l a y d e p i c t s t h e i r n a t i o n a l h e r o i n a n e g a t i v e l i g h t

Historical context

Grillparzer's King Ottokar, His Rise and Fall is a historical tragedy set in the 13th century. Ottokar's flaws, including pride and ego, ultimately lead to his downfall. The play highlights the contrast between Ottokar's leadership style and that of Rudolf, who is depicted as a just and fair ruler. The play's historical context is rooted in the Middle High German piece "Steirische Reimchronik", although Grillparzer took creative liberties to emphasize dramatic themes. The play's themes were influenced by Grillparzer's relationship with the Austrian state, including pro-Habsburg elements and patriotic messages. Despite its historical significance, the play received mixed reviews due to censorship concerns and criticisms of its portrayal of Bohemia.

essential traits that propelled him forward are, when unmoderated, those that bring him down: his sense of greatness and historical importance in the world mark him out as a mighty leader, yet also lead him to see others as merely pawns in his personal game; his pride is clearly a strong motivating factor for him, but also clouds his judgement; he is a determined warrior, yet does not know when to fight and when to resort to diplomacy. Inevitably, the other characters in the play are less fully examined, and are defined more by the reaction that they bring about in Ottokar than having real depth in themselves. Margerete, Berta, and Seyfried Merenberg are in their own ways loyal to Ottokar, however they are all turned against him of Margarete costs him the crown of Holy Roman Emperor; by spurning Berta, he alienates the Rosenbergs, who are then able to undermine him (particularly Zawisch) in numerous ways, none more so than by ensuring the letter to the Archbishop of Mainz reaches its destination; by executing Merenberg, he drives Seyfried to kill him in revenge; and by failing to respond rationally to the peace treaties of Rudolf, he instigates a war with disastrous consequences for him and his people. Grillparzer was keen to emphasise that in historical tragedy, man is not merely the victim of circumstances or fate, but has the power to carve out his own destiny. Grillparzer contrasts Ottokar actions with those of Rudolf, which show that by being a good and just leader, it is possible to create unity among rival factions, to inspire true loyalty, and to be victorious. However, for lesser characters, this causal relationship is less clear, for instance in the case of 'good' characters such as Margerete and 'innocent' ones such as Berta, both of whom are victims of Ottokar's egotism and self-interest, along with Merenberg and his son, who are turned away from Ottokar simply for standing up against his wrongdoings. Meanwhile, Zawisch and Kunigunde appear to benefit from following their own desires despite behaving in a thoroughly immoral fashion. The principal source used by Grillparzer was the Middle High German piece "Steirische Reimchronik" ("Rhymed Chronicle of Styria") written in 1306–20 by Ottokar of Styria (Otacher ouz der Geul). It is likely that he also used various periodicals in order to build up a fuller understanding of the historical context. Grillparzer felt that a true historical context was important to a tragedy's ability to create 'a certain consistency and appearance of reality, which in turn would evoke in the audience a greater sympathy with the tragic hero. However he also recognised that it was also necessary to depart from the facts in order to highlight the dramatic themes. Although we are not given an explicit timeline in the play, the insinuation is that the events unfold over a relatively short period (perhaps a few months, or even years). Historically, a full 22 years separates the aftermath of the Battle of Kressenbrunn in 1260 with Ottokar's death in 1278 and Rudolf von Habsburg bequeathing the lands of Austria and Styria to his sons in 1282. Grillparzer also embellishes historical sources in other ways, particularly in imbuing motives: in the play, Ottokar's desire for an heir, merely cloaks his lust for Kunigunde. He had previously enticed away Berta, a young noblewoman, from Seyfried von Merenberg, whom he makes the son of Siegfried, who figures in the "Chronicle." His desertion of Berta had arrayed against him the hostility of the three Rosenbergs, powerful and unscrupulous Bohemian nobles – Benesch, the father, Milota, the uncle, and Zawisch, the cousin, of Bertha. Zawisch, impelled mainly by desire to wreak vengeance upon the king, seeks to gain the affection of the queen. Ottokar's treatment of Margaret alienates from him the nobles of Austria and Styria. The indignities heaped upon them open the eyes of the delegates who have come to offer him the imperial crown. His overweening pride in ostensibly disdaining the title of emperor prepares the way for his final downfall. The context of the writing of the drama was very much shaped by Grillparzer's relationship with the Austrian state in which he lived. Inspired by the initial desire to write a tragedy about Napoleon, Grillparzer realised that the heavy-handed state censors of the Metternich regime would never allow him to use such a sensitive subject. By choosing a figure from the 13th century, whose rise and fall in many ways echoed that of Napoleon, Grillparzer hoped he would avoid censorial intervention. In addition, partly out of a sense of genuine patriotism, but also partly to make the play yet more favourable to Austrian authorities, Grillparzer includes various pro-Habsburg elements in his drama. These include: the character of Rudolf himself, founder of the Habsburg dynasty still ruling in the 19th century; the message that, under a just ruler, the disparate states of Austria-Hungary could successfully be part of a united empire (at a time when this empire was starting to creak at the joints); and not least in the monologue of Otto von Hornek in Act III, since known as the 'Praise of Austria' ('die Lobrede auf Österreich'), which has been taught in isolation to many generations of Austrian schoolchildren since. In the context of subsequent historical events, notably the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian empire at the end of World War I, and the rise of German nationalism leading to World War II, such overt patriotism seems not only anachronistic and out of place but also potentially unpalatable to modern tastes. At the time, these themes failed to achieve Grillparzer's aims of become the nation's favourite playwright. Not only did the censors suppress publication of the play for 2 years on the grounds of its 'unfavourable allusion to Napoleon's second marriage to Maria-Louise of Austria and unfavourable portrayal of Bohemia', but critical reception was mixed after its eventual public performance (a result of the direct intervention of Caroline Auguste of Bavaria). Pro-Habsburg critics pointed out that Rudolf had only a minor role compared to Ottokar, while in turn the Czechs disapproved that the play depicts their national hero in a negative light

Liu Wenzhe

H e w a s t h e f i r s t C h i n e s e p l a y e r t o d e f e a t a g r a n d m a s t e r ( N i k o l a i K r o g i u s i n 1 9 6 5 ) a n d t h e f i r s t t o b e a w a r d e d t h e t i t l e o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l M a s t e r . H e i s c o n s i d e r e d a p i o n e e r o f c h e s s i n C h i n a a n d a f o u n d i n g f a t h e r o f t h e C h i n e s e S c h o o l o f C h e s s . H e w o n t h e C h i n e s e C h e s s C h a m p i o n s h i p i n 1 9 8 0 a n d 1 9 8 2 . T w o y e a r s a f t e r t h e e n d o f t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n a n d M a o Z e d o n g ' s d e a t h a n d t h e f a l l o f t h e G a n g o f F o u r i n 1 9 7 6 , C h i n a c o m p e t e d i n t h e i r f i r s t O l y m p i a d i n B u e n o s A i r e s . I t w a s t h e r e t h a t L i u W e n z h e d e f e a t e d g r a n d m a s t e r J a n H e i n D o n n e r o f t h e N e t h e r l a n d s i n c r u s h i n g s t y l e a f t e r o n l y 2 0 m o v e s . I t r e m a i n s h i s b e s t k n o w n g a m e : L i u W e n z h e — D o n n e r , B u e n o s A i r e s O l y m p i a d , 1 9 7 8 . P i r c D e f e n c e ( E C O B 0 7 ) 1 . e 4 d 6 2 . d 4 N f 6 3 . N c 3 g 6 4 . B e 2 B g 7 5 . g 4 h 6 6 . h 3 c 5 7 . d 5 O - O ? 8 . h 4 e 6 9 . g 5 h x g 5 1 0 . h x g 5 N e 8 1 1 . Q d 3 e x d 5 1 2 . N x d 5 N c 6 1 3 . Q g 3 B e 6 1 4 . Q h 4 f 5 1 5 . Q h 7 + K f 7 " ( d i a g r a m ) " 1 6 . Q x g 6 + ! K x g 6 1 7 . B h 5 + K h 7 1 8 . B f 7 + B h 6 1 9 . g 6 + K g 7 2 0 . B x h 6 + 1 - 0 I n t o t a l , L i u m a d e t h r e e a p p e a r a n c e s a t t h e C h e s s O l y m p i a d s ( 1 9 7 8 – 1 9 8 2 ) w i t h a n o v e r a l l r e c o r d o f 3 7 g a m e s p l a y e d ( + 1 4 , = 4 , - 1 9 ) . H e a l s o m a d e f o u r a p p e a r a n c e s i n t o t a l a t t h e M e n ' s A s i a n T e a m C h e s s C h a m p i o n s h i p ( 1 9 7 9 – 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 9 1 – 1 9 9 3 ) w i t h a n o v e r a l l r e c o r d o f 1 7 g a m e s p l a y e d ( + 1 0 , = 4 , - 3 ) . I n 1 9 8 6 h e w a s a p p o i n t e d t o t h e p o s t o f C h i e f T r a i n e r o f t h e C h i n e s e I n s t i t u t e o f C h e s s a n d h e a d c o a c h o f t h e C h i n e s e n a t i o n a l c h e s s t e a m . H e w a s s u c c e e d e d b y Y e J i a n g c h u a n i n 2 0 0 0 . I n 2 0 0 2 - 3 , h e w r o t e a s e m i n a l b o o k o n t h e " C h i n e s e S c h o o l o f C h e s s " c a l l e d t h e s a m e n a m e ( s e e F u r t h e r r e a d i n g ) . I n t h e b o o k h e c h a r t s t h e d r a m a t i c p r o g r e s s o f C h i n e s e p l a y e r s o v e r t h e p a s t 2 5 y e a r s . " S y s t e m a t i c a l l y t r a i n i n g p l a y e r s i s m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n s e l e c t i n g t h e m . " — L i u W e n z h e , h e a d c o a c h , w o m e n ' s C h i n e s e O l y m p i c t e a m .

Chess career

Liu Wenzhe was a pioneering Chinese chess player who achieved several milestones, including defeating a grandmaster and becoming an International Master. He won two Chinese Chess Championships and represented China in three Chess Olympiads. After retiring from competition, he became a renowned coach, leading the Chinese national team and authoring a influential book on the "Chinese School of Chess".

He was the first Chinese player to defeat a grandmaster (Nikolai Krogius in 1965) and the first to be awarded the title of International Master. He is considered a pioneer of chess in China and a founding father of the Chinese School of Chess. He won the Chinese Chess Championship in 1980 and 1982. Two years after the end of the Cultural Revolution and Mao Zedong's death and the fall of the Gang of Four in 1976, China competed in their first Olympiad in Buenos Aires. It was there that Liu Wenzhe defeated grandmaster Jan Hein Donner of the Netherlands in crushing style after only 20 moves. It remains his best known game: Liu Wenzhe—Donner, Buenos Aires Olympiad, 1978. Pirc Defence (ECO B07)1.e4 d6 2.d4 Nf6 3.Nc3 g6 4.Be2 Bg7 5.g4 h6 6.h3 c5 7.d5 O-O? 8.h4 e6 9.g5 hxg5 10.hxg5 Ne8 11.Qd3 exd5 12.Nxd5 Nc6 13.Qg3 Be6 14.Qh4 f5 15.Qh7+ Kf7 "(diagram)" 16.Qxg6+! Kxg6 17.Bh5+ Kh7 18.Bf7+ Bh6 19.g6+ Kg7 20.Bxh6+ 1-0 In total, Liu made three appearances at the Chess Olympiads (1978–1982) with an overall record of 37 games played (+14, =4, -19). He also made four appearances in total at the Men's Asian Team Chess Championship (1979–1981, 1991–1993) with an overall record of 17 games played (+10, =4, -3). In 1986 he was appointed to the post of Chief Trainer of the Chinese Institute of Chess and head coach of the Chinese national chess team. He was succeeded by Ye Jiangchuan in 2000. In 2002-3, he wrote a seminal book on the "Chinese School of Chess" called the same name (see Further reading). In the book he charts the dramatic progress of Chinese players over the past 25 years. "Systematically training players is more important than selecting them."—Liu Wenzhe, head coach, women's Chinese Olympic team.

Sonja de Lennart

S o n j a d e L e n n a r t w a s b o r n i n P r u s s i a i n M a y 1 9 2 0 , i n t o a m u l t i c u l t u r a l f a m i l y a s t h e d a u g h t e r o f a n i n d u s t r i a l i s t a n d s y n d i c u s . I n h e r y o u t h , s h e w a s a k e e n a t h l e t e i n s w i m m i n g a n d t r a c k a n d f i e l d . B y t h e a g e o f e i g h t , d e L e n n a r t h a d a l r e a d y w o n m a n y s w i m m i n g c o m p e t i t i o n s . I n 1 9 3 2 , s h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e o f f i c i a l N a t i o n a l Y o u t h C o m p e t i t i o n s a s a n a t h l e t e i n t r a c k a n d f i e l d r u n n i n g t h e 1 0 0 m a n d 1 0 0 0 m s p r i n t . S h e w a s a n a c t i v e m e m b e r o f t h e C l a s s i c T h e a t e r S o c i e t y a l o n g w i t h b e i n g a t a l e n t e d s t u d e n t o f t h e B r e s l a u S t a t e O p e r a b a l l e t w h o s e t e a c h e r w a s t h e f a m o u s d a n c e r a n d b a l l e t m a s t e r , A n n a C a p a n a . A f t e r a t t e n d i n g b u s i n e s s c o l l e g e i n B r e s l a u , h e r d r e a m o f b e c o m i n g a f a s h i o n d e s i g n e r b e c a m e a p a s s i o n . S h e s t u d i e d d e s i g n d e s p i t e h e r f a t h e r ’ s e x t r e m e l y s t r o n g o p p o s i t i o n a n d t h r e a t o f d i s i n h e r i t a n c e . S h e s e c r e t l y e n r o l l e d a s a s t u d e n t a p p r e n t i c e a t E r i c h B o e h m A t e l i e r a n d l a t e r a t H e r m a n P a l m A t e l i e r i n B e r l i n i n w h i c h s h e s t u d i e d t h e s k i l l f u l t r a d e o f t a i l o r i n g a n d t h e c u s t o m i z i n g o f g a r m e n t s – f r o m e l e g a n t h a t s t o e v e n i n g g o w n s – u n t i l s h e b e c a m e a m a s t e r c r a f t s m a n o f h e r t r a d e g r a d u a t i n g a s a t e x t i l e e n g i n e e r . A f t e r W o r l d W a r I I , s h e w a s e n t e r e d a s a m e m b e r i n t o t h e p r e s t i g i o u s H a n d w e r k s r o l l e o f t h e C h a m b e r o f T r a d e . A f t e r t h e p o l i t i c a l r e g i m e h a d d e s t r o y e d t h e f a m i l y f o r t u n e , i t w a s d e L e n n a r t w h o , a f t e r W o r l d W a r I I , r e s t o r e d h e r f a m i l y f i n a n c i a l l y w i t h h e r f a s h i o n d e s i g n t r a d e . I n 1 9 4 5 , a f t e r t h e w a r , S o n j a d e L e n n a r t b e g a n t o p r o d u c e f a s h i o n w e a r a n d o p e n e d h e r f i r s t b o u t i q u e , S a l o n S o n j a , i n M u n i c h . H e r f a s h i o n c a r e e r b e g a n w i t h a r a r e b u t f o r t u n a t e c i r c u m s t a n c e w h e n t h e f a s h i o n a d v i s o r o f t h e T a y l o r ' s G u i l d , M . P o n a t e r , a l l o w e d d e L e n n a r t t o e x h i b i t o n e o f h e r f i r s t c r e a t i o n s ( a h a n d p a i n t e d d r e s s w h i c h s h e p a i n t e d h e r s e l f a n d d i s p l a y e d o n a m a n n e q u i n ) i n o n e c o r n e r o f P o n a t e r ’ s b o o t h o f t h e l e a d i n g F a s h i o n T r a d e F a i r , H a n d w e r k s m e s s e , w h e r e h e w a s d i s p l a y i n g a n d s e l l i n g h i s o w n f a s h i o n c o l l e c t i o n . T h i s o n e a n d o n l y o p p o r t u n i t y t o s h o w h e r t a l e n t h a d c u s t o m e r s s t a n d i n g i n l i n e t o p l a c e o r d e r s f o r w h i c h s h e w a s n ’ t p r e p a r e d . T h i s e v e n t t u r n e d i n t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f d e L e n n a r t ’ s c r e a t i o n s . T h e d e m a n d f o r h e r d e s i g n s w a s s o o v e r w h e l m i n g t h a t s o o n a f t e r , t h e f a m i l y b e g a n t o m a n u f a c t u r e a n o t h e r o f h e r c r e a t i o n s , i m i t a t i o n l e a t h e r v e s t u r e s , a s w e l l a s t h r e e - q u a r t e r l e n g t h c o a t s t h a t w e r e e x h i b i t e d a t t h e C r a f t s m a n F a i r a n d d i s t r i b u t e d n a t i o n w i d e b e c o m i n g a b e s t s e l l e r . I n t h a t s a m e y e a r , s h e c r e a t e d a w i d e - s w i n g i n g s k i r t w i t h a w i d e b e l t ( w h i c h s h e m o d e l e d h e r s e l f ) , a b l o u s e , a n d h a t . H e r d e s i g n c o l l e c t i o n b e c a m e k n o w n a s t h e C a p r i C o l l e c t i o n . S h e c h o s e t h i s n a m e a s i t w a s h e r f a m i l y ’ s l o v e f o r t h e i s l a n d o f C a p r i t h a t c a p t i v a t e d h e r t o g e t h e r w i t h a r e c o r d e d s o n g s e n t t o h e r b y h e r f a m i l y i n A m e r i c a c a l l e d , " I s l e o f C a p r i " . H e r l o v e f o r t h i s s o n g a n d h e r i n c r e a s e d f o n d n e s s f o r t h e I s l a n d o f C a p r i , g a v e h e r t h e i n s p i r a t i o n o f t h e C a p r i n a m e . I n 1 9 4 8 , a f t e r y e a r s o f w o m e n w e a r i n g t h e t y p i c a l w i d e a n d r a t h e r m a s c u l i n e p a n t s , d e L e n n a r t c r e a t e d t h e s e x y t i g h t t h r e e - q u a r t e r l e n g t h C a p r i p a n t s w i t h t h e s t y l i s h s h o r t s l i t o n t h e o u t e r - s i d e o f t h e p a n t l e g . T h e o r i g i n a l c l a s s i c C a p r i P a n t s w e r e d e s i g n e d i n s p e c i f i c l e n g t h s f o r w i n t e r a n d s u m m e r w e a r . I n 1 9 4 9 , G e r m a n a c t r e s s , M a d y R a h l , a n d A u s t r i a n a c t r e s s , E r n i M a n g o l d , b o t h p o s e d f o r S o n j a d e L e n n a r t i n t h e o r i g i n a l s u m m e r - a n d w i n t e r - s t y l e C a p r i p a n t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n 1 9 5 2 , E d i t h H e a d r e c o g n i z e d t h e i n n o v a t i v e a n d r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t y l e o f S o n j a d e L e n n a r t a n d h a d h e r C a p r i C o l l e c t i o n [ t h e w i d e - s w i n g i n g C a p r i s k i r t , t h e h i g h - n e c k C a p r i b l o u s e , a n d t h e w i d e C a p r i b e l t a n d C a p r i p a n t s ] s e w n b y t h e I t a l i a n F o n t a n a s i s t e r s f o r A u d r e y H e p b u r n i n t h e m o v i e , " R o m a n H o l i d a y " . I n 1 9 5 3 , H u b e r t d e G i v e n c h y h a d d e L e n n a r t ' s C a p r i p a n t s s t i t c h e d f o r A u d r e y H e p b u r n , w h i c h s h e w o r e i n t h e m o v i e " S a b r i n a " ( 1 9 5 4 ) . E d i t h H e a d i n t r o d u c e d t h e C a p r i s k i r t , C a p r i b l o u s e , C a p r i p a n t s , a n d C a p r i b e l t t o t h e w o r l d ; b u t , i t w a s t h e C a p r i p a n t s t h a t m a d e h i s t o r y . A m o n g t h e m a n y w h o h a v e w o r n t h e f a s h i o n a b l e C a p r i p a n t s a r e D o r i s D a y , J a n e R u s s e l l , K a t h a r i n e H e p b u r n , G i n a L o l l o b r i g i d a , A v a G a r d n e r , E l i z a b e t h T a y l o r , J a c q u e l i n e K e n n e d y , M a r i l y n M o n r o e , K i m N o v a k , S o p h i a L o r e n , A n i t a E k b e r g , a n d M a r y T y l e r M o o r e . C a p r i p a n t s m a r c h e d e v e n i n t h e E x i s t e n t i a l i s t B a r s f r o m S a i n t - G e r m a i n - d e s - P r é s i n P a r i s : “ Y o u n g w o m e n l o v e d t h e m s e l v e s i n b l a c k r o l l n e c k s , t i g h t C a p r i p a n t s , a n d f l a t t i e s [ f l a t s a n d a l s ] a l o n g w i t h s t r a i g h t l o n g h a i r a n d b l a c k - p a i n t e d e y e s a l a J u l i e t t e G r e c o , ” r e p o r t e d P r o f e s s o r G u n d u l a W o l t e r ( 1 9 9 4 , 2 7 0 ) . S o n j a d e L e n n a r t w a s a l s o t h e f i r s t d e s i g n e r w h o u t i l i z e d t h e f a m o u s E v e r g l a z e t e x t i l e f r o m A m e r i c a w h i c h h e r f a m i l y f r o m C a l i f o r n i a s e n t t o d e L e n n a r t u p o n h e r r e q u e s t . S u b s e q u e n t l y , i t d e v e l o p e d i n t o b i g b u s i n e s s f o r t h e A m e r i c a n m a n u f a c t u r e r . T h e m a t e r i a l w a s t h e n l i c e n s e d t o E u r o p e a n c o m p a n i e s ; a s a r e s u l t , f o r e i g n r o y a l t i e s a c c o u n t e d f o r m o r e t h a n 7 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e f i r m ’ s t o t a l p r o f i t s . I n 1 9 5 5 i n M u n i c h , S o n j a d e L e n n a r t o p e n e d h e r n e w , m u c h l a r g e r f a s h i o n h o u s e a n d r e n a m e d t h e c o m p a n y M a i s o n H a a s e t o i n c l u d e , i n p a r t , b o t h h e r a n d h e r h u s b a n d ’ s n a m e . D e L e n n a r t ’ s f a s h i o n h o u s e b e c a m e t h e p l a c e t o b e . M a j o r m o v i e c o m p a n i e s , p r o m i n e n t o p e r a d i r e c t o r s , c o s t u m e d e s i g n e r s , a n d n o t a b l e s f r o m a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d t r a v e l e d t o E u r o p e t o a c q u i r e S o n j a d e L e n n a r t ' s d e s i g n . A m o n g t h o s e w e r e I n g r i d B e r g m a n , G a r y C o o p e r , M a r i a S c h e l l , C u r d J ü r g e n s , a n d K l a u s K i n s k i a s w e l l a s n o b l e s l i k e t h e C o u n t e s s o f S t a u f f e n b e r g ; t h e W o o l w o r t h h e i r , S u n n y v o n B ü l o w ; P r i n c e s s A u e r s p e r g a n d Q u e e n S o r a y a E s f a n d i a r y , t h e w i f e o f S h a h M o h a m m a d R e z a P a h l a v i , T h e 5 t h D i m e n s i o n , a n d m a n y o t h e r s . D e L e n n a r t b e c a m e o n e o f t h e m o s t i n n o v a t i v e E u r o p e a n f a s h i o n d e s i g n e r s a f t e r W o r l d W a r I I i n f l u e n c i n g a w h o l e g e n e r a t i o n o f n e w d e s i g n e r s a n d w a s c o n s i d e r e d a l e a d i n g p i o n e e r o f h e r t i m e b y m a j o r m a g a z i n e s w h e r e i n s h e w a s i n t e r v i e w e d a l o n g w i t h l e g e n d a r y f a s h i o n d e s i g n e r s a s Y v e s S a i n t L a u r e n t , P a c o R a b a n n e , a n d A n d r é C o u r r è g e s . T h e r e w a s a l m o s t n o f a s h i o n d e s i g n e r w h o d i d n o t a d d C a p r i p a n t s t o t h e i r c o l l e c t i o n .

Early life

Sonja de Lennart was born in Prussia in 1920 to a multicultural family. As a child, she excelled in athletics and theater, and later pursued her passion for fashion design despite her father's opposition. She studied textiles and graduated as a master craftsman, eventually opening her own boutique in Munich after WWII. Her early success led to the creation of her iconic Capri Collection, featuring tight-fitting pants, skirts, blouses, and belts. Her designs were sought after by Hollywood stars, European royalty, and influential figures, cementing her status as a pioneering fashion designer of her time.

Sonja de Lennart was born in Prussia in May 1920, into a multicultural family as the daughter of an industrialist and syndicus. In her youth, she was a keen athlete in swimming and track and field. By the age of eight, de Lennart had already won many swimming competitions. In 1932, she participated in the official National Youth Competitions as an athlete in track and field running the 100 m and 1000 m sprint. She was an active member of the Classic Theater Society along with being a talented student of the Breslau State Opera ballet whose teacher was the famous dancer and ballet master, Anna Capana. After attending business college in Breslau, her dream of becoming a fashion designer became a passion. She studied design despite her father’s extremely strong opposition and threat of disinheritance. She secretly enrolled as a student apprentice at Erich Boehm Atelier and later at Herman Palm Atelier in Berlin in which she studied the skillful trade of tailoring and the customizing of garments – from elegant hats to evening gowns – until she became a master craftsman of her trade graduating as a textile engineer. After World War II, she was entered as a member into the prestigious Handwerksrolle of the Chamber of Trade. After the political regime had destroyed the family fortune, it was de Lennart who, after World War II, restored her family financially with her fashion design trade. In 1945, after the war, Sonja de Lennart began to produce fashion wear and opened her first boutique, Salon Sonja, in Munich. Her fashion career began with a rare but fortunate circumstance when the fashion advisor of the Taylor's Guild, M. Ponater, allowed de Lennart to exhibit one of her first creations (a hand painted dress which she painted herself and displayed on a mannequin) in one corner of Ponater’s booth of the leading Fashion Trade Fair, Handwerksmesse, where he was displaying and selling his own fashion collection. This one and only opportunity to show her talent had customers standing in line to place orders for which she wasn’t prepared. This event turned into the beginning of the distribution of de Lennart’s creations. The demand for her designs was so overwhelming that soon after, the family began to manufacture another of her creations, imitation leather vestures, as well as three-quarter length coats that were exhibited at the Craftsman Fair and distributed nationwide becoming a bestseller. In that same year, she created a wide-swinging skirt with a wide belt (which she modeled herself), a blouse, and hat. Her design collection became known as the Capri Collection. She chose this name as it was her family’s love for the island of Capri that captivated her together with a recorded song sent to her by her family in America called, "Isle of Capri". Her love for this song and her increased fondness for the Island of Capri, gave her the inspiration of the Capri name. In 1948, after years of women wearing the typical wide and rather masculine pants, de Lennart created the sexy tight three-quarter length Capri pants with the stylish short slit on the outer-side of the pant leg. The original classic Capri Pants were designed in specific lengths for winter and summer wear. In 1949, German actress, Mady Rahl, and Austrian actress, Erni Mangold, both posed for Sonja de Lennart in the original summer- and winter-style Capri pant, respectively. In 1952, Edith Head recognized the innovative and revolutionary style of Sonja de Lennart and had her Capri Collection [the wide-swinging Capri skirt, the high-neck Capri blouse, and the wide Capri belt and Capri pants] sewn by the Italian Fontana sisters for Audrey Hepburn in the movie, "Roman Holiday". In 1953, Hubert de Givenchy had de Lennart's Capri pants stitched for Audrey Hepburn, which she wore in the movie "Sabrina" (1954). Edith Head introduced the Capri skirt, Capri blouse, Capri pants, and Capri belt to the world; but, it was the Capri pants that made history. Among the many who have worn the fashionable Capri pants are Doris Day, Jane Russell, Katharine Hepburn, Gina Lollobrigida, Ava Gardner, Elizabeth Taylor, Jacqueline Kennedy, Marilyn Monroe, Kim Novak, Sophia Loren, Anita Ekberg, and Mary Tyler Moore. Capri pants marched even in the Existentialist Bars from Saint-Germain-des-Prés in Paris: “Young women loved themselves in black roll necks, tight Capri pants, and flatties [flat sandals] along with straight long hair and black-painted eyes a la Juliette Greco,” reported Professor Gundula Wolter (1994, 270). Sonja de Lennart was also the first designer who utilized the famous Everglaze textile from America which her family from California sent to de Lennart upon her request. Subsequently, it developed into big business for the American manufacturer. The material was then licensed to European companies; as a result, foreign royalties accounted for more than 70 percent of the firm’s total profits. In 1955 in Munich, Sonja de Lennart opened her new, much larger fashion house and renamed the company Maison Haase to include, in part, both her and her husband’s name. De Lennart’s fashion house became the place to be. Major movie companies, prominent opera directors, costume designers, and notables from all over the world traveled to Europe to acquire Sonja de Lennart's design. Among those were Ingrid Bergman, Gary Cooper, Maria Schell, Curd Jürgens, and Klaus Kinski as well as nobles like the Countess of Stauffenberg; the Woolworth heir, Sunny von Bülow; Princess Auersperg and Queen Soraya Esfandiary, the wife of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, The 5th Dimension, and many others. De Lennart became one of the most innovative European fashion designers after World War II influencing a whole generation of new designers and was considered a leading pioneer of her time by major magazines wherein she was interviewed along with legendary fashion designers as Yves Saint Laurent, Paco Rabanne, and André Courrèges. There was almost no fashion designer who did not add Capri pants to their collection.

Sonja de Lennart

S o n j a d e L e n n a r t w a s b o r n i n P r u s s i a i n M a y 1 9 2 0 , i n t o a m u l t i c u l t u r a l f a m i l y a s t h e d a u g h t e r o f a n i n d u s t r i a l i s t a n d s y n d i c u s . I n h e r y o u t h , s h e w a s a k e e n a t h l e t e i n s w i m m i n g a n d t r a c k a n d f i e l d . B y t h e a g e o f e i g h t , d e L e n n a r t h a d a l r e a d y w o n m a n y s w i m m i n g c o m p e t i t i o n s . I n 1 9 3 2 , s h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e o f f i c i a l N a t i o n a l Y o u t h C o m p e t i t i o n s a s a n a t h l e t e i n t r a c k a n d f i e l d r u n n i n g t h e 1 0 0 m a n d 1 0 0 0 m s p r i n t . S h e w a s a n a c t i v e m e m b e r o f t h e C l a s s i c T h e a t e r S o c i e t y a l o n g w i t h b e i n g a t a l e n t e d s t u d e n t o f t h e B r e s l a u S t a t e O p e r a b a l l e t w h o s e t e a c h e r w a s t h e f a m o u s d a n c e r a n d b a l l e t m a s t e r , A n n a C a p a n a . A f t e r a t t e n d i n g b u s i n e s s c o l l e g e i n B r e s l a u , h e r d r e a m o f b e c o m i n g a f a s h i o n d e s i g n e r b e c a m e a p a s s i o n . S h e s t u d i e d d e s i g n d e s p i t e h e r f a t h e r ’ s e x t r e m e l y s t r o n g o p p o s i t i o n a n d t h r e a t o f d i s i n h e r i t a n c e . S h e s e c r e t l y e n r o l l e d a s a s t u d e n t a p p r e n t i c e a t E r i c h B o e h m A t e l i e r a n d l a t e r a t H e r m a n P a l m A t e l i e r i n B e r l i n i n w h i c h s h e s t u d i e d t h e s k i l l f u l t r a d e o f t a i l o r i n g a n d t h e c u s t o m i z i n g o f g a r m e n t s – f r o m e l e g a n t h a t s t o e v e n i n g g o w n s – u n t i l s h e b e c a m e a m a s t e r c r a f t s m a n o f h e r t r a d e g r a d u a t i n g a s a t e x t i l e e n g i n e e r . A f t e r W o r l d W a r I I , s h e w a s e n t e r e d a s a m e m b e r i n t o t h e p r e s t i g i o u s H a n d w e r k s r o l l e o f t h e C h a m b e r o f T r a d e . A f t e r t h e p o l i t i c a l r e g i m e h a d d e s t r o y e d t h e f a m i l y f o r t u n e , i t w a s d e L e n n a r t w h o , a f t e r W o r l d W a r I I , r e s t o r e d h e r f a m i l y f i n a n c i a l l y w i t h h e r f a s h i o n d e s i g n t r a d e . I n 1 9 4 5 , a f t e r t h e w a r , S o n j a d e L e n n a r t b e g a n t o p r o d u c e f a s h i o n w e a r a n d o p e n e d h e r f i r s t b o u t i q u e , S a l o n S o n j a , i n M u n i c h . H e r f a s h i o n c a r e e r b e g a n w i t h a r a r e b u t f o r t u n a t e c i r c u m s t a n c e w h e n t h e f a s h i o n a d v i s o r o f t h e T a y l o r ' s G u i l d , M . P o n a t e r , a l l o w e d d e L e n n a r t t o e x h i b i t o n e o f h e r f i r s t c r e a t i o n s ( a h a n d p a i n t e d d r e s s w h i c h s h e p a i n t e d h e r s e l f a n d d i s p l a y e d o n a m a n n e q u i n ) i n o n e c o r n e r o f P o n a t e r ’ s b o o t h o f t h e l e a d i n g F a s h i o n T r a d e F a i r , H a n d w e r k s m e s s e , w h e r e h e w a s d i s p l a y i n g a n d s e l l i n g h i s o w n f a s h i o n c o l l e c t i o n . T h i s o n e a n d o n l y o p p o r t u n i t y t o s h o w h e r t a l e n t h a d c u s t o m e r s s t a n d i n g i n l i n e t o p l a c e o r d e r s f o r w h i c h s h e w a s n ’ t p r e p a r e d . T h i s e v e n t t u r n e d i n t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f d e L e n n a r t ’ s c r e a t i o n s . T h e d e m a n d f o r h e r d e s i g n s w a s s o o v e r w h e l m i n g t h a t s o o n a f t e r , t h e f a m i l y b e g a n t o m a n u f a c t u r e a n o t h e r o f h e r c r e a t i o n s , i m i t a t i o n l e a t h e r v e s t u r e s , a s w e l l a s t h r e e - q u a r t e r l e n g t h c o a t s t h a t w e r e e x h i b i t e d a t t h e C r a f t s m a n F a i r a n d d i s t r i b u t e d n a t i o n w i d e b e c o m i n g a b e s t s e l l e r . I n t h a t s a m e y e a r , s h e c r e a t e d a w i d e - s w i n g i n g s k i r t w i t h a w i d e b e l t ( w h i c h s h e m o d e l e d h e r s e l f ) , a b l o u s e , a n d h a t . H e r d e s i g n c o l l e c t i o n b e c a m e k n o w n a s t h e C a p r i C o l l e c t i o n . S h e c h o s e t h i s n a m e a s i t w a s h e r f a m i l y ’ s l o v e f o r t h e i s l a n d o f C a p r i t h a t c a p t i v a t e d h e r t o g e t h e r w i t h a r e c o r d e d s o n g s e n t t o h e r b y h e r f a m i l y i n A m e r i c a c a l l e d , " I s l e o f C a p r i " . H e r l o v e f o r t h i s s o n g a n d h e r i n c r e a s e d f o n d n e s s f o r t h e I s l a n d o f C a p r i , g a v e h e r t h e i n s p i r a t i o n o f t h e C a p r i n a m e . I n 1 9 4 8 , a f t e r y e a r s o f w o m e n w e a r i n g t h e t y p i c a l w i d e a n d r a t h e r m a s c u l i n e p a n t s , d e L e n n a r t c r e a t e d t h e s e x y t i g h t t h r e e - q u a r t e r l e n g t h C a p r i p a n t s w i t h t h e s t y l i s h s h o r t s l i t o n t h e o u t e r - s i d e o f t h e p a n t l e g . T h e o r i g i n a l c l a s s i c C a p r i P a n t s w e r e d e s i g n e d i n s p e c i f i c l e n g t h s f o r w i n t e r a n d s u m m e r w e a r . I n 1 9 4 9 , G e r m a n a c t r e s s , M a d y R a h l , a n d A u s t r i a n a c t r e s s , E r n i M a n g o l d , b o t h p o s e d f o r S o n j a d e L e n n a r t i n t h e o r i g i n a l s u m m e r - a n d w i n t e r - s t y l e C a p r i p a n t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n 1 9 5 2 , E d i t h H e a d r e c o g n i z e d t h e i n n o v a t i v e a n d r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t y l e o f S o n j a d e L e n n a r t a n d h a d h e r C a p r i C o l l e c t i o n [ t h e w i d e - s w i n g i n g C a p r i s k i r t , t h e h i g h - n e c k C a p r i b l o u s e , a n d t h e w i d e C a p r i b e l t a n d C a p r i p a n t s ] s e w n b y t h e I t a l i a n F o n t a n a s i s t e r s f o r A u d r e y H e p b u r n i n t h e m o v i e , " R o m a n H o l i d a y " . I n 1 9 5 3 , H u b e r t d e G i v e n c h y h a d d e L e n n a r t ' s C a p r i p a n t s s t i t c h e d f o r A u d r e y H e p b u r n , w h i c h s h e w o r e i n t h e m o v i e " S a b r i n a " ( 1 9 5 4 ) . E d i t h H e a d i n t r o d u c e d t h e C a p r i s k i r t , C a p r i b l o u s e , C a p r i p a n t s , a n d C a p r i b e l t t o t h e w o r l d ; b u t , i t w a s t h e C a p r i p a n t s t h a t m a d e h i s t o r y . A m o n g t h e m a n y w h o h a v e w o r n t h e f a s h i o n a b l e C a p r i p a n t s a r e D o r i s D a y , J a n e R u s s e l l , K a t h a r i n e H e p b u r n , G i n a L o l l o b r i g i d a , A v a G a r d n e r , E l i z a b e t h T a y l o r , J a c q u e l i n e K e n n e d y , M a r i l y n M o n r o e , K i m N o v a k , S o p h i a L o r e n , A n i t a E k b e r g , a n d M a r y T y l e r M o o r e . C a p r i p a n t s m a r c h e d e v e n i n t h e E x i s t e n t i a l i s t B a r s f r o m S a i n t - G e r m a i n - d e s - P r é s i n P a r i s : “ Y o u n g w o m e n l o v e d t h e m s e l v e s i n b l a c k r o l l n e c k s , t i g h t C a p r i p a n t s , a n d f l a t t i e s [ f l a t s a n d a l s ] a l o n g w i t h s t r a i g h t l o n g h a i r a n d b l a c k - p a i n t e d e y e s a l a J u l i e t t e G r e c o , ” r e p o r t e d P r o f e s s o r G u n d u l a W o l t e r ( 1 9 9 4 , 2 7 0 ) . S o n j a d e L e n n a r t w a s a l s o t h e f i r s t d e s i g n e r w h o u t i l i z e d t h e f a m o u s E v e r g l a z e t e x t i l e f r o m A m e r i c a w h i c h h e r f a m i l y f r o m C a l i f o r n i a s e n t t o d e L e n n a r t u p o n h e r r e q u e s t . S u b s e q u e n t l y , i t d e v e l o p e d i n t o b i g b u s i n e s s f o r t h e A m e r i c a n m a n u f a c t u r e r . T h e m a t e r i a l w a s t h e n l i c e n s e d t o E u r o p e a n c o m p a n i e s ; a s a r e s u l t , f o r e i g n r o y a l t i e s a c c o u n t e d f o r m o r e t h a n 7 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e f i r m ’ s t o t a l p r o f i t s . I n 1 9 5 5 i n M u n i c h , S o n j a d e L e n n a r t o p e n e d h e r n e w , m u c h l a r g e r f a s h i o n h o u s e a n d r e n a m e d t h e c o m p a n y M a i s o n H a a s e t o i n c l u d e , i n p a r t , b o t h h e r a n d h e r h u s b a n d ’ s n a m e . D e L e n n a r t ’ s f a s h i o n h o u s e b e c a m e t h e p l a c e t o b e . M a j o r m o v i e c o m p a n i e s , p r o m i n e n t o p e r a d i r e c t o r s , c o s t u m e d e s i g n e r s , a n d n o t a b l e s f r o m a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d t r a v e l e d t o E u r o p e t o a c q u i r e S o n j a d e L e n n a r t ' s d e s i g n . A m o n g t h o s e w e r e I n g r i d B e r g m a n , G a r y C o o p e r , M a r i a S c h e l l , C u r d J ü r g e n s , a n d K l a u s K i n s k i a s w e l l a s n o b l e s l i k e t h e C o u n t e s s o f S t a u f f e n b e r g ; t h e W o o l w o r t h h e i r , S u n n y v o n B ü l o w ; P r i n c e s s A u e r s p e r g a n d Q u e e n S o r a y a E s f a n d i a r y , t h e w i f e o f S h a h M o h a m m a d R e z a P a h l a v i , T h e 5 t h D i m e n s i o n , a n d m a n y o t h e r s . D e L e n n a r t b e c a m e o n e o f t h e m o s t i n n o v a t i v e E u r o p e a n f a s h i o n d e s i g n e r s a f t e r W o r l d W a r I I i n f l u e n c i n g a w h o l e g e n e r a t i o n o f n e w d e s i g n e r s a n d w a s c o n s i d e r e d a l e a d i n g p i o n e e r o f h e r t i m e b y m a j o r m a g a z i n e s w h e r e i n s h e w a s i n t e r v i e w e d a l o n g w i t h l e g e n d a r y f a s h i o n d e s i g n e r s a s Y v e s S a i n t L a u r e n t , P a c o R a b a n n e , a n d A n d r é C o u r r è g e s . T h e r e w a s a l m o s t n o f a s h i o n d e s i g n e r w h o d i d n o t a d d C a p r i p a n t s t o t h e i r c o l l e c t i o n .

Fashion career

Sonja de Lennart, a pioneering fashion designer, defied her father's opposition to pursue her dreams. She studied design, mastered tailoring, and graduated as a textile engineer. After WWII, she opened her first boutique, Salon Sonja, in Munich, showcasing her creations, including the iconic Capri pants. Her designs gained popularity, and she became a renowned fashion designer, influencing generations of designers. Her fashion house, Maison Haase, attracted celebrities, nobles, and notable figures worldwide.

Sonja de Lennart was born in Prussia in May 1920, into a multicultural family as the daughter of an industrialist and syndicus. In her youth, she was a keen athlete in swimming and track and field. By the age of eight, de Lennart had already won many swimming competitions. In 1932, she participated in the official National Youth Competitions as an athlete in track and field running the 100 m and 1000 m sprint. She was an active member of the Classic Theater Society along with being a talented student of the Breslau State Opera ballet whose teacher was the famous dancer and ballet master, Anna Capana. After attending business college in Breslau, her dream of becoming a fashion designer became a passion. She studied design despite her father’s extremely strong opposition and threat of disinheritance. She secretly enrolled as a student apprentice at Erich Boehm Atelier and later at Herman Palm Atelier in Berlin in which she studied the skillful trade of tailoring and the customizing of garments – from elegant hats to evening gowns – until she became a master craftsman of her trade graduating as a textile engineer. After World War II, she was entered as a member into the prestigious Handwerksrolle of the Chamber of Trade. After the political regime had destroyed the family fortune, it was de Lennart who, after World War II, restored her family financially with her fashion design trade. In 1945, after the war, Sonja de Lennart began to produce fashion wear and opened her first boutique, Salon Sonja, in Munich. Her fashion career began with a rare but fortunate circumstance when the fashion advisor of the Taylor's Guild, M. Ponater, allowed de Lennart to exhibit one of her first creations (a hand painted dress which she painted herself and displayed on a mannequin) in one corner of Ponater’s booth of the leading Fashion Trade Fair, Handwerksmesse, where he was displaying and selling his own fashion collection. This one and only opportunity to show her talent had customers standing in line to place orders for which she wasn’t prepared. This event turned into the beginning of the distribution of de Lennart’s creations. The demand for her designs was so overwhelming that soon after, the family began to manufacture another of her creations, imitation leather vestures, as well as three-quarter length coats that were exhibited at the Craftsman Fair and distributed nationwide becoming a bestseller. In that same year, she created a wide-swinging skirt with a wide belt (which she modeled herself), a blouse, and hat. Her design collection became known as the Capri Collection. She chose this name as it was her family’s love for the island of Capri that captivated her together with a recorded song sent to her by her family in America called, "Isle of Capri". Her love for this song and her increased fondness for the Island of Capri, gave her the inspiration of the Capri name. In 1948, after years of women wearing the typical wide and rather masculine pants, de Lennart created the sexy tight three-quarter length Capri pants with the stylish short slit on the outer-side of the pant leg. The original classic Capri Pants were designed in specific lengths for winter and summer wear. In 1949, German actress, Mady Rahl, and Austrian actress, Erni Mangold, both posed for Sonja de Lennart in the original summer- and winter-style Capri pant, respectively. In 1952, Edith Head recognized the innovative and revolutionary style of Sonja de Lennart and had her Capri Collection [the wide-swinging Capri skirt, the high-neck Capri blouse, and the wide Capri belt and Capri pants] sewn by the Italian Fontana sisters for Audrey Hepburn in the movie, "Roman Holiday". In 1953, Hubert de Givenchy had de Lennart's Capri pants stitched for Audrey Hepburn, which she wore in the movie "Sabrina" (1954). Edith Head introduced the Capri skirt, Capri blouse, Capri pants, and Capri belt to the world; but, it was the Capri pants that made history. Among the many who have worn the fashionable Capri pants are Doris Day, Jane Russell, Katharine Hepburn, Gina Lollobrigida, Ava Gardner, Elizabeth Taylor, Jacqueline Kennedy, Marilyn Monroe, Kim Novak, Sophia Loren, Anita Ekberg, and Mary Tyler Moore. Capri pants marched even in the Existentialist Bars from Saint-Germain-des-Prés in Paris: “Young women loved themselves in black roll necks, tight Capri pants, and flatties [flat sandals] along with straight long hair and black-painted eyes a la Juliette Greco,” reported Professor Gundula Wolter (1994, 270). Sonja de Lennart was also the first designer who utilized the famous Everglaze textile from America which her family from California sent to de Lennart upon her request. Subsequently, it developed into big business for the American manufacturer. The material was then licensed to European companies; as a result, foreign royalties accounted for more than 70 percent of the firm’s total profits. In 1955 in Munich, Sonja de Lennart opened her new, much larger fashion house and renamed the company Maison Haase to include, in part, both her and her husband’s name. De Lennart’s fashion house became the place to be. Major movie companies, prominent opera directors, costume designers, and notables from all over the world traveled to Europe to acquire Sonja de Lennart's design. Among those were Ingrid Bergman, Gary Cooper, Maria Schell, Curd Jürgens, and Klaus Kinski as well as nobles like the Countess of Stauffenberg; the Woolworth heir, Sunny von Bülow; Princess Auersperg and Queen Soraya Esfandiary, the wife of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, The 5th Dimension, and many others. De Lennart became one of the most innovative European fashion designers after World War II influencing a whole generation of new designers and was considered a leading pioneer of her time by major magazines wherein she was interviewed along with legendary fashion designers as Yves Saint Laurent, Paco Rabanne, and André Courrèges. There was almost no fashion designer who did not add Capri pants to their collection.

Crispin Conroy

C o n r o y w a s b o r n i n C a m b r i d g e , U n i t e d K i n g d o m i n 1 9 6 3 . H e h o l d s a B a c h e l o r o f A r t s i n F r e n c h l a n g u a g e a n d c i v i l i z a t i o n ( H o n s ) f r o m t h e A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y . H e h a s a B a c h e l o r o f L a w ( H o n s ) f r o m t h e s a m e u n i v e r s i t y , w h i c h h e r e c e i v e d i n 1 9 8 8 . F r o m 1 9 9 0 t o 1 9 9 3 , C o n r o y w a s T h i r d a n d S e c o n d S e c r e t a r y a t t h e A u s t r a l i a n e m b a s s y i n M a d r i d , S p a i n . H e r e t u r n e d t o C a n b e r r a f r o m 1 9 9 4 t o 1 9 9 5 , c o n t i n u i n g w o r k w i t h t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s a n d T r a d e . H e w a s n a m e d F i r s t S e c r e t a r y a t t h e A u s t r a l i a n P e r m a n e n t M i s s i o n t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n G e n e v a b e t w e e n 1 9 9 5 a n d 1 9 9 8 a n d w a s D e p u t y L e g a l A d v i s e r a n d D i r e c t o r o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w S e c t i o n a f t e r w a r d s u n t i l 1 9 9 9 . C o n r o y w a s t h e A u s t r a l i a n A m b a s s a d o r t o t h e K i n g d o m o f N e p a l f r o m D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 9 t o D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 2 . F r o m O c t o b e r 2 0 0 3 u n t i l O c t o b e r 2 0 0 5 h e w a s t h e D e p u t y H e a d o f M i s s i o n i n P o r t M o r e s b y . H e s e r v e d a s A u s t r a l i a n A m b a s s a d o r t o C h i l e b e t w e e n D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 5 a n d M a y 2 0 0 9 . C o n r o y ' s p o s t i n g i n c l u d e d c o n c u r r e n t a c c r e d i t a t i o n t o P e r u , C o l o m b i a , E c u a d o r a n d B o l i v i a . C o n r o y w a s A m b a s s a d o r t o C h i l e b e t w e e n 2 0 0 5 a n d 2 0 0 9 , s t a t i o n e d i n S a n t i a g o d e C h i l e . A s a m b a s s a d o r , h e h e l p e d s e c u r e f u n d i n g f o r c h i l d r e n ' s s p o r t a n d l e i s u r e f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e p o o r r e g i o n o f R e n c a , i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h W o r l d V i s i o n . C o n r o y a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t u s u a l l y f u n d i n g o f p r o j e c t s b y A u s t r a l i a i s n o t t h e n o r m . F o l l o w i n g h i s t e r m a s A u s t r a l i a n A m b a s s a d o r t o C h i l e , C o n r o y w a s a p p o i n t e d S e n i o r T r a d e C o m m i s s i o n e r f o r L a t i n A m e r i c a , b a s e d i n C h i l e b u t c o v e r i n g t h e w h o l e r e g i o n . H e s e r v e d i n t h i s c a p a c i t y f r o m J u n e 2 0 0 9 t o J u n e 2 0 1 2 . C o n r o y w o r k e d a l o n g s i d e M i n i s t e r o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s S t e p h e n S m i t h t o d e v e l o p a c o m m e r c i a l e n g a g e m e n t s t r a t e g y f o r A u s t r a l i a i n L a t i n A m e r i c a . H e w a s t h e n a p p o i n t e d a s A u s t r a l i a ’ s C o n s u l - G e n e r a l t o C o l o m b i a , a n d a s k e d b y M i n i s t e r o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s J u l i e B i s h o p t o o p e n A u s t r a l i a ’ s f i r s t d i p l o m a t i c a n d t r a d e p r e s e n c e i n t h e c o u n t r y . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , C o n r o y c o v e r e d C h i l e , C o l o m b i a , a n d A r g e n t i n a a s S e n i o r T r a d e C o m m i s s i o n e r . C o n r o y s e r v e d a s C o n s u l G e n e r a l t o C o l o m b i a f r o m J u l y 2 0 1 2 u n t i l J u l y 2 0 1 6 . I n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , C o n r o y w a s a p p o i n t e d a s t h e A u s t r a l i a n S e n i o r T r a d e a n d I n v e s t m e n t C o m m i s s i o n e r t o I t a l y , a n d A u s t r a l i a n C o n s u l - G e n e r a l i n M i l a n . A s p a r t o f t h i s p o s t i n g , C r i s p i n w o r k e d t o p r o m o t e t h e A u s t r a l i a n g o v e r n m e n t ’ s s t a r t u p i n i t i a t i v e i n I t a l y . A f t e r o v e r 2 5 y e a r s w o r k i n g f o r t h e A u s t r a l i a n g o v e r n m e n t , C o n r o y w a s a p p o i n t e d a s t h e f i r s t P e r m a n e n t O b s e r v e r o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C h a m b e r o f C o m m e r c e t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n G e n e v a . T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C h a m b e r o f C o m m e r c e r e c e i v e d o b s e r v e r s t a t u s t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s o n 2 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 6 a n d a s s u m e d i t s p o s i t i o n a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o n 1 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 7 . C o n r o y i s m a r r i e d a n d h a s t h r e e d a u g h t e r s .

Early diplomatic career

Crispin Conroy began his early diplomatic career in 1990 as Third and Second Secretary at the Australian embassy in Madrid, Spain. He later became First Secretary at the Australian Permanent Mission to the United Nations in Geneva from 1995-1998 and Deputy Legal Adviser and Director of the International Law Section until 1999. Conroy then served as Australian Ambassador to the Kingdom of Nepal from 1999-2002 and held various other diplomatic positions throughout his career.

Conroy was born in Cambridge, United Kingdom in 1963. He holds a Bachelor of Arts in French language and civilization (Hons) from the Australian National University. He has a Bachelor of Law (Hons) from the same university, which he received in 1988. From 1990 to 1993, Conroy was Third and Second Secretary at the Australian embassy in Madrid, Spain. He returned to Canberra from 1994 to 1995, continuing work with the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. He was named First Secretary at the Australian Permanent Mission to the United Nations in Geneva between 1995 and 1998 and was Deputy Legal Adviser and Director of the International Law Section afterwards until 1999. Conroy was the Australian Ambassador to the Kingdom of Nepal from December 1999 to December 2002. From October 2003 until October 2005 he was the Deputy Head of Mission in Port Moresby. He served as Australian Ambassador to Chile between December 2005 and May 2009. Conroy's posting included concurrent accreditation to Peru, Colombia, Ecuador and Bolivia. Conroy was Ambassador to Chile between 2005 and 2009, stationed in Santiago de Chile. As ambassador, he helped secure funding for children's sport and leisure facilities in the poor region of Renca, in cooperation with World Vision. Conroy acknowledged that usually funding of projects by Australia is not the norm. Following his term as Australian Ambassador to Chile, Conroy was appointed Senior Trade Commissioner for Latin America, based in Chile but covering the whole region. He served in this capacity from June 2009 to June 2012. Conroy worked alongside Minister of Foreign Affairs Stephen Smith to develop a commercial engagement strategy for Australia in Latin America. He was then appointed as Australia’s Consul-General to Colombia, and asked by Minister of Foreign Affairs Julie Bishop to open Australia’s first diplomatic and trade presence in the country. At the same time, Conroy covered Chile, Colombia, and Argentina as Senior Trade Commissioner. Conroy served as Consul General to Colombia from July 2012 until July 2016. In November 2016, Conroy was appointed as the Australian Senior Trade and Investment Commissioner to Italy, and Australian Consul-General in Milan. As part of this posting, Crispin worked to promote the Australian government’s start up initiative in Italy. After over 25 years working for the Australian government, Conroy was appointed as the first Permanent Observer of the International Chamber of Commerce to the United Nations in Geneva. The International Chamber of Commerce received observer status to the United Nations on 21 December 2016 and assumed its position at the United Nations General Assembly on 1 January 2017. Conroy is married and has three daughters.

Crispin Conroy

C o n r o y w a s b o r n i n C a m b r i d g e , U n i t e d K i n g d o m i n 1 9 6 3 . H e h o l d s a B a c h e l o r o f A r t s i n F r e n c h l a n g u a g e a n d c i v i l i z a t i o n ( H o n s ) f r o m t h e A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y . H e h a s a B a c h e l o r o f L a w ( H o n s ) f r o m t h e s a m e u n i v e r s i t y , w h i c h h e r e c e i v e d i n 1 9 8 8 . F r o m 1 9 9 0 t o 1 9 9 3 , C o n r o y w a s T h i r d a n d S e c o n d S e c r e t a r y a t t h e A u s t r a l i a n e m b a s s y i n M a d r i d , S p a i n . H e r e t u r n e d t o C a n b e r r a f r o m 1 9 9 4 t o 1 9 9 5 , c o n t i n u i n g w o r k w i t h t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s a n d T r a d e . H e w a s n a m e d F i r s t S e c r e t a r y a t t h e A u s t r a l i a n P e r m a n e n t M i s s i o n t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n G e n e v a b e t w e e n 1 9 9 5 a n d 1 9 9 8 a n d w a s D e p u t y L e g a l A d v i s e r a n d D i r e c t o r o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w S e c t i o n a f t e r w a r d s u n t i l 1 9 9 9 . C o n r o y w a s t h e A u s t r a l i a n A m b a s s a d o r t o t h e K i n g d o m o f N e p a l f r o m D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 9 t o D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 2 . F r o m O c t o b e r 2 0 0 3 u n t i l O c t o b e r 2 0 0 5 h e w a s t h e D e p u t y H e a d o f M i s s i o n i n P o r t M o r e s b y . H e s e r v e d a s A u s t r a l i a n A m b a s s a d o r t o C h i l e b e t w e e n D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 5 a n d M a y 2 0 0 9 . C o n r o y ' s p o s t i n g i n c l u d e d c o n c u r r e n t a c c r e d i t a t i o n t o P e r u , C o l o m b i a , E c u a d o r a n d B o l i v i a . C o n r o y w a s A m b a s s a d o r t o C h i l e b e t w e e n 2 0 0 5 a n d 2 0 0 9 , s t a t i o n e d i n S a n t i a g o d e C h i l e . A s a m b a s s a d o r , h e h e l p e d s e c u r e f u n d i n g f o r c h i l d r e n ' s s p o r t a n d l e i s u r e f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e p o o r r e g i o n o f R e n c a , i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h W o r l d V i s i o n . C o n r o y a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t u s u a l l y f u n d i n g o f p r o j e c t s b y A u s t r a l i a i s n o t t h e n o r m . F o l l o w i n g h i s t e r m a s A u s t r a l i a n A m b a s s a d o r t o C h i l e , C o n r o y w a s a p p o i n t e d S e n i o r T r a d e C o m m i s s i o n e r f o r L a t i n A m e r i c a , b a s e d i n C h i l e b u t c o v e r i n g t h e w h o l e r e g i o n . H e s e r v e d i n t h i s c a p a c i t y f r o m J u n e 2 0 0 9 t o J u n e 2 0 1 2 . C o n r o y w o r k e d a l o n g s i d e M i n i s t e r o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s S t e p h e n S m i t h t o d e v e l o p a c o m m e r c i a l e n g a g e m e n t s t r a t e g y f o r A u s t r a l i a i n L a t i n A m e r i c a . H e w a s t h e n a p p o i n t e d a s A u s t r a l i a ’ s C o n s u l - G e n e r a l t o C o l o m b i a , a n d a s k e d b y M i n i s t e r o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s J u l i e B i s h o p t o o p e n A u s t r a l i a ’ s f i r s t d i p l o m a t i c a n d t r a d e p r e s e n c e i n t h e c o u n t r y . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , C o n r o y c o v e r e d C h i l e , C o l o m b i a , a n d A r g e n t i n a a s S e n i o r T r a d e C o m m i s s i o n e r . C o n r o y s e r v e d a s C o n s u l G e n e r a l t o C o l o m b i a f r o m J u l y 2 0 1 2 u n t i l J u l y 2 0 1 6 . I n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , C o n r o y w a s a p p o i n t e d a s t h e A u s t r a l i a n S e n i o r T r a d e a n d I n v e s t m e n t C o m m i s s i o n e r t o I t a l y , a n d A u s t r a l i a n C o n s u l - G e n e r a l i n M i l a n . A s p a r t o f t h i s p o s t i n g , C r i s p i n w o r k e d t o p r o m o t e t h e A u s t r a l i a n g o v e r n m e n t ’ s s t a r t u p i n i t i a t i v e i n I t a l y . A f t e r o v e r 2 5 y e a r s w o r k i n g f o r t h e A u s t r a l i a n g o v e r n m e n t , C o n r o y w a s a p p o i n t e d a s t h e f i r s t P e r m a n e n t O b s e r v e r o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C h a m b e r o f C o m m e r c e t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n G e n e v a . T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C h a m b e r o f C o m m e r c e r e c e i v e d o b s e r v e r s t a t u s t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s o n 2 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 6 a n d a s s u m e d i t s p o s i t i o n a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o n 1 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 7 . C o n r o y i s m a r r i e d a n d h a s t h r e e d a u g h t e r s .

Permanent Observer of the International Chamber of Commerce to the United Nations (2019-"present")

Crispin Conroy serves as the Permanent Observer of the International Chamber of Commerce to the United Nations (2019-present), following a distinguished career with the Australian government spanning over 25 years.

Conroy was born in Cambridge, United Kingdom in 1963. He holds a Bachelor of Arts in French language and civilization (Hons) from the Australian National University. He has a Bachelor of Law (Hons) from the same university, which he received in 1988. From 1990 to 1993, Conroy was Third and Second Secretary at the Australian embassy in Madrid, Spain. He returned to Canberra from 1994 to 1995, continuing work with the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. He was named First Secretary at the Australian Permanent Mission to the United Nations in Geneva between 1995 and 1998 and was Deputy Legal Adviser and Director of the International Law Section afterwards until 1999. Conroy was the Australian Ambassador to the Kingdom of Nepal from December 1999 to December 2002. From October 2003 until October 2005 he was the Deputy Head of Mission in Port Moresby. He served as Australian Ambassador to Chile between December 2005 and May 2009. Conroy's posting included concurrent accreditation to Peru, Colombia, Ecuador and Bolivia. Conroy was Ambassador to Chile between 2005 and 2009, stationed in Santiago de Chile. As ambassador, he helped secure funding for children's sport and leisure facilities in the poor region of Renca, in cooperation with World Vision. Conroy acknowledged that usually funding of projects by Australia is not the norm. Following his term as Australian Ambassador to Chile, Conroy was appointed Senior Trade Commissioner for Latin America, based in Chile but covering the whole region. He served in this capacity from June 2009 to June 2012. Conroy worked alongside Minister of Foreign Affairs Stephen Smith to develop a commercial engagement strategy for Australia in Latin America. He was then appointed as Australia’s Consul-General to Colombia, and asked by Minister of Foreign Affairs Julie Bishop to open Australia’s first diplomatic and trade presence in the country. At the same time, Conroy covered Chile, Colombia, and Argentina as Senior Trade Commissioner. Conroy served as Consul General to Colombia from July 2012 until July 2016. In November 2016, Conroy was appointed as the Australian Senior Trade and Investment Commissioner to Italy, and Australian Consul-General in Milan. As part of this posting, Crispin worked to promote the Australian government’s start up initiative in Italy. After over 25 years working for the Australian government, Conroy was appointed as the first Permanent Observer of the International Chamber of Commerce to the United Nations in Geneva. The International Chamber of Commerce received observer status to the United Nations on 21 December 2016 and assumed its position at the United Nations General Assembly on 1 January 2017. Conroy is married and has three daughters.

9910 Vogelweide

" V o g e l w e i d e " w a s d i s c o v e r e d o n 3 0 S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 3 , b y t h e D u t c h a s t r o n o m e r s I n g r i d a n d C o r n e l i s v a n H o u t e n , o n p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s t a k e n b y D u t c h – A m e r i c a n a s t r o n o m e r T o m G e h r e l s a t P a l o m a r O b s e r v a t o r y i n C a l i f o r n i a , U n i t e d S t a t e s . I t w a s f i r s t o b s e r v e d a s a t t h e d i s c o v e r i n g P a l o m a r O b s e r v a t o r y d u r i n g t h e f i r s t T r o j a n s u r v e y i n M a r c h 1 9 7 1 , e x t e n d i n g t h e b o d y ' s o b s e r v a t i o n a r c b y m o r e t h a n 2 y e a r s p r i o r t o i t s o f f i c i a l d i s c o v e r y o b s e r v a t i o n . T h e s u r v e y d e s i g n a t i o n " T - 2 " s t a n d s f o r t h e s e c o n d P a l o m a r – L e i d e n T r o j a n s u r v e y , n a m e d a f t e r t h e f r u i t f u l c o l l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e P a l o m a r a n d L e i d e n O b s e r v a t o r y i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s . G e h r e l s u s e d P a l o m a r ' s S a m u e l O s c h i n t e l e s c o p e ( a l s o k n o w n a s t h e 4 8 - i n c h S c h m i d t T e l e s c o p e ) , a n d s h i p p e d t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s t o I n g r i d a n d C o r n e l i s v a n H o u t e n a t L e i d e n O b s e r v a t o r y w h e r e a s t r o m e t r y w a s c a r r i e d o u t . T h e t r i o a r e c r e d i t e d w i t h t h e d i s c o v e r y o f s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d m i n o r p l a n e t s . " V o g e l w e i d e " i s a s t o n y a s t e r o i d a n d m e m b e r o f t h e K o r o n i s f a m i l y , a g r o u p c o n s i s t i n g o f f e w h u n d r e d k n o w n b o d i e s w i t h n e a r l y e c l i p t i c a l o r b i t s . I t o r b i t s t h e S u n i n t h e o u t e r m a i n - b e l t a t a d i s t a n c e o f 2 . 8 – 3 . 0   A U o n c e e v e r y 4 y e a r s a n d 1 0 m o n t h s ( 1 , 7 7 8 d a y s ) . I t s o r b i t h a s a n e c c e n t r i c i t y o f 0 . 0 3 a n d a n i n c l i n a t i o n o f 3 ° w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e e c l i p t i c . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , t w o r o t a t i o n a l l i g h t c u r v e s o f " V o g e l w e i d e " w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m p h o t o m e t r i c o b s e r v a t i o n s a t t h e P a l o m a r T r a n s i e n t F a c t o r y i n C a l i f o r n i a . L i g h t c u r v e a n a l y s i s g a v e a r o t a t i o n p e r i o d o f 1 1 7 . 4 3 8 a n d 1 1 8 . 9 0 5 h o u r s w i t h a b r i g h t n e s s v a r i a t i o n o f 0 . 7 4 a n d 0 . 6 7 m a g n i t u d e i n t h e R a n d S - b a n d , r e s p e c t i v e l y ( ) . " V o g e l w e i d e " i s a s l o w r o t a t o r , a s m o s t a s t e r o i d s h a v e s p i n r a t e s o f l e s s t h a n 2 0 h o u r s . T h e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h b r i g h t n e s s a m p l i t u d e a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e b o d y h a s a n o n - s p h e r o i d a l s h a p e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s u r v e y c a r r i e d o u t b y N A S A ' s W i d e - f i e l d I n f r a r e d S u r v e y E x p l o r e r w i t h i t s s u b s e q u e n t N E O W I S E m i s s i o n , " V o g e l w e i d e " m e a s u r e s 5 . 9 9 1 k i l o m e t e r s i n d i a m e t e r a n d i t s s u r f a c e h a s a n a l b e d o o f 0 . 1 9 6 . T h e " C o l l a b o r a t i v e A s t e r o i d L i g h t c u r v e L i n k " a s s u m e s a s t a n d a r d a l b e d o f o r s t o n y K o r o n i a n a s t e r o i d s o f 0 . 2 4 a n d d e r i v e s a d i a m e t e r o f 4 . 9 4 k i l o m e t e r s w i t h a n a b s o l u t e m a g n i t u d e o f 1 3 . 7 . T h i s m i n o r p l a n e t w a s n a m e d f o r W a l t h e r v o n d e r V o g e l w e i d e ( c . 1 1 7 0 – c . 1 2 3 0 ) a G e r m a n m i n s t r e l o f t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y a n d p o p u l a r l y r i c p o e t o f M i d d l e H i g h G e r m a n . T h e a p p r o v e d n a m i n g c i t a t i o n w a s p u b l i s h e d b y t h e M i n o r P l a n e t C e n t e r o n 2 A p r i l 1 9 9 9 ( ) .

Discovery

"Vogelweide" was discovered on 30 September 1973, by Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten, using photographic plates taken by Tom Gehrels at Palomar Observatory. The asteroid is a stony Koronis family member, with a diameter of approximately 5 km, and orbits the Sun every 4 years and 10 months. Its rotation period is around 118 hours, indicating a slow rotator with a non-spherical shape.

"Vogelweide" was discovered on 30 September 1973, by the Dutch astronomers Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten, on photographic plates taken by Dutch–American astronomer Tom Gehrels at Palomar Observatory in California, United States. It was first observed as at the discovering Palomar Observatory during the first Trojan survey in March 1971, extending the body's observation arc by more than 2 years prior to its official discovery observation. The survey designation "T-2" stands for the second Palomar–Leiden Trojan survey, named after the fruitful collaboration of the Palomar and Leiden Observatory in the 1960s and 1970s. Gehrels used Palomar's Samuel Oschin telescope (also known as the 48-inch Schmidt Telescope), and shipped the photographic plates to Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten at Leiden Observatory where astrometry was carried out. The trio are credited with the discovery of several thousand minor planets. "Vogelweide" is a stony asteroid and member of the Koronis family, a group consisting of few hundred known bodies with nearly ecliptical orbits. It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.8–3.0 AU once every 4 years and 10 months (1,778 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.03 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. In September 2012, two rotational lightcurves of "Vogelweide" were obtained from photometric observations at the Palomar Transient Factory in California. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 117.438 and 118.905 hours with a brightness variation of 0.74 and 0.67 magnitude in the R and S-band, respectively (). "Vogelweide" is a slow rotator, as most asteroids have spin rates of less than 20 hours. The relatively high brightness amplitude also indicates that the body has a non-spheroidal shape. According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, "Vogelweide" measures 5.991 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.196. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" assumes a standard albedo for stony Koronian asteroids of 0.24 and derives a diameter of 4.94 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 13.7. This minor planet was named for Walther von der Vogelweide (c. 1170 – c. 1230) a German minstrel of the 13th century and popular lyric poet of Middle High German. The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 2 April 1999 ().

9910 Vogelweide

" V o g e l w e i d e " w a s d i s c o v e r e d o n 3 0 S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 3 , b y t h e D u t c h a s t r o n o m e r s I n g r i d a n d C o r n e l i s v a n H o u t e n , o n p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s t a k e n b y D u t c h – A m e r i c a n a s t r o n o m e r T o m G e h r e l s a t P a l o m a r O b s e r v a t o r y i n C a l i f o r n i a , U n i t e d S t a t e s . I t w a s f i r s t o b s e r v e d a s a t t h e d i s c o v e r i n g P a l o m a r O b s e r v a t o r y d u r i n g t h e f i r s t T r o j a n s u r v e y i n M a r c h 1 9 7 1 , e x t e n d i n g t h e b o d y ' s o b s e r v a t i o n a r c b y m o r e t h a n 2 y e a r s p r i o r t o i t s o f f i c i a l d i s c o v e r y o b s e r v a t i o n . T h e s u r v e y d e s i g n a t i o n " T - 2 " s t a n d s f o r t h e s e c o n d P a l o m a r – L e i d e n T r o j a n s u r v e y , n a m e d a f t e r t h e f r u i t f u l c o l l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e P a l o m a r a n d L e i d e n O b s e r v a t o r y i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s . G e h r e l s u s e d P a l o m a r ' s S a m u e l O s c h i n t e l e s c o p e ( a l s o k n o w n a s t h e 4 8 - i n c h S c h m i d t T e l e s c o p e ) , a n d s h i p p e d t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s t o I n g r i d a n d C o r n e l i s v a n H o u t e n a t L e i d e n O b s e r v a t o r y w h e r e a s t r o m e t r y w a s c a r r i e d o u t . T h e t r i o a r e c r e d i t e d w i t h t h e d i s c o v e r y o f s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d m i n o r p l a n e t s . " V o g e l w e i d e " i s a s t o n y a s t e r o i d a n d m e m b e r o f t h e K o r o n i s f a m i l y , a g r o u p c o n s i s t i n g o f f e w h u n d r e d k n o w n b o d i e s w i t h n e a r l y e c l i p t i c a l o r b i t s . I t o r b i t s t h e S u n i n t h e o u t e r m a i n - b e l t a t a d i s t a n c e o f 2 . 8 – 3 . 0   A U o n c e e v e r y 4 y e a r s a n d 1 0 m o n t h s ( 1 , 7 7 8 d a y s ) . I t s o r b i t h a s a n e c c e n t r i c i t y o f 0 . 0 3 a n d a n i n c l i n a t i o n o f 3 ° w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e e c l i p t i c . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , t w o r o t a t i o n a l l i g h t c u r v e s o f " V o g e l w e i d e " w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m p h o t o m e t r i c o b s e r v a t i o n s a t t h e P a l o m a r T r a n s i e n t F a c t o r y i n C a l i f o r n i a . L i g h t c u r v e a n a l y s i s g a v e a r o t a t i o n p e r i o d o f 1 1 7 . 4 3 8 a n d 1 1 8 . 9 0 5 h o u r s w i t h a b r i g h t n e s s v a r i a t i o n o f 0 . 7 4 a n d 0 . 6 7 m a g n i t u d e i n t h e R a n d S - b a n d , r e s p e c t i v e l y ( ) . " V o g e l w e i d e " i s a s l o w r o t a t o r , a s m o s t a s t e r o i d s h a v e s p i n r a t e s o f l e s s t h a n 2 0 h o u r s . T h e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h b r i g h t n e s s a m p l i t u d e a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e b o d y h a s a n o n - s p h e r o i d a l s h a p e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s u r v e y c a r r i e d o u t b y N A S A ' s W i d e - f i e l d I n f r a r e d S u r v e y E x p l o r e r w i t h i t s s u b s e q u e n t N E O W I S E m i s s i o n , " V o g e l w e i d e " m e a s u r e s 5 . 9 9 1 k i l o m e t e r s i n d i a m e t e r a n d i t s s u r f a c e h a s a n a l b e d o o f 0 . 1 9 6 . T h e " C o l l a b o r a t i v e A s t e r o i d L i g h t c u r v e L i n k " a s s u m e s a s t a n d a r d a l b e d o f o r s t o n y K o r o n i a n a s t e r o i d s o f 0 . 2 4 a n d d e r i v e s a d i a m e t e r o f 4 . 9 4 k i l o m e t e r s w i t h a n a b s o l u t e m a g n i t u d e o f 1 3 . 7 . T h i s m i n o r p l a n e t w a s n a m e d f o r W a l t h e r v o n d e r V o g e l w e i d e ( c . 1 1 7 0 – c . 1 2 3 0 ) a G e r m a n m i n s t r e l o f t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y a n d p o p u l a r l y r i c p o e t o f M i d d l e H i g h G e r m a n . T h e a p p r o v e d n a m i n g c i t a t i o n w a s p u b l i s h e d b y t h e M i n o r P l a n e t C e n t e r o n 2 A p r i l 1 9 9 9 ( ) .

Physical characteristics

Vogelweide is a stony asteroid with a diameter of approximately 5-6 km. It orbits the sun every 4 years and 10 months at a distance of 2.8-3.0 AU. Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.03 and an inclination of 3 degrees. It rotates slowly with a period of around 118 hours and has a non-spherical shape.

"Vogelweide" was discovered on 30 September 1973, by the Dutch astronomers Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten, on photographic plates taken by Dutch–American astronomer Tom Gehrels at Palomar Observatory in California, United States. It was first observed as at the discovering Palomar Observatory during the first Trojan survey in March 1971, extending the body's observation arc by more than 2 years prior to its official discovery observation. The survey designation "T-2" stands for the second Palomar–Leiden Trojan survey, named after the fruitful collaboration of the Palomar and Leiden Observatory in the 1960s and 1970s. Gehrels used Palomar's Samuel Oschin telescope (also known as the 48-inch Schmidt Telescope), and shipped the photographic plates to Ingrid and Cornelis van Houten at Leiden Observatory where astrometry was carried out. The trio are credited with the discovery of several thousand minor planets. "Vogelweide" is a stony asteroid and member of the Koronis family, a group consisting of few hundred known bodies with nearly ecliptical orbits. It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.8–3.0 AU once every 4 years and 10 months (1,778 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.03 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. In September 2012, two rotational lightcurves of "Vogelweide" were obtained from photometric observations at the Palomar Transient Factory in California. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 117.438 and 118.905 hours with a brightness variation of 0.74 and 0.67 magnitude in the R and S-band, respectively (). "Vogelweide" is a slow rotator, as most asteroids have spin rates of less than 20 hours. The relatively high brightness amplitude also indicates that the body has a non-spheroidal shape. According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, "Vogelweide" measures 5.991 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.196. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" assumes a standard albedo for stony Koronian asteroids of 0.24 and derives a diameter of 4.94 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 13.7. This minor planet was named for Walther von der Vogelweide (c. 1170 – c. 1230) a German minstrel of the 13th century and popular lyric poet of Middle High German. The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 2 April 1999 ().

Howard Wolfson

W o l f s o n w a s b o r n i n M i d d l e t o w n , N e w Y o r k a n d r a i s e d i n Y o n k e r s , N e w Y o r k . H e g r a d u a t e d f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o a n d h o l d s a M a s t e r o f A r t s i n A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y f r o m D u k e U n i v e r s i t y . W o l f s o n b e g a n h i s c a r e e r i n p o l i t i c s w o r k i n g f o r N i t a L o w e y a s h e r c h i e f o f s t a f f a n d p r e s s s e c r e t a r y , a n d w a s e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r o f t h e D e m o c r a t i c C o n g r e s s i o n a l C a m p a i g n C o m m i t t e e f r o m 1 9 9 8 t o 2 0 0 0 . H e s e r v e d a s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s d i r e c t o r f o r t h e U . S . S e n a t e c a m p a i g n s o f C h a r l e s S c h u m e r ( 1 9 9 8 ) , H i l l a r y C l i n t o n ( 2 0 0 0 , 2 0 0 6 ) , a n d N e d L a m o n t ( 2 0 0 6 ) . W o l f s o n w a s c o - c h i e f s t r a t e g i s t a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s d i r e c t o r f o r t h e H i l l a r y C l i n t o n 2 0 0 8 p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n , a f t e r w h i c h h e b e c a m e m a n a g i n g d i r e c t o r a t T h e G l o v e r P a r k G r o u p , a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c o n s u l t i n g f i r m b a s e d i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . H e a d v i s e d t h e c a m p a i g n o f B i l l T h o m p s o n f o r N e w Y o r k C i t y C o m p t r o l l e r i n 2 0 0 5 . H e w a s a s e n i o r s t r a t e g i s t f o r N e w Y o r k C i t y M a y o r M i c h a e l B l o o m b e r g ' s 2 0 0 9 r e - e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n . W o l f s o n s e r v e d a s a s t r a t e g i c a d v i s e r t o N e w s C o r p . i n i t s p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t N i e l s e n H o l d i n g s . H e w a s a F o x N e w s c o n t r i b u t o r , a n d a d v i s e d N e d L a m o n t ' s c a m p a i g n f o r g o v e r n o r o f C o n n e c t i c u t . W o l f s o n i s a l s o t h e a u t h o r o f t h e m u s i c a n d p o l i t i c s b l o g G o t h a m A c m e . F r o m A u g u s t t o N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 8 , W o l f s o n w r o t e a b l o g o n " T h e N e w R e p u b l i c " ' s w e b s i t e , c a l l e d " T h e F l a c k " , t h a t c o v e r e d t h e f i n a l m o n t h s o f t h e 2 0 0 8 p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n . H e a l s o s i t s o n t h e b o a r d o f d i r e c t o r s f o r T h e 7 4 , a n e d u c a t i o n n e w s w e b s i t e . W o l f s o n s e r v e d a s a s e n i o r a d v i s o r t o t h e M i c h a e l B l o o m b e r g 2 0 2 0 p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n .

Career

Howard Wolfson had a diverse political career, serving as chief of staff and press secretary for Nita Lowey, executive director of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee, and communications director for several high-profile Senate and presidential campaigns. He worked with prominent politicians like Hillary Clinton, Charles Schumer, and Michael Bloomberg, and held roles at The Glover Park Group and News Corp. Additionally, Wolfson is a blogger, author, and contributor to Fox News, and has sat on the board of directors for The 74 education news website.

Wolfson was born in Middletown, New York and raised in Yonkers, New York. He graduated from the University of Chicago and holds a Master of Arts in American History from Duke University. Wolfson began his career in politics working for Nita Lowey as her chief of staff and press secretary, and was executive director of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee from 1998 to 2000. He served as communications director for the U.S. Senate campaigns of Charles Schumer (1998), Hillary Clinton (2000, 2006), and Ned Lamont (2006). Wolfson was co-chief strategist and communications director for the Hillary Clinton 2008 presidential campaign, after which he became managing director at The Glover Park Group, a communications consulting firm based in Washington, D.C. He advised the campaign of Bill Thompson for New York City Comptroller in 2005. He was a senior strategist for New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg's 2009 re-election campaign. Wolfson served as a strategic adviser to News Corp. in its public relations campaign against Nielsen Holdings. He was a Fox News contributor, and advised Ned Lamont's campaign for governor of Connecticut. Wolfson is also the author of the music and politics blog Gotham Acme. From August to November 2008, Wolfson wrote a blog on "The New Republic"'s website, called "The Flack", that covered the final months of the 2008 presidential campaign. He also sits on the board of directors for The 74, an education news website. Wolfson served as a senior advisor to the Michael Bloomberg 2020 presidential campaign.

Peter Pitchlynn

P e t e r P . P i t c h l y n n w a s b o r n i n N o x u b e e C o u n t y , M i s s i s s i p p i , J a n u a r y 3 0 , 1 8 0 6 a s t h e f i r s t s o n o f S o p h i a F o l s o m , a C h o c t a w o f p a r t l y A n g l o - A m e r i c a n d e s c e n t ; h e r m o t h e r " N a t i k a " w a s C h o c t a w a n d h e r f a t h e r w a s E b e n e z e r F o l s o m , a n A n g l o - A m e r i c a n t r a d e r . S o p h i a ' s C h o c t a w n a m e w a s " L k - l o - h a - w a h " ( L o v e d b u t l o s t ) . S o p h i a F o l s o m a n d J o h n P i t c h l y n n h a d m a r r i e d i n 1 8 0 4 . A s t h e C h o c t a w h a d a m a t r i l i n e a l k i n s h i p s y s t e m o f p r o p e r t y a n d h e r e d i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p , P e t e r w a s b o r n i n t o h i s m o t h e r ' s c l a n a n d p e o p l e ; t h r o u g h h e r f a m i l y , h e g a i n e d s t a t u s i n t h e t r i b e . H i s f a t h e r w a s M a j o r J o h n P i t c h l y n n , a m a n o f S c o t s d e s c e n t . T h e f a t h e r w a s r a i s e d f r o m c h i l d h o o d b y t h e C h o c t a w a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f h i s f a t h e r I s a a c , a w i d o w e r . J o h n P i t c h l y n n s e r v e d G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n a s a n i n t e r p r e t e r f o r n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e C h o c t a w . O n e o f t e n c h i l d r e n b o r n t o t h e P i t c h l y n n s , a f t e r s e v e r a l y e a r s a t h o m e , P e t e r w a s s e n t t o a T e n n e s s e e b o a r d i n g s c h o o l a b o u t 2 0 0 m i l e s f r o m M i s s i s s i p p i . L a t e r h e a t t e n d e d a n a c a d e m y i n C o l u m b i a , T e n n e s s e e . T o c o m p l e t e h i s e d u c a t i o n , h e s t u d i e d a t a n d g r a d u a t e d f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N a s h v i l l e , c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f i n e s t i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e t i m e . I t s t a r t e d s m a l l l i k e m a n y c o l l e g e s ; i t s 1 8 2 7 g r a d u a t i n g c l a s s h e l d 1 2 s t u d e n t s . A f t e r h e o b t a i n e d h i s d e g r e e , P i t c h l y n n r e t u r n e d t o h i s f a m i l y h o m e i n M i s s i s s i p p i , w h e r e h e b e c a m e a f a r m e r . T h e C h o c t a w w e r e a m o n g t h e S o u t h e a s t t r i b e s t h a t u s e d e n s l a v e d A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s a s w o r k e r s o n t h e i r f a r m s . I n 1 8 2 4 , P e t e r P i t c h l y n n w a s m a d e t h e h e a d o f t h e L i g h t h o r s e , t h e C h o c t a w N a t i o n ' s m o u n t e d p o l i c e , a n d a m o n g o t h e r d u t i e s , s u p e r v i s e d t h e r e m o v a l o f w h i s k e y f r o m t r i b a l l a n d s . H e s o o n m a r r i e d R h o d a F o l s o m , a f i r s t c o u s i n . A s p a r t o f c h a n g i n g p r a c t i c e s , t h e y w e r e m a r r i e d b y a m i s s i o n a r y , R e v e r e n d C y r u s K i n g s b u r y . T h e y h a d s e v e r a l c h i l d r e n : L y c u r g u s , P e t e r P . J r . , L e o n i d a s , R h o d a M a r y ( m a r r i e d D . L . K a n n e d y ) , M a l v i n i a ( m a r r i e d L o r i n g S . W . F o l s o m ) . A f t e r h i s w i f e ' s d e a t h , P i t c h l y n n c o r r e s p o n d e d r e g u l a r l y w i t h h i s o l d e r c h i l d r e n w h i l e t h e y w e r e a w a y a t s c h o o l , t r y i n g t o g i v e t h e m g u i d a n c e . L y c u r g u s a t t e n d e d a s c h o o l i n T e n n e s s e e a n d P e t e r J r . o n e i n O x f o r d , G e o r g i a . T h e P i t c h l y n n s o n s h a d d i f f i c u l t i e s a s y o u t h s a n d a d u l t s : L y c u r g u s a n d L e o n i d a s w e r e c o n v i c t e d o f a s s a u l t i n 1 8 5 7 a n d s e n t e n c e d t o p r i s o n . T h e f a t h e r g a i n e d a p a r d o n f o r t h e m f r o m P r e s i d e n t J a m e s B u c h a n a n . I n 1 8 6 0 , P e t e r J r . s h o t a n d k i l l e d h i s u n c l e , L o r e n z o H a r r i s , w h o w a s m a r r i e d t o h i s f a t h e r ' s s i s t e r E l i z a b e t h P i t c h l y n n . S o m e s a i d i t w a s s e l f - d e f e n s e . A f t e r R h o d a ' s d e a t h , P e t e r m a r r i e d a w i d o w , C a r o l i n e L o m b a r d y . T h e y h a d a d a u g h t e r t o g e t h e r , S o p h i a . S h e n e v e r m a r r i e d a n d c o n t i n u e d t o l i v e w i t h h e r f a t h e r a f t e r h e r m o t h e r ' s d e a t h . W h i l e P i t c h l y n n w a s a s l a v e h o l d e r , u n l i k e o t h e r C h o c t a w l e a d e r s h e f e l t a n i n d i f f e r e n c e t o w a r d s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n , a n d f o l l o w i n g t h e E m a n c i p a t i o n P r o c l a m a t i o n , h e c a s t i t a s i d e w i t h o u t p r o t e s t . P i t c h l y n n w a s w e l l e d u c a t e d i n b o t h C h o c t a w a n d E u r o p e a n - A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e . H e b e g a n w o r k i n g o n w a y s t o i m p r o v e C h o c t a w l i f e . H e w o r k e d t o b a n t h e s a l e o f a l c o h o l i n C h o c t a w t e r r i t o r y . B e l i e v i n g t h a t e d u c a t i o n w a s i m p o r t a n t , h e p e r s u a d e d t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l t o f o u n d t h e C h o c t a w A c a d e m y , l o c a t e d i n B l u e S p r i n g s , S c o t t C o u n t y , K e n t u c k y i n 1 8 2 5 . I t s o m e t i m e s a c c e p t e d s t u d e n t s o f o t h e r A m e r i c a n I n d i a n t r i b e s a s w e l l a s C h o c t a w , s u c h a s O m a h a a n d S i o u x b o y s . P i t c h l y n n s t a y e d c l o s e l y i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e s c h o o l , r e c e i v i n g q u a r t e r l y r e p o r t s . I n 1 8 3 0 P i t c h l y n n w a s e l e c t e d t o t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f C h o c t a w . B e c a u s e o f h i s e d u c a t i o n , h e s e r v e d a s a n i n t e r p r e t e r a n d e f f e c t i v e l i a i s o n b e t w e e n t h e C h o c t a w a n d t h e U S f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t . H e m o v e d w i t h t h e C h o c t a w t o I n d i a n T e r r i t o r y i n t h e 1 8 3 0 s , w h e r e t h e y r e s e t t l e d . P i t c h l y n n ' s w i d o w e d m o t h e r , S o p h i a F o l s o m P i t c h l y n n , m o v e d w i t h h e r s o n . A f t e r h e r d e a t h , s h e w a s b u r i e d t h e r e , a n d h e r s i s t h e o l d e s t k n o w n g r a v e i n O k l a h o m a . E n g l i s h a u t h o r C h a r l e s D i c k e n s w a s t o u r i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w h e n h e m e t P i t c h l y n n o n a s t e a m b o a t o n t h e O h i o R i v e r . H e d e s c r i b e d t h e C h o c t a w l e a d e r a t l e n g t h : I n 1 8 4 0 t h e C o u n c i l a p p o i n t e d P i t c h l y n n a s a t e a c h e r a n d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h e C h o c t a w A c a d e m y . T h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e y d e c i d e d t o r e l o c a t e t h e s c h o o l t o t h e C h o c t a w N a t i o n ( l o c a t e d i n I n d i a n T e r r i t o r y . ) P i t c h l y n n ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s h o w s t h e y w e r e a l s o d i s c u s s i n g t h e n e e d f o r a g i r l s ' s c h o o l . P i t c h l y n n c o n t i n u e d t o t a k e o n m o r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e N a t i o n ; i n 1 8 4 5 h e w a s a p p o i n t e d a s t h e C h o c t a w D e l e g a t e t o W a s h i n g t o n , D C t o r e p r e s e n t t h e n a t i o n t h e r e . T h a t y e a r b o t h t h e C h o c t a w a n d C h e r o k e e p r o p o s e d t o t h e U S C o n g r e s s t h a t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e n a t i o n s s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i z e d a s i n d e p e n d e n t U n i t e d S t a t e s t e r r i t o r i e s , b u t t h i s w a s n o t s u p p o r t e d . I n 1 8 4 7 , h e h e l p e d a r r a n g e t h e r e m o v a l o f f u r t h e r C h o c t a w f r o m M i s s i s s i p p i t o t h e C h o c t a w N a t i o n b y s t e a m b o a t . I n 1 8 6 1 , P i t c h l y n n w a s i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . t o a d d r e s s n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s o f t h e C h o c t a w w h e n t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l W a r s t a r t e d , a n d i m m e d i a t e l y r e t u r n e d t o t h e C h o c t a w N a t i o n , h o p i n g t o e s c a p e t h e e x p e c t e d s t r i f e . H e a d v o c a t e d l o y a l t y t o t h e U n i o n o r a t t h e v e r y l e a s t n e u t r a l i t y i n t h e c o n f l i c t , ( w i t h h i m s e l f h o l d i n g p r o - U n i o n s y m p a t h i e s ) a n d t h e n - C h i e f G e o r g e H u d s o n s o u g h t t o m a i n t a i n C h o c t a w n e u t r a l i t y . D e s p i t e w a n t i n g t o a v o i d t h e w a r , t h e C h o c t a w w e r e n o t p e r m i t t e d t o r e m a i n n e u t r a l . F o l l o w i n g a n i n v a s i o n o f C h o c t a w t e r r i t o r y i n M a y 1 8 6 1 b y T e x a n f o r c e s , p r o - C o n f e d e r a t e e l e m e n t s i n t h e g o v e r n m e n t l e t b y R o b e r t M c D o n a l d J o n e s , t h e P r e s i d e n t P r o - T e m p o r e o f t h e C h o c t a w S e n a t e , t h r e a t e n e d C h i e f H u d s o n a n d s t r o n g a r m e d t h e t r i b e i n t o a n a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e C o n f e d e r a c y . T h e t r i b a l p o p u l a c e w a s d i v i d e d b y t h i s a c t i o n : s o m e a l l i e d w i t h t h e C o n f e d e r a c y a n d o t h e r s w i t h t h e U n i o n . A l l s u f f e r e d i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e w a r . P i t c h l y n n w a s e l e c t e d P r i n c i p a l C h i e f o f t h e C h o c t a w s i n 1 8 6 4 a n d s e r v e d u n t i l 1 8 6 6 . W h i l e i n W a s h i n g t o n i n 1 8 6 6 t o r e e s t a b l i s h d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a s w e l l a s s t a v e o f f g o v e r n m e n t - s p o n s o r e d a t t e m p t s t o c o l o n i z e I n d i a n T e r r i t o r y , P i t c h l y n n m e t w i t h Q u e e n E m m a o f H a w a i i , i n t r o d u c e d h e r t o h i s f a m i l y a n d c o n d u c t e d c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e . A f t e r h e w a s s u c c e e d e d a s c h i e f b y A l l e n W r i g h t , P i t c h l y n n r e t u r n e d t o W a s h i n g t o n , D C a s t h e C h o c t a w D e l e g a t e , w h e r e h e w o r k e d t o p r e s s C h o c t a w c l a i m s f o r l a n d s i n M i s s i s s i p p i s o l d u n d e r p r e s s u r e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1 8 3 0 . H e h a d b e e n c o l l e c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h i s i s s u e s i n c e t h e 1 8 5 0 s f r o m o f f i c i a l s i n v o l v e d i n t h e T r e a t y o f D a n c i n g R a b b i t C r e e k . T h e r e h e j o i n e d t h e L u t h e r a n C h u r c h . H e a l s o b e c a m e a p r o m i n e n t m e m b e r o f t h e M a s o n i c O r d e r . P i t c h l y n n a d d r e s s e d t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d s e v e r a l c o n g r e s s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e s i n d e f e n s e o f C h o c t a w c l a i m s . A f t e r h i s d e a t h i n W a s h i n g t o n i n 1 8 8 1 , P i t c h l y n n w a s b u r i e d t h e r e i n C o n g r e s s i o n a l C e m e t e r y . H e w a s t h e t h i r d N a t i v e A m e r i c a n t o b e b u r i e d t h e r e , a f t e r h i s f e l l o w C h o c t a w c h i e f P u s h m a t a h a a n d t h e A p a c h e c h i e f T a z a . P i t c h l y n n w a s r e p o r t e d t o h a v e t o l d o f t h e o r i g i n o f t h e C h o c t a w : a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e C h o c t a w s , t h e f i r s t o f t h e i r r a c e c a m e f r o m t h e b o s o m o f a m a g n i f i c e n t s e a . E v e n w h e n t h e y f i r s t m a d e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e u p o n t h e e a r t h t h e y w e r e s o n u m e r o u s a s t o c o v e r t h e s l o p i n g a n d s a n d y s h o r e o f t h e o c e a n . . . i n t h e p r o c e s s o f t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h e m u l t i t u d e w a s v i s i t e d b y s i c k n e s s . . . t h e i r j o u r n e y l a y a c r o s s s t r e a m s , o v e r h i l l s a n d m o u n t a i n s , t h r o u g h t a n g l e d f o r e s t s , a n d o v e r i m m e n s e p r a i r i e s . . . s o p l e a s e d w e r e t h e y w i t h a l l t h a t t h e y s a w t h a t t h e y b u i l t m o u n d s i n a l l t h e m o r e b e a u t i f u l v a l l e y s t h e y p a s s e d t h r o u g h , s o t h e M a s t e r o f L i f e m i g h t k n o w t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t a n u n g r a t e f u l p e o p l e .

Career

Peter Pitchlynn was a well-educated Choctaw leader who played a significant role in shaping the future of his nation. Born in Mississippi, he attended schools in Tennessee and later graduated from the University of Nashville. He became a farmer and later the head of the Lighthorse, the Choctaw Nation's mounted police. Pitchlynn was a strong advocate for education and worked to establish the Choctaw Academy, which accepted students from various Native American tribes. He served as an interpreter and liaison between the Choctaw and the US federal government, helping to relocate the tribe to Indian Territory. Pitchlynn held various leadership positions, including Principal Chief of the Choctaws and Choctaw Delegate to Washington, DC. Throughout his career, he promoted unity, education, and diplomacy, often finding himself at odds with pro-Confederate elements within his own government.

Choctaw. One of ten children born to the Pitchlynns, after several years at home, Peter was sent to a Tennessee boarding school about 200 miles from Mississippi. Later he attended an academy in Columbia, Tennessee. To complete his education, he studied at and graduated from the University of Nashville, considered one of the finest institutions of the time. It started small like many colleges; its 1827 graduating class held 12 students. After he obtained his degree, Pitchlynn returned to his family home in Mississippi, where he became a farmer. The Choctaw were among the Southeast tribes that used enslaved African Americans as workers on their farms. In 1824, Peter Pitchlynn was made the head of the Lighthorse, the Choctaw Nation's mounted police, and among other duties, supervised the removal of whiskey from tribal lands. He soon married Rhoda Folsom, a first cousin. As part of changing practices, they were married by a missionary, Reverend Cyrus Kingsbury. They had several children: Lycurgus, Peter P. Jr., Leonidas, Rhoda Mary (married D.L. Kannedy), Malvinia (married Loring S.W. Folsom). After his wife's death, Pitchlynn corresponded regularly with his older children while they were away at school, trying to give them guidance. Lycurgus attended a school in Tennessee and Peter Jr. one in Oxford, Georgia. The Pitchlynn sons had difficulties as youths and adults: Lycurgus and Leonidas were convicted of assault in 1857 and sentenced to prison. The father gained a pardon for them from President James Buchanan. In 1860, Peter Jr. shot and killed his uncle, Lorenzo Harris, who was married to his father's sister Elizabeth Pitchlynn. Some said it was self-defense. After Rhoda's death, Peter married a widow, Caroline Lombardy. They had a daughter together, Sophia. She never married and continued to live with her father after her mother's death. While Pitchlynn was a slaveholder, unlike other Choctaw leaders he felt an indifference towards the institution, and following the Emancipation Proclamation, he cast it aside without protest. Pitchlynn was well educated in both Choctaw and European-American culture. He began working on ways to improve Choctaw life. He worked to ban the sale of alcohol in Choctaw territory. Believing that education was important, he persuaded the National Council to found the Choctaw Academy, located in Blue Springs, Scott County, Kentucky in 1825. It sometimes accepted students of other American Indian tribes as well as Choctaw, such as Omaha and Sioux boys. Pitchlynn stayed closely involved with the school, receiving quarterly reports. In 1830 Pitchlynn was elected to the National Council of Choctaw. Because of his education, he served as an interpreter and effective liaison between the Choctaw and the US federal government. He moved with the Choctaw to Indian Territory in the 1830s, where they resettled. Pitchlynn's widowed mother, Sophia Folsom Pitchlynn, moved with her son. After her death, she was buried there, and hers is the oldest known grave in Oklahoma. English author Charles Dickens was touring the United States when he met Pitchlynn on a steamboat on the Ohio River. He described the Choctaw leader at length: In 1840 the Council appointed Pitchlynn as a teacher and superintendent of the Choctaw Academy. The following year, they decided to relocate the school to the Choctaw Nation (located in Indian Territory.) Pitchlynn's correspondence shows they were also discussing the need for a girls' school. Pitchlynn continued to take on more responsibilities for the Nation; in 1845 he was appointed as the Choctaw Delegate to Washington, DC to represent the nation there. That year both the Choctaw and Cherokee proposed to the US Congress that their respective nations should be recognized as independent United States territories, but this was not supported. In 1847, he helped arrange the removal of further Choctaw from Mississippi to the Choctaw Nation by steamboat. In 1861, Pitchlynn was in Washington, D.C. to address national affairs of the Choctaw when the American Civil War started, and immediately returned to the Choctaw Nation, hoping to escape the expected strife. He advocated loyalty to the Union or at the very least neutrality in the conflict, (with himself holding pro-Union sympathies) and then-Chief George Hudson sought to maintain Choctaw neutrality. Despite wanting to avoid the war, the Choctaw were not permitted to remain neutral. Following an invasion of Choctaw territory in May 1861 by Texan forces, pro-Confederate elements in the government let by Robert McDonald Jones, the President Pro-Tempore of the Choctaw Senate, threatened Chief Hudson and strongarmed the tribe into an alliance with the Confederacy. The tribal populace was divided by this action: some allied with the Confederacy and others with the Union. All suffered in the aftermath of the war. Pitchlynn was elected Principal Chief of the Choctaws in 1864 and served until 1866. While in Washington in 1866 to reestablish diplomatic relations with the United States, as well as stave off government-sponsored attempts to colonize Indian Territory, Pitchlynn met with Queen Emma of Hawaii, introduced her to his family and conducted cultural exchange. After he was succeeded as chief by Allen Wright, Pitchlynn returned to Washington, DC as the Choctaw Delegate, where he worked to press Choctaw claims for lands in Mississippi sold under pressure to the United States in 1830. He had been collecting information on this issue since the 1850s from officials involved in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. There he joined the Lutheran Church. He also became a prominent member of the Masonic mountains, through tangled forests, and over immense prairies ... so pleased were they with all that they saw that they built mounds in all the more beautiful valleys they passed through, so the Master of Life might know that they were not an ungrateful people.

Peter Pitchlynn

P e t e r P . P i t c h l y n n w a s b o r n i n N o x u b e e C o u n t y , M i s s i s s i p p i , J a n u a r y 3 0 , 1 8 0 6 a s t h e f i r s t s o n o f S o p h i a F o l s o m , a C h o c t a w o f p a r t l y A n g l o - A m e r i c a n d e s c e n t ; h e r m o t h e r " N a t i k a " w a s C h o c t a w a n d h e r f a t h e r w a s E b e n e z e r F o l s o m , a n A n g l o - A m e r i c a n t r a d e r . S o p h i a ' s C h o c t a w n a m e w a s " L k - l o - h a - w a h " ( L o v e d b u t l o s t ) . S o p h i a F o l s o m a n d J o h n P i t c h l y n n h a d m a r r i e d i n 1 8 0 4 . A s t h e C h o c t a w h a d a m a t r i l i n e a l k i n s h i p s y s t e m o f p r o p e r t y a n d h e r e d i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p , P e t e r w a s b o r n i n t o h i s m o t h e r ' s c l a n a n d p e o p l e ; t h r o u g h h e r f a m i l y , h e g a i n e d s t a t u s i n t h e t r i b e . H i s f a t h e r w a s M a j o r J o h n P i t c h l y n n , a m a n o f S c o t s d e s c e n t . T h e f a t h e r w a s r a i s e d f r o m c h i l d h o o d b y t h e C h o c t a w a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f h i s f a t h e r I s a a c , a w i d o w e r . J o h n P i t c h l y n n s e r v e d G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n a s a n i n t e r p r e t e r f o r n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e C h o c t a w . O n e o f t e n c h i l d r e n b o r n t o t h e P i t c h l y n n s , a f t e r s e v e r a l y e a r s a t h o m e , P e t e r w a s s e n t t o a T e n n e s s e e b o a r d i n g s c h o o l a b o u t 2 0 0 m i l e s f r o m M i s s i s s i p p i . L a t e r h e a t t e n d e d a n a c a d e m y i n C o l u m b i a , T e n n e s s e e . T o c o m p l e t e h i s e d u c a t i o n , h e s t u d i e d a t a n d g r a d u a t e d f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N a s h v i l l e , c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f i n e s t i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e t i m e . I t s t a r t e d s m a l l l i k e m a n y c o l l e g e s ; i t s 1 8 2 7 g r a d u a t i n g c l a s s h e l d 1 2 s t u d e n t s . A f t e r h e o b t a i n e d h i s d e g r e e , P i t c h l y n n r e t u r n e d t o h i s f a m i l y h o m e i n M i s s i s s i p p i , w h e r e h e b e c a m e a f a r m e r . T h e C h o c t a w w e r e a m o n g t h e S o u t h e a s t t r i b e s t h a t u s e d e n s l a v e d A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s a s w o r k e r s o n t h e i r f a r m s . I n 1 8 2 4 , P e t e r P i t c h l y n n w a s m a d e t h e h e a d o f t h e L i g h t h o r s e , t h e C h o c t a w N a t i o n ' s m o u n t e d p o l i c e , a n d a m o n g o t h e r d u t i e s , s u p e r v i s e d t h e r e m o v a l o f w h i s k e y f r o m t r i b a l l a n d s . H e s o o n m a r r i e d R h o d a F o l s o m , a f i r s t c o u s i n . A s p a r t o f c h a n g i n g p r a c t i c e s , t h e y w e r e m a r r i e d b y a m i s s i o n a r y , R e v e r e n d C y r u s K i n g s b u r y . T h e y h a d s e v e r a l c h i l d r e n : L y c u r g u s , P e t e r P . J r . , L e o n i d a s , R h o d a M a r y ( m a r r i e d D . L . K a n n e d y ) , M a l v i n i a ( m a r r i e d L o r i n g S . W . F o l s o m ) . A f t e r h i s w i f e ' s d e a t h , P i t c h l y n n c o r r e s p o n d e d r e g u l a r l y w i t h h i s o l d e r c h i l d r e n w h i l e t h e y w e r e a w a y a t s c h o o l , t r y i n g t o g i v e t h e m g u i d a n c e . L y c u r g u s a t t e n d e d a s c h o o l i n T e n n e s s e e a n d P e t e r J r . o n e i n O x f o r d , G e o r g i a . T h e P i t c h l y n n s o n s h a d d i f f i c u l t i e s a s y o u t h s a n d a d u l t s : L y c u r g u s a n d L e o n i d a s w e r e c o n v i c t e d o f a s s a u l t i n 1 8 5 7 a n d s e n t e n c e d t o p r i s o n . T h e f a t h e r g a i n e d a p a r d o n f o r t h e m f r o m P r e s i d e n t J a m e s B u c h a n a n . I n 1 8 6 0 , P e t e r J r . s h o t a n d k i l l e d h i s u n c l e , L o r e n z o H a r r i s , w h o w a s m a r r i e d t o h i s f a t h e r ' s s i s t e r E l i z a b e t h P i t c h l y n n . S o m e s a i d i t w a s s e l f - d e f e n s e . A f t e r R h o d a ' s d e a t h , P e t e r m a r r i e d a w i d o w , C a r o l i n e L o m b a r d y . T h e y h a d a d a u g h t e r t o g e t h e r , S o p h i a . S h e n e v e r m a r r i e d a n d c o n t i n u e d t o l i v e w i t h h e r f a t h e r a f t e r h e r m o t h e r ' s d e a t h . W h i l e P i t c h l y n n w a s a s l a v e h o l d e r , u n l i k e o t h e r C h o c t a w l e a d e r s h e f e l t a n i n d i f f e r e n c e t o w a r d s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n , a n d f o l l o w i n g t h e E m a n c i p a t i o n P r o c l a m a t i o n , h e c a s t i t a s i d e w i t h o u t p r o t e s t . P i t c h l y n n w a s w e l l e d u c a t e d i n b o t h C h o c t a w a n d E u r o p e a n - A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e . H e b e g a n w o r k i n g o n w a y s t o i m p r o v e C h o c t a w l i f e . H e w o r k e d t o b a n t h e s a l e o f a l c o h o l i n C h o c t a w t e r r i t o r y . B e l i e v i n g t h a t e d u c a t i o n w a s i m p o r t a n t , h e p e r s u a d e d t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l t o f o u n d t h e C h o c t a w A c a d e m y , l o c a t e d i n B l u e S p r i n g s , S c o t t C o u n t y , K e n t u c k y i n 1 8 2 5 . I t s o m e t i m e s a c c e p t e d s t u d e n t s o f o t h e r A m e r i c a n I n d i a n t r i b e s a s w e l l a s C h o c t a w , s u c h a s O m a h a a n d S i o u x b o y s . P i t c h l y n n s t a y e d c l o s e l y i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e s c h o o l , r e c e i v i n g q u a r t e r l y r e p o r t s . I n 1 8 3 0 P i t c h l y n n w a s e l e c t e d t o t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f C h o c t a w . B e c a u s e o f h i s e d u c a t i o n , h e s e r v e d a s a n i n t e r p r e t e r a n d e f f e c t i v e l i a i s o n b e t w e e n t h e C h o c t a w a n d t h e U S f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t . H e m o v e d w i t h t h e C h o c t a w t o I n d i a n T e r r i t o r y i n t h e 1 8 3 0 s , w h e r e t h e y r e s e t t l e d . P i t c h l y n n ' s w i d o w e d m o t h e r , S o p h i a F o l s o m P i t c h l y n n , m o v e d w i t h h e r s o n . A f t e r h e r d e a t h , s h e w a s b u r i e d t h e r e , a n d h e r s i s t h e o l d e s t k n o w n g r a v e i n O k l a h o m a . E n g l i s h a u t h o r C h a r l e s D i c k e n s w a s t o u r i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w h e n h e m e t P i t c h l y n n o n a s t e a m b o a t o n t h e O h i o R i v e r . H e d e s c r i b e d t h e C h o c t a w l e a d e r a t l e n g t h : I n 1 8 4 0 t h e C o u n c i l a p p o i n t e d P i t c h l y n n a s a t e a c h e r a n d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h e C h o c t a w A c a d e m y . T h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e y d e c i d e d t o r e l o c a t e t h e s c h o o l t o t h e C h o c t a w N a t i o n ( l o c a t e d i n I n d i a n T e r r i t o r y . ) P i t c h l y n n ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s h o w s t h e y w e r e a l s o d i s c u s s i n g t h e n e e d f o r a g i r l s ' s c h o o l . P i t c h l y n n c o n t i n u e d t o t a k e o n m o r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e N a t i o n ; i n 1 8 4 5 h e w a s a p p o i n t e d a s t h e C h o c t a w D e l e g a t e t o W a s h i n g t o n , D C t o r e p r e s e n t t h e n a t i o n t h e r e . T h a t y e a r b o t h t h e C h o c t a w a n d C h e r o k e e p r o p o s e d t o t h e U S C o n g r e s s t h a t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e n a t i o n s s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i z e d a s i n d e p e n d e n t U n i t e d S t a t e s t e r r i t o r i e s , b u t t h i s w a s n o t s u p p o r t e d . I n 1 8 4 7 , h e h e l p e d a r r a n g e t h e r e m o v a l o f f u r t h e r C h o c t a w f r o m M i s s i s s i p p i t o t h e C h o c t a w N a t i o n b y s t e a m b o a t . I n 1 8 6 1 , P i t c h l y n n w a s i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . t o a d d r e s s n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s o f t h e C h o c t a w w h e n t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l W a r s t a r t e d , a n d i m m e d i a t e l y r e t u r n e d t o t h e C h o c t a w N a t i o n , h o p i n g t o e s c a p e t h e e x p e c t e d s t r i f e . H e a d v o c a t e d l o y a l t y t o t h e U n i o n o r a t t h e v e r y l e a s t n e u t r a l i t y i n t h e c o n f l i c t , ( w i t h h i m s e l f h o l d i n g p r o - U n i o n s y m p a t h i e s ) a n d t h e n - C h i e f G e o r g e H u d s o n s o u g h t t o m a i n t a i n C h o c t a w n e u t r a l i t y . D e s p i t e w a n t i n g t o a v o i d t h e w a r , t h e C h o c t a w w e r e n o t p e r m i t t e d t o r e m a i n n e u t r a l . F o l l o w i n g a n i n v a s i o n o f C h o c t a w t e r r i t o r y i n M a y 1 8 6 1 b y T e x a n f o r c e s , p r o - C o n f e d e r a t e e l e m e n t s i n t h e g o v e r n m e n t l e t b y R o b e r t M c D o n a l d J o n e s , t h e P r e s i d e n t P r o - T e m p o r e o f t h e C h o c t a w S e n a t e , t h r e a t e n e d C h i e f H u d s o n a n d s t r o n g a r m e d t h e t r i b e i n t o a n a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e C o n f e d e r a c y . T h e t r i b a l p o p u l a c e w a s d i v i d e d b y t h i s a c t i o n : s o m e a l l i e d w i t h t h e C o n f e d e r a c y a n d o t h e r s w i t h t h e U n i o n . A l l s u f f e r e d i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e w a r . P i t c h l y n n w a s e l e c t e d P r i n c i p a l C h i e f o f t h e C h o c t a w s i n 1 8 6 4 a n d s e r v e d u n t i l 1 8 6 6 . W h i l e i n W a s h i n g t o n i n 1 8 6 6 t o r e e s t a b l i s h d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a s w e l l a s s t a v e o f f g o v e r n m e n t - s p o n s o r e d a t t e m p t s t o c o l o n i z e I n d i a n T e r r i t o r y , P i t c h l y n n m e t w i t h Q u e e n E m m a o f H a w a i i , i n t r o d u c e d h e r t o h i s f a m i l y a n d c o n d u c t e d c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e . A f t e r h e w a s s u c c e e d e d a s c h i e f b y A l l e n W r i g h t , P i t c h l y n n r e t u r n e d t o W a s h i n g t o n , D C a s t h e C h o c t a w D e l e g a t e , w h e r e h e w o r k e d t o p r e s s C h o c t a w c l a i m s f o r l a n d s i n M i s s i s s i p p i s o l d u n d e r p r e s s u r e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1 8 3 0 . H e h a d b e e n c o l l e c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h i s i s s u e s i n c e t h e 1 8 5 0 s f r o m o f f i c i a l s i n v o l v e d i n t h e T r e a t y o f D a n c i n g R a b b i t C r e e k . T h e r e h e j o i n e d t h e L u t h e r a n C h u r c h . H e a l s o b e c a m e a p r o m i n e n t m e m b e r o f t h e M a s o n i c O r d e r . P i t c h l y n n a d d r e s s e d t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d s e v e r a l c o n g r e s s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e s i n d e f e n s e o f C h o c t a w c l a i m s . A f t e r h i s d e a t h i n W a s h i n g t o n i n 1 8 8 1 , P i t c h l y n n w a s b u r i e d t h e r e i n C o n g r e s s i o n a l C e m e t e r y . H e w a s t h e t h i r d N a t i v e A m e r i c a n t o b e b u r i e d t h e r e , a f t e r h i s f e l l o w C h o c t a w c h i e f P u s h m a t a h a a n d t h e A p a c h e c h i e f T a z a . P i t c h l y n n w a s r e p o r t e d t o h a v e t o l d o f t h e o r i g i n o f t h e C h o c t a w : a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e C h o c t a w s , t h e f i r s t o f t h e i r r a c e c a m e f r o m t h e b o s o m o f a m a g n i f i c e n t s e a . E v e n w h e n t h e y f i r s t m a d e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e u p o n t h e e a r t h t h e y w e r e s o n u m e r o u s a s t o c o v e r t h e s l o p i n g a n d s a n d y s h o r e o f t h e o c e a n . . . i n t h e p r o c e s s o f t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h e m u l t i t u d e w a s v i s i t e d b y s i c k n e s s . . . t h e i r j o u r n e y l a y a c r o s s s t r e a m s , o v e r h i l l s a n d m o u n t a i n s , t h r o u g h t a n g l e d f o r e s t s , a n d o v e r i m m e n s e p r a i r i e s . . . s o p l e a s e d w e r e t h e y w i t h a l l t h a t t h e y s a w t h a t t h e y b u i l t m o u n d s i n a l l t h e m o r e b e a u t i f u l v a l l e y s t h e y p a s s e d t h r o u g h , s o t h e M a s t e r o f L i f e m i g h t k n o w t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t a n u n g r a t e f u l p e o p l e .

Civil War and Final Years

During the Civil War, Peter Pitchlynn, a well-educated Choctaw leader, advocated for neutrality, but the tribe was forced into an alliance with the Confederacy. After the war, he was elected Principal Chief of the Choctaws (1864-1866) and later served as the Choctaw Delegate in Washington, DC, pressing for Choctaw land claims in Mississippi.

Choctaw. One of ten children born to the Pitchlynns, after several years at home, Peter was sent to a Tennessee boarding school about 200 miles from Mississippi. Later he attended an academy in Columbia, Tennessee. To complete his education, he studied at and graduated from the University of Nashville, considered one of the finest institutions of the time. It started small like many colleges; its 1827 graduating class held 12 students. After he obtained his degree, Pitchlynn returned to his family home in Mississippi, where he became a farmer. The Choctaw were among the Southeast tribes that used enslaved African Americans as workers on their farms. In 1824, Peter Pitchlynn was made the head of the Lighthorse, the Choctaw Nation's mounted police, and among other duties, supervised the removal of whiskey from tribal lands. He soon married Rhoda Folsom, a first cousin. As part of changing practices, they were married by a missionary, Reverend Cyrus Kingsbury. They had several children: Lycurgus, Peter P. Jr., Leonidas, Rhoda Mary (married D.L. Kannedy), Malvinia (married Loring S.W. Folsom). After his wife's death, Pitchlynn corresponded regularly with his older children while they were away at school, trying to give them guidance. Lycurgus attended a school in Tennessee and Peter Jr. one in Oxford, Georgia. The Pitchlynn sons had difficulties as youths and adults: Lycurgus and Leonidas were convicted of assault in 1857 and sentenced to prison. The father gained a pardon for them from President James Buchanan. In 1860, Peter Jr. shot and killed his uncle, Lorenzo Harris, who was married to his father's sister Elizabeth Pitchlynn. Some said it was self-defense. After Rhoda's death, Peter married a widow, Caroline Lombardy. They had a daughter together, Sophia. She never married and continued to live with her father after her mother's death. While Pitchlynn was a slaveholder, unlike other Choctaw leaders he felt an indifference towards the institution, and following the Emancipation Proclamation, he cast it aside without protest. Pitchlynn was well educated in both Choctaw and European-American culture. He began working on ways to improve Choctaw life. He worked to ban the sale of alcohol in Choctaw territory. Believing that education was important, he persuaded the National Council to found the Choctaw Academy, located in Blue Springs, Scott County, Kentucky in 1825. It sometimes accepted students of other American Indian tribes as well as Choctaw, such as Omaha and Sioux boys. Pitchlynn stayed closely involved with the school, receiving quarterly reports. In 1830 Pitchlynn was elected to the National Council of Choctaw. Because of his education, he served as an interpreter and effective liaison between the Choctaw and the US federal government. He moved with the Choctaw to Indian Territory in the 1830s, where they resettled. Pitchlynn's widowed mother, Sophia Folsom Pitchlynn, moved with her son. After her death, she was buried there, and hers is the oldest known grave in Oklahoma. English author Charles Dickens was touring the United States when he met Pitchlynn on a steamboat on the Ohio River. He described the Choctaw leader at length: In 1840 the Council appointed Pitchlynn as a teacher and superintendent of the Choctaw Academy. The following year, they decided to relocate the school to the Choctaw Nation (located in Indian Territory.) Pitchlynn's correspondence shows they were also discussing the need for a girls' school. Pitchlynn continued to take on more responsibilities for the Nation; in 1845 he was appointed as the Choctaw Delegate to Washington, DC to represent the nation there. That year both the Choctaw and Cherokee proposed to the US Congress that their respective nations should be recognized as independent United States territories, but this was not supported. In 1847, he helped arrange the removal of further Choctaw from Mississippi to the Choctaw Nation by steamboat. In 1861, Pitchlynn was in Washington, D.C. to address national affairs of the Choctaw when the American Civil War started, and immediately returned to the Choctaw Nation, hoping to escape the expected strife. He advocated loyalty to the Union or at the very least neutrality in the conflict, (with himself holding pro-Union sympathies) and then-Chief George Hudson sought to maintain Choctaw neutrality. Despite wanting to avoid the war, the Choctaw were not permitted to remain neutral. Following an invasion of Choctaw territory in May 1861 by Texan forces, pro-Confederate elements in the government let by Robert McDonald Jones, the President Pro-Tempore of the Choctaw Senate, threatened Chief Hudson and strongarmed the tribe into an alliance with the Confederacy. The tribal populace was divided by this action: some allied with the Confederacy and others with the Union. All suffered in the aftermath of the war. Pitchlynn was elected Principal Chief of the Choctaws in 1864 and served until 1866. While in Washington in 1866 to reestablish diplomatic relations with the United States, as well as stave off government-sponsored attempts to colonize Indian Territory, Pitchlynn met with Queen Emma of Hawaii, introduced her to his family and conducted cultural exchange. After he was succeeded as chief by Allen Wright, Pitchlynn returned to Washington, DC as the Choctaw Delegate, where he worked to press Choctaw claims for lands in Mississippi sold under pressure to the United States in 1830. He had been collecting information on this issue since the 1850s from officials involved in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. There he joined the Lutheran Church. He also became a prominent member of the Masonic mountains, through tangled forests, and over immense prairies ... so pleased were they with all that they saw that they built mounds in all the more beautiful valleys they passed through, so the Master of Life might know that they were not an ungrateful people.

South Mountain Community College

S o u t h M o u n t a i n C o m m u n i t y C o l l e g e w a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e g o v e r n i n g b o a r d o f t h e M a r i c o p a C o u n t y C o m m u n i t y C o l l e g e D i s t r i c t o n A p r i l 1 8 , 1 9 7 8 . T h e c a m p u s w a s d e s i g n e d b y l o c a l a r c h i t e c t B e n n i e G o n z a l e s , o p e n i n g i t s d o o r s i n 1 9 8 0 . S e r v i n g P h o e n i x , A h w a t u k e e , G u a d a l u p e a n d L a v e e n , S o u t h M o u n t a i n C o m m u n i t y C o l l e g e o f f e r s a s s o c i a t e d e g r e e s , c e r t i f i c a t e s o f c o m p l e t i o n , c o u r s e s t h a t t r a n s f e r t o u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d t e c h n o l o g y t r a i n i n g t o 7 , 5 0 0 s t u d e n t s e a c h y e a r . T h e c o l l e g e t a k e s i t s n a m e f r o m S o u t h M o u n t a i n , w h i c h i s a f e w k i l o m e t e r s t o t h e s o u t h o f c a m p u s . T h e m a i n c a m p u s i s i n P h o e n i x , A r i z o n a , w i t h a d d i t i o n a l l o c a t i o n s i n G u a d a l u p e a n d L a v e e n . S o u t h M o u n t a i n C o m m u n i t y C o l l e g e i s a c c r e d i t e d b y t h e H i g h e r L e a r n i n g C o m m i s s i o n a n d i s a H i s p a n i c S e r v i n g I n s t i t u t i o n . A n e w L i b r a r y w a s c o n s t r u c t e d a n d o p e n e d i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e f a l l s e m e s t e r o f 2 0 1 1 . T h i s l i b r a r y i s n o t o n l y f o r s t u d e n t u s e , b u t d o u b l e s a s a b r a n c h o f t h e P h o e n i x P u b l i c L i b r a r y , a n d a s s u c h , o p e n t o t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c . W i t h i n t h e o f t h e l i b r a r y t h e r e i s a c y b e r c a f e , a t e e n s p a c e , a c o l l e c t i o n w i t h o v e r 1 1 0 , 0 0 0 p i e c e s , a d e d i c a t e d c h i l d r e n ' s a r e a / s t o r y t i m e , a s w e l l a s q u i e t r e a d i n g / s t u d y a r e a s . T h i s n e w l i b r a r y w a s d e s i g n e d b y R i c h a r d B a u e r . N o r t h e r n A r i z o n a U n i v e r s i t y ( N A U ) a n d S o u t h M o u n t a i n C o m m u n i t y C o l l e g e ( S M C C ) c o l l a b o r a t e t o a l l o w s t u d e n t s t o c o m p l e t e t h e i r b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e o n t h e S M C C c a m p u s a f t e r f i n i s h i n g t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d e g r e e . N A U m a i n t a i n s a b u i l d i n g o n t h e S M C C c a m p u s a n d o f f e r s b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e p r o g r a m s .

History

South Mountain Community College was founded in 1978 and opened in 1980, serving Phoenix and surrounding areas. It offers associate degrees, certificates, and university-transferable courses to around 7,500 students annually. The college has two additional locations and is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. Notably, it features a joint program with Northern Arizona University, allowing students to earn bachelor's degrees on campus.

South Mountain Community College was established by the governing board of the Maricopa County Community College District on April 18, 1978. The campus was designed by local architect Bennie Gonzales, opening its doors in 1980. Serving Phoenix, Ahwatukee, Guadalupe and Laveen, South Mountain Community College offers associate degrees, certificates of completion, courses that transfer to universities and technology training to 7,500 students each year. The college takes its name from South Mountain, which is a few kilometers to the south of campus. The main campus is in Phoenix, Arizona, with additional locations in Guadalupe and Laveen. South Mountain Community College is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission and is a Hispanic Serving Institution. A new Library was constructed and opened in the beginning of the fall semester of 2011. This library is not only for student use, but doubles as a branch of the Phoenix Public Library, and as such, open to the general public. Within the of the library there is a cyber cafe, a teen space, a collection with over 110,000 pieces, a dedicated children's area/story time, as well as quiet reading/study areas. This new library was designed by Richard Bauer. Northern Arizona University (NAU) and South Mountain Community College (SMCC) collaborate to allow students to complete their bachelor's degree on the SMCC campus after finishing their associate degree. NAU maintains a building on the SMCC campus and offers bachelor's degree programs.

Thomas Rush

T h o m a s R u s h w a s a l o c a l p o l i t i c i a n i n I p s w i c h w h o h a d s e r v e d H e n r y V I I a s w e l l a s h i s s o n H e n r y V I I I . H e w a s a f r i e n d o f C a r d i n a l W o l s e y ( H e n r y V I I I ' s f i r s t L o r d C h a n c e l l o r ) , s u r v i v e d t h e f a l l o u t f r o m W o l s e y ' s d o w n f a l l , a n d a t t a c h e d h i m s e l f t o W o l s e y ' s s u c c e s s o r T h o m a s C r o m w e l l . H e w a s o n e o f t h e K i n g ' s s e r g e a n t s - a t - a r m s , t h e f o r e r u n n e r s o f t h e Y e o m e n o f t h e G u a r d ( " B e e f e a t e r s " ) ; D e b r e t t ' s K n i g h t a g e s a y s t h a t h e w a s o n e o f t h o s e m a d e a " K n i g h t o f t h e B a t h " a s p a r t o f t h e c o r o n a t i o n c e r e m o n i e s o f A n n e B o l e y n . S i r T h o m a s m a r r i e d A n n e R i v e r s , d a u g h t e r o f J o h n R i v e r s o f I p s w i c h a n d w i d o w o f T h o m a s A l v a r d ( 1 4 6 0 - 1 5 0 4 ) . T o g e t h e r t h e y h a d s i x c h i l d r e n : A r t h u r , T h o m a s , L e o n a r d , A n t h o n y , J o h n , a n d a n u n n a m e d d a u g h t e r . L e o n a r d a n d J o h n d i d n o t s u r v i v e i n f a n c y . S i r T h o m a s l a t e r m a r r i e d a w o m a n n a m e d C h r i s t i a n , b u t p r o d u c e d n o m o r e c h i l d r e n . S i r T h o m a s i s i n t e r r e d i n S t . S t e p h e n ' s C h u r c h i n I p s w i c h , w h i c h n o l o n g e r f u n c t i o n s a s a c h u r c h . A p o p u l a r m i s c o n c e p t i o n i s t h a t S i r T h o m a s ' m o s t f a m o u s n a m e - b e a r i n g d e s c e n d a n t i s D r . B e n j a m i n R u s h , s i g n e r o f t h e D e c l a r a t i o n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e i n 1 7 7 6 . D r . R u s h i s S i r T h o m a s ' d e s c e n d a n t t h r o u g h t h e l a t t e r ' s e p o n y m o u s s o n .

Career

Thomas Rush was a local politician in Ipswich who served under Henry VII and Henry VIII. He was friends with Cardinal Wolsey and later attached himself to Thomas Cromwell. He held various positions, including sergeant-at-arms and Knight of the Bath. He married twice, first to Anne Rivers, with whom he had six children, and then to Christian, with no further offspring.

Thomas Rush was a local politician in Ipswich who had served Henry VII as well as his son Henry VIII. He was a friend of Cardinal Wolsey (Henry VIII's first Lord Chancellor), survived the fallout from Wolsey's downfall, and attached himself to Wolsey's successor Thomas Cromwell. He was one of the King's sergeants-at-arms, the forerunners of the Yeomen of the Guard ("Beefeaters"); Debrett's Knightage says that he was one of those made a "Knight of the Bath" as part of the coronation ceremonies of Anne Boleyn. Sir Thomas married Anne Rivers, daughter of John Rivers of Ipswich and widow of Thomas Alvard (1460-1504). Together they had six children: Arthur, Thomas, Leonard, Anthony, John, and an unnamed daughter. Leonard and John did not survive infancy. Sir Thomas later married a woman named Christian, but produced no more children. Sir Thomas is interred in St. Stephen's Church in Ipswich, which no longer functions as a church. A popular misconception is that Sir Thomas' most famous name-bearing descendant is Dr. Benjamin Rush, signer of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Dr. Rush is Sir Thomas' descendant through the latter's eponymous son.

Steve Francis (businessman)

F r a n c i s w a s b o r n i n 1 9 5 4 i n P h o e n i x , A r i z o n a . H e a t t e n d e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N e v a d a , L a s V e g a s , g r a d u a t i n g w i t h a B a c h e l o r o f S c i e n c e i n 1 9 7 8 . H e h a s l i v e d i n S a n D i e g o w i t h h i s w i f e , G a y l e , s i n c e 1 9 8 7 . S t e v e F r a n c i s w a s e l e c t e d t o a s e a t i n t h e N e v a d a S t a t e A s s e m b l y i n 1 9 8 2 . A t o n l y 2 8 , h e w a s o n e o f t h e y o u n g e s t a s s e m b l y p e r s o n s e v e r . H i s c o l l e a g u e s e l e c t e d h i m m a j o r i t y l e a d e r i n 1 9 8 5 , w h i c h h e h e l d u n t i l 1 9 8 7 . D u r i n g h i s t e n u r e , h e a u t h o r e d s u c c e s s f u l l e g i s l a t i o n t o o u t l a w t h e s a l e a n d u s e o f a r m o r - p i e r c i n g " c o p - k i l l e r " b u l l e t s i n t h e s t a t e . H e a l s o i n t r o d u c e d l e g i s l a t i o n t o r e f o r m t h e s t a t e ' s m e n t a l h e a l t h s y s t e m a n d s t a b l i s h a s t a t e c o m m i s s i o n o n m e n t a l h e a l t h . H e s p o n s o r e d a b i l l t o s t r e n g t h e n t e n a n t s ' r i g h t s a g a i n s t u n f a i r l a n d l o r d p r a c t i c e s . A f t e r m o v i n g t o S a n D i e g o , F r a n c i s u n s u c c e s s f u l l y r a n f o r m a y o r i n 2 0 0 5 a n d 2 0 0 8 . I n 1 9 8 5 , h e a n d G a y l e , a r e g i s t e r e d n u r s e , f o u n d e d A M N H e a l t h c a r e , a n u r s e s t a f f i n g b u s i n e s s . I n 1 9 8 7 a f t e r c o m p l e t i n g h i s l e g i s l a t i v e s e r v i c e i n N e v a d a , t h e y r e l o c a t e d A M N H e a l t h c a r e t o S a n D i e g o . A s A M N H e a l t h c a r e g r e w i n i t s e a r l y y e a r s , S t e v e n a n d G a y l e o v e r s a w t h e c o m p a n y ' s d e v e l o p m e n t . F r o m 1 9 9 0 t o 2 0 0 5 , F r a n c i s s e r v e d a s A M N ' s c h i e f e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r a n d h e b e c a m e c h a i r m a n o f t h e b o a r d i n 2 0 0 5 . H e r e t i r e d f r o m t h e b o a r d o f d i r e c t o r s i n 2 0 0 8 . D u r i n g t h e 2 2 y e a r s o f A M N ' s h i s t o r y , t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s i t i o n e d f r o m a p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e t o a n a t i o n a l p u b l i c c o m p a n y w i t h o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 c o r p o r a t e e m p l o y e e s , w i t h o v e r 8 , 0 0 0 n u r s e a n d a l l i e d h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s p r o v i d i n g s t a f f i n g s e r v i c e s t o o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 h e a l t h c a r e f a c i l i t y c l i e n t s . T o d a y , A M N ( N Y S E : A M N ) i s t h e n a t i o n ' s l a r g e s t h e a l t h c a r e s t a f f i n g f i r m a n d i s t r a d e d o n t h e N e w Y o r k S t o c k E x c h a n g e . F r a n c i s a l s o f o u n d e d t h e S a n D i e g o I n s t i t u t e f o r P o l i c y R e s e a r c h ( w h i c h n o w r e s i d e s a t N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y ) , a n o n - p a r t i s a n o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t g e n e r a t e s e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i c y r e s e a r c h f o r t h e S a n D i e g o r e g i o n . F r a n c i s s e r v e d a s c h a i r m a n o f t h e b o a r d o f M e d i c a l S o l u t i o n s , I n c . , a n a t i o n a l h e a l t h c a r e s t a f f i n g c o m p a n y f r o m 2 0 1 2 t o 2 0 1 5 . F r a n c i s i s c u r r e n t l y e x e c u t i v e c h a i r m a n o f t h e b o a r d o f A H S S t a f f i n g . I n a d d i t i o n , F r a n c i s i s p r e s i d e n t o f F r a n c i s E n t e r p r i s e s , L L C . , a h e a l t h c a r e s t a f f i n g a d v i s o r y f i r m . F r a n c i s i s a l o n g - s e r v i n g b o a r d m e m b e r o f F a t h e r J o e ' s V i l l a g e s ( c h a i r m a n 2 0 0 5 – 2 0 1 5 ) , w h i c h p r o v i d e s t r a n s i t i o n a l h o u s i n g f o r l o w - i n c o m e f a m i l i e s , r e h a b i l i t a t i v e s e r v i c e s f o r t h e h o m e l e s s , a n d r e s i d e n t i a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l s e r v i c e s f o r h o m e l e s s t e e n s . H e h a s s e r v e d i n t h e p a s t a s t h e c h a i r m a n o f t h e S a n D i e g o C h a p t e r o f t h e A m e r i c a n R e d C r o s s a s w e l l a s v i c e c h a i r m a n o f t h e l o c a l Y M C A . I n a d d i t i o n , h e h a s s e r v e d a s a d i r e c t o r f o r t h e S a n D i e g o R e g i o n a l C h a m b e r o f C o m m e r c e a n d t h e S a n D i e g o R e g i o n a l E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n . F r a n c i s h a s b e e n h o n o r e d a s a F a t h e r o f t h e Y e a r b y t h e A m e r i c a n D i a b e t e s A s s o c i a t i o n / S a n D i e g o F a t h e r ' s D a y C o u n c i l , a s P a t r i o t o f t h e Y e a r b y t h e B o y S c o u t s o f A m e r i c a S a n D i e g o - I m p e r i a l C o u n c i l a n d a s C o r p o r a t e D i r e c t o r o f t h e Y e a r b y t h e C o r p o r a t e D i r e c t o r s F o r u m .

Government experience

Steve Francis has extensive government experience, having been elected to the Nevada State Assembly in 1982 at just 28 years old, making him one of the youngest assemblypersons ever. He went on to become Majority Leader in 1985, holding the position until 1987. During his tenure, he successfully authored several key pieces of legislation, including banning "cop-killer" bullets, reforming the state's mental health system, and strengthening tenants' rights.

Francis was born in 1954 in Phoenix, Arizona. He attended the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, graduating with a Bachelor of Science in 1978. He has lived in San Diego with his wife, Gayle, since 1987. Steve Francis was elected to a seat in the Nevada State Assembly in 1982. At only 28, he was one of the youngest assemblypersons ever. His colleagues elected him majority leader in 1985, which he held until 1987. During his tenure, he authored successful legislation to outlaw the sale and use of armor-piercing "cop-killer" bullets in the state. He also introduced legislation to reform the state's mental health system and stablish a state commission on mental health. He sponsored a bill to strengthen tenants' rights against unfair landlord practices. After moving to San Diego, Francis unsuccessfully ran for mayor in 2005 and 2008. In 1985, he and Gayle, a registered nurse, founded AMN Healthcare, a nurse staffing business. In 1987 after completing his legislative service in Nevada, they relocated AMN Healthcare to San Diego. As AMN Healthcare grew in its early years, Steven and Gayle oversaw the company's development. From 1990 to 2005, Francis served as AMN's chief executive officer and he became chairman of the board in 2005. He retired from the board of directors in 2008. During the 22 years of AMN's history, the company transitioned from a private enterprise to a national public company with over 2,000 corporate employees, with over 8,000 nurse and allied healthcare professionals providing staffing services to over 2,000 healthcare facility clients. Today, AMN (NYSE:AMN) is the nation's largest healthcare staffing firm and is traded on the New York Stock Exchange. Francis also founded the San Diego Institute for Policy Research (which now resides at National University), a non-partisan organization that generates economic and policy research for the San Diego region. Francis served as chairman of the board of Medical Solutions, Inc., a national healthcare staffing company from 2012 to 2015. Francis is currently executive chairman of the board of AHS Staffing. In addition, Francis is president of Francis Enterprises, LLC., a healthcare staffing advisory firm. Francis is a long-serving board member of Father Joe's Villages (chairman 2005–2015), which provides transitional housing for low-income families, rehabilitative services for the homeless, and residential and educational services for homeless teens. He has served in the past as the chairman of the San Diego Chapter of the American Red Cross as well as vice chairman of the local YMCA. In addition, he has served as a director for the San Diego Regional Chamber of Commerce and the San Diego Regional Economic Development Corporation. Francis has been honored as a Father of the Year by the American Diabetes Association/San Diego Father's Day Council, as Patriot of the Year by the Boy Scouts of America San Diego-Imperial Council and as Corporate Director of the Year by the Corporate Directors Forum.

Steve Francis (businessman)

F r a n c i s w a s b o r n i n 1 9 5 4 i n P h o e n i x , A r i z o n a . H e a t t e n d e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N e v a d a , L a s V e g a s , g r a d u a t i n g w i t h a B a c h e l o r o f S c i e n c e i n 1 9 7 8 . H e h a s l i v e d i n S a n D i e g o w i t h h i s w i f e , G a y l e , s i n c e 1 9 8 7 . S t e v e F r a n c i s w a s e l e c t e d t o a s e a t i n t h e N e v a d a S t a t e A s s e m b l y i n 1 9 8 2 . A t o n l y 2 8 , h e w a s o n e o f t h e y o u n g e s t a s s e m b l y p e r s o n s e v e r . H i s c o l l e a g u e s e l e c t e d h i m m a j o r i t y l e a d e r i n 1 9 8 5 , w h i c h h e h e l d u n t i l 1 9 8 7 . D u r i n g h i s t e n u r e , h e a u t h o r e d s u c c e s s f u l l e g i s l a t i o n t o o u t l a w t h e s a l e a n d u s e o f a r m o r - p i e r c i n g " c o p - k i l l e r " b u l l e t s i n t h e s t a t e . H e a l s o i n t r o d u c e d l e g i s l a t i o n t o r e f o r m t h e s t a t e ' s m e n t a l h e a l t h s y s t e m a n d s t a b l i s h a s t a t e c o m m i s s i o n o n m e n t a l h e a l t h . H e s p o n s o r e d a b i l l t o s t r e n g t h e n t e n a n t s ' r i g h t s a g a i n s t u n f a i r l a n d l o r d p r a c t i c e s . A f t e r m o v i n g t o S a n D i e g o , F r a n c i s u n s u c c e s s f u l l y r a n f o r m a y o r i n 2 0 0 5 a n d 2 0 0 8 . I n 1 9 8 5 , h e a n d G a y l e , a r e g i s t e r e d n u r s e , f o u n d e d A M N H e a l t h c a r e , a n u r s e s t a f f i n g b u s i n e s s . I n 1 9 8 7 a f t e r c o m p l e t i n g h i s l e g i s l a t i v e s e r v i c e i n N e v a d a , t h e y r e l o c a t e d A M N H e a l t h c a r e t o S a n D i e g o . A s A M N H e a l t h c a r e g r e w i n i t s e a r l y y e a r s , S t e v e n a n d G a y l e o v e r s a w t h e c o m p a n y ' s d e v e l o p m e n t . F r o m 1 9 9 0 t o 2 0 0 5 , F r a n c i s s e r v e d a s A M N ' s c h i e f e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r a n d h e b e c a m e c h a i r m a n o f t h e b o a r d i n 2 0 0 5 . H e r e t i r e d f r o m t h e b o a r d o f d i r e c t o r s i n 2 0 0 8 . D u r i n g t h e 2 2 y e a r s o f A M N ' s h i s t o r y , t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s i t i o n e d f r o m a p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e t o a n a t i o n a l p u b l i c c o m p a n y w i t h o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 c o r p o r a t e e m p l o y e e s , w i t h o v e r 8 , 0 0 0 n u r s e a n d a l l i e d h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s p r o v i d i n g s t a f f i n g s e r v i c e s t o o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 h e a l t h c a r e f a c i l i t y c l i e n t s . T o d a y , A M N ( N Y S E : A M N ) i s t h e n a t i o n ' s l a r g e s t h e a l t h c a r e s t a f f i n g f i r m a n d i s t r a d e d o n t h e N e w Y o r k S t o c k E x c h a n g e . F r a n c i s a l s o f o u n d e d t h e S a n D i e g o I n s t i t u t e f o r P o l i c y R e s e a r c h ( w h i c h n o w r e s i d e s a t N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y ) , a n o n - p a r t i s a n o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t g e n e r a t e s e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i c y r e s e a r c h f o r t h e S a n D i e g o r e g i o n . F r a n c i s s e r v e d a s c h a i r m a n o f t h e b o a r d o f M e d i c a l S o l u t i o n s , I n c . , a n a t i o n a l h e a l t h c a r e s t a f f i n g c o m p a n y f r o m 2 0 1 2 t o 2 0 1 5 . F r a n c i s i s c u r r e n t l y e x e c u t i v e c h a i r m a n o f t h e b o a r d o f A H S S t a f f i n g . I n a d d i t i o n , F r a n c i s i s p r e s i d e n t o f F r a n c i s E n t e r p r i s e s , L L C . , a h e a l t h c a r e s t a f f i n g a d v i s o r y f i r m . F r a n c i s i s a l o n g - s e r v i n g b o a r d m e m b e r o f F a t h e r J o e ' s V i l l a g e s ( c h a i r m a n 2 0 0 5 – 2 0 1 5 ) , w h i c h p r o v i d e s t r a n s i t i o n a l h o u s i n g f o r l o w - i n c o m e f a m i l i e s , r e h a b i l i t a t i v e s e r v i c e s f o r t h e h o m e l e s s , a n d r e s i d e n t i a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l s e r v i c e s f o r h o m e l e s s t e e n s . H e h a s s e r v e d i n t h e p a s t a s t h e c h a i r m a n o f t h e S a n D i e g o C h a p t e r o f t h e A m e r i c a n R e d C r o s s a s w e l l a s v i c e c h a i r m a n o f t h e l o c a l Y M C A . I n a d d i t i o n , h e h a s s e r v e d a s a d i r e c t o r f o r t h e S a n D i e g o R e g i o n a l C h a m b e r o f C o m m e r c e a n d t h e S a n D i e g o R e g i o n a l E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n . F r a n c i s h a s b e e n h o n o r e d a s a F a t h e r o f t h e Y e a r b y t h e A m e r i c a n D i a b e t e s A s s o c i a t i o n / S a n D i e g o F a t h e r ' s D a y C o u n c i l , a s P a t r i o t o f t h e Y e a r b y t h e B o y S c o u t s o f A m e r i c a S a n D i e g o - I m p e r i a l C o u n c i l a n d a s C o r p o r a t e D i r e c t o r o f t h e Y e a r b y t h e C o r p o r a t e D i r e c t o r s F o r u m .

Business entrepreneurship

The text describes the life and career of Steve Francis, an entrepreneur who co-founded AMN Healthcare, a nurse staffing business, with his wife Gayle in 1985. He served as CEO from 1990 to 2005 and later became chairman of the board. Under his leadership, the company grew into the nation's largest healthcare staffing firm, listed on the NYSE. Francis has also been involved in various philanthropic activities, including serving as chairman of Father Joe's Villages and holding positions on other boards.

Francis was born in 1954 in Phoenix, Arizona. He attended the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, graduating with a Bachelor of Science in 1978. He has lived in San Diego with his wife, Gayle, since 1987. Steve Francis was elected to a seat in the Nevada State Assembly in 1982. At only 28, he was one of the youngest assemblypersons ever. His colleagues elected him majority leader in 1985, which he held until 1987. During his tenure, he authored successful legislation to outlaw the sale and use of armor-piercing "cop-killer" bullets in the state. He also introduced legislation to reform the state's mental health system and stablish a state commission on mental health. He sponsored a bill to strengthen tenants' rights against unfair landlord practices. After moving to San Diego, Francis unsuccessfully ran for mayor in 2005 and 2008. In 1985, he and Gayle, a registered nurse, founded AMN Healthcare, a nurse staffing business. In 1987 after completing his legislative service in Nevada, they relocated AMN Healthcare to San Diego. As AMN Healthcare grew in its early years, Steven and Gayle oversaw the company's development. From 1990 to 2005, Francis served as AMN's chief executive officer and he became chairman of the board in 2005. He retired from the board of directors in 2008. During the 22 years of AMN's history, the company transitioned from a private enterprise to a national public company with over 2,000 corporate employees, with over 8,000 nurse and allied healthcare professionals providing staffing services to over 2,000 healthcare facility clients. Today, AMN (NYSE:AMN) is the nation's largest healthcare staffing firm and is traded on the New York Stock Exchange. Francis also founded the San Diego Institute for Policy Research (which now resides at National University), a non-partisan organization that generates economic and policy research for the San Diego region. Francis served as chairman of the board of Medical Solutions, Inc., a national healthcare staffing company from 2012 to 2015. Francis is currently executive chairman of the board of AHS Staffing. In addition, Francis is president of Francis Enterprises, LLC., a healthcare staffing advisory firm. Francis is a long-serving board member of Father Joe's Villages (chairman 2005–2015), which provides transitional housing for low-income families, rehabilitative services for the homeless, and residential and educational services for homeless teens. He has served in the past as the chairman of the San Diego Chapter of the American Red Cross as well as vice chairman of the local YMCA. In addition, he has served as a director for the San Diego Regional Chamber of Commerce and the San Diego Regional Economic Development Corporation. Francis has been honored as a Father of the Year by the American Diabetes Association/San Diego Father's Day Council, as Patriot of the Year by the Boy Scouts of America San Diego-Imperial Council and as Corporate Director of the Year by the Corporate Directors Forum.

Čerťák

T h e h i l l s a r e l o c a t e d o n t h e n o r t h s i d e o f t h e m o u n t a i n Č e r t o v á H o r a , n o t f a r f r o m t h e b o r d e r t o P o l a n d . T h e f i r s t h i l l i n H a r r a c h o v w a s b u i l t i n 1 9 2 2 , b u t a t a d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n i n t o w n . L a t e r i n t h e 1 9 2 0 s t h e f i r s t h i l l i n Č e r ť á k w a s b u i l t . I t w a s e v e n t u a l l y e x p a n d e d a n d s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h m o r e h i l l s . T h e s k i f l y i n g h i l l w a s b u i l t i n 1 9 7 9 a n d o p e n e d i n M a r c h 1 9 8 0 . T h e l a r g e h i l l i n H a r r a c h o v w a s b u i l t a t t h e s a m e t i m e a s t h e s k i f l y i n g h i l l , a n d r e n o v a t e d i n 1 9 9 2 . T h i s h i l l h a s a K - p o i n t o f 1 2 5 m a n d a h i l l s i z e o f 1 4 2 m . T h e o f f i c i a l r e c o r d i s 1 4 5 . 5 m , s e t b y J a n n e A h o n e n o n 1 2 D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 4 d u r i n g t h e 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 W o r l d C u p s e a s o n . T h e u n o f f i c i a l r e c o r d i s 1 5 1 m s e t b y M a r t i n K o c h ( A u s t r i a ) o n 1 7 D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 4 i n a C o n t i n e n t a l C u p e v e n t . T h e n o r m a l h i l l h a s K - p o i n t o f 9 0 m , a h i l l s i z e o f 1 0 0 m a n d a h i l l r e c o r d o f 1 0 2 . 5 m . T h e t w o s m a l l e r h i l l s h a v e K - p o i n t s o f 7 0 m ( h i l l r e c o r d 7 7 m ) a n d K - p o i n t 4 0 m e t e r s ( h i l l r e c o r d 4 3 . 5 m ) . T h e s t a n d a r d h i l l h a s p l a s t i c m a t s , a l l o w i n g s u m m e r u s e . T h e s k i f l y i n g h i l l i n H a r r a c h o v g a r n e r e d a n e a r l y r e p u t a t i o n o f b e i n g q u i t e d a n g e r o u s f r o m w h i c h t o j u m p . I n i t s e a r l y y e a r s , j u m p e r s a c h i e v e d a s i g n i f i c a n t h e i g h t o v e r t h e k n o l l , u p t o 1 2 m . T h e r e s u l t o f t h i s h e i g h t w a s t h a t a g u s t o f w i n d o r e r r o r f r o m t h e j u m p e r c o u l d e n d c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y , a n d t h e r e w e r e i n d e e d m a n y i n j u r i e s f r o m b a d f a l l s . D u r i n g t h e W o r l d C h a m p i o n s h i p i n 1 9 8 3 , i n j u r i e s w e r e s u f f e r e d b y S t e i n a r B r å t e n , H o r s t B u l a u a n d J e n s W e i ß f l o g . I n 1 9 8 5 , P a v e l P l o c s u f f e r e d a v i o l e n t c r a s h . T h e v e n u e w a s e v e n t u a l l y c l o s e d b y t h e F I S a n d r e b u i l t b e t w e e n 1 9 8 9 a n d 1 9 9 2 , a n d h a s s i n c e k e p t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f r o m F I S . A c c i d e n t s h a v e s t i l l o c c u r r e d , h o w e v e r : i n 1 9 9 2 , A n d r e a s G o l d b e r g e r f e l l o u t o f t h e a i r a t t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t o f h i s j u m p a n d c r a s h e d v e r y h a r d .

The hills

The hills in Harrachov, Czech Republic, have a rich history dating back to 1922. The area features multiple hills, including a ski flying hill built in 1979, and a large hill renovated in 1992. The hills have hosted various international competitions, including the World Championship in 1983. Despite some accidents and injuries, the venue has been rebuilt and continues to meet FIS requirements.

The hills are located on the north side of the mountain Čertová Hora, not far from the border to Poland. The first hill in Harrachov was built in 1922, but at a different location in town. Later in the 1920s the first hill in Čerťák was built. It was eventually expanded and supplemented with more hills. The ski flying hill was built in 1979 and opened in March 1980. The large hill in Harrachov was built at the same time as the ski flying hill, and renovated in 1992. This hill has a K-point of 125 m and a hill size of 142 m. The official record is 145.5 m, set by Janne Ahonen on 12 December 2004 during the 2004–05 World Cup season. The unofficial record is 151 m set by Martin Koch (Austria) on 17 December 2004 in a Continental Cup event. The normal hill has K-point of 90 m, a hill size of 100 m and a hill record of 102.5 m. The two smaller hills have K-points of 70 m (hill record 77 m) and K-point 40 meters (hill record 43.5 m). The standard hill has plastic mats, allowing summer use. The ski flying hill in Harrachov garnered an early reputation of being quite dangerous from which to jump. In its early years, jumpers achieved a significant height over the knoll, up to 12 m. The result of this height was that a gust of wind or error from the jumper could end catastrophically, and there were indeed many injuries from bad falls. During the World Championship in 1983, injuries were suffered by Steinar Bråten, Horst Bulau and Jens Weißflog. In 1985, Pavel Ploc suffered a violent crash. The venue was eventually closed by the FIS and rebuilt between 1989 and 1992, and has since kept the requirements from FIS. Accidents have still occurred, however: in 1992, Andreas Goldberger fell out of the air at the highest point of his jump and crashed very hard.

Balsamic vinegar

T h e I t a l i a n w o r d " b a l s a m i c o " ( f r o m L a t i n " b a l s a m u m " , f r o m G r e e k , " b á l s a m o n " ) m e a n s " b a l s a m - l i k e " i n t h e s e n s e o f " r e s t o r a t i v e " o r " c u r a t i v e " ; c f . E n g l i s h " b a l m " . U l t i m a t e l y f r o m A n c i e n t H e b r e w - P h o e n i c i a n " ב ש ׂ ם ‎ " ( b ā ś ā m / b e s e m , I P A [ b a ː ˈ ɬ a ː m ] ) , t h e n a m e m e a n s " p e r f u m e / s p i c e " , w i t h t h e c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e o f l e t t e r ' λ ' a n d ' σ ' d e r i v i n g f r o m A n c i e n t G r e e k t o p r o n o u n c e t h e ש ׂ ‎   ( ś )   s o u n d , s o u n d i n g b a c k t h e n a s   [ ɬ ] . T h e r e a r e t h r e e t y p e s o f b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r : T h e r e a r e a l s o m a n y p r o d u c t s t h a t c o n t a i n " A c e t o B a l s a m i c o d i M o d e n a I G P " a s a n i n g r e d i e n t , s u c h a s g l a z e s a n d o t h e r c o n d i m e n t s . O n l y t w o c o n s o r t i a p r o d u c e t r u e t r a d i t i o n a l b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r , M o d e n a a n d n e i g h b o r i n g R e g g i o E m i l i a . T r u e b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r i s m a d e f r o m a r e d u c t i o n o f p r e s s e d T r e b b i a n o a n d L a m b r u s c o g r a p e s . T h e r e s u l t i n g t h i c k s y r u p , c a l l e d " m o s t o c o t t o " i n I t a l i a n , i s s u b s e q u e n t l y a g e d f o r a m i n i m u m o f 1 2 y e a r s i n a b a t t e r y o f s e v e r a l b a r r e l s o f s u c c e s s i v e l y s m a l l e r s i z e s . T h e c a s k s a r e m a d e o f d i f f e r e n t w o o d s l i k e c h e s t n u t , c h e r r y , o a k , m u l b e r r y , a s h a n d j u n i p e r . T r u e b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r i s r i c h , g l o s s y , d e e p b r o w n i n c o l o r , a n d h a s a c o m p l e x f l a v o u r t h a t b a l a n c e s t h e n a t u r a l s w e e t a n d s o u r e l e m e n t s o f t h e c o o k e d g r a p e j u i c e w i t h h i n t s o f w o o d f r o m t h e c a s k s . R e g g i o E m i l i a d e s i g n a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n t a g e s o f t h e i r b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r ( " A c e t o B a l s a m i c o T r a d i z i o n a l e d i R e g g i o E m i l i a " ) b y l a b e l c o l o u r . A r e d l a b e l m e a n s t h e v i n e g a r h a s b e e n a g e d f o r a t l e a s t 1 2 y e a r s , a s i l v e r l a b e l t h a t t h e v i n e g a r h a s a g e d f o r a t l e a s t 1 8 y e a r s , a n d a g o l d l a b e l d e s i g n a t e s t h a t t h e v i n e g a r h a s a g e d f o r 2 5 y e a r s o r m o r e . M o d e n a u s e s a d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m t o i n d i c a t e t h e a g e o f i t s b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r s ( " A c e t o B a l s a m i c o T r a d i z i o n a l e d i M o d e n a " ) . A w h i t e - c o l o u r e d c a p m e a n s t h e v i n e g a r h a s a g e d f o r a t l e a s t 1 2 y e a r s a n d a g o l d c a p b e a r i n g t h e d e s i g n a t i o n " e x t r a v e c c h i o " ( e x t r a - o l d ) s h o w s t h e v i n e g a r h a s a g e d f o r 2 5 y e a r s o r m o r e . T h e s e c o m m e r c i a l - g r a d e p r o d u c t s i m i t a t e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r o d u c t . T h e y a r e m a d e o f a s l i t t l e a s 2 0 % g r a p e m u s t ( a n d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f r o m M o d e n a o r R e g g i o E m i l i a ) , w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f w i n e v i n e g a r , c o l o u r i n g , c a r a m e l , a n d s o m e t i m e s t h i c k e n e r s l i k e g u a r g u m o r c o r n f l o u r t o a r t i f i c i a l l y s i m u l a t e t h e s w e e t n e s s a n d t h i c k n e s s o f t h e a g e d A c e t o B a l s a m i c o T r a d i z i o n a l e d i M o d e n a . I G P s t a t u s r e q u i r e s a m i n i m u m a g i n g p e r i o d o f t w o m o n t h s , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n w o o d e n b a r r e l s , r i s i n g t o t h r e e y e a r s w h e n l a b e l e d a s i n v e c c h i a t o ( a g e d ) . A s t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s i s h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d , t h e o u t p u t o f a m e d i u m - s i z e d p r o d u c e r m a y b e h u n d r e d s o f l i t r e s p e r d a y . I n 2 0 0 9 , t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n i n s e r t e d t h e B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a ( A c e t o B a l s a m i c o d i M o d e n a ) d e s i g n a t i o n i n t h e r e g i s t e r o f I G P p r o d u c t i o n s . " C o n d i m e n t o " ( d r e s s i n g ) b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r s m a y b e l a b e l e d a s " c o n d i m e n t o b a l s a m i c o " , " s a l s a b a l s a m i c a " o r " s a l s a d i m o s t o c o t t o " . F o r t h o s e p r o d u c t s , t h e r e i s a r i s k o f c r e a t i n g c o n f u s i o n a m o n g c o n s u m e r s l o o k i n g f o r t h e o r i g i n a l B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a P G I , t h e t w o d i f f e r e n t T r a d i t i o n a l B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a P D O , a n d T r a d i t i o n a l B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f R e g g i o E m i l i a P D O . ' C o n d i m e n t o ' b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r m a y b e m a d e i n a n y o f t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y s : A s t h e r e a r e n o o f f i c i a l s t a n d a r d s o r l a b e l i n g s y s t e m s t o d e s i g n a t e " c o n d i m e n t o " b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r , i t c a n b e h a r d t o t e l l t h e i r q u a l i t y b a s e d o n t h e p a c k a g i n g a l o n e . T r a d i t i o n a l b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r i s p r o d u c e d f r o m t h e j u i c e o f j u s t - h a r v e s t e d w h i t e g r a p e s ( t y p i c a l l y , T r e b b i a n o g r a p e s ) b o i l e d d o w n t o r e a c h a m i n i m u m s u g a r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 3 0 % ( b r i x ) o r m o r e i n t h e m u s t , w h i c h i s t h e n f e r m e n t e d w i t h a s l o w a g i n g p r o c e s s w h i c h f u r t h e r c o n c e n t r a t e s t h e f l a v o u r s . T h e f l a v o u r i n t e n s i f i e s o v e r t h e y e a r s , w i t h t h e v i n e g a r b e i n g s t o r e d i n w o o d e n c a s k s , b e c o m i n g s w e e t , v i s c o u s a n d v e r y c o n c e n t r a t e d . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , a p o r t i o n e v a p o r a t e s : i t i s s a i d t h a t t h i s i s t h e " a n g e l s ' s h a r e " , a t e r m a l s o u s e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f b o u r b o n w h i s k e y , s c o t c h w h i s k y , w i n e , a n d o t h e r a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s . N o n e o f t h e p r o d u c t m a y b e w i t h d r a w n u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e m i n i m u m a g i n g p e r i o d o f 1 2 y e a r s . A t t h e e n d o f t h e a g i n g p e r i o d ( 1 2 , 1 8 , o r 2 5 y e a r s ) a s m a l l p o r t i o n i s d r a w n f r o m t h e s m a l l e s t c a s k a n d e a c h c a s k i s t h e n t o p p e d u p w i t h t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e p r e c e d i n g ( n e x t l a r g e r ) c a s k . F r e s h l y r e d u c e d c o o k e d m u s t i s a d d e d t o t h e l a r g e s t c a s k a n d i n e v e r y s u b s e q u e n t y e a r t h e d r a w i n g a n d t o p p i n g u p p r o c e s s i s r e p e a t e d . T h i s p r o c e s s w h e r e t h e p r o d u c t i s d i s t r i b u t e d f r o m t h e o l d e s t c a s k a n d t h e n r e f i l l e d f r o m t h e n e x t o l d e s t v i n t a g e c a s k i s c a l l e d s o l e r a o r " i n p e r p e t u u m " . I n E m i l i a - R o m a g n a , " t r a d i z i o n a l e " v i n e g a r i s m o s t o f t e n s e r v e d i n d r o p s o n t o p o f c h u n k s o f P a r m i g i a n o R e g g i a n o a n d m o r t a d e l l a a s a n a n t i p a s t o . I t i s a l s o u s e d s p a r i n g l y t o e n h a n c e s t e a k s , e g g s , o r g r i l l e d f i s h , a s w e l l a s o n f r e s h f r u i t s u c h a s s t r a w b e r r i e s a n d p e a r s a n d o n p l a i n c r e m a ( c u s t a r d ) g e l a t o . " T r a d i z i o n a l e " v i n e g a r m a y b e s i p p e d f r o m a t i n y g l a s s t o c o n c l u d e a m e a l . C o n t e m p o r a r y c h e f s u s e b o t h " T r a d i t i o n a l B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a P D O " a n d " B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a P G I " s p a r i n g l y i n s i m p l e d i s h e s w h e r e t h e b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r ' s c o m p l e x t a s t e s a r e h i g h l i g h t e d , u s i n g i t t o e n h a n c e d i s h e s l i k e s c a l l o p s o r s h r i m p , o r o n s i m p l e p a s t a s a n d r i s o t t o s .

Classifications

Balsamic vinegar originates from Italy, specifically from Modena and Reggio Emilia. There are three main classifications: Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PDO, Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Reggio Emilia PDO, and Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PGI. The first two are produced through a lengthy aging process in wooden barrels, while the third is industrially manufactured with added ingredients. The flavor profile of traditional balsamic vinegar is rich, glossy, and deep brown, balancing sweet and sour notes with hints of wood. The classification system indicates the age of the vinegar, with labels ranging from 12 to 25 years or more.

The Italian word "balsamico" (from Latin "balsamum", from Greek , "bálsamon") means "balsam-like" in the sense of "restorative" or "curative"; cf. English "balm". Ultimately from Ancient Hebrew-Phoenician "בשׂם‎" (bāśām/besem, IPA [baːˈɬaːm]), the name means "perfume/spice", with the consonant sequence of letter 'λ' and 'σ' deriving from Ancient Greek to pronounce the שׂ‎ (ś) sound, sounding back then as [ɬ]. There are three types of balsamic vinegar: There are also many products that contain "Aceto Balsamico di Modena IGP" as an ingredient, such as glazes and other condiments. Only two consortia produce true traditional balsamic vinegar, Modena and neighboring Reggio Emilia. True balsamic vinegar is made from a reduction of pressed Trebbiano and Lambrusco grapes. The resulting thick syrup, called "mosto cotto" in Italian, is subsequently aged for a minimum of 12 years in a battery of several barrels of successively smaller sizes. The casks are made of different woods like chestnut, cherry, oak, mulberry, ash and juniper. True balsamic vinegar is rich, glossy, deep brown in color, and has a complex flavour that balances the natural sweet and sour elements of the cooked grape juice with hints of wood from the casks. Reggio Emilia designates the different ages of their balsamic vinegar ("Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Reggio Emilia") by label colour. A red label means the vinegar has been aged for at least 12 years, a silver label that the vinegar has aged for at least 18 years, and a gold label designates that the vinegar has aged for 25 years or more. Modena uses a different system to indicate the age of its balsamic vinegars ("Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Modena"). A white-coloured cap means the vinegar has aged for at least 12 years and a gold cap bearing the designation "extravecchio" (extra-old) shows the vinegar has aged for 25 years or more. These commercial-grade products imitate the traditional product. They are made of as little as 20% grape must (and not necessarily from Modena or Reggio Emilia), with the addition of wine vinegar, colouring, caramel, and sometimes thickeners like guar gum or cornflour to artificially simulate the sweetness and thickness of the aged Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Modena. IGP status requires a minimum aging period of two months, not necessarily in wooden barrels, rising to three years when labeled as invecchiato (aged). As the manufacturing process is highly industrialized, the output of a medium-sized producer may be hundreds of litres per day. In 2009, the European Commission inserted the Balsamic Vinegar of Modena (Aceto Balsamico di Modena) designation in the register of IGP productions. "Condimento" (dressing) balsamic vinegars may be labeled as "condimento balsamico", "salsa balsamica" or "salsa di mosto cotto". For those products, there is a risk of creating confusion among consumers looking for the original Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PGI, the two different Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PDO, and Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Reggio Emilia PDO. 'Condimento' balsamic vinegar may be made in any of the following ways: As there are no official standards or labeling systems to designate "condimento" balsamic vinegar, it can be hard to tell their quality based on the packaging alone. Traditional balsamic vinegar is produced from the juice of just-harvested white grapes (typically, Trebbiano grapes) boiled down to reach a minimum sugar concentration of 30% (brix) or more in the must, which is then fermented with a slow aging process which further concentrates the flavours. The flavour intensifies over the years, with the vinegar being stored in wooden casks, becoming sweet, viscous and very concentrated. During this period, a portion evaporates: it is said that this is the "angels' share", a term also used in the production of bourbon whiskey, scotch whisky, wine, and other alcoholic beverages. None of the product may be withdrawn until the end of the minimum aging period of 12 years. At the end of the aging period (12, 18, or 25 years) a small portion is drawn from the smallest cask and each cask is then topped up with the contents of the preceding (next larger) cask. Freshly reduced cooked must is added to the largest cask and in every subsequent year the drawing and topping up process is repeated. This process where the product is distributed from the oldest cask and then refilled from the next oldest vintage cask is called solera or "in perpetuum". In Emilia-Romagna, "tradizionale" vinegar is most often served in drops on top of chunks of Parmigiano Reggiano and mortadella as an antipasto. It is also used sparingly to enhance steaks, eggs, or grilled fish, as well as on fresh fruit such as strawberries and pears and on plain crema (custard) gelato. "Tradizionale" vinegar may be sipped from a tiny glass to conclude a meal. Contemporary chefs use both "Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PDO" and "Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PGI" sparingly in simple dishes where the balsamic vinegar's complex tastes are highlighted, using it to enhance dishes like scallops or shrimp, or on simple pastas and risottos.

Balsamic vinegar

T h e I t a l i a n w o r d " b a l s a m i c o " ( f r o m L a t i n " b a l s a m u m " , f r o m G r e e k , " b á l s a m o n " ) m e a n s " b a l s a m - l i k e " i n t h e s e n s e o f " r e s t o r a t i v e " o r " c u r a t i v e " ; c f . E n g l i s h " b a l m " . U l t i m a t e l y f r o m A n c i e n t H e b r e w - P h o e n i c i a n " ב ש ׂ ם ‎ " ( b ā ś ā m / b e s e m , I P A [ b a ː ˈ ɬ a ː m ] ) , t h e n a m e m e a n s " p e r f u m e / s p i c e " , w i t h t h e c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e o f l e t t e r ' λ ' a n d ' σ ' d e r i v i n g f r o m A n c i e n t G r e e k t o p r o n o u n c e t h e ש ׂ ‎   ( ś )   s o u n d , s o u n d i n g b a c k t h e n a s   [ ɬ ] . T h e r e a r e t h r e e t y p e s o f b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r : T h e r e a r e a l s o m a n y p r o d u c t s t h a t c o n t a i n " A c e t o B a l s a m i c o d i M o d e n a I G P " a s a n i n g r e d i e n t , s u c h a s g l a z e s a n d o t h e r c o n d i m e n t s . O n l y t w o c o n s o r t i a p r o d u c e t r u e t r a d i t i o n a l b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r , M o d e n a a n d n e i g h b o r i n g R e g g i o E m i l i a . T r u e b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r i s m a d e f r o m a r e d u c t i o n o f p r e s s e d T r e b b i a n o a n d L a m b r u s c o g r a p e s . T h e r e s u l t i n g t h i c k s y r u p , c a l l e d " m o s t o c o t t o " i n I t a l i a n , i s s u b s e q u e n t l y a g e d f o r a m i n i m u m o f 1 2 y e a r s i n a b a t t e r y o f s e v e r a l b a r r e l s o f s u c c e s s i v e l y s m a l l e r s i z e s . T h e c a s k s a r e m a d e o f d i f f e r e n t w o o d s l i k e c h e s t n u t , c h e r r y , o a k , m u l b e r r y , a s h a n d j u n i p e r . T r u e b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r i s r i c h , g l o s s y , d e e p b r o w n i n c o l o r , a n d h a s a c o m p l e x f l a v o u r t h a t b a l a n c e s t h e n a t u r a l s w e e t a n d s o u r e l e m e n t s o f t h e c o o k e d g r a p e j u i c e w i t h h i n t s o f w o o d f r o m t h e c a s k s . R e g g i o E m i l i a d e s i g n a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n t a g e s o f t h e i r b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r ( " A c e t o B a l s a m i c o T r a d i z i o n a l e d i R e g g i o E m i l i a " ) b y l a b e l c o l o u r . A r e d l a b e l m e a n s t h e v i n e g a r h a s b e e n a g e d f o r a t l e a s t 1 2 y e a r s , a s i l v e r l a b e l t h a t t h e v i n e g a r h a s a g e d f o r a t l e a s t 1 8 y e a r s , a n d a g o l d l a b e l d e s i g n a t e s t h a t t h e v i n e g a r h a s a g e d f o r 2 5 y e a r s o r m o r e . M o d e n a u s e s a d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m t o i n d i c a t e t h e a g e o f i t s b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r s ( " A c e t o B a l s a m i c o T r a d i z i o n a l e d i M o d e n a " ) . A w h i t e - c o l o u r e d c a p m e a n s t h e v i n e g a r h a s a g e d f o r a t l e a s t 1 2 y e a r s a n d a g o l d c a p b e a r i n g t h e d e s i g n a t i o n " e x t r a v e c c h i o " ( e x t r a - o l d ) s h o w s t h e v i n e g a r h a s a g e d f o r 2 5 y e a r s o r m o r e . T h e s e c o m m e r c i a l - g r a d e p r o d u c t s i m i t a t e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r o d u c t . T h e y a r e m a d e o f a s l i t t l e a s 2 0 % g r a p e m u s t ( a n d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f r o m M o d e n a o r R e g g i o E m i l i a ) , w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f w i n e v i n e g a r , c o l o u r i n g , c a r a m e l , a n d s o m e t i m e s t h i c k e n e r s l i k e g u a r g u m o r c o r n f l o u r t o a r t i f i c i a l l y s i m u l a t e t h e s w e e t n e s s a n d t h i c k n e s s o f t h e a g e d A c e t o B a l s a m i c o T r a d i z i o n a l e d i M o d e n a . I G P s t a t u s r e q u i r e s a m i n i m u m a g i n g p e r i o d o f t w o m o n t h s , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n w o o d e n b a r r e l s , r i s i n g t o t h r e e y e a r s w h e n l a b e l e d a s i n v e c c h i a t o ( a g e d ) . A s t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s i s h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d , t h e o u t p u t o f a m e d i u m - s i z e d p r o d u c e r m a y b e h u n d r e d s o f l i t r e s p e r d a y . I n 2 0 0 9 , t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n i n s e r t e d t h e B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a ( A c e t o B a l s a m i c o d i M o d e n a ) d e s i g n a t i o n i n t h e r e g i s t e r o f I G P p r o d u c t i o n s . " C o n d i m e n t o " ( d r e s s i n g ) b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r s m a y b e l a b e l e d a s " c o n d i m e n t o b a l s a m i c o " , " s a l s a b a l s a m i c a " o r " s a l s a d i m o s t o c o t t o " . F o r t h o s e p r o d u c t s , t h e r e i s a r i s k o f c r e a t i n g c o n f u s i o n a m o n g c o n s u m e r s l o o k i n g f o r t h e o r i g i n a l B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a P G I , t h e t w o d i f f e r e n t T r a d i t i o n a l B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a P D O , a n d T r a d i t i o n a l B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f R e g g i o E m i l i a P D O . ' C o n d i m e n t o ' b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r m a y b e m a d e i n a n y o f t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y s : A s t h e r e a r e n o o f f i c i a l s t a n d a r d s o r l a b e l i n g s y s t e m s t o d e s i g n a t e " c o n d i m e n t o " b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r , i t c a n b e h a r d t o t e l l t h e i r q u a l i t y b a s e d o n t h e p a c k a g i n g a l o n e . T r a d i t i o n a l b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r i s p r o d u c e d f r o m t h e j u i c e o f j u s t - h a r v e s t e d w h i t e g r a p e s ( t y p i c a l l y , T r e b b i a n o g r a p e s ) b o i l e d d o w n t o r e a c h a m i n i m u m s u g a r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 3 0 % ( b r i x ) o r m o r e i n t h e m u s t , w h i c h i s t h e n f e r m e n t e d w i t h a s l o w a g i n g p r o c e s s w h i c h f u r t h e r c o n c e n t r a t e s t h e f l a v o u r s . T h e f l a v o u r i n t e n s i f i e s o v e r t h e y e a r s , w i t h t h e v i n e g a r b e i n g s t o r e d i n w o o d e n c a s k s , b e c o m i n g s w e e t , v i s c o u s a n d v e r y c o n c e n t r a t e d . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , a p o r t i o n e v a p o r a t e s : i t i s s a i d t h a t t h i s i s t h e " a n g e l s ' s h a r e " , a t e r m a l s o u s e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f b o u r b o n w h i s k e y , s c o t c h w h i s k y , w i n e , a n d o t h e r a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s . N o n e o f t h e p r o d u c t m a y b e w i t h d r a w n u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e m i n i m u m a g i n g p e r i o d o f 1 2 y e a r s . A t t h e e n d o f t h e a g i n g p e r i o d ( 1 2 , 1 8 , o r 2 5 y e a r s ) a s m a l l p o r t i o n i s d r a w n f r o m t h e s m a l l e s t c a s k a n d e a c h c a s k i s t h e n t o p p e d u p w i t h t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e p r e c e d i n g ( n e x t l a r g e r ) c a s k . F r e s h l y r e d u c e d c o o k e d m u s t i s a d d e d t o t h e l a r g e s t c a s k a n d i n e v e r y s u b s e q u e n t y e a r t h e d r a w i n g a n d t o p p i n g u p p r o c e s s i s r e p e a t e d . T h i s p r o c e s s w h e r e t h e p r o d u c t i s d i s t r i b u t e d f r o m t h e o l d e s t c a s k a n d t h e n r e f i l l e d f r o m t h e n e x t o l d e s t v i n t a g e c a s k i s c a l l e d s o l e r a o r " i n p e r p e t u u m " . I n E m i l i a - R o m a g n a , " t r a d i z i o n a l e " v i n e g a r i s m o s t o f t e n s e r v e d i n d r o p s o n t o p o f c h u n k s o f P a r m i g i a n o R e g g i a n o a n d m o r t a d e l l a a s a n a n t i p a s t o . I t i s a l s o u s e d s p a r i n g l y t o e n h a n c e s t e a k s , e g g s , o r g r i l l e d f i s h , a s w e l l a s o n f r e s h f r u i t s u c h a s s t r a w b e r r i e s a n d p e a r s a n d o n p l a i n c r e m a ( c u s t a r d ) g e l a t o . " T r a d i z i o n a l e " v i n e g a r m a y b e s i p p e d f r o m a t i n y g l a s s t o c o n c l u d e a m e a l . C o n t e m p o r a r y c h e f s u s e b o t h " T r a d i t i o n a l B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a P D O " a n d " B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a P G I " s p a r i n g l y i n s i m p l e d i s h e s w h e r e t h e b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r ' s c o m p l e x t a s t e s a r e h i g h l i g h t e d , u s i n g i t t o e n h a n c e d i s h e s l i k e s c a l l o p s o r s h r i m p , o r o n s i m p l e p a s t a s a n d r i s o t t o s .

Classifications ; Balsamic Vinegar of Modena

Balsamic vinegar originates from Italy, specifically Modena and Reggio Emilia. There are three main classifications: Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PDO, Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Reggio Emilia PDO, and Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PGI. The first two are produced through a lengthy aging process in wooden barrels, while the third is industrially manufactured with added ingredients. The flavor profile of traditional balsamic vinegar is rich, glossy, and deep brown, balancing sweet and sour notes with hints of wood. The classification system varies between Modena and Reggio Emilia, with labels indicating the age of the vinegar. Commercial-grade products may imitate the traditional product but lack the authenticity and quality.

The Italian word "balsamico" (from Latin "balsamum", from Greek , "bálsamon") means "balsam-like" in the sense of "restorative" or "curative"; cf. English "balm". Ultimately from Ancient Hebrew-Phoenician "בשׂם‎" (bāśām/besem, IPA [baːˈɬaːm]), the name means "perfume/spice", with the consonant sequence of letter 'λ' and 'σ' deriving from Ancient Greek to pronounce the שׂ‎ (ś) sound, sounding back then as [ɬ]. There are three types of balsamic vinegar: There are also many products that contain "Aceto Balsamico di Modena IGP" as an ingredient, such as glazes and other condiments. Only two consortia produce true traditional balsamic vinegar, Modena and neighboring Reggio Emilia. True balsamic vinegar is made from a reduction of pressed Trebbiano and Lambrusco grapes. The resulting thick syrup, called "mosto cotto" in Italian, is subsequently aged for a minimum of 12 years in a battery of several barrels of successively smaller sizes. The casks are made of different woods like chestnut, cherry, oak, mulberry, ash and juniper. True balsamic vinegar is rich, glossy, deep brown in color, and has a complex flavour that balances the natural sweet and sour elements of the cooked grape juice with hints of wood from the casks. Reggio Emilia designates the different ages of their balsamic vinegar ("Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Reggio Emilia") by label colour. A red label means the vinegar has been aged for at least 12 years, a silver label that the vinegar has aged for at least 18 years, and a gold label designates that the vinegar has aged for 25 years or more. Modena uses a different system to indicate the age of its balsamic vinegars ("Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Modena"). A white-coloured cap means the vinegar has aged for at least 12 years and a gold cap bearing the designation "extravecchio" (extra-old) shows the vinegar has aged for 25 years or more. These commercial-grade products imitate the traditional product. They are made of as little as 20% grape must (and not necessarily from Modena or Reggio Emilia), with the addition of wine vinegar, colouring, caramel, and sometimes thickeners like guar gum or cornflour to artificially simulate the sweetness and thickness of the aged Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Modena. IGP status requires a minimum aging period of two months, not necessarily in wooden barrels, rising to three years when labeled as invecchiato (aged). As the manufacturing process is highly industrialized, the output of a medium-sized producer may be hundreds of litres per day. In 2009, the European Commission inserted the Balsamic Vinegar of Modena (Aceto Balsamico di Modena) designation in the register of IGP productions. "Condimento" (dressing) balsamic vinegars may be labeled as "condimento balsamico", "salsa balsamica" or "salsa di mosto cotto". For those products, there is a risk of creating confusion among consumers looking for the original Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PGI, the two different Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PDO, and Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Reggio Emilia PDO. 'Condimento' balsamic vinegar may be made in any of the following ways: As there are no official standards or labeling systems to designate "condimento" balsamic vinegar, it can be hard to tell their quality based on the packaging alone. Traditional balsamic vinegar is produced from the juice of just-harvested white grapes (typically, Trebbiano grapes) boiled down to reach a minimum sugar concentration of 30% (brix) or more in the must, which is then fermented with a slow aging process which further concentrates the flavours. The flavour intensifies over the years, with the vinegar being stored in wooden casks, becoming sweet, viscous and very concentrated. During this period, a portion evaporates: it is said that this is the "angels' share", a term also used in the production of bourbon whiskey, scotch whisky, wine, and other alcoholic beverages. None of the product may be withdrawn until the end of the minimum aging period of 12 years. At the end of the aging period (12, 18, or 25 years) a small portion is drawn from the smallest cask and each cask is then topped up with the contents of the preceding (next larger) cask. Freshly reduced cooked must is added to the largest cask and in every subsequent year the drawing and topping up process is repeated. This process where the product is distributed from the oldest cask and then refilled from the next oldest vintage cask is called solera or "in perpetuum". In Emilia-Romagna, "tradizionale" vinegar is most often served in drops on top of chunks of Parmigiano Reggiano and mortadella as an antipasto. It is also used sparingly to enhance steaks, eggs, or grilled fish, as well as on fresh fruit such as strawberries and pears and on plain crema (custard) gelato. "Tradizionale" vinegar may be sipped from a tiny glass to conclude a meal. Contemporary chefs use both "Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PDO" and "Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PGI" sparingly in simple dishes where the balsamic vinegar's complex tastes are highlighted, using it to enhance dishes like scallops or shrimp, or on simple pastas and risottos.

Balsamic vinegar

T h e I t a l i a n w o r d " b a l s a m i c o " ( f r o m L a t i n " b a l s a m u m " , f r o m G r e e k , " b á l s a m o n " ) m e a n s " b a l s a m - l i k e " i n t h e s e n s e o f " r e s t o r a t i v e " o r " c u r a t i v e " ; c f . E n g l i s h " b a l m " . U l t i m a t e l y f r o m A n c i e n t H e b r e w - P h o e n i c i a n " ב ש ׂ ם ‎ " ( b ā ś ā m / b e s e m , I P A [ b a ː ˈ ɬ a ː m ] ) , t h e n a m e m e a n s " p e r f u m e / s p i c e " , w i t h t h e c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e o f l e t t e r ' λ ' a n d ' σ ' d e r i v i n g f r o m A n c i e n t G r e e k t o p r o n o u n c e t h e ש ׂ ‎   ( ś )   s o u n d , s o u n d i n g b a c k t h e n a s   [ ɬ ] . T h e r e a r e t h r e e t y p e s o f b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r : T h e r e a r e a l s o m a n y p r o d u c t s t h a t c o n t a i n " A c e t o B a l s a m i c o d i M o d e n a I G P " a s a n i n g r e d i e n t , s u c h a s g l a z e s a n d o t h e r c o n d i m e n t s . O n l y t w o c o n s o r t i a p r o d u c e t r u e t r a d i t i o n a l b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r , M o d e n a a n d n e i g h b o r i n g R e g g i o E m i l i a . T r u e b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r i s m a d e f r o m a r e d u c t i o n o f p r e s s e d T r e b b i a n o a n d L a m b r u s c o g r a p e s . T h e r e s u l t i n g t h i c k s y r u p , c a l l e d " m o s t o c o t t o " i n I t a l i a n , i s s u b s e q u e n t l y a g e d f o r a m i n i m u m o f 1 2 y e a r s i n a b a t t e r y o f s e v e r a l b a r r e l s o f s u c c e s s i v e l y s m a l l e r s i z e s . T h e c a s k s a r e m a d e o f d i f f e r e n t w o o d s l i k e c h e s t n u t , c h e r r y , o a k , m u l b e r r y , a s h a n d j u n i p e r . T r u e b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r i s r i c h , g l o s s y , d e e p b r o w n i n c o l o r , a n d h a s a c o m p l e x f l a v o u r t h a t b a l a n c e s t h e n a t u r a l s w e e t a n d s o u r e l e m e n t s o f t h e c o o k e d g r a p e j u i c e w i t h h i n t s o f w o o d f r o m t h e c a s k s . R e g g i o E m i l i a d e s i g n a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n t a g e s o f t h e i r b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r ( " A c e t o B a l s a m i c o T r a d i z i o n a l e d i R e g g i o E m i l i a " ) b y l a b e l c o l o u r . A r e d l a b e l m e a n s t h e v i n e g a r h a s b e e n a g e d f o r a t l e a s t 1 2 y e a r s , a s i l v e r l a b e l t h a t t h e v i n e g a r h a s a g e d f o r a t l e a s t 1 8 y e a r s , a n d a g o l d l a b e l d e s i g n a t e s t h a t t h e v i n e g a r h a s a g e d f o r 2 5 y e a r s o r m o r e . M o d e n a u s e s a d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m t o i n d i c a t e t h e a g e o f i t s b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r s ( " A c e t o B a l s a m i c o T r a d i z i o n a l e d i M o d e n a " ) . A w h i t e - c o l o u r e d c a p m e a n s t h e v i n e g a r h a s a g e d f o r a t l e a s t 1 2 y e a r s a n d a g o l d c a p b e a r i n g t h e d e s i g n a t i o n " e x t r a v e c c h i o " ( e x t r a - o l d ) s h o w s t h e v i n e g a r h a s a g e d f o r 2 5 y e a r s o r m o r e . T h e s e c o m m e r c i a l - g r a d e p r o d u c t s i m i t a t e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r o d u c t . T h e y a r e m a d e o f a s l i t t l e a s 2 0 % g r a p e m u s t ( a n d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f r o m M o d e n a o r R e g g i o E m i l i a ) , w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f w i n e v i n e g a r , c o l o u r i n g , c a r a m e l , a n d s o m e t i m e s t h i c k e n e r s l i k e g u a r g u m o r c o r n f l o u r t o a r t i f i c i a l l y s i m u l a t e t h e s w e e t n e s s a n d t h i c k n e s s o f t h e a g e d A c e t o B a l s a m i c o T r a d i z i o n a l e d i M o d e n a . I G P s t a t u s r e q u i r e s a m i n i m u m a g i n g p e r i o d o f t w o m o n t h s , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n w o o d e n b a r r e l s , r i s i n g t o t h r e e y e a r s w h e n l a b e l e d a s i n v e c c h i a t o ( a g e d ) . A s t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s i s h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d , t h e o u t p u t o f a m e d i u m - s i z e d p r o d u c e r m a y b e h u n d r e d s o f l i t r e s p e r d a y . I n 2 0 0 9 , t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n i n s e r t e d t h e B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a ( A c e t o B a l s a m i c o d i M o d e n a ) d e s i g n a t i o n i n t h e r e g i s t e r o f I G P p r o d u c t i o n s . " C o n d i m e n t o " ( d r e s s i n g ) b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r s m a y b e l a b e l e d a s " c o n d i m e n t o b a l s a m i c o " , " s a l s a b a l s a m i c a " o r " s a l s a d i m o s t o c o t t o " . F o r t h o s e p r o d u c t s , t h e r e i s a r i s k o f c r e a t i n g c o n f u s i o n a m o n g c o n s u m e r s l o o k i n g f o r t h e o r i g i n a l B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a P G I , t h e t w o d i f f e r e n t T r a d i t i o n a l B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a P D O , a n d T r a d i t i o n a l B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f R e g g i o E m i l i a P D O . ' C o n d i m e n t o ' b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r m a y b e m a d e i n a n y o f t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y s : A s t h e r e a r e n o o f f i c i a l s t a n d a r d s o r l a b e l i n g s y s t e m s t o d e s i g n a t e " c o n d i m e n t o " b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r , i t c a n b e h a r d t o t e l l t h e i r q u a l i t y b a s e d o n t h e p a c k a g i n g a l o n e . T r a d i t i o n a l b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r i s p r o d u c e d f r o m t h e j u i c e o f j u s t - h a r v e s t e d w h i t e g r a p e s ( t y p i c a l l y , T r e b b i a n o g r a p e s ) b o i l e d d o w n t o r e a c h a m i n i m u m s u g a r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 3 0 % ( b r i x ) o r m o r e i n t h e m u s t , w h i c h i s t h e n f e r m e n t e d w i t h a s l o w a g i n g p r o c e s s w h i c h f u r t h e r c o n c e n t r a t e s t h e f l a v o u r s . T h e f l a v o u r i n t e n s i f i e s o v e r t h e y e a r s , w i t h t h e v i n e g a r b e i n g s t o r e d i n w o o d e n c a s k s , b e c o m i n g s w e e t , v i s c o u s a n d v e r y c o n c e n t r a t e d . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , a p o r t i o n e v a p o r a t e s : i t i s s a i d t h a t t h i s i s t h e " a n g e l s ' s h a r e " , a t e r m a l s o u s e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f b o u r b o n w h i s k e y , s c o t c h w h i s k y , w i n e , a n d o t h e r a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s . N o n e o f t h e p r o d u c t m a y b e w i t h d r a w n u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e m i n i m u m a g i n g p e r i o d o f 1 2 y e a r s . A t t h e e n d o f t h e a g i n g p e r i o d ( 1 2 , 1 8 , o r 2 5 y e a r s ) a s m a l l p o r t i o n i s d r a w n f r o m t h e s m a l l e s t c a s k a n d e a c h c a s k i s t h e n t o p p e d u p w i t h t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e p r e c e d i n g ( n e x t l a r g e r ) c a s k . F r e s h l y r e d u c e d c o o k e d m u s t i s a d d e d t o t h e l a r g e s t c a s k a n d i n e v e r y s u b s e q u e n t y e a r t h e d r a w i n g a n d t o p p i n g u p p r o c e s s i s r e p e a t e d . T h i s p r o c e s s w h e r e t h e p r o d u c t i s d i s t r i b u t e d f r o m t h e o l d e s t c a s k a n d t h e n r e f i l l e d f r o m t h e n e x t o l d e s t v i n t a g e c a s k i s c a l l e d s o l e r a o r " i n p e r p e t u u m " . I n E m i l i a - R o m a g n a , " t r a d i z i o n a l e " v i n e g a r i s m o s t o f t e n s e r v e d i n d r o p s o n t o p o f c h u n k s o f P a r m i g i a n o R e g g i a n o a n d m o r t a d e l l a a s a n a n t i p a s t o . I t i s a l s o u s e d s p a r i n g l y t o e n h a n c e s t e a k s , e g g s , o r g r i l l e d f i s h , a s w e l l a s o n f r e s h f r u i t s u c h a s s t r a w b e r r i e s a n d p e a r s a n d o n p l a i n c r e m a ( c u s t a r d ) g e l a t o . " T r a d i z i o n a l e " v i n e g a r m a y b e s i p p e d f r o m a t i n y g l a s s t o c o n c l u d e a m e a l . C o n t e m p o r a r y c h e f s u s e b o t h " T r a d i t i o n a l B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a P D O " a n d " B a l s a m i c V i n e g a r o f M o d e n a P G I " s p a r i n g l y i n s i m p l e d i s h e s w h e r e t h e b a l s a m i c v i n e g a r ' s c o m p l e x t a s t e s a r e h i g h l i g h t e d , u s i n g i t t o e n h a n c e d i s h e s l i k e s c a l l o p s o r s h r i m p , o r o n s i m p l e p a s t a s a n d r i s o t t o s .

Classifications ; "Condimenti" that used the term balsamic

There are three main classifications of balsamic vinegar: 1. **True Traditional Balsamic Vinegar**: Made from a reduction of pressed Trebbiano and Lambrusco grapes, aged for a minimum of 12 years in a series of progressively smaller wooden barrels. Produced only in Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy. 2. **Commercial-Grade Products**: Imitate traditional balsamic vinegar, made with as little as 20% grape must, wine vinegar, coloring, caramel, and thickeners. Industrialized production process. 3. **"Condimento" (Dressing) Balsamic Vinegars**: May be labeled as "condimento balsamico", "salsa balsamica", or "salsa di mosto cotto". No official standards or labeling systems, making it difficult to determine quality based on packaging alone.

The Italian word "balsamico" (from Latin "balsamum", from Greek , "bálsamon") means "balsam-like" in the sense of "restorative" or "curative"; cf. English "balm". Ultimately from Ancient Hebrew-Phoenician "בשׂם‎" (bāśām/besem, IPA [baːˈɬaːm]), the name means "perfume/spice", with the consonant sequence of letter 'λ' and 'σ' deriving from Ancient Greek to pronounce the שׂ‎ (ś) sound, sounding back then as [ɬ]. There are three types of balsamic vinegar: There are also many products that contain "Aceto Balsamico di Modena IGP" as an ingredient, such as glazes and other condiments. Only two consortia produce true traditional balsamic vinegar, Modena and neighboring Reggio Emilia. True balsamic vinegar is made from a reduction of pressed Trebbiano and Lambrusco grapes. The resulting thick syrup, called "mosto cotto" in Italian, is subsequently aged for a minimum of 12 years in a battery of several barrels of successively smaller sizes. The casks are made of different woods like chestnut, cherry, oak, mulberry, ash and juniper. True balsamic vinegar is rich, glossy, deep brown in color, and has a complex flavour that balances the natural sweet and sour elements of the cooked grape juice with hints of wood from the casks. Reggio Emilia designates the different ages of their balsamic vinegar ("Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Reggio Emilia") by label colour. A red label means the vinegar has been aged for at least 12 years, a silver label that the vinegar has aged for at least 18 years, and a gold label designates that the vinegar has aged for 25 years or more. Modena uses a different system to indicate the age of its balsamic vinegars ("Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Modena"). A white-coloured cap means the vinegar has aged for at least 12 years and a gold cap bearing the designation "extravecchio" (extra-old) shows the vinegar has aged for 25 years or more. These commercial-grade products imitate the traditional product. They are made of as little as 20% grape must (and not necessarily from Modena or Reggio Emilia), with the addition of wine vinegar, colouring, caramel, and sometimes thickeners like guar gum or cornflour to artificially simulate the sweetness and thickness of the aged Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Modena. IGP status requires a minimum aging period of two months, not necessarily in wooden barrels, rising to three years when labeled as invecchiato (aged). As the manufacturing process is highly industrialized, the output of a medium-sized producer may be hundreds of litres per day. In 2009, the European Commission inserted the Balsamic Vinegar of Modena (Aceto Balsamico di Modena) designation in the register of IGP productions. "Condimento" (dressing) balsamic vinegars may be labeled as "condimento balsamico", "salsa balsamica" or "salsa di mosto cotto". For those products, there is a risk of creating confusion among consumers looking for the original Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PGI, the two different Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PDO, and Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Reggio Emilia PDO. 'Condimento' balsamic vinegar may be made in any of the following ways: As there are no official standards or labeling systems to designate "condimento" balsamic vinegar, it can be hard to tell their quality based on the packaging alone. Traditional balsamic vinegar is produced from the juice of just-harvested white grapes (typically, Trebbiano grapes) boiled down to reach a minimum sugar concentration of 30% (brix) or more in the must, which is then fermented with a slow aging process which further concentrates the flavours. The flavour intensifies over the years, with the vinegar being stored in wooden casks, becoming sweet, viscous and very concentrated. During this period, a portion evaporates: it is said that this is the "angels' share", a term also used in the production of bourbon whiskey, scotch whisky, wine, and other alcoholic beverages. None of the product may be withdrawn until the end of the minimum aging period of 12 years. At the end of the aging period (12, 18, or 25 years) a small portion is drawn from the smallest cask and each cask is then topped up with the contents of the preceding (next larger) cask. Freshly reduced cooked must is added to the largest cask and in every subsequent year the drawing and topping up process is repeated. This process where the product is distributed from the oldest cask and then refilled from the next oldest vintage cask is called solera or "in perpetuum". In Emilia-Romagna, "tradizionale" vinegar is most often served in drops on top of chunks of Parmigiano Reggiano and mortadella as an antipasto. It is also used sparingly to enhance steaks, eggs, or grilled fish, as well as on fresh fruit such as strawberries and pears and on plain crema (custard) gelato. "Tradizionale" vinegar may be sipped from a tiny glass to conclude a meal. Contemporary chefs use both "Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PDO" and "Balsamic Vinegar of Modena PGI" sparingly in simple dishes where the balsamic vinegar's complex tastes are highlighted, using it to enhance dishes like scallops or shrimp, or on simple pastas and risottos.

Confusion matrix

G i v e n a s a m p l e o f 1 2 i n d i v i d u a l s , 8 t h a t h a v e b e e n d i a g n o s e d w i t h c a n c e r a n d 4 t h a t a r e c a n c e r - f r e e , w h e r e i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h c a n c e r b e l o n g t o c l a s s 1 ( p o s i t i v e ) a n d n o n - c a n c e r i n d i v i d u a l s b e l o n g t o c l a s s 0 ( n e g a t i v e ) , w e c a n d i s p l a y t h a t d a t a a s f o l l o w s : A s s u m e t h a t w e h a v e a c l a s s i f i e r t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a n d w i t h o u t c a n c e r i n s o m e w a y , w e c a n t a k e t h e 1 2 i n d i v i d u a l s a n d r u n t h e m t h r o u g h t h e c l a s s i f i e r . T h e c l a s s i f i e r t h e n m a k e s 9 a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s a n d m i s s e s 3 : 2 i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h c a n c e r w r o n g l y p r e d i c t e d a s b e i n g c a n c e r - f r e e ( s a m p l e 1 a n d 2 ) , a n d 1 p e r s o n w i t h o u t c a n c e r t h a t i s w r o n g l y p r e d i c t e d t o h a v e c a n c e r ( s a m p l e 9 ) . N o t i c e , t h a t i f w e c o m p a r e t h e a c t u a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s e t t o t h e p r e d i c t e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s e t , t h e r e a r e 4 d i f f e r e n t o u t c o m e s t h a t c o u l d r e s u l t i n a n y p a r t i c u l a r c o l u m n . O n e , i f t h e a c t u a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s p o s i t i v e a n d t h e p r e d i c t e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s p o s i t i v e ( 1 , 1 ) , t h i s i s c a l l e d a t r u e p o s i t i v e r e s u l t b e c a u s e t h e p o s i t i v e s a m p l e w a s c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e c l a s s i f i e r . T w o , i f t h e a c t u a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s p o s i t i v e a n d t h e p r e d i c t e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s n e g a t i v e ( 1 , 0 ) , t h i s i s c a l l e d a f a l s e n e g a t i v e r e s u l t b e c a u s e t h e p o s i t i v e s a m p l e i s i n c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e c l a s s i f i e r a s b e i n g n e g a t i v e . T h i r d , i f t h e a c t u a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s n e g a t i v e a n d t h e p r e d i c t e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s p o s i t i v e ( 0 , 1 ) , t h i s i s c a l l e d a f a l s e p o s i t i v e r e s u l t b e c a u s e t h e n e g a t i v e s a m p l e i s i n c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e c l a s s i f i e r a s b e i n g p o s i t i v e . F o u r t h , i f t h e a c t u a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s n e g a t i v e a n d t h e p r e d i c t e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s n e g a t i v e ( 0 , 0 ) , t h i s i s c a l l e d a t r u e n e g a t i v e r e s u l t b e c a u s e t h e n e g a t i v e s a m p l e g e t s c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e c l a s s i f i e r . W e c a n t h e n p e r f o r m t h e c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n a c t u a l a n d p r e d i c t e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a n d a d d t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e t a b l e , m a k i n g c o r r e c t r e s u l t s a p p e a r i n g r e e n s o t h e y a r e m o r e e a s i l y i d e n t i f i a b l e . T h e t e m p l a t e f o r a n y b i n a r y c o n f u s i o n m a t r i x u s e s t h e f o u r k i n d s o f r e s u l t s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e ( t r u e p o s i t i v e s , f a l s e n e g a t i v e s , f a l s e p o s i t i v e s , a n d t r u e n e g a t i v e s ) a l o n g w i t h t h e p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s . T h e f o u r o u t c o m e s c a n b e f o r m u l a t e d i n a 2 × 2 " c o n f u s i o n m a t r i x " , a s f o l l o w s : T h e c o l o r c o n v e n t i o n o f t h e t h r e e d a t a t a b l e s a b o v e w e r e p i c k e d t o m a t c h t h i s c o n f u s i o n m a t r i x , i n o r d e r t o e a s i l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e d a t a . N o w , w e c a n s i m p l y t o t a l u p e a c h t y p e o f r e s u l t , s u b s t i t u t e i n t o t h e t e m p l a t e , a n d c r e a t e a c o n f u s i o n m a t r i x t h a t w i l l c o n c i s e l y s u m m a r i z e t h e r e s u l t s o f t e s t i n g t h e c l a s s i f i e r : I n t h i s c o n f u s i o n m a t r i x , o f t h e 8 s a m p l e s w i t h c a n c e r , t h e s y s t e m j u d g e d t h a t 2 w e r e c a n c e r - f r e e , a n d o f t h e 4 s a m p l e s w i t h o u t c a n c e r , i t p r e d i c t e d t h a t 1 d i d h a v e c a n c e r . A l l c o r r e c t p r e d i c t i o n s a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e d i a g o n a l o f t h e t a b l e ( h i g h l i g h t e d i n g r e e n ) , s o i t i s e a s y t o v i s u a l l y i n s p e c t t h e t a b l e f o r p r e d i c t i o n e r r o r s , a s v a l u e s o u t s i d e t h e d i a g o n a l w i l l r e p r e s e n t t h e m . B y s u m m i n g u p t h e 2 r o w s o f t h e c o n f u s i o n m a t r i x , o n e c a n a l s o d e d u c e t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f p o s i t i v e ( P ) a n d n e g a t i v e ( N ) s a m p l e s i n t h e o r i g i n a l d a t a s e t , i . e . f o r m u l a _ 1 a n d f o r m u l a _ 2 . I n p r e d i c t i v e a n a l y t i c s , a t a b l e o f c o n f u s i o n ( s o m e t i m e s a l s o c a l l e d a c o n f u s i o n m a t r i x ) i s a t a b l e w i t h t w o r o w s a n d t w o c o l u m n s t h a t r e p o r t s t h e n u m b e r o f " t r u e p o s i t i v e s " , " f a l s e n e g a t i v e s " , " f a l s e p o s i t i v e s " , a n d " t r u e n e g a t i v e s " . T h i s a l l o w s m o r e d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s t h a n s i m p l y o b s e r v i n g t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f c o r r e c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s ( a c c u r a c y ) . A c c u r a c y w i l l y i e l d m i s l e a d i n g r e s u l t s i f t h e d a t a s e t i s u n b a l a n c e d ; t h a t i s , w h e n t h e n u m b e r s o f o b s e r v a t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s v a r y g r e a t l y . F o r e x a m p l e , i f t h e r e w e r e 9 5 c a n c e r s a m p l e s a n d o n l y 5 n o n - c a n c e r s a m p l e s i n t h e d a t a , a p a r t i c u l a r c l a s s i f i e r m i g h t c l a s s i f y a l l t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s a s h a v i n g c a n c e r . T h e o v e r a l l a c c u r a c y w o u l d b e 9 5 % , b u t i n m o r e d e t a i l t h e c l a s s i f i e r w o u l d h a v e a 1 0 0 % r e c o g n i t i o n r a t e ( s e n s i t i v i t y ) f o r t h e c a n c e r c l a s s b u t a 0 % r e c o g n i t i o n r a t e f o r t h e n o n - c a n c e r c l a s s . F 1 s c o r e i s e v e n m o r e u n r e l i a b l e i n s u c h c a s e s , a n d h e r e w o u l d y i e l d o v e r 9 7 . 4 % , w h e r e a s i n f o r m e d n e s s r e m o v e s s u c h b i a s a n d y i e l d s 0 a s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f a n i n f o r m e d d e c i s i o n f o r a n y f o r m o f g u e s s i n g ( h e r e a l w a y s g u e s s i n g c a n c e r ) . A c c o r d i n g t o D a v i d e C h i c c o a n d G i u s e p p e J u r m a n , t h e m o s t i n f o r m a t i v e m e t r i c t o e v a l u a t e a c o n f u s i o n m a t r i x i s t h e M a t t h e w s c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( M C C ) . O t h e r m e t r i c s c a n b e i n c l u d e d i n a c o n f u s i o n m a t r i x , e a c h o f t h e m h a v i n g t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d u s e . C o n f u s i o n m a t r i x i s n o t l i m i t e d t o b i n a r y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d c a n b e u s e d i n m u l t i - c l a s s c l a s s i f i e r s a s w e l l . T h e c o n f u s i o n m a t r i c e s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e h a v e o n l y t w o c o n d i t i o n s : p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e t a b l e b e l o w s u m m a r i z e s c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f a w h i s t l e d l a n g u a g e b e t w e e n t w o s p e a k e r s , z e r o v a l u e s o m i t t e d f o r c l a r i t y .

Example

A confusion matrix is a table that is used to evaluate the performance of a machine learning model or a classifier on a test dataset. It provides a clear view of how the model is performing and helps identify areas of improvement.

Given a sample of 12 individuals, 8 that have been diagnosed with cancer and 4 that are cancer-free, where individuals with cancer belong to class 1 (positive) and non-cancer individuals belong to class 0 (negative), we can display that data as follows: Assume that we have a classifier that distinguishes between individuals with and without cancer in some way, we can take the 12 individuals and run them through the classifier. The classifier then makes 9 accurate predictions and misses 3: 2 individuals with cancer wrongly predicted as being cancer-free (sample 1 and 2), and 1 person without cancer that is wrongly predicted to have cancer (sample 9). Notice, that if we compare the actual classification set to the predicted classification set, there are 4 different outcomes that could result in any particular column. One, if the actual classification is positive and the predicted classification is positive (1,1), this is called a true positive result because the positive sample was correctly identified by the classifier. Two, if the actual classification is positive and the predicted classification is negative (1,0), this is called a false negative result because the positive sample is incorrectly identified by the classifier as being negative. Third, if the actual classification is negative and the predicted classification is positive (0,1), this is called a false positive result because the negative sample is incorrectly identified by the classifier as being positive. Fourth, if the actual classification is negative and the predicted classification is negative (0,0), this is called a true negative result because the negative sample gets correctly identified by the classifier. We can then perform the comparison between actual and predicted classifications and add this information to the table, making correct results appear in green so they are more easily identifiable. The template for any binary confusion matrix uses the four kinds of results discussed above (true positives, false negatives, false positives, and true negatives) along with the positive and negative classifications. The four outcomes can be formulated in a 2×2 "confusion matrix", as follows: The color convention of the three data tables above were picked to match this confusion matrix, in order to easily differentiate the data. Now, we can simply total up each type of result, substitute into the template, and create a confusion matrix that will concisely summarize the results of testing the classifier: In this confusion matrix, of the 8 samples with cancer, the system judged that 2 were cancer-free, and of the 4 samples without cancer, it predicted that 1 did have cancer. All correct predictions are located in the diagonal of the table (highlighted in green), so it is easy to visually inspect the table for prediction errors, as values outside the diagonal will represent them. By summing up the 2 rows of the confusion matrix, one can also deduce the total number of positive (P) and negative (N) samples in the original dataset, i.e. formula_1 and formula_2. In predictive analytics, a table of confusion (sometimes also called a confusion matrix) is a table with two rows and two columns that reports the number of "true positives", "false negatives", "false positives", and "true negatives". This allows more detailed analysis than simply observing the proportion of correct classifications (accuracy). Accuracy will yield misleading results if the data set is unbalanced; that is, when the numbers of observations in different classes vary greatly. For example, if there were 95 cancer samples and only 5 non-cancer samples in the data, a particular classifier might classify all the observations as having cancer. The overall accuracy would be 95%, but in more detail the classifier would have a 100% recognition rate (sensitivity) for the cancer class but a 0% recognition rate for the non-cancer class. F1 score is even more unreliable in such cases, and here would yield over 97.4%, whereas informedness removes such bias and yields 0 as the probability of an informed decision for any form of guessing (here always guessing cancer). According to Davide Chicco and Giuseppe Jurman, the most informative metric to evaluate a confusion matrix is the Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC). Other metrics can be included in a confusion matrix, each of them having their significance and use. Confusion matrix is not limited to binary classification and can be used in multi-class classifiers as well. The confusion matrices discussed above have only two conditions: positive and negative. For example, the table below summarizes communication of a whistled language between two speakers, zero values omitted for clarity.

Conchology

T h e t e r m s " s h e l l c o l l e c t o r " a n d " c o n c h o l o g i s t " c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s t w o d i s t i n c t c a t e g o r i e s . N o t a l l s h e l l c o l l e c t o r s a r e c o n c h o l o g i s t s ; s o m e a r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a e s t h e t i c v a l u e o f s h e l l s i n s t e a d o f t h e i r s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y . I t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t n o t a l l c o n c h o l o g i s t s a r e s h e l l c o l l e c t o r s ; t h i s t y p e o f r e s e a r c h o n l y r e q u i r e s a c c e s s t o p r i v a t e o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l s h e l l c o l l e c t i o n s . T h e r e i s s o m e d e b a t e i n t h e c o n c h o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t y , w i t h s o m e p e o p l e r e g a r d i n g a l l s h e l l c o l l e c t o r s ( r e g a r d l e s s o f m o t i v a t i o n ) a s c o n c h o l o g i s t s . S h e l l c o l l e c t i n g , t h e p r e c u r s o r o f c o n c h o l o g y , d a t e s b a c k t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s . A r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e s o m e t i m e s u n c o v e r e d S t o n e A g e o c e a n i c s e a s h e l l n e c k l a c e s i n a r e a s f a r f r o m t h e o c e a n , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e t r a d e d , a n d s h e l l j e w e l l e r y h a s b e e n f o u n d a t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . D u r i n g t h e R e n a i s s a n c e p e o p l e b e g a n c o l l e c t i n g n a t u r a l o b j e c t s o f b e a u t y f o r p r i v a t e c a b i n e t s o f c u r i o s i t i e s . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r a t t r a c t i v e n e s s , v a r i e t y , d u r a b i l i t y a n d u b i q u i t y , s h e l l s f r e q u e n t l y b e c a m e a l a r g e p a r t o f s u c h c o l l e c t i o n s . S c i e n t i f i c i n t e r e s t b e g a n t o d e v e l o p t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y , a n d i n 1 6 8 1 T h e J e s u i t p r i e s t F i l i p p o B o n a n n i p u b l i s h e d   t h e t w o - v o l u m e a t l a s " R i c r e a z i o n e d e l l ' o c c h i o e t d e l l a m e n t e n e l l ' o s s e r v a z i o n e d e l l e c h i o c c i o l e " ( " R e c r e a t i o n o f t h e e y e a n d o f t h e m i n d i n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f m o l l u s c s " ) , t h e f i r s t t r e a t i s e d e v o t e d e n t i r e l y t o   m o l l u s c s h e l l s . I n 1 6 9 2 M a r t i n L i s t e r p u b l i s h e d " H i s t o r i a C o n c h y l i o r u m " , a c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o n c h o l o g i c a l t e x t w i t h m o r e t h a n 1 , 0 0 0 e n g r a v e d p l a t e s . G e o r g e R u m p f , o r " R u m p h i u s " , ( 1 6 2 7 – 1 7 0 2 ) p u b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t g e n u i n e m o l l u s c t a x o n o m y . H e s u g g e s t e d t h e c a t e g o r i e s " s i n g l e s h e l l e d o n e s " ( m o d e r n P o l y p l a c o p h o r a , l i m p e t s , a n d a b a l o n e ) , " s n a i l s o r w h e l k s " ( G a s t r o p o d a ) , a n d " t w o - s h e l l e d o n e s " ( B i v a l v i a ) . H e d i d n o t i n c l u d e t h e t u s k s h e l l s o r t h e i n t e r n a l s h e l l s o f t h e c e p h a l o p o d s . M a n y o f R u m p f ' s t e r m s w e r e l a t e r a d o p t e d b y C a r l L i n n a e u s . T h e s t u d y o f z o o l o g y , i n c l u d i n g c o n c h o l o g y , w a s r e v o l u t i o n i z e d b y L i n n a e u s a n d h i s s y s t e m o f b i n o m i a l n o m e n c l a t u r e . S i x h u n d r e d e i g h t y t h r e e o f t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 , 0 0 0 a n i m a l s p e c i e s L i n n a e u s d e s c r i b e d a r e n o w c o n s i d e r e d t o b e m o l l u s c s , a l t h o u g h L i n n a e u s p l a c e d t h e m i n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t p h y l a a t t h e t i m e . T h e E n g l i s h w o r d " c o n c h o l o g y " w a s c o i n e d i n t h e 1 7 7 0 s b y t h e B r i t i s h S e p h a r d i n a t u r a l i s t E m a n u e l M e n d e z d a C o s t a , w h o p u b l i s h e d " T h e E l e m e n t s o f C o n c h o l o g y : o r , a n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e K n o w l e d g e o f S h e l l s " i n L o n d o n i n 1 7 7 6 . S i n c e 1 7 0 0 a n u m b e r o f p r o m i n e n t c o n c h o l o g i s t s h a v e p u b l i s h e d t h e i r s t u d i e s o f s h e l l s . J o h n M a w e ( 1 7 6 4 – 1 8 2 9 ) p r o d u c e d a r g u a b l y t h e f i r s t c o n c h o l o g y g u i d e b o o k , " T h e V o y a g e r ' s C o m p a n i o n o r S h e l l - C o l l e c t o r ' s P i l o t " , a s w e l l a s " T h e L i n n æ a n S y s t e m o f C o n c h o l o g y " . H u g h C u m i n g ( 1 7 9 1 – 1 8 6 5 ) i s f a m o u s f o r h i s h u g e c o l l e c t i o n a n d n u m e r o u s d i s c o v e r i e s o f n e w s p e c i e s . T h o m a s S a y w r o t e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l w o r k " A m e r i c a n C o n c h o l o g y , o r D e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e S h e l l s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , I l l u s t r a t e d F r o m C o l o u r e d F i g u r e s F r o m O r i g i n a l D r a w i n g s , E x e c u t e d f r o m N a t u r e " i n s i x v o l u m e s ( 1 8 3 0 – 1 8 3 4 ) . R . T u c k e r A b b o t t w a s a r g u a b l y t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t c o n c h o l o g i s t o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , a u t h o r i n g d o z e n s o f b o o k s a n d w o r k i n g a s m u s e u m d i r e c t o r o f t h e B a i l e y - M a t t h e w s S h e l l M u s e u m . H i s m o s t b e s t - k n o w n w o r k s a r e " A m e r i c a n S e a s h e l l s " , " S e a s h e l l s o f t h e W o r l d " , a n d " T h e K i n g d o m o f t h e S e a s h e l l " . J o h n D u P o n t i s a l s o k n o w n f o r h i s e x t e n s i v e c o l l e c t i o n w h i c h h e d o n a t e d t o t h e D e l a w a r e M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y i n 1 9 8 4 . T h e J a p a n e s e e m p e r o r H i r o h i t o a l s o a m a s s e d a h u g e c o l l e c t i o n , a n d w a s a c o m p e t e n t a n d r e s p e c t e d a m a t e u r c o n c h o l o g i s t . M a n y m u s e u m s w o r l d w i d e c o n t a i n v e r y l a r g e a n d s c i e n t i f i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t s h e l l c o l l e c t i o n s . H o w e v e r , i n m o s t c a s e s t h e s e a r e r e s e a r c h c o l l e c t i o n s n o t a s r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c a s e x h i b i t s . t h e w o r l d ' s l a r g e s t a s s e m b l a g e o f m o l l u s c s h e l l s w a s h e l d b y t h e S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n , w h i c h h a s c . 1 m i l l i o n l o t s r e p r e s e n t i n g p e r h a p s 5 0 , 0 0 0 s p e c i e s . T h e B u r k e M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y a n d C u l t u r e a l s o h a s a l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n w h i c h w a s d o n a t e d b y D r . P h i l N u d e l m a n i n 2 0 1 3 . I t i n c l u d e s a b o u t 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 s p e c i m e n s a n d 2 4 , 0 0 0 s p e c i e s , m o s t l y f r o m t h e I n d o - P a c i f i c r e g i o n , t h e C a r i b b e a n , a n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . L i k e o t h e r s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d s , c o n c h o l o g i s t s h a v e a n u m b e r o f l o c a l , n a t i o n a l , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e r e a r e a l s o m a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n s s p e c i a l i z i n g i n s p e c i f i c s u b a r e a s . S h e l l s h a v e b e e n f e a t u r e d o n o v e r 5 , 0 0 0 p o s t a g e s t a m p s w o r l d w i d e , a n d h a v e b e e n f e a t u r e d o n m a n y c o i n s i n c l u d i n g t h e B a h a m i a n d o l l a r ( 1 9 7 4 ) , t h e C u b a n p e s o ( 1 9 8 1 ) , t h e H a i t i a n g o u r d e ( 1 9 7 3 ) , t h e N e p a l e s e r u p e e ( 1 9 8 9 ) a n d P h i l i p p i n e p e s o ( 1 9 9 3 ) .

Versus shell collecting

Shell collecting and conchology have a long history dating back thousands of years. While not all shell collectors are conchologists, both involve the study and appreciation of shells. Conchology emerged as a scientific field in the 17th century, with key figures like Filippo Bonanni, Martin Lister, and Carl Linnaeus contributing to its development. Today, conchologists continue to study and classify shells, with many prominent researchers and institutions dedicated to the field.

The terms "shell collector" and "conchologist" can be regarded as two distinct categories. Not all shell collectors are conchologists; some are primarily concerned with the aesthetic value of shells instead of their scientific study. It is also true that not all conchologists are shell collectors; this type of research only requires access to private or institutional shell collections. There is some debate in the conchological community, with some people regarding all shell collectors (regardless of motivation) as conchologists. Shell collecting, the precursor of conchology, dates back thousands of years. Archaeologists have sometimes uncovered Stone Age oceanic seashell necklaces in areas far from the ocean, indicating that they were traded, and shell jewellery has been found at archaeological sites around the world. During the Renaissance people began collecting natural objects of beauty for private cabinets of curiosities. Because of their attractiveness, variety, durability and ubiquity, shells frequently became a large part of such collections. Scientific interest began to develop towards the end of the 17th century, and in 1681 The Jesuit priest Filippo Bonanni published the two-volume atlas "Ricreazione dell'occhio et della mente nell'osservazione delle chiocciole" ("Recreation of the eye and of the mind in the observation of molluscs"), the first treatise devoted entirely to mollusc shells. In 1692 Martin Lister published "Historia Conchyliorum", a comprehensive conchological text with more than 1,000 engraved plates. George Rumpf, or "Rumphius", (1627–1702) published the first genuine mollusc taxonomy. He suggested the categories "single shelled ones" (modern Polyplacophora, limpets, and abalone), "snails or whelks" (Gastropoda), and "two-shelled ones" (Bivalvia). He did not include the tusk shells or the internal shells of the cephalopods. Many of Rumpf's terms were later adopted by Carl Linnaeus. The study of zoology, including conchology, was revolutionized by Linnaeus and his system of binomial nomenclature. Six hundred eighty three of the approximately 4,000 animal species Linnaeus described are now considered to be molluscs, although Linnaeus placed them in several different phyla at the time. The English word "conchology" was coined in the 1770s by the British Sephardi naturalist Emanuel Mendez da Costa, who published "The Elements of Conchology: or, an Introduction to the Knowledge of Shells" in London in 1776. Since 1700 a number of prominent conchologists have published their studies of shells. John Mawe (1764–1829) produced arguably the first conchology guidebook, "The Voyager's Companion or Shell-Collector's Pilot", as well as "The Linnæan System of Conchology". Hugh Cuming (1791–1865) is famous for his huge collection and numerous discoveries of new species. Thomas Say wrote the fundamental work "American Conchology, or Descriptions of the Shells of North America, Illustrated From Coloured Figures From Original Drawings, Executed from Nature" in six volumes (1830–1834). R. Tucker Abbott was arguably the most prominent conchologist of the 20th century, authoring dozens of books and working as museum director of the Bailey-Matthews Shell Museum. His most best-known works are "American Seashells", "Seashells of the World", and "The Kingdom of the Seashell". John DuPont is also known for his extensive collection which he donated to the Delaware Museum of Natural History in 1984. The Japanese emperor Hirohito also amassed a huge collection, and was a competent and respected amateur conchologist. Many museums worldwide contain very large and scientifically important shell collections. However, in most cases these are research collections not as readily accessible to the general public as exhibits. the world's largest assemblage of mollusc shells was held by the Smithsonian Institution, which has c. 1 million lots representing perhaps 50,000 species. The Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture also has a large collection which was donated by Dr. Phil Nudelman in 2013. It includes about 100,000 specimens and 24,000 species, mostly from the Indo-Pacific region, the Caribbean, and the Mediterranean. Like other scientific fields, conchologists have a number of local, national, and international organizations. There are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas. Shells have been featured on over 5,000 postage stamps worldwide, and have been featured on many coins including the Bahamian dollar (1974), the Cuban peso (1981), the Haitian gourde (1973), the Nepalese rupee (1989) and Philippine peso (1993).

Conchology

T h e t e r m s " s h e l l c o l l e c t o r " a n d " c o n c h o l o g i s t " c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s t w o d i s t i n c t c a t e g o r i e s . N o t a l l s h e l l c o l l e c t o r s a r e c o n c h o l o g i s t s ; s o m e a r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a e s t h e t i c v a l u e o f s h e l l s i n s t e a d o f t h e i r s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y . I t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t n o t a l l c o n c h o l o g i s t s a r e s h e l l c o l l e c t o r s ; t h i s t y p e o f r e s e a r c h o n l y r e q u i r e s a c c e s s t o p r i v a t e o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l s h e l l c o l l e c t i o n s . T h e r e i s s o m e d e b a t e i n t h e c o n c h o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t y , w i t h s o m e p e o p l e r e g a r d i n g a l l s h e l l c o l l e c t o r s ( r e g a r d l e s s o f m o t i v a t i o n ) a s c o n c h o l o g i s t s . S h e l l c o l l e c t i n g , t h e p r e c u r s o r o f c o n c h o l o g y , d a t e s b a c k t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s . A r c h a e o l o g i s t s h a v e s o m e t i m e s u n c o v e r e d S t o n e A g e o c e a n i c s e a s h e l l n e c k l a c e s i n a r e a s f a r f r o m t h e o c e a n , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e t r a d e d , a n d s h e l l j e w e l l e r y h a s b e e n f o u n d a t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . D u r i n g t h e R e n a i s s a n c e p e o p l e b e g a n c o l l e c t i n g n a t u r a l o b j e c t s o f b e a u t y f o r p r i v a t e c a b i n e t s o f c u r i o s i t i e s . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r a t t r a c t i v e n e s s , v a r i e t y , d u r a b i l i t y a n d u b i q u i t y , s h e l l s f r e q u e n t l y b e c a m e a l a r g e p a r t o f s u c h c o l l e c t i o n s . S c i e n t i f i c i n t e r e s t b e g a n t o d e v e l o p t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y , a n d i n 1 6 8 1 T h e J e s u i t p r i e s t F i l i p p o B o n a n n i p u b l i s h e d   t h e t w o - v o l u m e a t l a s " R i c r e a z i o n e d e l l ' o c c h i o e t d e l l a m e n t e n e l l ' o s s e r v a z i o n e d e l l e c h i o c c i o l e " ( " R e c r e a t i o n o f t h e e y e a n d o f t h e m i n d i n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f m o l l u s c s " ) , t h e f i r s t t r e a t i s e d e v o t e d e n t i r e l y t o   m o l l u s c s h e l l s . I n 1 6 9 2 M a r t i n L i s t e r p u b l i s h e d " H i s t o r i a C o n c h y l i o r u m " , a c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o n c h o l o g i c a l t e x t w i t h m o r e t h a n 1 , 0 0 0 e n g r a v e d p l a t e s . G e o r g e R u m p f , o r " R u m p h i u s " , ( 1 6 2 7 – 1 7 0 2 ) p u b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t g e n u i n e m o l l u s c t a x o n o m y . H e s u g g e s t e d t h e c a t e g o r i e s " s i n g l e s h e l l e d o n e s " ( m o d e r n P o l y p l a c o p h o r a , l i m p e t s , a n d a b a l o n e ) , " s n a i l s o r w h e l k s " ( G a s t r o p o d a ) , a n d " t w o - s h e l l e d o n e s " ( B i v a l v i a ) . H e d i d n o t i n c l u d e t h e t u s k s h e l l s o r t h e i n t e r n a l s h e l l s o f t h e c e p h a l o p o d s . M a n y o f R u m p f ' s t e r m s w e r e l a t e r a d o p t e d b y C a r l L i n n a e u s . T h e s t u d y o f z o o l o g y , i n c l u d i n g c o n c h o l o g y , w a s r e v o l u t i o n i z e d b y L i n n a e u s a n d h i s s y s t e m o f b i n o m i a l n o m e n c l a t u r e . S i x h u n d r e d e i g h t y t h r e e o f t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 , 0 0 0 a n i m a l s p e c i e s L i n n a e u s d e s c r i b e d a r e n o w c o n s i d e r e d t o b e m o l l u s c s , a l t h o u g h L i n n a e u s p l a c e d t h e m i n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t p h y l a a t t h e t i m e . T h e E n g l i s h w o r d " c o n c h o l o g y " w a s c o i n e d i n t h e 1 7 7 0 s b y t h e B r i t i s h S e p h a r d i n a t u r a l i s t E m a n u e l M e n d e z d a C o s t a , w h o p u b l i s h e d " T h e E l e m e n t s o f C o n c h o l o g y : o r , a n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e K n o w l e d g e o f S h e l l s " i n L o n d o n i n 1 7 7 6 . S i n c e 1 7 0 0 a n u m b e r o f p r o m i n e n t c o n c h o l o g i s t s h a v e p u b l i s h e d t h e i r s t u d i e s o f s h e l l s . J o h n M a w e ( 1 7 6 4 – 1 8 2 9 ) p r o d u c e d a r g u a b l y t h e f i r s t c o n c h o l o g y g u i d e b o o k , " T h e V o y a g e r ' s C o m p a n i o n o r S h e l l - C o l l e c t o r ' s P i l o t " , a s w e l l a s " T h e L i n n æ a n S y s t e m o f C o n c h o l o g y " . H u g h C u m i n g ( 1 7 9 1 – 1 8 6 5 ) i s f a m o u s f o r h i s h u g e c o l l e c t i o n a n d n u m e r o u s d i s c o v e r i e s o f n e w s p e c i e s . T h o m a s S a y w r o t e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l w o r k " A m e r i c a n C o n c h o l o g y , o r D e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e S h e l l s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a , I l l u s t r a t e d F r o m C o l o u r e d F i g u r e s F r o m O r i g i n a l D r a w i n g s , E x e c u t e d f r o m N a t u r e " i n s i x v o l u m e s ( 1 8 3 0 – 1 8 3 4 ) . R . T u c k e r A b b o t t w a s a r g u a b l y t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t c o n c h o l o g i s t o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , a u t h o r i n g d o z e n s o f b o o k s a n d w o r k i n g a s m u s e u m d i r e c t o r o f t h e B a i l e y - M a t t h e w s S h e l l M u s e u m . H i s m o s t b e s t - k n o w n w o r k s a r e " A m e r i c a n S e a s h e l l s " , " S e a s h e l l s o f t h e W o r l d " , a n d " T h e K i n g d o m o f t h e S e a s h e l l " . J o h n D u P o n t i s a l s o k n o w n f o r h i s e x t e n s i v e c o l l e c t i o n w h i c h h e d o n a t e d t o t h e D e l a w a r e M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y i n 1 9 8 4 . T h e J a p a n e s e e m p e r o r H i r o h i t o a l s o a m a s s e d a h u g e c o l l e c t i o n , a n d w a s a c o m p e t e n t a n d r e s p e c t e d a m a t e u r c o n c h o l o g i s t . M a n y m u s e u m s w o r l d w i d e c o n t a i n v e r y l a r g e a n d s c i e n t i f i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t s h e l l c o l l e c t i o n s . H o w e v e r , i n m o s t c a s e s t h e s e a r e r e s e a r c h c o l l e c t i o n s n o t a s r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c a s e x h i b i t s . t h e w o r l d ' s l a r g e s t a s s e m b l a g e o f m o l l u s c s h e l l s w a s h e l d b y t h e S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n , w h i c h h a s c . 1 m i l l i o n l o t s r e p r e s e n t i n g p e r h a p s 5 0 , 0 0 0 s p e c i e s . T h e B u r k e M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y a n d C u l t u r e a l s o h a s a l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n w h i c h w a s d o n a t e d b y D r . P h i l N u d e l m a n i n 2 0 1 3 . I t i n c l u d e s a b o u t 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 s p e c i m e n s a n d 2 4 , 0 0 0 s p e c i e s , m o s t l y f r o m t h e I n d o - P a c i f i c r e g i o n , t h e C a r i b b e a n , a n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . L i k e o t h e r s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d s , c o n c h o l o g i s t s h a v e a n u m b e r o f l o c a l , n a t i o n a l , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e r e a r e a l s o m a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n s s p e c i a l i z i n g i n s p e c i f i c s u b a r e a s . S h e l l s h a v e b e e n f e a t u r e d o n o v e r 5 , 0 0 0 p o s t a g e s t a m p s w o r l d w i d e , a n d h a v e b e e n f e a t u r e d o n m a n y c o i n s i n c l u d i n g t h e B a h a m i a n d o l l a r ( 1 9 7 4 ) , t h e C u b a n p e s o ( 1 9 8 1 ) , t h e H a i t i a n g o u r d e ( 1 9 7 3 ) , t h e N e p a l e s e r u p e e ( 1 9 8 9 ) a n d P h i l i p p i n e p e s o ( 1 9 9 3 ) .

History

The history of conchology, the study of shells, dates back thousands of years, with evidence of shell trading and jewelry-making found in ancient civilizations. The scientific study of shells developed in the 17th century, with key figures like Filippo Bonanni, Martin Lister, and George Rumpf contributing to the field. The term "conchology" was coined in the 1770s, and since then, many prominent conchologists have made significant contributions to the field. Today, there are many museums and organizations dedicated to the study and preservation of shells, and shells have even been featured on postage stamps and coins.

The terms "shell collector" and "conchologist" can be regarded as two distinct categories. Not all shell collectors are conchologists; some are primarily concerned with the aesthetic value of shells instead of their scientific study. It is also true that not all conchologists are shell collectors; this type of research only requires access to private or institutional shell collections. There is some debate in the conchological community, with some people regarding all shell collectors (regardless of motivation) as conchologists. Shell collecting, the precursor of conchology, dates back thousands of years. Archaeologists have sometimes uncovered Stone Age oceanic seashell necklaces in areas far from the ocean, indicating that they were traded, and shell jewellery has been found at archaeological sites around the world. During the Renaissance people began collecting natural objects of beauty for private cabinets of curiosities. Because of their attractiveness, variety, durability and ubiquity, shells frequently became a large part of such collections. Scientific interest began to develop towards the end of the 17th century, and in 1681 The Jesuit priest Filippo Bonanni published the two-volume atlas "Ricreazione dell'occhio et della mente nell'osservazione delle chiocciole" ("Recreation of the eye and of the mind in the observation of molluscs"), the first treatise devoted entirely to mollusc shells. In 1692 Martin Lister published "Historia Conchyliorum", a comprehensive conchological text with more than 1,000 engraved plates. George Rumpf, or "Rumphius", (1627–1702) published the first genuine mollusc taxonomy. He suggested the categories "single shelled ones" (modern Polyplacophora, limpets, and abalone), "snails or whelks" (Gastropoda), and "two-shelled ones" (Bivalvia). He did not include the tusk shells or the internal shells of the cephalopods. Many of Rumpf's terms were later adopted by Carl Linnaeus. The study of zoology, including conchology, was revolutionized by Linnaeus and his system of binomial nomenclature. Six hundred eighty three of the approximately 4,000 animal species Linnaeus described are now considered to be molluscs, although Linnaeus placed them in several different phyla at the time. The English word "conchology" was coined in the 1770s by the British Sephardi naturalist Emanuel Mendez da Costa, who published "The Elements of Conchology: or, an Introduction to the Knowledge of Shells" in London in 1776. Since 1700 a number of prominent conchologists have published their studies of shells. John Mawe (1764–1829) produced arguably the first conchology guidebook, "The Voyager's Companion or Shell-Collector's Pilot", as well as "The Linnæan System of Conchology". Hugh Cuming (1791–1865) is famous for his huge collection and numerous discoveries of new species. Thomas Say wrote the fundamental work "American Conchology, or Descriptions of the Shells of North America, Illustrated From Coloured Figures From Original Drawings, Executed from Nature" in six volumes (1830–1834). R. Tucker Abbott was arguably the most prominent conchologist of the 20th century, authoring dozens of books and working as museum director of the Bailey-Matthews Shell Museum. His most best-known works are "American Seashells", "Seashells of the World", and "The Kingdom of the Seashell". John DuPont is also known for his extensive collection which he donated to the Delaware Museum of Natural History in 1984. The Japanese emperor Hirohito also amassed a huge collection, and was a competent and respected amateur conchologist. Many museums worldwide contain very large and scientifically important shell collections. However, in most cases these are research collections not as readily accessible to the general public as exhibits. the world's largest assemblage of mollusc shells was held by the Smithsonian Institution, which has c. 1 million lots representing perhaps 50,000 species. The Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture also has a large collection which was donated by Dr. Phil Nudelman in 2013. It includes about 100,000 specimens and 24,000 species, mostly from the Indo-Pacific region, the Caribbean, and the Mediterranean. Like other scientific fields, conchologists have a number of local, national, and international organizations. There are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas. Shells have been featured on over 5,000 postage stamps worldwide, and have been featured on many coins including the Bahamian dollar (1974), the Cuban peso (1981), the Haitian gourde (1973), the Nepalese rupee (1989) and Philippine peso (1993).

Porte Maillot (Paris Métro)

T h e f i r s t s t a t i o n c a l l e d " P o r t e M a i l l o t " o p e n e d i n 1 9 0 0 a n d w a s t h e t e r m i n u s o f L i n e 1 , a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e a l o o p , a l l o w i n g t r a i n s t o t u r n a r o u n d w i t h o u t r e v e r s i n g . L i k e P o r t e D a u p h i n e a n d P o r t e d e V i n c e n n e s , i t w a s a r r a n g e d w i t h a c e n t r a l w a i t i n g a r e a a n d t r a c k s o n e i t h e r s i d e , w i t h t w o t u n n e l s . T h e s t a t i o n w a s r e p l a c e d w i t h a n e w s t a t i o n a s h o r t d i s t a n c e t o t h e w e s t w i t h t h e e x t e n s i o n o f L i n e 1 t o P o n t d e N e u i l l y i n 1 9 3 7 . T h e n e w l i n e d i v e s d o w n a n d p a s s e s u n d e r t h e o l d l o o p . I n 1 9 9 2 t h i s o l d s t a t i o n w a s t u r n e d i n t o a r e c e p t i o n a r e a b y t h e R A T P , n o w t h e " E s p a c e M a i l l o t " . T h e n e w p l a t f o r m s w e r e b u i l t 1 0 5 m e t r e s l o n g t o a c c o m m o d a t e 7 - c a r t r a i n s i n t h e f u t u r e , a p l a n w h i c h h a s n e v e r b e e n r e a l i s e d . S i n c e 1 9 8 8 a n d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e n o r t h e r n b r a n c h o f t h e C B r a n c h o f t h e R E R , t h i s s t a t i o n h a s s e r v e d t h e N e u i l l y – P o r t e M a i l l o t s t a t i o n o f t h e R E R C . T h e t w o s t a t i o n s a r e c o n n e c t e d b y a l o n g c o r r i d o r . T h e R E R A p a s s e s b e n e a t h t h e s t a t i o n , b u t d o e s n o t s t o p . A n e x t e n s i o n o f R E R E t h r o u g h P o r t M a i l l o t f r o m G a r e d ' H a u s s m a n n – S a i n t - L a z a r e t o L a D é f e n s e a n d t h e n t o w a r d s M a n t e s - l a - J o l i e i s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . W o r k i s c u r r e n t l y u n d e r w a y , b u t n e a r i n g c o m p l e t i o n t o c o n v e r t " E s p a c e M a i l l o t " i n t o a l i g h t m a i n t e n a n c e f a c i l i t y f o r t h e n e w M P 0 5 r o l l i n g s t o c k , w h i c h a r e f u l l y a u t o m a t e d . T h e P o r t e M a i l l o t i s a n e n t r a n c e t o t h e B o i s d e B o u l o g n e , a n d i s l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e a v e n u e C h a r l e s d e G a u l l e o f N e u i l l y - s u r - S e i n e a n d t h e a v e n u e d e l a G r a n d e A r m é e o f P a r i s . T h e P a l a i s d e s c o n g r è s c a n b e a c c e s s e d d i r e c t l y v i a t h e c o r r i d o r b e t w e e n t h e m e t r o a n d R E R s t a t i o n s . T h e r o o f o v e r t h e t r a c k s b e t w e e n t h e R E R s t a t i o n a n d t h e P e r e i r e s t a t i o n h a s b e e n c o n v e r t e d i n t o a w a l k w a y f o r p e d e s t r i a n s .

History

The original Porte Maillot metro station opened in 1900 as the terminus of Line 1, featuring a loop design. It was replaced in 1937 with a new station further west, and the old station was repurposed as a reception area in 1992. Today, the station serves both the Metro and RER lines, with connections to other stations and attractions like the Palais des congrès.

The first station called "Porte Maillot" opened in 1900 and was the terminus of Line 1, and was therefore a loop, allowing trains to turn around without reversing. Like Porte Dauphine and Porte de Vincennes, it was arranged with a central waiting area and tracks on either side, with two tunnels. The station was replaced with a new station a short distance to the west with the extension of Line 1 to Pont de Neuilly in 1937. The new line dives down and passes under the old loop. In 1992 this old station was turned into a reception area by the RATP, now the "Espace Maillot". The new platforms were built 105 metres long to accommodate 7-car trains in the future, a plan which has never been realised. Since 1988 and the opening of the northern branch of the C Branch of the RER, this station has served the Neuilly – Porte Maillot station of the RER C. The two stations are connected by a long corridor. The RER A passes beneath the station, but does not stop. An extension of RER E through Port Maillot from Gare d'Haussmann – Saint-Lazare to La Défense and then towards Mantes-la-Jolie is under consideration. Work is currently underway, but nearing completion to convert "Espace Maillot" into a light maintenance facility for the new MP 05 rolling stock, which are fully automated. The Porte Maillot is an entrance to the Bois de Boulogne, and is located between the avenue Charles de Gaulle of Neuilly-sur-Seine and the avenue de la Grande Armée of Paris. The Palais des congrès can be accessed directly via the corridor between the metro and RER stations. The roof over the tracks between the RER station and the Pereire station has been converted into a walkway for pedestrians.

Porte Maillot (Paris Métro)

T h e f i r s t s t a t i o n c a l l e d " P o r t e M a i l l o t " o p e n e d i n 1 9 0 0 a n d w a s t h e t e r m i n u s o f L i n e 1 , a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e a l o o p , a l l o w i n g t r a i n s t o t u r n a r o u n d w i t h o u t r e v e r s i n g . L i k e P o r t e D a u p h i n e a n d P o r t e d e V i n c e n n e s , i t w a s a r r a n g e d w i t h a c e n t r a l w a i t i n g a r e a a n d t r a c k s o n e i t h e r s i d e , w i t h t w o t u n n e l s . T h e s t a t i o n w a s r e p l a c e d w i t h a n e w s t a t i o n a s h o r t d i s t a n c e t o t h e w e s t w i t h t h e e x t e n s i o n o f L i n e 1 t o P o n t d e N e u i l l y i n 1 9 3 7 . T h e n e w l i n e d i v e s d o w n a n d p a s s e s u n d e r t h e o l d l o o p . I n 1 9 9 2 t h i s o l d s t a t i o n w a s t u r n e d i n t o a r e c e p t i o n a r e a b y t h e R A T P , n o w t h e " E s p a c e M a i l l o t " . T h e n e w p l a t f o r m s w e r e b u i l t 1 0 5 m e t r e s l o n g t o a c c o m m o d a t e 7 - c a r t r a i n s i n t h e f u t u r e , a p l a n w h i c h h a s n e v e r b e e n r e a l i s e d . S i n c e 1 9 8 8 a n d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e n o r t h e r n b r a n c h o f t h e C B r a n c h o f t h e R E R , t h i s s t a t i o n h a s s e r v e d t h e N e u i l l y – P o r t e M a i l l o t s t a t i o n o f t h e R E R C . T h e t w o s t a t i o n s a r e c o n n e c t e d b y a l o n g c o r r i d o r . T h e R E R A p a s s e s b e n e a t h t h e s t a t i o n , b u t d o e s n o t s t o p . A n e x t e n s i o n o f R E R E t h r o u g h P o r t M a i l l o t f r o m G a r e d ' H a u s s m a n n – S a i n t - L a z a r e t o L a D é f e n s e a n d t h e n t o w a r d s M a n t e s - l a - J o l i e i s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . W o r k i s c u r r e n t l y u n d e r w a y , b u t n e a r i n g c o m p l e t i o n t o c o n v e r t " E s p a c e M a i l l o t " i n t o a l i g h t m a i n t e n a n c e f a c i l i t y f o r t h e n e w M P 0 5 r o l l i n g s t o c k , w h i c h a r e f u l l y a u t o m a t e d . T h e P o r t e M a i l l o t i s a n e n t r a n c e t o t h e B o i s d e B o u l o g n e , a n d i s l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e a v e n u e C h a r l e s d e G a u l l e o f N e u i l l y - s u r - S e i n e a n d t h e a v e n u e d e l a G r a n d e A r m é e o f P a r i s . T h e P a l a i s d e s c o n g r è s c a n b e a c c e s s e d d i r e c t l y v i a t h e c o r r i d o r b e t w e e n t h e m e t r o a n d R E R s t a t i o n s . T h e r o o f o v e r t h e t r a c k s b e t w e e n t h e R E R s t a t i o n a n d t h e P e r e i r e s t a t i o n h a s b e e n c o n v e r t e d i n t o a w a l k w a y f o r p e d e s t r i a n s .

Tourism

The Porte Maillot metro station in Paris opened in 1900 as the terminus of Line 1, featuring a unique loop design. It was replaced in 1937 with a new station, and the original site was repurposed as a reception area. Today, the station serves both the Paris Metro and RER lines, with connections to other stations and attractions like the Palais des congrès.

The first station called "Porte Maillot" opened in 1900 and was the terminus of Line 1, and was therefore a loop, allowing trains to turn around without reversing. Like Porte Dauphine and Porte de Vincennes, it was arranged with a central waiting area and tracks on either side, with two tunnels. The station was replaced with a new station a short distance to the west with the extension of Line 1 to Pont de Neuilly in 1937. The new line dives down and passes under the old loop. In 1992 this old station was turned into a reception area by the RATP, now the "Espace Maillot". The new platforms were built 105 metres long to accommodate 7-car trains in the future, a plan which has never been realised. Since 1988 and the opening of the northern branch of the C Branch of the RER, this station has served the Neuilly – Porte Maillot station of the RER C. The two stations are connected by a long corridor. The RER A passes beneath the station, but does not stop. An extension of RER E through Port Maillot from Gare d'Haussmann – Saint-Lazare to La Défense and then towards Mantes-la-Jolie is under consideration. Work is currently underway, but nearing completion to convert "Espace Maillot" into a light maintenance facility for the new MP 05 rolling stock, which are fully automated. The Porte Maillot is an entrance to the Bois de Boulogne, and is located between the avenue Charles de Gaulle of Neuilly-sur-Seine and the avenue de la Grande Armée of Paris. The Palais des congrès can be accessed directly via the corridor between the metro and RER stations. The roof over the tracks between the RER station and the Pereire station has been converted into a walkway for pedestrians.

Perfect Day (Lou Reed song)

T h e o r i g i n a l r e c o r d i n g , a s w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e " T r a n s f o r m e r " a l b u m , w a s p r o d u c e d b y D a v i d B o w i e a n d M i c k R o n s o n ( w h o a l s o w r o t e t h e s t r i n g a r r a n g e m e n t a n d p l a y e d p i a n o o n t h e t r a c k ) . T h e s o n g h a s a s o m b r e v o c a l d e l i v e r y a n d a s l o w , p i a n o - b a s e d i n s t r u m e n t a l b a c k i n g . T h e s o n g w a s w r i t t e n a f t e r R e e d a n d h i s t h e n f i a n c é e ( l a t e r h i s f i r s t w i f e ) , B e t t y e K r o n s t a d , s p e n t a d a y i n C e n t r a l P a r k . T h e l y r i c i s o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d t o s u g g e s t s i m p l e , c o n v e n t i o n a l r o m a n t i c d e v o t i o n , p o s s i b l y a l l u d i n g t o R e e d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h B e t t y e K r o n s t a d a n d R e e d ' s o w n c o n f l i c t s w i t h h i s s e x u a l i t y , d r u g u s e a n d e g o . S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e f u r t h e r s e e n t h e l y r i c a l s u b t e x t a s d i s p l a y i n g R e e d ' s r o m a n t i c i z e d a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s a p e r i o d o f h i s o w n a d d i c t i o n t o h e r o i n . T h i s p o p u l a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s o n g a s a n o d e t o a d d i c t i o n l e d t o i t s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e s o u n d t r a c k f o r " T r a i n s p o t t i n g " , a f i l m a b o u t t h e l i v e s o f h e r o i n a d d i c t s . H o w e v e r , t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o R e e d h i m s e l f , i s " l a u g h a b l e " . I n a n i n t e r v i e w i n 2 0 0 0 , R e e d s t a t e d , " N o . Y o u ' r e t a l k i n g t o t h e w r i t e r , t h e p e r s o n w h o w r o t e i t . N o t h a t ' s n o t t r u e . I d o n ' t o b j e c t t o t h a t , p a r t i c u l a r l y . . . w h a t e v e r y o u t h i n k i s p e r f e c t . B u t t h i s g u y ' s v i s i o n o f a p e r f e c t d a y w a s t h e g i r l , s a n g r i a i n t h e p a r k , a n d t h e n y o u g o h o m e ; a p e r f e c t d a y , r e a l s i m p l e . I m e a n t j u s t w h a t I s a i d . " T h e s o n g h a s f e a t u r e d i n c o m m e r c i a l s s u c h a s a n A T & T a d v e r t i s e m e n t w h i c h r a n d u r i n g t h e 2 0 1 0 O l y m p i c s , a n d a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t b y S o n y f o r t h e l a u n c h o f t h e P l a y S t a t i o n 4 i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 3 , t w o w e e k s b e f o r e R e e d ' s d e a t h . T h e s o n g h a s a l s o a p p e a r e d i n T V s h o w s i n c l u d i n g " F e a r t h e W a l k i n g D e a d , " t h e s e a s o n 1 f i n a l e o f T h e M i s t m i n i s e r i e s a n d " D o o m P a t r o l " . I n 2 0 1 5 t h e s o n g a p p e a r e d a s i r o n i c c o u n t e r p o i n t t o t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r ' s d e m o t i o n i n t h e s e a s o n 2 p r e m i e r e o f t h e T V s e r i e s " G o t h a m " . T h e s o n g w a s f e a t u r e d i n t h e 2 0 2 0 T V s e r i e s , " B r a v e N e w W o r l d " b a s e d o n A l d o u s H u x l e y ' s b o o k . I n 2 0 2 0 , t h e s o n g w a s p e r f o r m e d b y a c h o i r o f p a s t a n d p r e s e n t c a s t m e m b e r s o f " S a t u r d a y N i g h t L i v e " o n t h e s h o w ' s A p r i l 1 1 e p i s o d e a s a t r i b u t e t o t h e s h o w ' s l o n g t i m e m u s i c p r o d u c e r H a l W i l l n e r , f o l l o w i n g h i s d e a t h o f C O V I D - 1 9 e a r l i e r i n t h e w e e k . I n 2 0 2 1 , a c o v e r v e r s i o n b y S c a l a & K o l a c n y B r o t h e r s w a s u s e d i n t h e t r a i l e r f o r t h e 2 0 2 1 f i l m S p e n c e r . A c o v e r v e r s i o n o f " P e r f e c t D a y " w a s t h e f i r s t s i n g l e f r o m t h e D u r a n D u r a n c o v e r s a l b u m " T h a n k Y o u " . I t w a s r e l e a s e d i n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m o n M a r c h 1 3 , 1 9 9 5 , a n d r e a c h e d n u m b e r 2 8 o n t h e U K S i n g l e s C h a r t t h e s a m e m o n t h . T h e c o v e r w a s a l s o r e l e a s e d t o U S r a d i o o n M a y 2 3 , 1 9 9 5 . T h e s o n g f e a t u r e d a r a r e a p p e a r a n c e b y D u r a n D u r a n ' s f i r s t d r u m m e r R o g e r T a y l o r . H e a l s o a p p e a r e d i n t h e m u s i c v i d e o a n d i n a p r o m o t i o n a l a p p e a r a n c e o n " T o p o f t h e P o p s " . T h e v i d e o w a s f i l m e d i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 5 b y d i r e c t o r N i c k E g a n , a n d f i r s t a i r e d i n M a r c h . I t s h o w s c l i p s o f t h e b a n d p e r f o r m i n g , i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h s u r r e a l i m a g e s . T h e s i n g l e w a s r e l e a s e d i n s e v e r a l v e r s i o n s , i n c l u d i n g n u m e r o u s d i f f e r e n t r e m i x e s o f t h e t i t l e t r a c k a n d o t h e r D u r a n D u r a n s o n g s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s i n g l e a n d t h e " T h a n k Y o u " a l b u m , t h e s o n g a l s o a p p e a r e d i n D u r a n D u r a n ' s " S i n g l e s B o x S e t 1 9 8 6 – 1 9 9 5 " , r e l e a s e d i n 2 0 0 4 . O n D u r a n D u r a n ' s e p i s o d e o f " B e h i n d t h e M u s i c " , R e e d d e s c r i b e d t h e D u r a n D u r a n v e r s i o n a s b e i n g p o t e n t i a l l y t h e b e s t r e r e c o r d i n g o f a n y o f h i s s o n g s . I n 1 9 9 5 , B r i t i s h s i n g e r - s o n g w r i t e r K i r s t y M a c C o l l a n d A m e r i c a n m u s i c i a n E v a n D a n d o r e c o r d e d t h e s o n g a s a d u e t . I t w a s i n c l u d e d a s o n e o f t w o n e w t r a c k s o n M a c C o l l ' s c o m p i l a t i o n a l b u m " G a l o r e " a n d r e a c h e d N o . 7 5 o n t h e U K S i n g l e s C h a r t . M a c C o l l h a s d e s c r i b e d t h e s o n g a s " g l o r i o u s a n d t r a g i c a t t h e s a m e t i m e " . S p e a k i n g o f h e r c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h D a n d o , s h e t o l d S t e v e H a r r i s i n 1 9 9 5 : " I m e t E v a n a c o u p l e o f y e a r s a g o a n d w e s o r t o f t a l k e d a b o u t p o s s i b l y d o i n g s o m e t h i n g t o g e t h e r . W h e n I w a s r e c o r d i n g t h e n e w t r a c k s f o r [ " G a l o r e " ] , I t h o u g h t " P e r f e c t D a y " w o u l d b e a r e a l l y g o o d s o n g t o d o a s a d u e t [ a n d t h a t ] h e w o u l d b e t h e i d e a l p e r s o n t o s i n g i t w i t h m e . " M a c C o l l w a s i n i t i a l l y u n s u r e o f h o w t o c o n t a c t D a n d o , b u t d e c i d e d t o r e c o r d t h e b a c k i n g t r a c k i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f b e i n g a b l e t o a d d h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n a t a l a t e r d a t e . B y c o i n c i d e n c e , D a n d o p h o n e d M a c C o l l t w o d a y s a f t e r t h e b a c k i n g t r a c k w a s r e c o r d e d t o l e t h e r k n o w h e w a s p e r f o r m i n g i n L o n d o n w i t h h i s b a n d T h e L e m o n h e a d s a n d h e a g r e e d t o p r o v i d e v o c a l s o n t h e t r a c k w h i l e i n t h e U K . I n 1 9 9 7 , t h e B B C m a d e a v e r s i o n o f t h e s o n g w i t h a d v e r t i s i n g a g e n c y L e a g a s D e l a n e y . I t s h o w c a s e d t h e B B C i n a l e n g t h y c o r p o r a t e p r o m o t i o n o f i t s d i v e r s e m u s i c c o v e r a g e w h i c h w a s b r o a d c a s t o n B B C c h a n n e l s , i n c i n e m a s , a n d a t m a j o r e v e n t s o r g a n i s e d b y t h e B B C s u c h a s t h e E u r o v i s i o n S o n g C o n t e s t 1 9 9 8 . I t f e a t u r e d L o u R e e d h i m s e l f a n d o t h e r m a j o r a r t i s t s i n w h a t t h e " F i n a n c i a l T i m e s " d e s c r i b e d a s " a n a s t o n i s h i n g l i n e - u p o f w o r l d c l a s s p e r f o r m e r s " . I n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e l i c e n c e f e e , t h e f i l m e n d s w i t h t h e m e s s a g e " W h a t e v e r y o u r m u s i c a l t a s t e , i t i s c a t e r e d f o r b y B B C R a d i o a n d T e l e v i s i o n . T h i s i s o n l y p o s s i b l e t h a n k s t o t h e u n i q u e w a y t h e B B C i s p a i d f o r b y y o u . B B C . Y o u m a k e i t w h a t i t i s . " T h i s m e s s a g e a p p e a r s o v e r t h e r e p e a t e d w o r d s " Y o u ' r e g o i n g t o r e a p j u s t w h a t y o u s o w " w h i c h " T h e G u a r d i a n " d e s c r i b e d a s " a n o n e t o o s u b t l e m e s s a g e : k e e p w r i t i n g t h e c h e q u e . " I n r e s p o n s e t o a c c u s a t i o n s f r o m c o m m e r c i a l c o m p e t i t o r s t h a t t h e c o r p o r a t i o n h a d w a s t e d v a s t s u m s o n t h e f i l m i t w a s r e v e a l e d t h a t e a c h a r t i s t r e c e i v e d a " t o k e n " £ 2 5 0 , w h i c h w a s a t t h e t i m e t h e m i n i m u m p a y f o r a p e r f o r m a n c e o n B B C . P r o m p t e d b y h u g e p u b l i c d e m a n d , t h e t r a c k w a s r e l e a s e d o n N o v e m b e r 1 7 , 1 9 9 7 , a s a c h a r i t y s i n g l e f o r C h i l d r e n i n N e e d , a n d R e e d c o m m e n t e d , " I h a v e n e v e r b e e n m o r e i m p r e s s e d w i t h a p e r f o r m a n c e o f o n e o f m y s o n g s . " I t w a s t h e U K ' s n u m b e r o n e s i n g l e f o r t h r e e w e e k s , i n t w o s e p a r a t e s p e l l s . T h e r e c o r d c o n t r i b u t e d £ 2 , 1 2 5 , 0 0 0 t o t h e c h a r i t y ' s h i g h e s t f u n d r a i s i n g t o t a l i n s i x y e a r s , a n d , a s o f N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , h a s s o l d 1 . 5 4 m i l l i o n c o p i e s . T h e r e l e a s e f e a t u r e d t w o a d d i t i o n a l v e r s i o n s o f t h e s o n g : o n e e n t i r e l y s u n g b y f e m a l e p e r f o r m e r s , o n e b y m a l e p e r f o r m e r s . T h e B B C a l s o p r o d u c e d a C h r i s t m a s v e r s i o n o f t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g m u s i c v i d e o . I n I r e l a n d , t h e s o n g w a s a h u g e s u c c e s s , r e m a i n i n g a t n u m b e r o n e f o r s e v e n w e e k s a n d b e c o m i n g 1 9 9 7 ' s C h r i s t m a s n u m b e r o n e . T h e s i n g l e a l s o t o p p e d t h e N o r w e g i a n S i n g l e s C h a r t f o r s e v e n w e e k s i n l a t e 1 9 9 7 a n d e a r l y 1 9 9 8 , s p e n d i n g 1 7 w e e k s o n t h e c h a r t i n t o t a l . E l s e w h e r e i n E u r o p e , i t r e a c h e d n u m b e r f o u r i n F i n l a n d , n u m b e r s i x i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , n u m b e r s e v e n i n F l e m i s h B e l g i u m a n d n u m b e r 1 0 i n I c e l a n d . I t w a s a l s o a t o p - t h i r t y h i t i n A u s t r i a , N e w Z e a l a n d a n d W a l l o o n B e l g i u m . T h e s o n g h a s n o t b e e n d i g i t a l l y r e l e a s e d t o d i g i t a l m u s i c p l a t f o r m s a s t h e " s i n g l e [ i s ] u n u s a b l e a g a i n i n a c o m m e r c i a l c o n t e x t d u e t o t h e s p e c i f i c n a t u r e o f t h e c l e a r a n c e s f o r C h i l d r e n I n N e e d a t t h e t i m e " . P e r f o r m e r s i n o r d e r o f a p p e a r a n c e ; p a r e n t h e s e s i n d i c a t e m u t e a p p e a r a n c e , a n d d i v i d e r s i n d i c a t e v e r s e s / s e c t i o n s . F o l l o w i n g t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e " P e r f e c t D a y " m u s i c v i d e o , t h e B B C p r o d u c e d t h r e e f u r t h e r s i m i l a r c a m p a i g n s . T h e f i r s t , " F u t u r e G e n e r a t i o n s " , i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 8 , d i d a s i m i l a r m u l t i - c e l e b r i t y m o n t a g e w i t h f a v o u r i t e B B C c h i l d r e n ' s p r o g r a m m e s . T h e s e c o n d , c a l l e d " S h a g g y D o g S t o r y " , f e a t u r e d v a r i o u s c o m e d i a n s a n d c o m i c a c t o r s t e l l i n g a l o n g - w i n d e d s h a g g y d o g s t o r y , w i t h e a c h o n e s h a r i n g a l i n e o r p h r a s e . A s e c o n d , s h o r t e r s h a g g y d o g s t o r y , e n t i t l e d " M a m m a l s v s . I n s e c t s " , w a s a l s o b r o a d c a s t o n J a n u a r y 4 , 2 0 0 0 . S e v e n t e e n y e a r s a f t e r " P e r f e c t D a y " ' s r e l e a s e , t h e B B C p r o d u c e d a c a m p a i g n f o r t h e i r n e w m u s i c d i v i s i o n w h e r e 2 7 m u s i c i a n s ( l a b e l l e d " T h e I m p o s s i b l e O r c h e s t r a " ) c o v e r e d t h e B e a c h B o y s ' " G o d O n l y K n o w s " . T h e o n l y p e r s o n t o a p p e a r i n b o t h c a m p a i g n s i s S i r E l t o n J o h n . T h e c o v e r w a s p a r o d i e d o n a 1 9 9 7 s p e c i a l " H a r r y E n f i e l d a n d C h u m s " , a s w e l l a s b y M a t t L u c a s a n d D a v i d W a l l i a m s . T h e s i n g l e i n s p i r e d S o n y M u s i c t o r e l e a s e a v a r i o u s a r t i s t s c o m p i l a t i o n a l b u m , " P e r f e c t D a y " , i n e a r l y 1 9 9 8 . I t r e a c h e d n u m b e r 7 i n t h e U K C o m p i l a t i o n C h a r t . I t f e a t u r e d R e e d ' s o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n o f t h e s o n g i n s t e a d o f t h e V a r i o u s A r t i s t s v e r s i o n . A B B C l i v e t e l e v i s i o n e v e n t i n 2 0 0 0 , w h i c h c o n s i s t e d o f m u s i c p r o g r a m s a r o u n d t h e c l o c k , e n d e d i n a n o t h e r r o u n d - r o b i n p e r f o r m a n c e o f " P e r f e c t D a y " . A l t h o u g h w a t c h e d b y m i l l i o n s , t h e r e c o r d i n g o f t h e s h o w t h a t w a s r e l e a s e d a s a s i n g l e w a s n o t a c h a r t s u c c e s s , r e a c h i n g o n l y n u m b e r 6 9 i n m i d - J u n e 2 0 0 0 . T h i s l i n e - u p i n c l u d e d R o l f H a r r i s a n d a b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e f r o m L o u R e e d h i m s e l f . S c o t t i s h r e c o r d i n g a r t i s t S u s a n B o y l e c o v e r e d t h e s o n g o n h e r s e c o n d a l b u m " T h e G i f t " a n d a l s o r e l e a s e d i t o n N o v e m b e r 8 , 2 0 1 0 , a s a s i n g l e . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 0 , S u s a n B o y l e h a d t o c a n c e l a p e r f o r m a n c e o n " A m e r i c a ' s G o t T a l e n t " a t t h e l a s t m i n u t e . S h e h a d p l a n n e d t o s i n g " P e r f e c t D a y " , b u t t w o h o u r s b e f o r e t h e s h o w , s h e w a s t o l d t h a t L o u R e e d h a d i n t e r v e n e d , r e f u s i n g h e r p e r m i s s i o n t o p e r f o r m h i s s o n g a n d t o i n c l u d e i t o n h e r f o r t h c o m i n g a l b u m " T h e G i f t " . A s s h e a n d h e r c h o i r d i d n o t h a v e t i m e t o r e h e a r s e a n o t h e r n u m b e r , s h e d e c i d e d t o c a n c e l h e r p e r f o r m a n c e . A c o u p l e o f d a y s l a t e r , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f R e e d s t a t e d t h a t h e h a d n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e d e c i s i o n a n d t h a t i t w a s j u s t a l i c e n s i n g g l i t c h . A c o u p l e o f w e e k s l a t e r , R e e d a g r e e d n o t o n l y t o l e t h e r i n c l u d e t h e s o n g o n " T h e G i f t " , b u t a l s o t o p r o d u c e h e r m u s i c v i d e o o f t h e s o n g . I t w a s s h o t o n t h e b a n k s o f L o c h L o m o n d a n d p r e m i e r e d o n N o v e m b e r 7 , 2 0 1 0 . O n N o v e m b e r 1 9 , 2 0 1 0 , s h e p e r f o r m e d t h e s o n g o n " C h i l d r e n i n N e e d " . S h e a l s o p e r f o r m e d t h i s a g a i n a t t h e 8 2 n d R o y a l V a r i e t y P e r f o r m a n c e , p e r f o r m e d o n t h e D e c e m b e r 9 , 2 0 1 0 . S o o n a f t e r R e e d ' s d e a t h i n 2 0 1 3 , C a r d i n a l G i a n f r a n c o R a v a s i , t h e V a t i c a n ' s c u l t u r e m i n i s t e r , m a d e n e w s b y t w e e t i n g l y r i c s f r o m t h e s o n g : < p o e m > O h , i t ' s s u c h a p e r f e c t d a y I ' m g l a d I s p e n t i t w i t h y o u O h , s u c h a p e r f e c t d a y Y o u j u s t k e e p m e h a n g i n g o n < / p o e m > A s t h e s o n g i s w i d e l y i n t e r p r e t e d b y l i s t e n e r s t o b e d r u g - r e l a t e d , t h e c a r d i n a l l a t e r c l a r i f i e d t h a t h e d i d n o t c o n d o n e d r u g u s e .

Susan Boyle version

The Susan Boyle version of "Perfect Day" was originally intended to be performed on "America's Got Talent" but was cancelled due to a licensing issue with Lou Reed. However, Reed later agreed to let Boyle include the song on her album "The Gift" and even produced the music video.

song has also appeared in TV shows including "Fear the Walking Dead," the season 1 finale of The Mist miniseries and "Doom Patrol". In 2015 the song appeared as ironic counterpoint to the main character's demotion in the season 2 premiere of the TV series "Gotham". The song was featured in the 2020 TV series, "Brave New World" based on Aldous Huxley's book. In 2020, the song was performed by a choir of past and present cast members of "Saturday Night Live" on the show's April 11 episode as a tribute to the show's longtime music producer Hal Willner, following his death of COVID-19 earlier in the week. In 2021, a cover version by Scala & Kolacny Brothers was used in the trailer for the 2021 film Spencer. Duran songs. In addition to the single and the "Thank You" album, the song also appeared in Duran Duran's "Singles Box Set 1986–1995", released in 2004. On Duran Duran's episode of "Behind the Music", Reed described the Duran Duran version as being potentially the best rerecording of any of his songs. In 1995, British singer-songwriter Kirsty MacColl and American musician Evan Dando recorded the song as a duet. It was included as one of two new tracks on MacColl's compilation album "Galore" and reached No. 75 on the UK Singles Chart. MacColl has described the song as "glorious and tragic at the same time". Speaking of her collaboration with Dando, she told Steve Harris in 1995: "I met Evan a couple of years ago and we sort of talked about possibly doing something together. When I was recording the new tracks for ["Galore"], I thought "Perfect Day" would be a really good song to do as a duet [and that] he would be the ideal person to sing it with me." MacColl was initially unsure of how to contact Dando, but decided to record the backing track in anticipation of being able to add his contribution at a later date. By coincidence, Dando phoned MacColl two days after the backing track was recorded to let her know he was performing in London with his band The Lemonheads and he agreed to provide vocals on the track while in the UK. In 1997, the BBC made a version of the song with advertising agency Leagas Delaney. It none too subtle message: keep writing the cheque." In response to accusations from commercial competitors that the corporation had wasted vast sums on the film it was revealed that each artist received a "token" £250, which was at the time the minimum pay for a performance on BBC. Prompted by huge public demand, the track was released on November 17, 1997, as a charity single for Children in Need, and Reed commented, "I have never been more impressed with a performance of one of my songs." It was the UK's number one single for three weeks, in two separate spells. The record contributed £2,125,000 to the charity's highest fundraising total in six years, and, as of November 2016, has sold 1.54 million copies. The release featured two additional versions of the song: one entirely sung by female performers, one by male performers. The BBC also produced a Christmas version of the accompanying music video. In Ireland, the song was a huge success, remaining at number one for seven weeks and becoming 1997's Christmas number one. The single also topped the Norwegian Singles Chart for seven weeks in late 1997 and early 1998, spending 17 weeks on the chart in total. Elsewhere in Europe, it reached number four in Finland, number six in the Netherlands, number seven in Flemish Belgium and number 10 in Iceland. It was also a top-thirty hit in Austria, New Zealand and Walloon Belgium. The song has not been digitally released to digital music platforms as the "single [is] unusable again in a Orchestra") covered the Beach Boys' "God Only Knows". The only person to appear in both campaigns is Sir Elton John. The cover was parodied on a 1997 special "Harry Enfield and Chums", as well as by Matt Lucas and David Walliams. The single inspired Sony Music to release a various artists compilation album, "Perfect Day", in early 1998. It reached number 7 in the UK Compilation Chart. It featured Reed's original version of the song instead of the Various Artists version. A BBC live television event in 2000, which consisted of music programs around the clock, ended in another round-robin performance of "Perfect Day". Although watched by millions, the recording of the show that was released as a single was not a chart success, reaching only number 69 in mid-June 2000. This line-up included Rolf Harris and a beginning and ending performance from Lou Reed himself. Scottish recording artist Susan Boyle covered the song on her second album "The Gift" and also released it on November 8, 2010, as a single. In September 2010, Susan Boyle had to cancel a performance on "America's Got Talent" at the last minute. She had planned to sing "Perfect Day", but two hours before the show, she was told that Lou Reed had intervened, refusing her permission to perform his song and to include it on her forthcoming album "The Gift". As she and her choir did not have time to rehearse another number, she decided to cancel her performance. A couple of days later, representatives of Reed stated that he had nothing to do with the decision and that it was just a licensing glitch. A couple of weeks later, Reed agreed not only to let her include the song on "The Gift", but also to produce her music video of the song. It was shot on the banks of Loch Lomond and premiered on November 7, 2010. On November 19, 2010, she performed the song on "Children in Need". She also performed this again at the 82nd Royal Variety Performance, performed on the December 9, 2010. Soon after Reed's death in 2013, Cardinal Gianfranco Ravasi, the Vatican's culture minister, made news by tweeting lyrics from the song: <poem> Oh, it's such a perfect day I'm glad I spent it with you Oh, such a perfect day

Perfect Day (Lou Reed song)

T h e o r i g i n a l r e c o r d i n g , a s w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e " T r a n s f o r m e r " a l b u m , w a s p r o d u c e d b y D a v i d B o w i e a n d M i c k R o n s o n ( w h o a l s o w r o t e t h e s t r i n g a r r a n g e m e n t a n d p l a y e d p i a n o o n t h e t r a c k ) . T h e s o n g h a s a s o m b r e v o c a l d e l i v e r y a n d a s l o w , p i a n o - b a s e d i n s t r u m e n t a l b a c k i n g . T h e s o n g w a s w r i t t e n a f t e r R e e d a n d h i s t h e n f i a n c é e ( l a t e r h i s f i r s t w i f e ) , B e t t y e K r o n s t a d , s p e n t a d a y i n C e n t r a l P a r k . T h e l y r i c i s o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d t o s u g g e s t s i m p l e , c o n v e n t i o n a l r o m a n t i c d e v o t i o n , p o s s i b l y a l l u d i n g t o R e e d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h B e t t y e K r o n s t a d a n d R e e d ' s o w n c o n f l i c t s w i t h h i s s e x u a l i t y , d r u g u s e a n d e g o . S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e f u r t h e r s e e n t h e l y r i c a l s u b t e x t a s d i s p l a y i n g R e e d ' s r o m a n t i c i z e d a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s a p e r i o d o f h i s o w n a d d i c t i o n t o h e r o i n . T h i s p o p u l a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s o n g a s a n o d e t o a d d i c t i o n l e d t o i t s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e s o u n d t r a c k f o r " T r a i n s p o t t i n g " , a f i l m a b o u t t h e l i v e s o f h e r o i n a d d i c t s . H o w e v e r , t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o R e e d h i m s e l f , i s " l a u g h a b l e " . I n a n i n t e r v i e w i n 2 0 0 0 , R e e d s t a t e d , " N o . Y o u ' r e t a l k i n g t o t h e w r i t e r , t h e p e r s o n w h o w r o t e i t . N o t h a t ' s n o t t r u e . I d o n ' t o b j e c t t o t h a t , p a r t i c u l a r l y . . . w h a t e v e r y o u t h i n k i s p e r f e c t . B u t t h i s g u y ' s v i s i o n o f a p e r f e c t d a y w a s t h e g i r l , s a n g r i a i n t h e p a r k , a n d t h e n y o u g o h o m e ; a p e r f e c t d a y , r e a l s i m p l e . I m e a n t j u s t w h a t I s a i d . " T h e s o n g h a s f e a t u r e d i n c o m m e r c i a l s s u c h a s a n A T & T a d v e r t i s e m e n t w h i c h r a n d u r i n g t h e 2 0 1 0 O l y m p i c s , a n d a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t b y S o n y f o r t h e l a u n c h o f t h e P l a y S t a t i o n 4 i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 3 , t w o w e e k s b e f o r e R e e d ' s d e a t h . T h e s o n g h a s a l s o a p p e a r e d i n T V s h o w s i n c l u d i n g " F e a r t h e W a l k i n g D e a d , " t h e s e a s o n 1 f i n a l e o f T h e M i s t m i n i s e r i e s a n d " D o o m P a t r o l " . I n 2 0 1 5 t h e s o n g a p p e a r e d a s i r o n i c c o u n t e r p o i n t t o t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r ' s d e m o t i o n i n t h e s e a s o n 2 p r e m i e r e o f t h e T V s e r i e s " G o t h a m " . T h e s o n g w a s f e a t u r e d i n t h e 2 0 2 0 T V s e r i e s , " B r a v e N e w W o r l d " b a s e d o n A l d o u s H u x l e y ' s b o o k . I n 2 0 2 0 , t h e s o n g w a s p e r f o r m e d b y a c h o i r o f p a s t a n d p r e s e n t c a s t m e m b e r s o f " S a t u r d a y N i g h t L i v e " o n t h e s h o w ' s A p r i l 1 1 e p i s o d e a s a t r i b u t e t o t h e s h o w ' s l o n g t i m e m u s i c p r o d u c e r H a l W i l l n e r , f o l l o w i n g h i s d e a t h o f C O V I D - 1 9 e a r l i e r i n t h e w e e k . I n 2 0 2 1 , a c o v e r v e r s i o n b y S c a l a & K o l a c n y B r o t h e r s w a s u s e d i n t h e t r a i l e r f o r t h e 2 0 2 1 f i l m S p e n c e r . A c o v e r v e r s i o n o f " P e r f e c t D a y " w a s t h e f i r s t s i n g l e f r o m t h e D u r a n D u r a n c o v e r s a l b u m " T h a n k Y o u " . I t w a s r e l e a s e d i n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m o n M a r c h 1 3 , 1 9 9 5 , a n d r e a c h e d n u m b e r 2 8 o n t h e U K S i n g l e s C h a r t t h e s a m e m o n t h . T h e c o v e r w a s a l s o r e l e a s e d t o U S r a d i o o n M a y 2 3 , 1 9 9 5 . T h e s o n g f e a t u r e d a r a r e a p p e a r a n c e b y D u r a n D u r a n ' s f i r s t d r u m m e r R o g e r T a y l o r . H e a l s o a p p e a r e d i n t h e m u s i c v i d e o a n d i n a p r o m o t i o n a l a p p e a r a n c e o n " T o p o f t h e P o p s " . T h e v i d e o w a s f i l m e d i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 5 b y d i r e c t o r N i c k E g a n , a n d f i r s t a i r e d i n M a r c h . I t s h o w s c l i p s o f t h e b a n d p e r f o r m i n g , i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h s u r r e a l i m a g e s . T h e s i n g l e w a s r e l e a s e d i n s e v e r a l v e r s i o n s , i n c l u d i n g n u m e r o u s d i f f e r e n t r e m i x e s o f t h e t i t l e t r a c k a n d o t h e r D u r a n D u r a n s o n g s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s i n g l e a n d t h e " T h a n k Y o u " a l b u m , t h e s o n g a l s o a p p e a r e d i n D u r a n D u r a n ' s " S i n g l e s B o x S e t 1 9 8 6 – 1 9 9 5 " , r e l e a s e d i n 2 0 0 4 . O n D u r a n D u r a n ' s e p i s o d e o f " B e h i n d t h e M u s i c " , R e e d d e s c r i b e d t h e D u r a n D u r a n v e r s i o n a s b e i n g p o t e n t i a l l y t h e b e s t r e r e c o r d i n g o f a n y o f h i s s o n g s . I n 1 9 9 5 , B r i t i s h s i n g e r - s o n g w r i t e r K i r s t y M a c C o l l a n d A m e r i c a n m u s i c i a n E v a n D a n d o r e c o r d e d t h e s o n g a s a d u e t . I t w a s i n c l u d e d a s o n e o f t w o n e w t r a c k s o n M a c C o l l ' s c o m p i l a t i o n a l b u m " G a l o r e " a n d r e a c h e d N o . 7 5 o n t h e U K S i n g l e s C h a r t . M a c C o l l h a s d e s c r i b e d t h e s o n g a s " g l o r i o u s a n d t r a g i c a t t h e s a m e t i m e " . S p e a k i n g o f h e r c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h D a n d o , s h e t o l d S t e v e H a r r i s i n 1 9 9 5 : " I m e t E v a n a c o u p l e o f y e a r s a g o a n d w e s o r t o f t a l k e d a b o u t p o s s i b l y d o i n g s o m e t h i n g t o g e t h e r . W h e n I w a s r e c o r d i n g t h e n e w t r a c k s f o r [ " G a l o r e " ] , I t h o u g h t " P e r f e c t D a y " w o u l d b e a r e a l l y g o o d s o n g t o d o a s a d u e t [ a n d t h a t ] h e w o u l d b e t h e i d e a l p e r s o n t o s i n g i t w i t h m e . " M a c C o l l w a s i n i t i a l l y u n s u r e o f h o w t o c o n t a c t D a n d o , b u t d e c i d e d t o r e c o r d t h e b a c k i n g t r a c k i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f b e i n g a b l e t o a d d h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n a t a l a t e r d a t e . B y c o i n c i d e n c e , D a n d o p h o n e d M a c C o l l t w o d a y s a f t e r t h e b a c k i n g t r a c k w a s r e c o r d e d t o l e t h e r k n o w h e w a s p e r f o r m i n g i n L o n d o n w i t h h i s b a n d T h e L e m o n h e a d s a n d h e a g r e e d t o p r o v i d e v o c a l s o n t h e t r a c k w h i l e i n t h e U K . I n 1 9 9 7 , t h e B B C m a d e a v e r s i o n o f t h e s o n g w i t h a d v e r t i s i n g a g e n c y L e a g a s D e l a n e y . I t s h o w c a s e d t h e B B C i n a l e n g t h y c o r p o r a t e p r o m o t i o n o f i t s d i v e r s e m u s i c c o v e r a g e w h i c h w a s b r o a d c a s t o n B B C c h a n n e l s , i n c i n e m a s , a n d a t m a j o r e v e n t s o r g a n i s e d b y t h e B B C s u c h a s t h e E u r o v i s i o n S o n g C o n t e s t 1 9 9 8 . I t f e a t u r e d L o u R e e d h i m s e l f a n d o t h e r m a j o r a r t i s t s i n w h a t t h e " F i n a n c i a l T i m e s " d e s c r i b e d a s " a n a s t o n i s h i n g l i n e - u p o f w o r l d c l a s s p e r f o r m e r s " . I n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e l i c e n c e f e e , t h e f i l m e n d s w i t h t h e m e s s a g e " W h a t e v e r y o u r m u s i c a l t a s t e , i t i s c a t e r e d f o r b y B B C R a d i o a n d T e l e v i s i o n . T h i s i s o n l y p o s s i b l e t h a n k s t o t h e u n i q u e w a y t h e B B C i s p a i d f o r b y y o u . B B C . Y o u m a k e i t w h a t i t i s . " T h i s m e s s a g e a p p e a r s o v e r t h e r e p e a t e d w o r d s " Y o u ' r e g o i n g t o r e a p j u s t w h a t y o u s o w " w h i c h " T h e G u a r d i a n " d e s c r i b e d a s " a n o n e t o o s u b t l e m e s s a g e : k e e p w r i t i n g t h e c h e q u e . " I n r e s p o n s e t o a c c u s a t i o n s f r o m c o m m e r c i a l c o m p e t i t o r s t h a t t h e c o r p o r a t i o n h a d w a s t e d v a s t s u m s o n t h e f i l m i t w a s r e v e a l e d t h a t e a c h a r t i s t r e c e i v e d a " t o k e n " £ 2 5 0 , w h i c h w a s a t t h e t i m e t h e m i n i m u m p a y f o r a p e r f o r m a n c e o n B B C . P r o m p t e d b y h u g e p u b l i c d e m a n d , t h e t r a c k w a s r e l e a s e d o n N o v e m b e r 1 7 , 1 9 9 7 , a s a c h a r i t y s i n g l e f o r C h i l d r e n i n N e e d , a n d R e e d c o m m e n t e d , " I h a v e n e v e r b e e n m o r e i m p r e s s e d w i t h a p e r f o r m a n c e o f o n e o f m y s o n g s . " I t w a s t h e U K ' s n u m b e r o n e s i n g l e f o r t h r e e w e e k s , i n t w o s e p a r a t e s p e l l s . T h e r e c o r d c o n t r i b u t e d £ 2 , 1 2 5 , 0 0 0 t o t h e c h a r i t y ' s h i g h e s t f u n d r a i s i n g t o t a l i n s i x y e a r s , a n d , a s o f N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , h a s s o l d 1 . 5 4 m i l l i o n c o p i e s . T h e r e l e a s e f e a t u r e d t w o a d d i t i o n a l v e r s i o n s o f t h e s o n g : o n e e n t i r e l y s u n g b y f e m a l e p e r f o r m e r s , o n e b y m a l e p e r f o r m e r s . T h e B B C a l s o p r o d u c e d a C h r i s t m a s v e r s i o n o f t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g m u s i c v i d e o . I n I r e l a n d , t h e s o n g w a s a h u g e s u c c e s s , r e m a i n i n g a t n u m b e r o n e f o r s e v e n w e e k s a n d b e c o m i n g 1 9 9 7 ' s C h r i s t m a s n u m b e r o n e . T h e s i n g l e a l s o t o p p e d t h e N o r w e g i a n S i n g l e s C h a r t f o r s e v e n w e e k s i n l a t e 1 9 9 7 a n d e a r l y 1 9 9 8 , s p e n d i n g 1 7 w e e k s o n t h e c h a r t i n t o t a l . E l s e w h e r e i n E u r o p e , i t r e a c h e d n u m b e r f o u r i n F i n l a n d , n u m b e r s i x i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , n u m b e r s e v e n i n F l e m i s h B e l g i u m a n d n u m b e r 1 0 i n I c e l a n d . I t w a s a l s o a t o p - t h i r t y h i t i n A u s t r i a , N e w Z e a l a n d a n d W a l l o o n B e l g i u m . T h e s o n g h a s n o t b e e n d i g i t a l l y r e l e a s e d t o d i g i t a l m u s i c p l a t f o r m s a s t h e " s i n g l e [ i s ] u n u s a b l e a g a i n i n a c o m m e r c i a l c o n t e x t d u e t o t h e s p e c i f i c n a t u r e o f t h e c l e a r a n c e s f o r C h i l d r e n I n N e e d a t t h e t i m e " . P e r f o r m e r s i n o r d e r o f a p p e a r a n c e ; p a r e n t h e s e s i n d i c a t e m u t e a p p e a r a n c e , a n d d i v i d e r s i n d i c a t e v e r s e s / s e c t i o n s . F o l l o w i n g t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e " P e r f e c t D a y " m u s i c v i d e o , t h e B B C p r o d u c e d t h r e e f u r t h e r s i m i l a r c a m p a i g n s . T h e f i r s t , " F u t u r e G e n e r a t i o n s " , i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 8 , d i d a s i m i l a r m u l t i - c e l e b r i t y m o n t a g e w i t h f a v o u r i t e B B C c h i l d r e n ' s p r o g r a m m e s . T h e s e c o n d , c a l l e d " S h a g g y D o g S t o r y " , f e a t u r e d v a r i o u s c o m e d i a n s a n d c o m i c a c t o r s t e l l i n g a l o n g - w i n d e d s h a g g y d o g s t o r y , w i t h e a c h o n e s h a r i n g a l i n e o r p h r a s e . A s e c o n d , s h o r t e r s h a g g y d o g s t o r y , e n t i t l e d " M a m m a l s v s . I n s e c t s " , w a s a l s o b r o a d c a s t o n J a n u a r y 4 , 2 0 0 0 . S e v e n t e e n y e a r s a f t e r " P e r f e c t D a y " ' s r e l e a s e , t h e B B C p r o d u c e d a c a m p a i g n f o r t h e i r n e w m u s i c d i v i s i o n w h e r e 2 7 m u s i c i a n s ( l a b e l l e d " T h e I m p o s s i b l e O r c h e s t r a " ) c o v e r e d t h e B e a c h B o y s ' " G o d O n l y K n o w s " . T h e o n l y p e r s o n t o a p p e a r i n b o t h c a m p a i g n s i s S i r E l t o n J o h n . T h e c o v e r w a s p a r o d i e d o n a 1 9 9 7 s p e c i a l " H a r r y E n f i e l d a n d C h u m s " , a s w e l l a s b y M a t t L u c a s a n d D a v i d W a l l i a m s . T h e s i n g l e i n s p i r e d S o n y M u s i c t o r e l e a s e a v a r i o u s a r t i s t s c o m p i l a t i o n a l b u m , " P e r f e c t D a y " , i n e a r l y 1 9 9 8 . I t r e a c h e d n u m b e r 7 i n t h e U K C o m p i l a t i o n C h a r t . I t f e a t u r e d R e e d ' s o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n o f t h e s o n g i n s t e a d o f t h e V a r i o u s A r t i s t s v e r s i o n . A B B C l i v e t e l e v i s i o n e v e n t i n 2 0 0 0 , w h i c h c o n s i s t e d o f m u s i c p r o g r a m s a r o u n d t h e c l o c k , e n d e d i n a n o t h e r r o u n d - r o b i n p e r f o r m a n c e o f " P e r f e c t D a y " . A l t h o u g h w a t c h e d b y m i l l i o n s , t h e r e c o r d i n g o f t h e s h o w t h a t w a s r e l e a s e d a s a s i n g l e w a s n o t a c h a r t s u c c e s s , r e a c h i n g o n l y n u m b e r 6 9 i n m i d - J u n e 2 0 0 0 . T h i s l i n e - u p i n c l u d e d R o l f H a r r i s a n d a b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e f r o m L o u R e e d h i m s e l f . S c o t t i s h r e c o r d i n g a r t i s t S u s a n B o y l e c o v e r e d t h e s o n g o n h e r s e c o n d a l b u m " T h e G i f t " a n d a l s o r e l e a s e d i t o n N o v e m b e r 8 , 2 0 1 0 , a s a s i n g l e . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 0 , S u s a n B o y l e h a d t o c a n c e l a p e r f o r m a n c e o n " A m e r i c a ' s G o t T a l e n t " a t t h e l a s t m i n u t e . S h e h a d p l a n n e d t o s i n g " P e r f e c t D a y " , b u t t w o h o u r s b e f o r e t h e s h o w , s h e w a s t o l d t h a t L o u R e e d h a d i n t e r v e n e d , r e f u s i n g h e r p e r m i s s i o n t o p e r f o r m h i s s o n g a n d t o i n c l u d e i t o n h e r f o r t h c o m i n g a l b u m " T h e G i f t " . A s s h e a n d h e r c h o i r d i d n o t h a v e t i m e t o r e h e a r s e a n o t h e r n u m b e r , s h e d e c i d e d t o c a n c e l h e r p e r f o r m a n c e . A c o u p l e o f d a y s l a t e r , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f R e e d s t a t e d t h a t h e h a d n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e d e c i s i o n a n d t h a t i t w a s j u s t a l i c e n s i n g g l i t c h . A c o u p l e o f w e e k s l a t e r , R e e d a g r e e d n o t o n l y t o l e t h e r i n c l u d e t h e s o n g o n " T h e G i f t " , b u t a l s o t o p r o d u c e h e r m u s i c v i d e o o f t h e s o n g . I t w a s s h o t o n t h e b a n k s o f L o c h L o m o n d a n d p r e m i e r e d o n N o v e m b e r 7 , 2 0 1 0 . O n N o v e m b e r 1 9 , 2 0 1 0 , s h e p e r f o r m e d t h e s o n g o n " C h i l d r e n i n N e e d " . S h e a l s o p e r f o r m e d t h i s a g a i n a t t h e 8 2 n d R o y a l V a r i e t y P e r f o r m a n c e , p e r f o r m e d o n t h e D e c e m b e r 9 , 2 0 1 0 . S o o n a f t e r R e e d ' s d e a t h i n 2 0 1 3 , C a r d i n a l G i a n f r a n c o R a v a s i , t h e V a t i c a n ' s c u l t u r e m i n i s t e r , m a d e n e w s b y t w e e t i n g l y r i c s f r o m t h e s o n g : < p o e m > O h , i t ' s s u c h a p e r f e c t d a y I ' m g l a d I s p e n t i t w i t h y o u O h , s u c h a p e r f e c t d a y Y o u j u s t k e e p m e h a n g i n g o n < / p o e m > A s t h e s o n g i s w i d e l y i n t e r p r e t e d b y l i s t e n e r s t o b e d r u g - r e l a t e d , t h e c a r d i n a l l a t e r c l a r i f i e d t h a t h e d i d n o t c o n d o n e d r u g u s e .

Susan Boyle version ; Conflict with Lou Reed

The song "Perfect Day" was originally recorded by Lou Reed in 1972. It has since been covered by various artists, including Duran Duran, Kirsty MacColl and Evan Dando, and Susan Boyle. The song's meaning has been interpreted in different ways, including as an ode to addiction or a romantic ballad. Despite controversy surrounding some interpretations, the song remains a beloved classic.

The original recording, as with the rest of the "Transformer" album, was produced by David Bowie and Mick Ronson (who also wrote the string arrangement and played piano on the track). The song has a sombre vocal delivery and a slow, piano-based instrumental backing. The song was written after Reed and his then fiancée (later his first wife), Bettye Kronstad, spent a day in Central Park. The lyric is often considered to suggest simple, conventional romantic devotion, possibly alluding to Reed's relationship with Bettye Kronstad and Reed's own conflicts with his sexuality, drug use and ego. Some commentators have further seen the lyrical subtext as displaying Reed's romanticized attitude towards a period of his own addiction to heroin. This popular understanding of the song as an ode to addiction led to its inclusion in the soundtrack for "Trainspotting", a film about the lives of heroin addicts. However, this interpretation, according to Reed himself, is "laughable". In an interview in 2000, Reed stated, "No. You're talking to the writer, the person who wrote it. No that's not true. I don't object to that, particularly...whatever you think is perfect. But this guy's vision of a perfect day was the girl, sangria in the park, and then you go home; a perfect day, real simple. I meant just what I said." The song has featured in commercials such as an AT&T advertisement which ran during the 2010 Olympics, and an advertisement by Sony for the launch of the PlayStation 4 in October 2013, two weeks before Reed's death. The song has also appeared in TV shows including "Fear the Walking Dead," the season 1 finale of The Mist miniseries and "Doom Patrol". In 2015 the song appeared as ironic counterpoint to the main character's demotion in the season 2 premiere of the TV series "Gotham". The song was featured in the 2020 TV series, "Brave New World" based on Aldous Huxley's book. In 2020, the song was performed by a choir of past and present cast members of "Saturday Night Live" on the show's April 11 episode as a tribute to the show's longtime music producer Hal Willner, following his death of COVID-19 earlier in the week. In 2021, a cover version by Scala & Kolacny Brothers was used in the trailer for the 2021 film Spencer. Duran songs. In addition to the single and the "Thank You" album, the song also appeared in Duran Duran's "Singles Box Set 1986–1995", released in 2004. On Duran Duran's episode of "Behind the Music", Reed described the Duran Duran version as being potentially the best rerecording of any of his songs. In 1995, British singer-songwriter Kirsty MacColl and American musician Evan Dando recorded the song as a duet. It was included as one of two new tracks on MacColl's compilation album "Galore" and reached No. 75 on the UK Singles Chart. MacColl has described the song as "glorious and tragic at the same time". Speaking of her collaboration with Dando, she told Steve Harris in 1995: "I met Evan a couple of years ago and we sort of versions of the song: one entirely sung by female performers, one by male performers. The BBC also produced a Christmas version of the accompanying music video. In Ireland, the song was a huge success, remaining at number one for seven weeks and becoming 1997's Christmas number one. The single also topped the Norwegian Singles Chart for seven weeks in late 1997 and early 1998, spending 17 weeks on the chart in total. Elsewhere in Europe, it reached number four in Finland, number six in the Netherlands, number seven in Flemish Belgium and number 10 in Iceland. It was also a top-thirty hit in Austria, New Zealand and Walloon Belgium. The song has not been digitally released to digital music platforms as the "single [is] unusable again in a in mid-June 2000. This line-up included Rolf Harris and a beginning and ending performance from Lou Reed himself. Scottish recording artist Susan Boyle covered the song on her second album "The Gift" and also released it on November 8, 2010, as a single. In September 2010, Susan Boyle had to cancel a performance on "America's Got Talent" at the last minute. She had planned to sing "Perfect Day", but two hours before the show, she was told that Lou Reed had intervened, refusing her permission to perform his song and to include it on her forthcoming album "The Gift". As she and her choir did not have time to rehearse another number, she decided to cancel her performance. A couple of days later, representatives of Reed stated that he had nothing to do with the decision and that it was just a licensing glitch. A couple of weeks later, Reed agreed not only to let her include the song on "The Gift", but also to produce her music video of the song. It was shot on the banks of Loch Lomond and premiered on November 7, 2010. On November 19, 2010, she performed the song on "Children in Need". She also performed this again at the 82nd Royal Variety Performance, performed on the December 9, 2010. Soon after Reed's death in 2013, Cardinal Gianfranco Ravasi, the Vatican's culture minister, made news by tweeting lyrics from the song: <poem> Oh, it's such a perfect day I'm glad I spent it with you Oh, such a perfect day You just keep me hanging on</poem> As the song is widely interpreted by listeners to be drug-related, the cardinal later clarified that he did not condone drug use.

Groombridge 1830

I t i s a y e l l o w - h u e d c l a s s G 8 s u b d w a r f c a t a l o g u e d b y B r i t i s h a s t r o n o m e r S t e p h e n G r o o m b r i d g e w i t h t h e G r o o m b r i d g e T r a n s i t C i r c l e b e t w e e n 1 8 0 6 a n d t h e 1 8 3 0 s a n d p u b l i s h e d p o s t h u m o u s l y i n h i s s t a r c a t a l o g , " C a t a l o g u e o f C i r c u m p o l a r S t a r s " ( 1 8 3 8 ) . I t s h i g h p r o p e r m o t i o n w a s n o t e d b y F r i e d r i c h W i l h e l m A r g e l a n d e r i n 1 8 4 2 . I t i s f r o m t h e S u n a s m e a s u r e d b y t h e G a i a s p a c e c r a f t , w h i c h , a s t h e d i s t a n c e i s n e a r l y 1 0 p a r s e c s , m e a n s i t s a b s o l u t e m a g n i t u d e i s a l m o s t e q u a l t o i t s a p p a r e n t m a g n i t u d e . I t i s a m e m b e r o f t h e g a l a c t i c h a l o ; s u c h s t a r s a c c o u n t f o r o n l y 0 . 1 t o 0 . 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t a r s n e a r t h e S u n . L i k e m o s t h a l o s t a r s , i t h a s a l o w a b u n d a n c e o f e l e m e n t s o t h e r t h a n h y d r o g e n a n d h e l i u m — w h a t a s t r o n o m e r s t e r m a m e t a l - p o o r s t a r . O n c e s u s p e c t e d o f b e i n g a b i n a r y s t a r w i t h a p e r i o d o f 1 7 5 d a y s , c u r r e n t c o n s e n s u s i s t h a t i t i s s i n g l e . P r e v i o u s s u s p e c t e d o b s e r v a t i o n s o f a s t e l l a r c o m p a n i o n w e r e p r o b a b l y " s u p e r f l a r e s " — a n a l o g o u s t o t h e S u n ' s s o l a r f l a r e s , b u t h u n d r e d s t o m i l l i o n s o f t i m e s m o r e e n e r g e t i c . I t h a d o n e o f t h e f i r s t n i n e i d e n t i f i e d s u p e r f l a r e s . W h e n d i s c o v e r e d , i t h a d t h e h i g h e s t p r o p e r m o t i o n o f a n y s t a r k n o w n , r e p l a c i n g 6 1 C y g n i i n t h a t d e p a r t m e n t . L a t e r i t d r o p p e d t o s e c o n d p l a c e a f t e r t h e d i s c o v e r y o f K a p t e y n ' s S t a r , a n d s t i l l l a t e r t o t h i r d p l a c e a f t e r t h e d i s c o v e r y o f B a r n a r d ' s S t a r . I t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y f a r t h e r a w a y t h a n e i t h e r o f t h o s e s t a r s , h o w e v e r , w h i c h m e a n s i t s t r a n s v e r s e v e l o c i t y i s g r e a t e r .

Description

The text describes Groombridge 1618, a yellow-hued subdwarf star located about 10 parsecs from the Sun. Noted for its high proper motion, it is a metal-poor star belonging to the galactic halo, making up only 0.1-0.2% of nearby stars. Initially thought to be a binary star, it is now considered single, with previous observations likely due to superflares.

It is a yellow-hued class G8 subdwarf catalogued by British astronomer Stephen Groombridge with the Groombridge Transit Circle between 1806 and the 1830s and published posthumously in his star catalog, "Catalogue of Circumpolar Stars" (1838). Its high proper motion was noted by Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander in 1842. It is from the Sun as measured by the Gaia spacecraft, which, as the distance is nearly 10 parsecs, means its absolute magnitude is almost equal to its apparent magnitude. It is a member of the galactic halo; such stars account for only 0.1 to 0.2 percent of the stars near the Sun. Like most halo stars, it has a low abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium—what astronomers term a metal-poor star. Once suspected of being a binary star with a period of 175 days, current consensus is that it is single. Previous suspected observations of a stellar companion were probably "superflares"—analogous to the Sun's solar flares, but hundreds to millions of times more energetic. It had one of the first nine identified superflares. When discovered, it had the highest proper motion of any star known, replacing 61 Cygni in that department. Later it dropped to second place after the discovery of Kapteyn's Star, and still later to third place after the discovery of Barnard's Star. It is considerably farther away than either of those stars, however, which means its transverse velocity is greater.

Decommissioned highway

D e c o m m i s s i o n e d h i g h w a y s a r e c o m m o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . E v e n i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N u m b e r e d H i g h w a y S y s t e m , s o m e h i g h w a y s h a d s h o r t l i v e s a s U S H i g h w a y s e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e y w e r e t h e m s e l v e s s h o r t r o u t e s , s u c h a s t h e e a r l y U S   1 1 0 i n W i s c o n s i n . I n d e e d , t h e f o u r t e e n s h o r t e s t U . S . N u m b e r e d H i g h w a y s t h a t h a v e e v e r e x i s t e d w e r e s t r i p p e d o f " U S " s t a t u s i n 1 9 8 2 o r e a r l i e r . E x t e n s i o n s o f U S R o u t e s h a v e i m p l i e d t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f e a r l i e r d e s i g n a t i o n s ; f o r e x a m p l e , U S   6 , w h i c h o r i g i n a l l y w e n t n o f a r t h e r w e s t t h a n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r i n N e w Y o r k , w a s e x t e n d e d t o L o n g B e a c h , C a l i f o r n i a o v e r r o u t e s t h a t i n c l u d e d a n o l d I n d i a n a S t a t e R o a d 6 , m o s t o f a n o l d U S   3 2 b e t w e e n C h i c a g o a n d O m a h a , a l l o f U S   3 8 b e t w e e n O m a h a a n d D e n v e r , a n d a n o l d C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e R o u t e 7 m o s t l y i n t h e M o j a v e D e s e r t . U S   6 w a s i t s e l f p a r e d b a c k t o B i s h o p , C a l i f o r n i a , i n t h e G r e a t R e n u m b e r i n g o f C a l i f o r n i a i n 1 9 6 4 . A s t h e s t a t e s b u i l d f r e e w a y s a s a n e w c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f h i g h w a y s , t h e s t a t e m a y s t r i p t h e o l d h i g h w a y o f i t s o l d d e s i g n a t i o n a s a n u m b e r e d h i g h w a y o r d o w n g r a d e i t t o a l e s s e r s t a t u s . F o r e x a m p l e , U S   6 6 , w h i c h c o n n e c t e d L o s A n g e l e s a n d C h i c a g o f r o m 1 9 2 6 u n t i l 1 9 8 5 , l o s t i t s d e s i g n a t i o n a s a U . S . H i g h w a y i n f a v o r o f f a s t e r , m o r e d i r e c t I n t e r s t a t e H i g h w a y s , w h i c h h a d s u p p l a n t e d i t . S o m e h i g h w a y s m a y b e p a r t l y d e c o m m i s s i o n e d , s u c h a s t w o s e g m e n t s o f M - 2 1 i n M i c h i g a n f r o m H o l l a n d t o G r a n d R a p i d s a s I n t e r s t a t e 1 9 6 a n d b e t w e e n F l i n t a n d t h e C a n a d i a n b o r d e r a t t h e B l u e W a t e r B r i d g e a s I n t e r s t a t e 6 9 ( I - 6 9 ) s u p p l a n t e d m u c h o f i t a n d M - 2 1 r e m a i n e d i n e x i s t e n c e b e t w e e n G r a n d R a p i d s a n d F l i n t . U S   3 3 i n L a n c a s t e r , O h i o , w a s s i g n e d a s U S   3 3 B u s i n e s s f o l l o w i n g r e l o c a t i o n o f U S   3 3 a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o I n t e r s t a t e H i g h w a y s t a n d a r d s . O t h e r h i g h w a y s h a v e b e e n w h o l l y d e c o m m i s s i o n e d i n f a v o r o f n e w e r I n t e r s t a t e s , a s w a s t h e c a s e w i t h T e x a s S t a t e H i g h w a y 9 . H o w e v e r , t h e r e v e r s e c a n a l s o b e d o n e , s u c h a s I - 1 7 0 i n B a l t i m o r e b e i n g r e m o v e d i n f a v o r o f U S 4 0 ( w h i c h w a s p r e v i o u s l y r o u t e d o n p a r a l l e l - r u n n i n g o n e - w a y s t r e e t s ) b e c a u s e i t s p a r e n t r o u t e ( I - 7 0 ) h a d b e e n c a n c e l l e d d u e t o l o n g s t a n d i n g o p p o s i t i o n . S o m e s t a t e r o u t e s b u i l t o n f r e e w a y a l i g n m e n t s m a y b e u p g r a d e d t o I n t e r s t a t e H i g h w a y s t a n d a r d s ( o r a l r e a d y b u i l t t o I n t e r s t a t e s t a n d a r d s ) a n d r e c e i v e I n t e r s t a t e d e s i g n a t i o n , s u c h a s t h e c a s e w i t h P e n n s y l v a n i a R o u t e 6 0 b e i n g l a r g e l y r e p l a c e d b y I - 3 7 6 . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s o m e r o u t e s a r e d o w n g r a d e d , a s w i t h U S   6 1 i n M i n n e s o t a , w h i c h b e c a m e M i n n e s o t a S t a t e H i g h w a y 6 1 f r o m D u l u t h t o t h e C a n a d i a n b o r d e r . A t t i m e s , a s t a t e c a n a b a n d o n a n u m b e r a s t h e r e a s o n f o r s t a t e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e e n t i r e r o u t e n o l o n g e r e x i s t s ; A r i z o n a t r a n s f e r r e d t h e s h o r t A r i z o n a S t a t e R o u t e 6 2 t o t h e M o h a v e C o u n t y g o v e r n m e n t a f t e r a m i n e i n C h l o r i d e c l o s e d a n d s o d i d t h e e c o n o m i c p u r p o s e o f t h e t o w n . A t t h e e x t r e m e a d e c o m m i s s i o n e d r o u t e m a y b e d e m o l i s h e d , a s w a s d o n e w i t h C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e R o u t e 4 8 0 . O n c e p a r t o f t h e I n t e r s t a t e H i g h w a y S y s t e m , i t r e q u i r e d r e t r o f i t t i n g t o r e m a i n i n s e r v i c e a f t e r t h e 1 9 8 9 L o m a P r i e t a e a r t h q u a k e t o r e m a i n i n u s e ; i n s t e a d t h e h i g h w a y w a s d e m o l i s h e d . " A l t e r n a t e " , " B y p a s s " a n d s u f f i x e d r o u t e s ( s u c h a s U S 6 A i n C o n n e c t i c u t , t h e o l d U S 7 1 b y p a s s a r o u n d K a n s a s C i t y t h a t d i s a p p e a r e d i n f a v o r o f I n t e r s t a t e 4 3 5 a n d M i s s o u r i R o u t e 2 9 1 , a n d t h e f o r m e r U S 3 0 S i n O h i o ) h a v e o f t e n b e e n r e d e s i g n a t e d a s l e s s e r r o u t e s , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a p o l i c y o f t h e A A S H T O t h a t n o w d e p r e c a t e s s u c h h i g h w a y s , e s p e c i a l l y i f s h o r t a n d c o n f i n e d t o o n e s t a t e . S o m e s t a t e s h a v e d e c o m m i s s i o n e d s t a t e h i g h w a y s w h i c h w e r e w i t h i n a s t a t e - n u m b e r e d s y s t e m b e c a u s e s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t s o f t h o s e h i g h w a y s w e r e n o t u p t o s t a t e s t a n d a r d s , s u c h a s b e i n g u n p a v e d a n d u n l i k e l y t o e v e r b e p a v e d , a s w i t h N e v a d a S t a t e R o u t e 4 9 . I n d i a n a r e m o v e d a l l s t a t e a n d U S H i g h w a y d e s i g n a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e I n t e r s t a t e 4 6 5 b e l t w a y , e i t h e r t r u n c a t i n g t h e h i g h w a y a t t h e b e l t w a y ( U . S . H i g h w a y 1 3 6 ) , d e l e t i n g t h e h i g h w a y a l t o g e t h e r ( I n d i a n a S t a t e R o a d 1 0 0 ) , o r d i v e r t i n g t h e r o u t e s o n t o t h e b e l t w a y . A d e c o m m i s s i o n e d r o u t e m a y a l s o f i n d o t h e r u s e b e s i d e s a u t o m o b i l e u s e . T h e A b a n d o n e d P e n n s y l v a n i a T u r n p i k e , a b y p a s s e d s e c t i o n o f t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a T u r n p i k e t h a t f e a t u r e s t w o v e h i c l e t u n n e l s t h a t w e r e o v e r c a p a c i t y a f t e r t h e T u r n p i k e s a w a s u r g e i n u s a g e a f t e r W o r l d W a r I I , i s p e r h a p s t h e m o s t n o t a b l e e x a m p l e o f t h i s , a s i t h a s s i n c e b e c o m e a b i k e a n d p e d e s t r i a n t r a i l a n d , d u e t o u s i n g t h e a l i g n m e n t f o r t h e s t i l l b o r n S o u t h P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d , i s a l s o u n o f f i c i a l l y a r a i l t r a i l . E v e n a s s u p e r h i g h w a y s s u p p l a n t o l d e r s u r f a c e r o u t e s , s o m e h i s t o r i c a l h i g h w a y s g e t a t t e n t i o n f r o m t h o s e w i t h a n t i q u a r i a n ( a n d c o m m e r c i a l ) i n t e r e s t s i n t h e c o n t i n u e d r e c o g n i t i o n o f s u c h r o u t e s . U S   6 6 i n t h e m i d w e s t e r n a n d s o u t h w e s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s i s a p r i m e e x a m p l e o f s u c h e f f o r t s ; " H i s t o r i c R o u t e U S   6 6 " m a r k e r s , c o m p l e t e l y u n o f f i c i a l , d e s i g n a t e m o s t o f t h e o l d s u r f a c e r o a d , s o m e o f w h i c h h a s l i t e r a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e ( a s i n J o h n S t e i n b e c k ' s n o v e l " T h e G r a p e s o f W r a t h " ) . M a n y o f Q u e b e c ' s A u t o r o u t e s s u p p l a n t o l d t h r o u g h r o u t e s . I n N e w B r u n s w i c k , w h e n a b y p a s s r o a d o r f r e e w a y i s c o n s t r u c t e d , i t n o r m a l l y t a k e s t h e n u m b e r o f t h e r o a d i t r e p l a c e d , o f t e n r e m o v i n g p o r t i o n s o f t h e o l d r o a d f r o m t h e p r o v i n c i a l h i g h w a y s y s t e m e n t i r e l y . M o s t b e c o m e l o c a l o r c o u n t y r o a d s ; i n s o m e c a s e s ( s u c h a s t h e M o n c t o n - F r e d e r i c t o n H i g h w a y 2 , b y p a s s e d a s f r e e w a y i n 2 0 0 1 ) a s e c t i o n o f t h e o l d r o a d w o u l d b e r e t a i n e d a s p a r t o f s o m e o t h e r p r o v i n c i a l h i g h w a y b e c a u s e i t r e a c h e s a m a j o r t o w n t h e n e w r o a d h a d b y p a s s e d . I n 1 9 9 7 a n d 1 9 9 8 , t h e p r o v i n c e o f O n t a r i o u n d e r t o o k a m a j o r h i g h w a y d e c o m m i s s i o n i n g p r o j e c t , d r o p p i n g o v e r o f r o a d f r o m t h e p r o v i n c i a l l y m a i n t a i n e d h i g h w a y s y s t e m . M o s t o f t h e f o r m e r h i g h w a y s a r e n o w n u m b e r e d a s c o u n t y r o a d s . S e e a l s o L i s t o f f o r m e r p r o v i n c i a l h i g h w a y s i n O n t a r i o . T h e T h o u s a n d I s l a n d s P a r k w a y i n O n t a r i o w a s o r i g i n a l l y f o u r l a n e s a n d p a r t o f O n t a r i o H i g h w a y 4 0 1 , C a n a d a ' s b u s i e s t h i g h w a y , b e f o r e 4 0 1 t r a f f i c w a s b y p a s s e d i n l a n d o n c o m p l e t i o n o f t h a t f r e e w a y i n 1 9 6 8 . T w o o f t h e l a n e s a r e p r o v i n c i a l l y m a i n t a i n e d f o r a u t o m o b i l e t r a f f i c b y t h e S t . L a w r e n c e P a r k s C o m m i s s i o n b u t t h e o t h e r p a i r h a v e b e e n r e p l a c e d w i t h f o o t p a t h s a n d a b i c y c l e t r a i l . I n G e r m a n y , m a n y A u t o b a h n s s u p p l a n t a n o l d e r t h r o u g h r o u t e , a s i n B u n d e s s t r a ß e 6 0 ( b e s t t r a n s l a t e d a s F e d e r a l H i g h w a y 6 0 ) , w h i c h d i s a p p e a r e d a s t h e A 4 0 A u t o b a h n s u p p l a n t e d i t . I n t h e R e p u b l i c o f I r e l a n d , N a t i o n a l P r i m a r y R o u t e s a r e o f t e n r e a l i g n e d a f t e r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f n e w m o t o r w a y s e c t i o n s , d u a l c a r r i a g e w a y s o r b y p a s s e s . T h e o l d r o u t e t h u s l o s e s i t s n a t i o n a l r o u t e s t a t u s a n d i s u s u a l l y r e d e s i g n a t e d a s a R e g i o n a l R o a d .

In the United States

Decommissioned highways are common in the United States, where extensions of US Routes have led to the elimination of earlier designations. As states build freeways, old highways may lose their designation or be downgraded to lesser status. Examples include US 66, which lost its designation in favor of Interstate Highways, and Texas State Highway 9, which was wholly decommissioned. Conversely, some routes may be upgraded to Interstate Highway standards or receive Interstate designation. Decommissioned routes may also find alternative uses, such as becoming bike trails or pedestrian paths.

Decommissioned highways are common in the United States. Even in the early years of the United States Numbered Highway System, some highways had short lives as US Highways especially if they were themselves short routes, such as the early US 110 in Wisconsin. Indeed, the fourteen shortest U.S. Numbered Highways that have ever existed were stripped of "US" status in 1982 or earlier. Extensions of US Routes have implied the elimination of earlier designations; for example, US 6, which originally went no farther west than the Hudson River in New York, was extended to Long Beach, California over routes that included an old Indiana State Road 6, most of an old US 32 between Chicago and Omaha, all of US 38 between Omaha and Denver, and an old California State Route 7 mostly in the Mojave Desert. US 6 was itself pared back to Bishop, California, in the Great Renumbering of California in 1964. As the states build freeways as a new classification of highways, the state may strip the old highway of its old designation as a numbered highway or downgrade it to a lesser status. For example, US 66, which connected Los Angeles and Chicago from 1926 until 1985, lost its designation as a U.S. Highway in favor of faster, more direct Interstate Highways, which had supplanted it. Some highways may be partly decommissioned, such as two segments of M-21 in Michigan from Holland to Grand Rapids as Interstate 196 and between Flint and the Canadian border at the Blue Water Bridge as Interstate 69 (I-69) supplanted much of it and M-21 remained in existence between Grand Rapids and Flint. US 33 in Lancaster, Ohio, was signed as US 33 Business following relocation of US 33 and construction to Interstate Highway standards. Other highways have been wholly decommissioned in favor of newer Interstates, as was the case with Texas State Highway 9. However, the reverse can also be done, such as I-170 in Baltimore being removed in favor of US 40 (which was previously routed on parallel-running one-way streets) because its parent route (I-70) had been cancelled due to longstanding opposition. Some state routes built on freeway alignments may be upgraded to Interstate Highway standards (or already built to Interstate standards) and receive Interstate designation, such as the case with Pennsylvania Route 60 being largely replaced by I-376. On the other hand, some routes are downgraded, as with US 61 in Minnesota, which became Minnesota State Highway 61 from Duluth to the Canadian border. At times, a state can abandon a number as the reason for state maintenance of the entire route no longer exists; Arizona transferred the short Arizona State Route 62 to the Mohave County government after a mine in Chloride closed and so did the economic purpose of the town. At the extreme a decommissioned route may be demolished, as was done with California State Route 480. Once part of the Interstate Highway System, it required retrofitting to remain in service after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake to remain in use; instead the highway was demolished. "Alternate", "Bypass" and suffixed routes (such as US 6A in Connecticut, the old US 71 bypass around Kansas City that disappeared in favor of Interstate 435 and Missouri Route 291, and the former US 30S in Ohio) have often been redesignated as lesser routes, in accordance with a policy of the AASHTO that now deprecates such highways, especially if short and confined to one state. Some states have decommissioned state highways which were within a state-numbered system because significant parts of those highways were not up to state standards, such as being unpaved and unlikely to ever be paved, as with Nevada State Route 49. Indiana removed all state and US Highway designations within the Interstate 465 beltway, either truncating the highway at the beltway (U.S. Highway 136), deleting the highway altogether (Indiana State Road 100), or diverting the routes onto the beltway. A decommissioned route may also find other use besides automobile use. The Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike, a bypassed section of the Pennsylvania Turnpike that features two vehicle tunnels that were overcapacity after the Turnpike saw a surge in usage after World War II, is perhaps the most notable example of this, as it has since become a bike and pedestrian trail and, due to using the alignment for the stillborn South Pennsylvania Railroad, is also unofficially a rail trail. Even as superhighways supplant older surface routes, some historical highways get attention from those with antiquarian (and commercial) interests in the continued recognition of such routes. US 66 in the midwestern and southwestern United States is a prime example of such efforts; "Historic Route US 66" markers, completely unofficial, designate most of the old surface road, some of which has literary significance (as in John Steinbeck's novel "The Grapes of Wrath"). Many of Quebec's Autoroutes supplant old through routes. In New Brunswick, when a bypass road or freeway is constructed, it normally takes the number of the road it replaced, often removing portions of the old road from the provincial highway system entirely. Most become local or county roads; in some cases (such as the Moncton-Fredericton Highway 2, bypassed as freeway in 2001) a section of the old road would be retained as part of some other provincial highway because it reaches a major town the new road had bypassed. In 1997 and 1998, the province of Ontario undertook a major highway decommissioning project, dropping over of road from the provincially maintained highway system. Most of the former highways are now numbered as county roads. See also List of former provincial highways in Ontario. The Thousand Islands Parkway in Ontario was originally four lanes and part of Ontario Highway 401, Canada's busiest highway, before 401 traffic was bypassed inland on completion of that freeway in 1968. Two of the lanes are provincially maintained for automobile traffic by the St. Lawrence Parks Commission but the other pair have been replaced with footpaths and a bicycle trail. In Germany, many Autobahns supplant an older through route, as in Bundesstraße 60 (best translated as Federal Highway 60), which disappeared as the A40 Autobahn supplanted it.

Kollam

I n 8 2 5 C E , t h e M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r , o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " , w a s c r e a t e d i n K o l l a m a t m e e t i n g s h e l d i n t h e c i t y . T h e p r e s e n t M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r i s s a i d t o h a v e b e g u n w i t h t h e r e - f o u n d i n g o f t h e t o w n , w h i c h w a s r e b u i l t a f t e r i t s d e s t r u c t i o n b y f i r e . T h e n a m e K o l l a m i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d " K o l l a m " , m e a n i n g p e p p e r . A s t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Q u i l o n , K o l l a m w a s a f l o u r i s h i n g p o r t d u r i n g t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y ( c . 3 r d c e n t u r y B C – 1 2 t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d l a t e r b e c a m e t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e K i n g d o m o f Q u i l o n o n i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n c . 8 2 5 . K o l l a m w a s c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f o u r e a r l y e n t r e p o t s i n g l o b a l s e a t r a d e d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , a l o n g w i t h A l e x a n d r i a a n d C a i r o i n E g y p t , t h e C h i n e s e c i t y o f Q u a n z h o u , a n d M a l a c c a i n t h e M a l a y s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o . I t s e e m s t h a t t r a d e a t K o l l a m s e e m s t o h a v e f l o u r i s h e d r i g h t i n t o t h e M e d i e v a l p e r i o d a s i n 1 2 8 0 , t h e r e i s i n s t a n c e o f e n v o y s o f Y u a n C h i n a c o m i n g t o K o l l a m f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e l o c a l r u l e r a n d C h i n a T h e a n c i e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f K o l l a m w a s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f K e r a l a . T h e C h e r a d y n a s t y g o v e r n e d t h e a r e a o f M a l a b a r C o a s t b e t w e e n A l a p p u z h a i n t h e s o u t h t o K a s a r a g o d i n t h e n o r t h . T h i s i n c l u d e d P a l a k k a d G a p , C o i m b a t o r e , S a l e m , a n d K o l l i H i l l s . T h e r e g i o n a r o u n d C o i m b a t o r e w a s r u l e d b y t h e C h e r a s d u r i n g S a n g a m p e r i o d b e t w e e n c . f i r s t a n d t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s C E a n d i t s e r v e d a s t h e e a s t e r n e n t r a n c e t o t h e P a l a k k a d G a p , t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a d e r o u t e b e t w e e n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t a n d T a m i l N a d u . H o w e v e r t h e s o u t h e r n r e g i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y K e r a l a s t a t e ( T h e c o a s t a l b e l t b e t w e e n T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a ) w a s u n d e r A y d y n a s t y , w h o w a s m o r e r e l a t e d t o t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y o f M a d u r a i t h a n C h e r a s . A l o n g w i t h ( M u z i r i s a n d T y n d i s ) , Q u i l o n w a s a n a n c i e n t s e a p o r t o n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t o f I n d i a f r o m t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . K o l l a m s e r v e d a s a m a j o r p o r t c i t y f o r P a n d y a d y n a s t y o n t h e w e s t e r n c o a s t w h i l e K u l a s e k h a r a p a t n a m s e r v e d P a n d y a s o n t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t . T h e c i t y h a d a h i g h c o m m e r c i a l r e p u t a t i o n f r o m t h e d a y s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d A n c i e n t R o m a n s . P l i n y t h e E l d e r ( 2 3 – 7 9 A D ) m e n t i o n s G r e e k s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t M u z i r i s a n d N e l c y n d a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a l a n d r o u t e o v e r t h e W e s t e r n G h a t s . S p i c e s , p e a r l s , d i a m o n d s , a n d s i l k w e r e e x p o r t e d t o E g y p t a n d R o m e f r o m t h e s e p o r t s . P e a r l s a n d d i a m o n d s c a m e t o t h e C h e r a K i n g d o m f r o m C e y l o n a n d t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o a s t o f I n d i a , t h e n k n o w n a s t h e P a n d y a n K i n g d o m . C o s m a s I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , a G r e e k N e s t o r i a n s a i l o r , i n h i s b o o k t h e C h r i s t i a n T o p o g r a p h y w h o v i s i t e d t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t i n 5 5 0 , m e n t i o n s a n e n c l a v e o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s i n " M a l e " ( M a l a b a r C o a s t ) . H e w r i t e s , " I n t h e i s l a n d o f T a b r o p a n e ( C e y l o n ) , t h e r e i s a c h u r c h o f C h r i s t i a n s , a n d c l e r i c s a n d f a i t h f u l . L i k e w i s e a t M a l e , w h e r e t h e p e p p e r g r o w s , a n d i n t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y o f K a l l i a n a ( K a l l i a n k a l a t N i l l a c k a l ) t h e r e i s a l s o a b i s h o p c o n s e c r a t e d i n P e r s i a i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e N i c e a S u n n a h a d o s e o f 3 2 5 A D . " T h e N e s t o r i a n P a t r i a r c h J e s u j a b u s , w h o d i e d i n 6 6 0 A D , m e n t i o n s K o l l a m i n h i s l e t t e r t o S i m o n , M e t r o p o l i t a n o f P e r s i a . K o l l a m i s a l s o h o m e t o o n e o f t h e o l d e s t m o s q u e s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e g e n d o f C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l s , t h e f i r s t I n d i a n m o s q u e w a s b u i l t i n 6 2 4 A D a t K o d u n g a l l u r w i t h t h e m a n d a t e o f t h e l a s t t h e r u l e r ( t h e C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l ) o f C h e r a d y n a s t y , w h o l e f t f r o m D h a r m a d o m t o M e c c a a n d c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( c . 5 7 0 – 6 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o " Q i s s a t S h a k a r w a t i F a r m a d " , t h e " M a s j i d s " a t K o d u n g a l l u r , K o l l a m , M a d a y i , B a r k u r , M a n g a l o r e , K a s a r a g o d , K a n n u r , D h a r m a d a m , P a n t h a l a y i n i , a n d C h a l i y a m , w e r e b u i l t d u r i n g t h e e r a o f M a l i k D i n a r , a n d t h e y a r e a m o n g t h e o l d e s t " M a s j i d " s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a l i k D i n a r d i e d a t T h a l a n g a r a i n K a s a r a g o d t o w n . T h e p o r t a t K o l l a m , t h e n k n o w n a s Q u i l o n , w a s f o u n d e d i n 8 2 5 b y t h e N e s t o r i a n C h r i s t i a n s M a r S a b o r a n d M a r P r o t h w i t h s a n c t i o n f r o m A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l , t h e k i n g o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e S t a t e o f Q u i l o n , a f e u d a t o r y u n d e r t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a r S a p o r I s o a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e C h e r a k i n g c r e a t e a n e w s e a p o r t n e a r K o l l a m i n l i e u o f h i s r e q u e s t t h a t h e r e b u i l d t h e a l m o s t v a n i s h e d i n l a n d s e a p o r t a t K o l l a m ( k o r e - k e - n i ) n e a r B a c k a r e ( T h e v a l a k a r a ) , a l s o k n o w n a s N e l c y n d a a n d T y n d i s t o t h e R o m a n s a n d G r e e k s a n d a s T h o n d i t o t h e T a m i l s , w h i c h h a d b e e n w i t h o u t t r a d e f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e c a u s e t h e C h e r a s w e r e o v e r r u n b y t h e P a l l a v a s i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , e n d i n g t h e s p i c e t r a d e f r o m t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e N e s t o r i a n s t o s t a y i n t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a n d i n t r o d u c e t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r s u b - c a s t e s i n t h e S t . T h o m a s t r a d i t i o n , w i t h t h e S y r i a n l i t u r g y a s a b a s i s f o r t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , w i t h o u t r e p l a c i n g t h e S a n s k r i t a n d V e d i c p r a y e r s . T h e T h a r i s a p a l l i p l a t e s p r e s e n t e d t o M a r u v a n S a p o r I s o b y A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l g r a n t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o v e r s e e i n g f o r e i g n t r a d e i n t h e c i t y a s w e l l a s c o n t r o l o v e r i t s w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s i n a m o v e d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e Q u i l o n ' s t r a d e a n d w e a l t h . T h e t w o C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o u n d i n g C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s w i t h S y r i a n l i t u r g y a l o n g t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t , d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e a n c i e n t V e d i c A d v a i t a m p r o p o u n d e d b y A d i S h a n k a r a i n t h e e a r l y n i n t h c e n t u r y a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r S u b C a s t e s , a s M a l a y a l a m w a s n o t a c c e p t e d a s a l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . T h u s b e g a n t h e M a l a y a l a m E r a , k n o w n a s K o l l a V a r s h a m a f t e r t h e c i t y , i n d i c a t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f K o l l a m i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . T h e P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t S o l e y m a n o f S i r a f v i s i t e d M a l a b a r i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d f o u n d Q u i l o n t o b e t h e o n l y p o r t i n I n d i a u s e d b y t h e h u g e C h i n e s e s h i p s a s t h e i r t r a n s s h i p m e n t h u b f o r g o o d s o n t h e i r w a y f r o m C h i n a t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . T h e r u l e r s o f K o l l a m ( f o r m e r l y c a l l e d ' D e s i n g a n a d u ' ) h a d t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a a n d e x c h a n g e d e m b a s s i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e T a n g d y n a s t y ( 6 1 8 – 9 1 3 ) , Q u i l o n w a s t h e i r c h i e f p o r t o f c a l l b e f o r e t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e C h i n e s e t r a d e d e c r e a s e d a b o u t 6 0 0 a n d w a s a g a i n r e v i v e d i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . " M i r a b i l i a D e s c r i p t a " b y B i s h o p C a t a l a n i g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e i n K o l l a m , w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e C a t h o l i c b i s h o p - d e s i g n a t e t o K o l l a m , t h e o l d e s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . H e a l s o g i v e s t r u e a n d i m a g i n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l i f e i n ' I n d i a t h e M a j o r ' i n t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e M a r c o P o l o v i s i t e d t h e c i t y . S u l a i m a n a l - T a j i r , a P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t w h o v i s i t e d K e r a l a d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S t h a n u R a v i V a r m a ( 9 t h c e n t u r y C E ) , r e c o r d s t h a t t h e r e w a s e x t e n s i v e t r a d e b e t w e e n K e r a l a a n d C h i n a a t t h a t t i m e , b a s e d a t t h e p o r t o f K o l l a m . I n 1 3 t h c e n t u r y C E , M a r a v a r m a n K u l a s e k a r a P a n d y a n I , a P a n d y a r u l e r f o u g h t a w a r i n V e n a d a n d c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a p p e a r s o n t h e C a t a l a n A t l a s o f 1 3 7 5 C E a s C o l u m b o a n d C o l o b o . T h e m a p m a r k s t h i s c i t y a s a C h r i s t i a n c i t y , r u l e d b y a C h r i s t i a n r u l e r . T h e t e x t a b o v e t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e k i n g s a y s : " A ç í s e n y [ o ] r e j a l o r e y C o l o b o , c h r i s t i à . P r u v í n c i a d e C o l u m b o " ( H e r e r e i g n s t h e L o r d K i n g C o l o b o , C h r i s t i a n , P r o v i n c e o f C o l u m b o ) . T h e c i t y w a s m u c h f r e q u e n t e d b y t h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s C E , f o l l o w e d b y t h e D o m i n i c a n a n d F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s f r o m E u r o p e . T h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s c a l l e d t h e c i t y C o l õ b o / C o l o m b o . I n 1 3 2 9 C E P o p e J o h n X X I I e s t a b l i s h e d K o l l a m / C o l u m b o a s t h e f i r s t a n d o n l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c b i s h o p r i c o n t h e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t , a n d a p p o i n t e d J o r d a n o f C a t a l o n i a , a D o m i n i c a n f r i a r , a s t h e d i o c e s e ' s f i r s t b i s h o p o f t h e L a t i n s e c t . T h e P o p e ' s L a t i n s c r i b e s a s s i g n e d t h e n a m e " C o l u m b u m " t o C o l u m b o . A c c o r d i n g t o a b o o k a u t h o r e d b y I l a r i u s A u g u s t u s , p u b l i s h e d A p r i l , 2 0 2 1 ( " ' C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s : B u r i e d d e e p i n L a t i n t h e I n d i a n o r i g i n o f t h e g r e a t e x p l o r e r f r o m G e n o a " ' ) , t h e w o r d s C o l u m b u m , C o l u m b u s a n d C o l u m b o a p p e a r f o r t h e v e r y f i r s t t i m e i n a n o t a r i a l d e e d ( l e a s e c o n t r a c t ) o f a c e r t a i n M o u s s o i n G e n o a i n 1 3 2 9 C E . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r i n t h e f o r m o f a t o p o n y m . T h e a u t h o r t h e n s h o w s , t h r o u g h t h e L a t i n t e x t o f s e v e r a l o t h e r n o t a r i a l d e e d s a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s o n c h u r c h h i s t o r y , h o w C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s - a l s o c a r r y i n g t h e s a m e t o p o n y m . - w a s p a r t o f M o u s s o ' s f a m i l y , a n d h e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n l i n e a g e ( a l t h o u g h b o r n i n G e n o a ) . T h e p o r t a t K o z h i k o d e h e l d s u p e r i o r e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n m e d i e v a l K e r a l a c o a s t , w h i l e K a n n u r , K o l l a m , a n d K o c h i , w e r e c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y p o r t s , w h e r e t h e t r a d e r s f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w o u l d g a t h e r . T h e P o r t u g u e s e a r r i v e d a t K a p p a d K o z h i k o d e i n 1 4 9 8 d u r i n g t h e A g e o f D i s c o v e r y , t h u s o p e n i n g a d i r e c t s e a r o u t e f r o m E u r o p e t o I n d i a . T h e y w e r e t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a t r a d i n g c e n t e r i n T a n g a s s e r i , K o l l a m i n 1 5 0 2 , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r t r a d e i n p e p p e r . I n t h e w a r s w i t h t h e M o o r s / A r a b s t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e a n c i e n t c h u r c h ( t e m p l e ) o f S t T h o m a s T r a d i t i o n a t T h e v a l a k a r a w a s d e s t r o y e d . I n 1 5 1 7 , t h e P o r t u g u e s e b u i l t t h e S t . T h o m a s F o r t i n T h a n g a s s e r i , w h i c h w a s d e s t r o y e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t w a r s w i t h t h e D u t c h . I n 1 6 6 1 , t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c i t y . T h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e o l d P o r t u g u e s e F o r t , l a t e r r e n o v a t e d b y t h e D u t c h , c a n b e f o u n d a t T h a n g a s s e r i . I n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , T r a v a n c o r e c o n q u e r e d K o l l a m , f o l l o w e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n 1 7 9 5 . T h a n g a s s e r i r e m a i n s t o d a y a s a n A n g l o - I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h o u g h f e w A n g l o - I n d i a n s r e m a i n . T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C h u r c h i n T h a n g a s s e r i , a n o l d P o r t u g u e s e - b u i l t c h u r c h , r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f t h e a r e a . T h e B a t t l e o f Q u i l o n w a s f o u g h t i n 1 8 0 9 b e t w e e n a t r o o p o f t h e I n d i a n k i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e l e d b y t h e t h e n D a l a w a ( p r i m e m i n i s t e r ) o f T r a v a n c o r e , V e l u T h a m p i D a l a w a a n d t h e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y l e d b y C o l o n e l C h a l m e r s a t C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n i n Q u i l o n . T h e b a t t l e l a s t e d f o r o n l y s i x h o u r s a n d w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s i n v a s i o n o f Q u i l o n a n d t h e i r g a r r i s o n s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n . T h e c o m p a n y f o r c e s w o n t h e b a t t l e w h i l e a l l t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e w a r w e r e c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h a n g e d a t t h e m a i d a n . I n t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y C E , t h e T r a v a n c o r e r o y a l f a m i l y a d o p t e d s o m e m e m b e r s f r o m t h e r o y a l f a m i l y o f K o l a t h u n a d u b a s e d a t K a n n u r , a n d P a r a p p a n a d b a s e d i n p r e s e n t - d a y M a l a p p u r a m d i s t r i c t . L a t e r , V e n a d K i n g d o m w a s c o m p l e t e l y m e r g e d w i t h t h e K i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e d u r i n g t h e r e i n o f M a r t h a n d a V a r m a a n d K o l l a m r e m a i n e d a s t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e K i n g d o m . L a t e r o n , t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e w a s r e l o c a t e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m . T r a v a n c o r e b e c a m e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t s t a t e i n K e r a l a b y d e f e a t i n g t h e p o w e r f u l Z a m o r i n o f K o z h i k o d e i n t h e b a t t l e o f P u r a k k a d i n 1 7 5 5 . T h e G o v e r n m e n t S e c r e t a r i a t w a s a l s o s i t u a t e d i n K o l l a m t i l l t h e 1 8 3 0 s . I t w a s m o v e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S w a t h i T h i r u n a l . E x c a v a t i o n s a r e g o i n g o n a t K o l l a m P o r t p r e m i s e s s i n c e F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 a s t h e t e a m h a s u n c o v e r e d a r r a y s o f a n t i q u e a r t i f a c t s , i n c l u d i n g C h i n e s e p o r c e l a i n a n d c o i n s . A C h i n e s e t e a m w i t h t h e P a l a c e M u s e u m , a t e a m f r o m I n d i a w i t h K e r a l a C o u n c i l f o r H i s t o r i c a l R e s e a r c h ( K C H R ) d i s c o v e r e d C h i n e s e c o i n s a n d a r t i f a c t s t h a t s h o w t r a d e l i n k s b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d a n c i e n t C h i n a . K o l l a m c i t y i s b o r d e r e d b y t h e p a n c h a y a t s o f N e e n d a k a r a a n d T h r i k k a r u v a t o t h e n o r t h , M a y y a n a d t o t h e s o u t h , a n d T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m a n d K o t t a m k a r a t o t h e e a s t , a n d b y t h e L a c c a d i v e S e a t o t h e w e s t . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y . T h e c i t y i s a b o u t a w a y f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m , a w a y f r o m K o c h i a n d a w a y f r o m K o z h i k o d e . T h e N a t i o n a l W a t e r w a y 3 a n d I t h i k k a r a r i v e r a r e t w o i m p o r t a n t w a t e r w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y . T h e l o n g K o l l a m C a n a l i s c o n n e c t i n g P a r a v u r L a k e a n s A s h t a m u d i L a k e . T h e K a l l a d a r i v e r , a n o t h e r r i v e r t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y , e m p t i e s i n t o A s h t a m u d i L a k e , w h i l e t h e I t h i k k a r a r i v e r r u n s t o P a r a v u r K a y a l . K a t t a k a y a l , a f r e s h w a t e r l a k e i n t h e c i t y , c o n n e c t s a n o t h e r w a t e r - b o d y n a m e d V a t t a k k a y a l w i t h L a k e A s h t a m u d i . I n M a r c h 2 0 1 6 , " I n d i a T i m e s " s e l e c t e d K o l l a m a s o n e o f t h e n i n e l e a s t p o l l u t e d c i t i e s o n e a r t h t o w h i c h a n y b o d y c a n r e l o c a t e . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e t o p 1 0 m o s t w e l c o m i n g p l a c e s i n I n d i a f o r t h e y e a r 2 0 2 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o B o o k i n g . c o m ' s t r a v e l l e r r e v i e w a w a r d s . K o l l a m i s a n a n c i e n t t r a d i n g t o w n – t r a d i n g w i t h R o m a n s , C h i n e s e , A r a b s , a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s – m e n t i o n e d i n h i s t o r i c a l c i t a t i o n s d a t i n g b a c k t o B i b l i c a l t i m e s a n d t h e r e i g n o f S o l o m o n , c o n n e c t i n g w i t h R e d S e a p o r t s o f t h e A r a b i a n S e a ( s u p p o r t e d b y a f i n d o f a n c i e n t R o m a n c o i n s ) . T h e r e w a s a l s o i n t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e A r y a n k a v u P a s s i n S c h e n k o t t a h G a p c o n n e c t i n g t h e a n c i e n t t o w n t o T a m i l N a d u . T h e o v e r l a n d t r a d e i n p e p p e r b y b u l l o c k c a r t a n d t h e t r a d e o v e r t h e w a t e r w a y s c o n n e c t i n g A l l e p e y a n d C o c h i n e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d e l i n k a g e s t h a t e n a b l e d i t t o g r o w i n t o o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t I n d i a n i n d u s t r i a l t o w n s h i p s . T h e r a i l l i n k s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d t o T a m i l N a d u s u p p o r t e d s t i l l s t r o n g e r t r a d e l i n k s . T h e f a c t o r i e s p r o c e s s i n g m a r i n e e x p o r t s a n d t h e p r o c e s s i n g a n d p a c k a g i n g o f c a s h e w n u t s e x t e n d e d i t s t r a d e a c r o s s t h e g l o b e . I t i s k n o w n f o r c a s h e w p r o c e s s i n g a n d c o i r m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u t h e r n g a t e w a y t o t h e b a c k w a t e r s o f K e r a l a a n d i s a p r o m i n e n t t o u r i s t d e s t i n a t i o n a t K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m u r b a n a r e a i n c l u d e s s u b u r b a n t o w n s s u c h a s P a r a v u r i n t h e s o u t h , K u n d a r a i n t h e e a s t a n d K a r u n a g a p a l l y i n t h e n o r t h o f t h e c i t y . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o w n s i n t h e c i t y s u b u r b s a r e E r a v i p u r a m , K o t t i y a m , K a n n a n a l l u r , a n d C h a v a r a . K o l l a m e x p e r i e n c e s a t r o p i c a l m o n s o o n c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n " A m " ) w i t h l i t t l e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h i s t h e d r y s e a s o n w i t h l e s s t h a n o f r a i n i n e a c h o f t h o s e m o n t h s . A p r i l t o N o v e m b e r i s t h e w e t s e a s o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e r a i n t h a n d u r i n g D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y i n J u n e a n d J u l y a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e S o u t h w e s t M o n s o o n . I n d i a c e n s u s , K o l l a m c i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 5 , 4 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e . T h e s e x r a t i o ( t h e n u m b e r o f f e m a l e s p e r 1 , 0 0 0 m a l e s ) w a s 1 , 1 1 2 , t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e d i s t r i c t o f K o l l a m r a n k e d s e v e n t h i n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e w h i l e t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m r a n k e d f o u r t h . K o l l a m h a d a n a v e r a g e l i t e r a c y r a t e o f 9 3 . 7 7 % , h i g h e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e o f 7 4 . 0 4 % . M a l e l i t e r a c y s t o o d a t 9 5 . 8 3 % , a n d f e m a l e a t 9 1 . 9 5 % . I n K o l l a m , 1 1 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r s i x y e a r s o f a g e . I n M a y 2 0 1 5 , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a v e d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d C i t y C o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m b y m e r g i n g T h r i k k a d a v o o r p a n c h a y a t h . S o t h e a r e a w i l l b e c o m e w i t h a t o t a l c i t y p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 8 4 , 8 9 2 . M a l a y a l a m i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e c i t y , w h i l e T a m i l i s u n d e r s t o o d b y s o m e s e c t i o n s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s o f A n g l o - I n d i a n s , K o n k a n i B r a h m i n s , T e l u g u C h e t t y a n d B e n g a l i m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s s e t t l e d i n t h e c i t y . F o r e a s e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , K o l l a m M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x z o n e s w i t h l o c a l z o n a l o f f i c e s f o r e a c h o n e . I n 2 0 1 4 , f o r m e r K o l l a m M a y o r M r s . P r a s a n n a E a r n e s t w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e B e s t L a d y M a y o r o f S o u t h I n d i a b y t h e R o t a r y C l u b o f T r i v a n d r u m R o y a l T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s a m i c r o c o s m o f K e r a l a s t a t e w i t h i t s r e s i d e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o v a r i e d r e l i g i o u s , e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y a n c i e n t t e m p l e s , c e n t u r i e s - o l d c h u r c h e s a n d m o s q u e s i n t h e c i t y a n d i t s s u b u r b s . K o l l a m i s a H i n d u m a j o r i t y c i t y i n K e r a l a . 5 6 . 3 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n b e l o n g s t o H i n d u c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e K o l l a m E r a ( a l s o k n o w n a s " M a l a y a l a m E r a " o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " o r " M a l a y a l a m C a l e n d a r " o r " M a l a b a r E r a " ) , s o l a r a n d s i d e r e a l H i n d u c a l e n d a r u s e d i n K e r a l a , h a s b e e n o r i g i n a t e d o n 8 2 5 C E ( P o t h u V a r s h a m ) a t ( K o l l a m ) c i t y . M u s l i m s a c c o u n t f o r 2 2 . 0 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . A s p e r t h e C e n s u s 2 0 1 1 d a t a , 8 0 , 9 3 5 i s t h e t o t a l M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n K o l l a m . T h e K a r b a l a M a i d a n a n d t h e a d j a c e n t M a k a n i m o s q u e s e r v e s a s t h e E i d g a h f o r t h e c i t y . T h e 3 0 0 - y e a r - o l d J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i a t K a r u v a h o u s e s t h e m o r t a l r e m a i n s o f a S u f i s a i n t , S y e d A b d u r R a h m a n J i f r i . C h r i s t i a n s a c c o u n t f o r 2 1 . 1 7 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f K o l l a m c i t y . T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n ( K o l l a m ) i s t h e f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . T h e d i o c e s e w a s f i r s t e r e c t e d b y P o p e J o h n X X I I o n 9 A u g u s t 1 3 2 9 . I t w a s r e - e r e c t e d o n 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 6 . T h e d i o c e s e c o v e r s a n a r e a o f a n d c o n t a i n s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 , 8 7 9 , 5 5 3 , C a t h o l i c s n u m b e r i n g 2 3 5 , 9 2 2 ( 4 . 8 % ) . T h e f a m o u s I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l , 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d , l o c a t e d i n T h a n g a s s e r y , i s t h e c o - c a t h e d r a l o f t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n . C S I K o l l a m - K o t t a r a k a r a D i o c e s e i s o n e o f t h e t w e n t y - f o u r d i o c e s e s o f t h e C h u r c h o f S o u t h I n d i a . T h e H e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e K e r a l a r e g i o n o f T h e P e n t e c o s t a l M i s s i o n f o r K o t t a r a k k a r a , i s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m C i t y i s a M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n w i t h e l e c t e d C o u n c i l l o r s f r o m i t s 5 5 d i v i s i o n s . T h e M a y o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e c o u n c i l l o r s , g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y h o l d i n g a m a j o r i t y . T h e C o r p o r a t i o n S e c r e t a r y h e a d s t h e o f f i c e o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e p r e s e n t M a y o r o f K o l l a m C o r p o r a t i o n i s A d v . V . R a j e n d r a b a b u o f C P I ( M ) . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i t y f a l l s u n d e r t h e K o l l a m C i t y P o l i c e C o m m i s s i o n e r a t e w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y a n I P S ( I n d i a n P o l i c e S e r v i c e ) c a d r e o f f i c e r a n d h e r e p o r t s t o t h e I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l o f P o l i c e ( I G P ) T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m R a n g e . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m e s u n d e r t h e S t a t e H o m e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a . K o l l a m C i t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b d i v i s i o n s , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , e a c h u n d e r a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r o f P o l i c e . W i t h a t o t a l u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 , 1 8 7 , 1 5 8 a n d 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 a s c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n , K o l l a m i s t h e f o u r t h m o s t p o p u l o u s c i t y i n t h e s t a t e a n d 4 9 t h o n t h e l i s t o f t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s u r b a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s i n I n d i a . t h e c i t y ' s u r b a n g r o w t h r a t e o f 1 5 4 . 5 9 % w a s t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a o f K o l l a m i n c l u d e s U l i y a k o v i l , A d i c h a n a l l o o r , A d i n a d , A y a n i v e l i k u l a n g a r a , C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r , E r a v i p u r a m ( P a r t ) , K a l l e l i b h a g o m , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m , K o t t a m k a r a , K u l a s e k h a r a p u r a m , M a y y a n a d , M e e n a d , N e d u m p a n a , N e e n d a k a r a , O a c h i r a , P a n a y a m , P a n m a n a , P a r a v u r , P e r i n a d , P o o t h a k k u l a m , T h a z h u t h a l a , T h o d i y o o r , T h r i k k a d a v o o r , T h r i k k a r u v a , T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m , a n d V a d a k k u m t h a l a . T h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p t h e C i t y o f K o l l a m a s a " P o r t C i t y o f K e r a l a " . R e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e M a r u t h a d i - E r a v i p u r a m a r e a i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r f i s h i n g , t o u r i s m a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o j e c t s w i l l b e i m p l e m e n t e d a s p a r t o f t h e p r o j e c t T h e c i t y l i f e o f K o l l a m h a s c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e . I n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a n d p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , K o l l a m c i t y i s i n f i f t h p o s i t i o n f r o m I n d i a a n d t h i r d i n K e r a l a . K o l l a m i s f a m o u s a s a c i t y w i t h e x c e l l e n t e x p o r t b a c k g r o u n d . 5 s t a r , 4 s t a r a n d 3 s t a r h o t e l s , m u l t i - s t o r i e d s h o p p i n g m a l l s , b r a n d e d j e w e l l e r y , t e x t i l e s h o w r o o m s a n d c a r s h o w r o o m s h a v e s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s . K o l l a m w a s t h e t h i r d c i t y i n K e r a l a ( a f t e r K o z h i k o d e a n d K o c h i ) t o a d o p t t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l c u l t u r e . K o l l a m d i s t r i c t r a n k s f i r s t i n l i v e s t o c k w e a l t h i n t h e s t a t e . D o w n t o w n K o l l a m i s t h e m a i n C B D o f K o l l a m c i t y . D a i r y f a r m i n g i s f a i r l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A l s o t h e r e i s a c h i l l i n g p l a n t i n t h e c i t y . K o l l a m i s a n i m p o r t a n t m a r i t i m e a n d p o r t c i t y . F i s h i n g h a s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e d i s t r i c t . N e e n d a k a r a a n d S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a v i l l a g e s i n t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y h a v e f i s h e r i e s . A n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 4 , 9 7 3 p e r s o n s a r e e n g a g e d i n f i s h i n g a n d a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s . C h e r i a z h e e k k a l , A l a p p a d , P a n d a r a t h u r u t h u , P u t h e n t h u r a , N e e n d a k a r a , T h a n g a s s e r i , E r a v i p u r a m a n d P a r a v u r a r e e i g h t o f t h e 2 6 i m p o r t a n t f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a r e 2 4 i n l a n d f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s i n i t i a t e d s t e p s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i s h i n g h a r b o u r a t N e e n d a k a r a . A v e r a g e f i s h l a n d i n g i s e s t i m a t e d a t 8 5 , 2 7 5 t o n n e s p e r y e a r . O n e - t h i r d o f t h e s t a t e ' s f i s h c a t c h i s f r o m K o l l a m . N e a r l y 3 0 0 0 m e c h a n i s e d b o a t s a r e o p e r a t i n g f r o m t h e f i s h i n g h a r b o u r . F F D A a n d V F F D A p r o m o t e f r e s h w a t e r f i s h c u l t u r e a n d p r a w n f a r m i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f i s h i n g v i l l a g e w i t h 1 0 0 h o u s e s i s b e i n g b u i l t a t E r a v i p u r a m . A p r a w n f a r m i s b e i n g b u i l t a t A y i r a m t h e n g u , a n d s e v e r a l n e w h a t c h e r i e s a r e p l a n n e d t o c a t e r t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e a q u a c u l t u r i s t s . K e r a l a ' s o n l y t u r k e y f a r m a n d a r e g i o n a l p o u l t r y f a r m a r e a t K u r e e p u z h a . T h e r e a r e t w o C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n d u s t r i a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y , t h e I n d i a n R a r e E a r t h s , C h a v a r a a n d P a r v a t h i M i l l s L t d . , K o l l a m . K e r a l a C e r a m i c s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a E l e c t r i c a l a n d A l l i e d E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p a n y i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a P r e m o P i p e f a c t o r y i n C h a v a r a , K e r a l a M i n e r a l s a n d M e t a l s L i m i t e d i n C h a v a r a a n d U n i t e d E l e c t r i c a l I n d u s t r i e s i n K o l l a m a r e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . O t h e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e p r i v a t e / c o o p e r a t i v e s e c t o r a r e A l u m i n i u m I n d u s t r i e s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , T h o m a s S t e p h e n & C o . i n K o l l a m , F l o o r c o i n P a r a v u r a n d C o o p e r a t i v e S p i n n i n g M i l l i n C h a t h a n n o o r . T h e b e a c h s a n d s o f t h e d i s t r i c t h a v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u c h h e a v y m i n e r a l s a s I l m e n i t e , R u t i l e , M o n o s i t e a n d Z i r c o n , w h i c h o f f e r s c o p e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s . B e s i d e s l a r g e d e p o s i t s o f C h i n a c l a y i n K u n d a r a , M u l a v a n a a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , t h e r e a r e a l s o l i m e - s h e l l d e p o s i t s i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e a n d B a u x i t e d e p o s i t s i n A d i c h a n a l l u r . K n o w n a s t h e " C a s h e w C a p i t a l o f t h e W o r l d " , K o l l a m i s n o t e d f o r i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c a s h e w b u s i n e s s a n d i s h o m e t o m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 c a s h e w - p r o c e s s i n g u n i t s . E v e r y y e a r , a b o u t 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f r a w c a s h e w s a r e i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e c i t y f o r p r o c e s s i n g a n d a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f p r o c e s s e d c a s h e w s a r e e x p o r t e d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s w o r l d w i d e . T h e C a s h e w E x p o r t P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( C E P C I ) e x p e c t s a r i s e i n e x p o r t s t o 2 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s b y 2 0 2 0 , a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 2 0 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e c u r r e n t f i g u r e . T h e K e r a l a S t a t e C a s h e w D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n L i m i t e d ( K S C D C ) i s s i t u a t e d a t M u n d a k k a l i n K o l l a m c i t y . T h e c o m p a n y o w n s 3 0 c a s h e w f a c t o r i e s a l l a c r o s s K e r a l a . O f t h e s e , 2 4 a r e l o c a t e d i n K o l l a m d i s t r i c t . K o l l a m i s o n e o f m a n y s e a f o o d e x p o r t h u b s i n I n d i a w i t h n u m e r o u s c o m p a n i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e c t o r . M o s t o f t h e s e a r e b a s e d i n t h e M a r u t h a d i , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a , K a v a n a d , N e e n d a k a r a , A s r a m a m , K i l i k o l l u r , T h i r u m u l l a v a r a m a n d U l i y a k o v i l a r e a s o f t h e c i t y . C a p i t h a n s , K i n g s M a r i n e E x p o r t e r s , I n d i a F o o d E x p o r t s a n d O c e a n i c F i s h e r i e s a r e e x a m p l e s o f s e a f o o d e x p o r t e r s . K o l l a m ' s A s h t a m u d i L a k e c l a m f i s h e r y w a s t h e f i r s t M a r i n e S t e w a r d s h i p C o u n c i l ( M S C ) c e r t i f i e d f i s h e r y i n I n d i a . T h e c l a m f i s h e r y s u p p o r t s a r o u n d 3 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , c l e a n i n g , p r o c e s s i n g a n d t r a d i n g o f c l a m s . A r o u n d 9 0 s p e c i e s o f f i s h a n d t e n s p e c i e s o f c l a m s a r e f o u n d i n t h e l a k e . K o l l a m F e s t i s K o l l a m ' s o w n a n n u a l f e s t i v a l , a t t r a c t i n g m o s t l y K e r a l i t e s b u t a l s o h u n d r e d s o f d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n t o u r i s t s t o K o l l a m . T h e m a i n v e n u e o f K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a n d g i g a n t i c A s h r a m a m M a i d a n . K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e s i g n a t u r e e v e n t o f K o l l a m . K o l l a m F e s t s e e k s t o s h o w c a s e K o l l a m ' s r i c h c u l t u r e a n d h e r i t a g e , t o u r i s m p o t e n t i a l a n d i n v e s t m e n t s i n n e w v e n t u r e s . K o l l a m P o o r a m , p a r t o f t h e A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e F e s t i v a l , i s u s u a l l y h e l d o n 1 5 A p r i l , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y o n 1 6 A p r i l . T h e p o o r a m i s h e l d a t t h e A s h r a m a m m a i d a n . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s T r o p h y B o a t R a c e ( P T B R ) i s a n a n n u a l r e g a t t a h e l d i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e i n K o l l a m . T h e e v e n t w a s i n a u g u r a t e d b y P r e s i d e n t P r a t h i b h a P a t i l i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . T h e e v e n t h a s b e e n r e s c h e d u l e d f r o m 2 0 1 2 . T h e c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m i s s e r v e d b y t h e T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t , w h i c h i s a b o u t 5 6 k i l o m e t e r s f r o m t h e c i t y v i a N H 6 6 . T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t i n a n o n - m e t r o c i t y i n I n d i a . i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n K e r a l a i n a r e a , a f t e r S h o r a n u r J u n c t i o n , w i t h a t o t a l o f 6 p l a t f o r m s . T h e s t a t i o n h a s 1 7 r a i l t r a c k s . K o l l a m j u n c t i o n h a s w o r l d ' s s e c o n d l o n g e s t r a i l w a y p l a t f o r m , m e a s u r i n g 1 1 8 0 . 5 m ( 3 8 7 3   f t ) . M a i n l i n e E l e c t r i c a l M u l t i p l e U n i t ( M E M U ) h a v e a m a i n t e n a n c e s h e d a t K o l l a m J u n c t i o n . T h e M E M U s e r v i c e s s t a r t e d f r o m K o l l a m t o E r n a k u l a m v i a A l a p p u z h a a n d K o t t a y a m i n t h e s e c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2 . B y 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , M E M U s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d N a g e r c o i l b e c a m e a r e a l i t y a n d l a t e r e x t e n d e d u p t o K a n y a k u m a r i . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i n a u g u r a t e d o n 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 3 f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k s o f M E M U r a k e s . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i s t h e l a r g e s t M E M U S h e d i n K e r a l a , w h i c h i s e q u i p p e d w i t h m o s t m o d e r n f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e i s a l o n g - s t a n d i n g d e m a n d f o r t h e K o l l a m T o w n R a i l w a y S t a t i o n i n t h e K o l l a m - P e r i n a d s t r e t c h a n d " S . N C o l l e g e R a i l w a y S t a t i o n " i n t h e K o l l a m - E r a v i p u r a m s t r e t c h . T h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s i n K o l l a m c i t y a r e K o l l a m J u n c t i o n r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , E r a v i p u r a m r a i l w a y s t a t i o n a n d K i l i k o l l u r r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . A n e w s u b u r b a n r a i l s y s t e m h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y t h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t a n d I n d i a n R a i l w a y s o n t h e r o u t e T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m - K o l l a m - H a r i p a d / C h e n g a n n u r f o r w h i c h M R V C i s t a s k e d t o c o n d u c t a s t u d y a n d s u b m i t a r e p o r t . T e n t r a i n s , e a c h w i t h s e v e n c o a c h e s , w i l l t r a n s p o r t p a s s e n g e r s b a c k a n d f o r t h a l o n g t h e T r i v a n d r u m - K o l l a m - C h e n g a n n u r - K o t t a r a k a r a - A d o o r s e c t i o n . T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s c o n n e c t e d t o a l m o s t a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d m a j o r t o w n s i n t h e s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g T r i v a n d r u m , A l a p p u z h a , K o c h i , P a l a k k a d , K o t t a y a m , K o t t a r a k k a r a , a n d P u n a l u r , a n d w i t h o t h e r I n d i a n c i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e N H 6 6 , N H 1 8 3 , N H 7 4 4 - a n d o t h e r s t a t e P W D R o a d s . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s p r o v i d e d b y s t a t e - o w n e d K e r a l a S t a t e R o a d T r a n s p o r t C o r p o r a t i o n ( K S R T C ) a n d p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t b u s o p e r a t o r s . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e f i v e K S R T C z o n e s i n K e r a l a . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s a l s o p r o v i d e d b y p r i v a t e t a x i s a n d a u t o r i c k s h a w s , a l s o c a l l e d a u t o s . T h e r e i s a c i t y p r i v a t e b u s s t a n d a t A n d a m u k k a m . T h e r e i s a K S R T C b u s s t a t i o n b e s i d e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . B u s e s t o v a r i o u s t o w n s i n K e r a l a a n d i n t e r s t a t e s e r v i c e s r u n f r o m t h i s s t a t i o n . T h e S t a t e W a t e r T r a n s p o r t D e p a r t m e n t o p e r a t e s b o a t s e r v i c e s t o W e s t K a l l a d a , M u n r o e I s l a n d , G u h a n a n d a p u r a m , D a l a v a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a f r o m K o l l a m K S W T D F e r r y T e r m i n a l s i t u a t e d o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . A s r a m a m L i n k R o a d i n t h e c i t y p a s s e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f e r r y t e r m i n a l . D o u b l e d e c k e r l u x u r y b o a t s r u n b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d A l l e p e y d a i l y . L u x u r y b o a t s , o p e r a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r i v a t e o w n e r s , o p e r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o a t j e t t y d u r i n g t h e t o u r i s t s e a s o n . T h e W e s t c o a s t c a n a l s y s t e m , w h i c h s t a r t s f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m i n t h e s o u t h a n d e n d s a t H o s d u r g i n t h e n o r t h , p a s s e s t h r o u g h P a r a v u r , t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m a n d K a r u n a g a p p a l l y t a l u k . K o l l a m P o r t i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p o r t i n K e r a l a , a f t e r C o c h i n P o r t T r u s t . I t i s o n e o f t w o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o r t s i n K e r a l a . C a r g o h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s b e g a n o p e r a t i o n i n 2 0 1 3 . F o r e i g n s h i p s a r r i v e i n t h e p o r t r e g u l a r l y w i t h t h e M V A l i n a , a v e s s e l r e g i s t e r e d i n A n t i g u a a n c h o r e d a t t h e p o r t o n 4 A p r i l 2 0 1 4 . O n c e t h e P o r t s t a r t s f u n c t i o n i n g i n f u l l - f l e d g e d , i t w i l l m a k e t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f K o l l a m - b a s e d c a s h e w c o m p a n i e s m o r e e a s y . S h r e y a s S h i p p i n g C o m p a n y i s n o w r u n n i n g a r e g u l a r c o n t a i n e r s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m P o r t a n d K o c h i P o r t . T h e r e a r e m a n y r e s p e c t e d c o l l e g e s , s c h o o l s a n d l e a r n i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o e d u c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t a n d l a t e s t k n o w l e d g e t o t h e s c h o l a r s . T h e T h a n g a l K u n j u M u s a l i a r C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e s c h o o l o f i t s k i n d i n t h e s t a t e , i s a t K i l i k o l l u r , a b o u t e a s t o f K o l l a m c i t y , a n d i s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e f o r a l l K o l l a m i t e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a s g r a n t e d a c a d e m i c a u t o n o m y t o F a t i m a M a t a N a t i o n a l C o l l e g e , a n o t h e r p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e c i t y . S r e e N a r a y a n a C o l l e g e , B i s h o p J e r o m e I n s t i t u t e ( a n i n t e g r a t e d c a m p u s p r o v i d i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e , E n g i n e e r i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s ) , a n d T r a v a n c o r e B u s i n e s s A c a d e m y a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e t w o l a w c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y , S r e e N a r a y a n a G u r u C o l l e g e o f L e g a l S t u d i e s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f S r e e N a r a y a n a T r u s t a n d N S S L a w C o l l e g e m a n a g e d b y t h e N . S . S . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e b e s t s c h o o l s i n K o l l a m i n c l u d i n g T r i n i t y L y c e u m S c h o o l , I n f a n t J e s u s S c h o o l , S t A l o y s i u s H . S . S , T h e o x f o r d s c h o o l , S r i S r i A c a d e m y e t c . K e r a l a S t a t e I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n ( K S I D ) , a d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e u n d e r D e p a r t m e n t o f l a b o u r a n d S k i l l s , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a , i s l o c a t e d a t C h a n d a n a t h o p e i n K o l l a m . I t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 2 0 0 8 a n d w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t s t a t e - o w n e d d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e s i n I n d i a . K S I D c u r r e n t l y c o n d u c t s P o s t G r a d u a t e D i p l o m a P r o g r a m s i n D e s i g n d e v e l o p e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n , A h m e d a b a d . I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f I n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n ( I I I C - K o l l a m ) i s a n i n s t i t u t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s s i t u a t e d a t C h a v a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o s u p p o r t t h e s k i l l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y , K o l l a m , K e r a l a i s a f a s h i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n s t i t u t e s i t u a t e d a t V e l l i m o n , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e c h n i c a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f T e x t i l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e t w o I M K ( I n s t i t u t e o f M a n a g e m e n t , K e r a l a ) E x t e n s i o n C e n t r e s a c t i v e i n t h e c i t y . K e r a l a M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e i s s i t u a t e d a t N e e n d a k a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o g i v e m a r i t i m e t r a i n i n g f o r t h e s t u d e n t s i n K e r a l a . M o r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d a t N e e n d a k a r a m a r i t i m e i n s t i t u t e u n d e r t h e B o a t C r e w t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e . A p a r t f r o m c o l l e g e s , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b a n k c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m i s k n o w n a s I n d i a ' s h u b f o r b a n k t e s t c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s w i t h a r o u n d 4 0 s u c h i n s t i t u t e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t . S t u d e n t s f r o m v a r i o u s I n d i a n s t a t e s s u c h a s T a m i l N a d u , K a r n a t a k a , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , B i h a r a n d M a d h y a P r a d e s h a l s o c o m e h e r e f o r c o a c h i n g . C r i c k e t i s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s p o r t , f o l l o w e d b y h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l . K o l l a m i s h o m e t o a n u m b e r o f l o c a l c r i c k e t , h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l t e a m s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n d i s t r i c t , s t a t e - l e v e l a n d z o n e m a t c h e s . A n I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o c k e y S t a d i u m w i t h a s t r o - t u r f f a c i l i t y i s t h e r e a t A s r a m a m i n t h e c i t y , b u i l t a t a c o s t o f R s . 1 3 c r o r e . T h e l a n d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t a d i u m w a s t a k e n o v e r f r o m t h e P o s t a l D e p a r t m e n t a t A s r a m a m , K o l l a m . T h e c i t y h a s a n o t h e r s t a d i u m n a m e d t h e L a l B a h a d u r S h a s t r i S t a d i u m , K o l l a m . I t i s a m u l t i p u r p o s e s t a d i u m a n d h a s r e p e a t e d l y h o s t e d s u c h s p o r t s e v e n t s a s t h e R a n j i T r o p h y , S a n t h o s h T r o p h y a n d N a t i o n a l G a m e s . T w o o p e n g r o u n d s i n t h e c i t y , t h e A s r a m a m M a i d a n a n d P e e r a n k i M a i d a n , a r e a l s o u s e d f o r s p o r t s e v e n t s , p r a c t i c e a n d w a r m - u p m a t c h e s . H i n d u s a n d t e m p l e s A n a n d a v a l l e e s h w a r a m S r i M a h a d e v a r T e m p l e i s a 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d a n c i e n t H i n d u t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y . T h e 4 0 0 - y e a r - o l d S a n c t u m s a n c t o r u m o f t h i s t e m p l e i s f i n i s h e d i n t e a k . A m m a c h i v e e d u M u h u r t h i t e m p l e i s a n o t h e r m a j o r t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d a r o u n d 6 0 0 y e a r s a g o b y t h e A m m a c h i V e e d u f a m i l y , a r i s t o c r a t s f r o m K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m p o o r a m , a m a j o r f e s t i v a l o f K o l l a m , i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a t e n - d a y f e s t i v a l , n o r m a l l y i n m i d A p r i l , o f A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e . K o t t a n k u l a n g a r a D e v i T e m p l e i s o n e o f t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s H i n d u t e m p l e s i n K e r a l a w e r e c r o s s - d r e s s i n g o f m e n f o r " C h a m a y a v i l a k k u " r i t u a l i s a p a r t o f t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v i t i e s . T h e m e n a l s o c a r r y l a r g e l a m p s . T h e f i r s t o f t h e t w o - d a y d r e s s i n g e v e n t d r e w t o a c l o s e e a r l y o n M o n d a y . M o r e o v e r , K o t t a r a k k a r a S r e e M a h a g a n a p a t h i K s h e t h r a m i n K o t t a r a k k a r a , P u t t i n g a l D e v i T e m p l e i n P a r a v u r , s o o r a n a d n o r t h a n a y a d i P a z h a y i d a m S r e e N a r a s i m h a S w a m i T e m p l e P o r u v a z h y P e r u v i r u t h y M a l a n a d a T e m p l e i n P o r u v a z h y , S a s t h a m c o t t a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a T e m p l e i n S a s t h a m k o t t a , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a t e m p l e , T h r i k k a d a v o o r S r e e M a h a d e v a T e m p l e i n K a d a v o o r a n d K a t t i l M e k k a t h i l D e v i T e m p l e i n P o n m a n a P a d a n a y a r k u l a n g a r a m a h a d e v a t e m p l e K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , A s h t a m u d i S r e e V e e r a b h a d r a S w a m y T e m p l e a r e t h e o t h e r f a m o u s H i n d u w o r s h i p c e n t r e s i n t h e K o l l a m M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c h u r c h e s T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l i n T a n g a s s e r i i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o r t u g u e s e d u r i n g 1 6 1 4 . I t i s n o w t h e p r o - c a t h e d r a l o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n – t h e a n c i e n t a n d f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e o f I n d i a . T h e c h u r c h r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f o l d Q u i l o n c i t y . S t . S e b a s t i a n ' s C h u r c h a t N e e n d a k a r a i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h i n t h e c i t y . T h e D u t c h C h u r c h i n M u n r o e I s l a n d i s b u i l t b y t h e D u t c h i n 1 8 7 8 . O u r L a d y o f V e l a n k a n n i S h r i n e i n C u t c h e r y i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p p l a c e i n K o l l a m c i t y . S a i n t C a s i m i r C h u r c h i n K a d a v o o r , H o l y F a m i l y C h u r c h i n K a v a n a d , S t . S t e p h e n ' s C h u r c h i n T h o p p u a n d S t . T h o m a s C h u r c h i n K a d a p p a k a d a a r e s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n K o l l a m . M u s l i m s a n d m o s q u e s K o t t u k a d u J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r J u m a - A - M a s j i d , V a l i y a p a l l i i n J o n a k a p p u r a m , C h i n n a k a d a J u m a M a s j i d , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n K o l l u r v i l a , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n T h a t t a m a l a a n d K o i v i l a J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a a r e t h e o t h e r m a j o r M o s q u e s i n K o l l a m . N o t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s b o r n i n K o l l a m i n c l u d e :

History

The history of Kollam dates back to the medieval period when trade flourished in the city. The Chera dynasty governed the area, including Palakkad Gap, Coimbatore, Salem, and Kolli Hills. The city was a major port city for the Pandya dynasty on the western coast. The city had a high commercial reputation since the days of the Phoenicians and Ancient Romans. The city is home to one of the oldest mosques in the Indian subcontinent. The port at Kollam was founded in 825 by the Nestorian Christians. The city had trade relations with China and exchanged embassies. The rulers of Kollam had trade relations with China and exchanged embassies. The city appears on the Catalan Atlas of 1375 CE as Columbo and Colobo. The Portuguese established a trading center in Tangasseri, Kollam in 1502. The Dutch East India Company took possession of the city in 1661. The British conquered Kollam in 1795.

in the Malaysian archipelago. It seems that trade at Kollam seems to have flourished right into the Medieval period as in 1280, there is instance of envoys of Yuan China coming to Kollam for establishing relations between the local ruler and China The ancient political and cultural history of Kollam was almost entirely independent from that of the rest of Kerala. The Chera dynasty governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. This included Palakkad Gap, Coimbatore, Salem, and Kolli Hills. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c. first and the fourth centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu. However the southern region of present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and Alappuzha) was under Ay dynasty, who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai than Cheras. Along with (Muziris and Tyndis), Quilon was an ancient seaport on the Malabar Coast of India from the early centuries before the Christian era. Kollam served as a major port city for Pandya dynasty on the western coast while Kulasekharapatnam served Pandyas on the eastern coast. The city had a high commercial reputation from the days of the Phoenicians and Ancient Romans. Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) mentions Greek ships anchored at Muziris and Nelcynda. There was also a land route over the Western Ghats. Spices, pearls, diamonds, and silk were exported to Egypt is also home to one of the oldest mosques in Indian subcontinent. According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who left from Dharmadom to Mecca and converted to Islam during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632). According to "Qissat Shakarwati Farmad", the "Masjids" at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest "Masjid"s in Indian subcontinent. It is believed that Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town. The port at Kollam, then known as Quilon, was founded in 825 by the Nestorian Christians Mar began the Malayalam Era, known as Kolla Varsham after the city, indicating the importance of Kollam in the ninth century. The Persian merchant Soleyman of Siraf visited Malabar in the ninth century and found Quilon to be the only port in India used by the huge Chinese ships as their transshipment hub for goods on their way from China to the Persian Gulf. The rulers of Kollam (formerly called 'Desinganadu') had trade relations with China and exchanged embassies. According to the records of the Tang dynasty (618–913), Quilon was their chief port of call before the seventh century. The Chinese trade decreased about 600 and was again revived in the 13th century. "Mirabilia Descripta" by Bishop Catalani gives a description of life in Kollam, which he saw as the Catholic bishop-designate to Kollam, the oldest Catholic diocese in India. He also gives true and imaginary descriptions of life in 'India the Major' in the period before Marco Polo visited the city. Sulaiman al-Tajir, a Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam. In 13th century CE, Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, a Pandya ruler fought a war in Venad and captured the city of Kollam. The city appears on the Catalan Atlas of 1375 CE as Columbo and Colobo. The map marks this city as a Christian city, ruled by a Christian ruler. The text above the picture of the king sea route from Europe to India. They were the first Europeans to establish a trading center in Tangasseri, Kollam in 1502, which became the centre of their trade in pepper. In the wars with the Moors/Arabs that followed, the ancient church (temple) of St Thomas Tradition at Thevalakara was destroyed. In 1517, the Portuguese built the St. Thomas Fort in Thangasseri, which was destroyed in the subsequent wars with the Dutch. In 1661, the Dutch East India Company took possession of the city. The remnants of the old Portuguese Fort, later renovated by the Dutch, can be found at Thangasseri. In the 18th century, Travancore conquered Kollam, followed by the British in 1795. Thangasseri remains today as an Anglo-Indian settlement, though few Anglo-Indians remain. The Infant Jesus Church in Thangasseri, an old Portuguese-built church, remains as a memento of the Portuguese rule of the area. The Battle of Quilon was fought in 1809 between a troop of the Indian kingdom of Travancore led by the then Dalawa (prime minister) of Travancore, Velu Thampi Dalawa and the British East India Company led by Colonel Chalmers at Cantonment Maidan in Quilon. The battle lasted for only six hours and was the result of the East India Company's invasion of Quilon and their garrison situated near the Cantonment Maidan. The company forces won the battle while all the insurrectionist who participated in the war were court-martialed and subsequently hanged at the maidan. In the early 18th century CE, the Travancore royal family adopted some members from the royal family National Games. Two open grounds in the city, the Asramam Maidan and Peeranki Maidan, are also used for sports events, practice and warm-up matches. Hindus and temples Anandavalleeshwaram Sri Mahadevar Temple is a 400 years old ancient Hindu temple in the city. The 400-year-old Sanctum sanctorum of this temple is finished in teak. Ammachiveedu Muhurthi temple is another major temple in the city that have been founded around 600 years ago by the Ammachi Veedu family, aristocrats from Kollam. The Kollam pooram, a major festival of Kollam, is the culmination of a ten-day festival, normally in mid April, of Asramam Sree Krishna Swamy Temple. Kottankulangara Devi Temple is one of the world-famous Hindu temples in Kerala were cross-dressing of men for "Chamayavilakku" ritual is a part of traditional

Kollam

I n 8 2 5 C E , t h e M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r , o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " , w a s c r e a t e d i n K o l l a m a t m e e t i n g s h e l d i n t h e c i t y . T h e p r e s e n t M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r i s s a i d t o h a v e b e g u n w i t h t h e r e - f o u n d i n g o f t h e t o w n , w h i c h w a s r e b u i l t a f t e r i t s d e s t r u c t i o n b y f i r e . T h e n a m e K o l l a m i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d " K o l l a m " , m e a n i n g p e p p e r . A s t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Q u i l o n , K o l l a m w a s a f l o u r i s h i n g p o r t d u r i n g t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y ( c . 3 r d c e n t u r y B C – 1 2 t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d l a t e r b e c a m e t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e K i n g d o m o f Q u i l o n o n i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n c . 8 2 5 . K o l l a m w a s c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f o u r e a r l y e n t r e p o t s i n g l o b a l s e a t r a d e d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , a l o n g w i t h A l e x a n d r i a a n d C a i r o i n E g y p t , t h e C h i n e s e c i t y o f Q u a n z h o u , a n d M a l a c c a i n t h e M a l a y s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o . I t s e e m s t h a t t r a d e a t K o l l a m s e e m s t o h a v e f l o u r i s h e d r i g h t i n t o t h e M e d i e v a l p e r i o d a s i n 1 2 8 0 , t h e r e i s i n s t a n c e o f e n v o y s o f Y u a n C h i n a c o m i n g t o K o l l a m f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e l o c a l r u l e r a n d C h i n a T h e a n c i e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f K o l l a m w a s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f K e r a l a . T h e C h e r a d y n a s t y g o v e r n e d t h e a r e a o f M a l a b a r C o a s t b e t w e e n A l a p p u z h a i n t h e s o u t h t o K a s a r a g o d i n t h e n o r t h . T h i s i n c l u d e d P a l a k k a d G a p , C o i m b a t o r e , S a l e m , a n d K o l l i H i l l s . T h e r e g i o n a r o u n d C o i m b a t o r e w a s r u l e d b y t h e C h e r a s d u r i n g S a n g a m p e r i o d b e t w e e n c . f i r s t a n d t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s C E a n d i t s e r v e d a s t h e e a s t e r n e n t r a n c e t o t h e P a l a k k a d G a p , t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a d e r o u t e b e t w e e n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t a n d T a m i l N a d u . H o w e v e r t h e s o u t h e r n r e g i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y K e r a l a s t a t e ( T h e c o a s t a l b e l t b e t w e e n T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a ) w a s u n d e r A y d y n a s t y , w h o w a s m o r e r e l a t e d t o t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y o f M a d u r a i t h a n C h e r a s . A l o n g w i t h ( M u z i r i s a n d T y n d i s ) , Q u i l o n w a s a n a n c i e n t s e a p o r t o n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t o f I n d i a f r o m t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . K o l l a m s e r v e d a s a m a j o r p o r t c i t y f o r P a n d y a d y n a s t y o n t h e w e s t e r n c o a s t w h i l e K u l a s e k h a r a p a t n a m s e r v e d P a n d y a s o n t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t . T h e c i t y h a d a h i g h c o m m e r c i a l r e p u t a t i o n f r o m t h e d a y s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d A n c i e n t R o m a n s . P l i n y t h e E l d e r ( 2 3 – 7 9 A D ) m e n t i o n s G r e e k s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t M u z i r i s a n d N e l c y n d a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a l a n d r o u t e o v e r t h e W e s t e r n G h a t s . S p i c e s , p e a r l s , d i a m o n d s , a n d s i l k w e r e e x p o r t e d t o E g y p t a n d R o m e f r o m t h e s e p o r t s . P e a r l s a n d d i a m o n d s c a m e t o t h e C h e r a K i n g d o m f r o m C e y l o n a n d t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o a s t o f I n d i a , t h e n k n o w n a s t h e P a n d y a n K i n g d o m . C o s m a s I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , a G r e e k N e s t o r i a n s a i l o r , i n h i s b o o k t h e C h r i s t i a n T o p o g r a p h y w h o v i s i t e d t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t i n 5 5 0 , m e n t i o n s a n e n c l a v e o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s i n " M a l e " ( M a l a b a r C o a s t ) . H e w r i t e s , " I n t h e i s l a n d o f T a b r o p a n e ( C e y l o n ) , t h e r e i s a c h u r c h o f C h r i s t i a n s , a n d c l e r i c s a n d f a i t h f u l . L i k e w i s e a t M a l e , w h e r e t h e p e p p e r g r o w s , a n d i n t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y o f K a l l i a n a ( K a l l i a n k a l a t N i l l a c k a l ) t h e r e i s a l s o a b i s h o p c o n s e c r a t e d i n P e r s i a i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e N i c e a S u n n a h a d o s e o f 3 2 5 A D . " T h e N e s t o r i a n P a t r i a r c h J e s u j a b u s , w h o d i e d i n 6 6 0 A D , m e n t i o n s K o l l a m i n h i s l e t t e r t o S i m o n , M e t r o p o l i t a n o f P e r s i a . K o l l a m i s a l s o h o m e t o o n e o f t h e o l d e s t m o s q u e s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e g e n d o f C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l s , t h e f i r s t I n d i a n m o s q u e w a s b u i l t i n 6 2 4 A D a t K o d u n g a l l u r w i t h t h e m a n d a t e o f t h e l a s t t h e r u l e r ( t h e C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l ) o f C h e r a d y n a s t y , w h o l e f t f r o m D h a r m a d o m t o M e c c a a n d c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( c . 5 7 0 – 6 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o " Q i s s a t S h a k a r w a t i F a r m a d " , t h e " M a s j i d s " a t K o d u n g a l l u r , K o l l a m , M a d a y i , B a r k u r , M a n g a l o r e , K a s a r a g o d , K a n n u r , D h a r m a d a m , P a n t h a l a y i n i , a n d C h a l i y a m , w e r e b u i l t d u r i n g t h e e r a o f M a l i k D i n a r , a n d t h e y a r e a m o n g t h e o l d e s t " M a s j i d " s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a l i k D i n a r d i e d a t T h a l a n g a r a i n K a s a r a g o d t o w n . T h e p o r t a t K o l l a m , t h e n k n o w n a s Q u i l o n , w a s f o u n d e d i n 8 2 5 b y t h e N e s t o r i a n C h r i s t i a n s M a r S a b o r a n d M a r P r o t h w i t h s a n c t i o n f r o m A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l , t h e k i n g o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e S t a t e o f Q u i l o n , a f e u d a t o r y u n d e r t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a r S a p o r I s o a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e C h e r a k i n g c r e a t e a n e w s e a p o r t n e a r K o l l a m i n l i e u o f h i s r e q u e s t t h a t h e r e b u i l d t h e a l m o s t v a n i s h e d i n l a n d s e a p o r t a t K o l l a m ( k o r e - k e - n i ) n e a r B a c k a r e ( T h e v a l a k a r a ) , a l s o k n o w n a s N e l c y n d a a n d T y n d i s t o t h e R o m a n s a n d G r e e k s a n d a s T h o n d i t o t h e T a m i l s , w h i c h h a d b e e n w i t h o u t t r a d e f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e c a u s e t h e C h e r a s w e r e o v e r r u n b y t h e P a l l a v a s i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , e n d i n g t h e s p i c e t r a d e f r o m t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e N e s t o r i a n s t o s t a y i n t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a n d i n t r o d u c e t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r s u b - c a s t e s i n t h e S t . T h o m a s t r a d i t i o n , w i t h t h e S y r i a n l i t u r g y a s a b a s i s f o r t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , w i t h o u t r e p l a c i n g t h e S a n s k r i t a n d V e d i c p r a y e r s . T h e T h a r i s a p a l l i p l a t e s p r e s e n t e d t o M a r u v a n S a p o r I s o b y A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l g r a n t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o v e r s e e i n g f o r e i g n t r a d e i n t h e c i t y a s w e l l a s c o n t r o l o v e r i t s w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s i n a m o v e d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e Q u i l o n ' s t r a d e a n d w e a l t h . T h e t w o C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o u n d i n g C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s w i t h S y r i a n l i t u r g y a l o n g t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t , d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e a n c i e n t V e d i c A d v a i t a m p r o p o u n d e d b y A d i S h a n k a r a i n t h e e a r l y n i n t h c e n t u r y a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r S u b C a s t e s , a s M a l a y a l a m w a s n o t a c c e p t e d a s a l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . T h u s b e g a n t h e M a l a y a l a m E r a , k n o w n a s K o l l a V a r s h a m a f t e r t h e c i t y , i n d i c a t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f K o l l a m i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . T h e P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t S o l e y m a n o f S i r a f v i s i t e d M a l a b a r i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d f o u n d Q u i l o n t o b e t h e o n l y p o r t i n I n d i a u s e d b y t h e h u g e C h i n e s e s h i p s a s t h e i r t r a n s s h i p m e n t h u b f o r g o o d s o n t h e i r w a y f r o m C h i n a t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . T h e r u l e r s o f K o l l a m ( f o r m e r l y c a l l e d ' D e s i n g a n a d u ' ) h a d t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a a n d e x c h a n g e d e m b a s s i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e T a n g d y n a s t y ( 6 1 8 – 9 1 3 ) , Q u i l o n w a s t h e i r c h i e f p o r t o f c a l l b e f o r e t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e C h i n e s e t r a d e d e c r e a s e d a b o u t 6 0 0 a n d w a s a g a i n r e v i v e d i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . " M i r a b i l i a D e s c r i p t a " b y B i s h o p C a t a l a n i g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e i n K o l l a m , w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e C a t h o l i c b i s h o p - d e s i g n a t e t o K o l l a m , t h e o l d e s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . H e a l s o g i v e s t r u e a n d i m a g i n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l i f e i n ' I n d i a t h e M a j o r ' i n t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e M a r c o P o l o v i s i t e d t h e c i t y . S u l a i m a n a l - T a j i r , a P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t w h o v i s i t e d K e r a l a d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S t h a n u R a v i V a r m a ( 9 t h c e n t u r y C E ) , r e c o r d s t h a t t h e r e w a s e x t e n s i v e t r a d e b e t w e e n K e r a l a a n d C h i n a a t t h a t t i m e , b a s e d a t t h e p o r t o f K o l l a m . I n 1 3 t h c e n t u r y C E , M a r a v a r m a n K u l a s e k a r a P a n d y a n I , a P a n d y a r u l e r f o u g h t a w a r i n V e n a d a n d c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a p p e a r s o n t h e C a t a l a n A t l a s o f 1 3 7 5 C E a s C o l u m b o a n d C o l o b o . T h e m a p m a r k s t h i s c i t y a s a C h r i s t i a n c i t y , r u l e d b y a C h r i s t i a n r u l e r . T h e t e x t a b o v e t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e k i n g s a y s : " A ç í s e n y [ o ] r e j a l o r e y C o l o b o , c h r i s t i à . P r u v í n c i a d e C o l u m b o " ( H e r e r e i g n s t h e L o r d K i n g C o l o b o , C h r i s t i a n , P r o v i n c e o f C o l u m b o ) . T h e c i t y w a s m u c h f r e q u e n t e d b y t h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s C E , f o l l o w e d b y t h e D o m i n i c a n a n d F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s f r o m E u r o p e . T h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s c a l l e d t h e c i t y C o l õ b o / C o l o m b o . I n 1 3 2 9 C E P o p e J o h n X X I I e s t a b l i s h e d K o l l a m / C o l u m b o a s t h e f i r s t a n d o n l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c b i s h o p r i c o n t h e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t , a n d a p p o i n t e d J o r d a n o f C a t a l o n i a , a D o m i n i c a n f r i a r , a s t h e d i o c e s e ' s f i r s t b i s h o p o f t h e L a t i n s e c t . T h e P o p e ' s L a t i n s c r i b e s a s s i g n e d t h e n a m e " C o l u m b u m " t o C o l u m b o . A c c o r d i n g t o a b o o k a u t h o r e d b y I l a r i u s A u g u s t u s , p u b l i s h e d A p r i l , 2 0 2 1 ( " ' C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s : B u r i e d d e e p i n L a t i n t h e I n d i a n o r i g i n o f t h e g r e a t e x p l o r e r f r o m G e n o a " ' ) , t h e w o r d s C o l u m b u m , C o l u m b u s a n d C o l u m b o a p p e a r f o r t h e v e r y f i r s t t i m e i n a n o t a r i a l d e e d ( l e a s e c o n t r a c t ) o f a c e r t a i n M o u s s o i n G e n o a i n 1 3 2 9 C E . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r i n t h e f o r m o f a t o p o n y m . T h e a u t h o r t h e n s h o w s , t h r o u g h t h e L a t i n t e x t o f s e v e r a l o t h e r n o t a r i a l d e e d s a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s o n c h u r c h h i s t o r y , h o w C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s - a l s o c a r r y i n g t h e s a m e t o p o n y m . - w a s p a r t o f M o u s s o ' s f a m i l y , a n d h e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n l i n e a g e ( a l t h o u g h b o r n i n G e n o a ) . T h e p o r t a t K o z h i k o d e h e l d s u p e r i o r e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n m e d i e v a l K e r a l a c o a s t , w h i l e K a n n u r , K o l l a m , a n d K o c h i , w e r e c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y p o r t s , w h e r e t h e t r a d e r s f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w o u l d g a t h e r . T h e P o r t u g u e s e a r r i v e d a t K a p p a d K o z h i k o d e i n 1 4 9 8 d u r i n g t h e A g e o f D i s c o v e r y , t h u s o p e n i n g a d i r e c t s e a r o u t e f r o m E u r o p e t o I n d i a . T h e y w e r e t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a t r a d i n g c e n t e r i n T a n g a s s e r i , K o l l a m i n 1 5 0 2 , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r t r a d e i n p e p p e r . I n t h e w a r s w i t h t h e M o o r s / A r a b s t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e a n c i e n t c h u r c h ( t e m p l e ) o f S t T h o m a s T r a d i t i o n a t T h e v a l a k a r a w a s d e s t r o y e d . I n 1 5 1 7 , t h e P o r t u g u e s e b u i l t t h e S t . T h o m a s F o r t i n T h a n g a s s e r i , w h i c h w a s d e s t r o y e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t w a r s w i t h t h e D u t c h . I n 1 6 6 1 , t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c i t y . T h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e o l d P o r t u g u e s e F o r t , l a t e r r e n o v a t e d b y t h e D u t c h , c a n b e f o u n d a t T h a n g a s s e r i . I n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , T r a v a n c o r e c o n q u e r e d K o l l a m , f o l l o w e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n 1 7 9 5 . T h a n g a s s e r i r e m a i n s t o d a y a s a n A n g l o - I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h o u g h f e w A n g l o - I n d i a n s r e m a i n . T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C h u r c h i n T h a n g a s s e r i , a n o l d P o r t u g u e s e - b u i l t c h u r c h , r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f t h e a r e a . T h e B a t t l e o f Q u i l o n w a s f o u g h t i n 1 8 0 9 b e t w e e n a t r o o p o f t h e I n d i a n k i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e l e d b y t h e t h e n D a l a w a ( p r i m e m i n i s t e r ) o f T r a v a n c o r e , V e l u T h a m p i D a l a w a a n d t h e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y l e d b y C o l o n e l C h a l m e r s a t C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n i n Q u i l o n . T h e b a t t l e l a s t e d f o r o n l y s i x h o u r s a n d w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s i n v a s i o n o f Q u i l o n a n d t h e i r g a r r i s o n s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n . T h e c o m p a n y f o r c e s w o n t h e b a t t l e w h i l e a l l t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e w a r w e r e c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h a n g e d a t t h e m a i d a n . I n t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y C E , t h e T r a v a n c o r e r o y a l f a m i l y a d o p t e d s o m e m e m b e r s f r o m t h e r o y a l f a m i l y o f K o l a t h u n a d u b a s e d a t K a n n u r , a n d P a r a p p a n a d b a s e d i n p r e s e n t - d a y M a l a p p u r a m d i s t r i c t . L a t e r , V e n a d K i n g d o m w a s c o m p l e t e l y m e r g e d w i t h t h e K i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e d u r i n g t h e r e i n o f M a r t h a n d a V a r m a a n d K o l l a m r e m a i n e d a s t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e K i n g d o m . L a t e r o n , t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e w a s r e l o c a t e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m . T r a v a n c o r e b e c a m e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t s t a t e i n K e r a l a b y d e f e a t i n g t h e p o w e r f u l Z a m o r i n o f K o z h i k o d e i n t h e b a t t l e o f P u r a k k a d i n 1 7 5 5 . T h e G o v e r n m e n t S e c r e t a r i a t w a s a l s o s i t u a t e d i n K o l l a m t i l l t h e 1 8 3 0 s . I t w a s m o v e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S w a t h i T h i r u n a l . E x c a v a t i o n s a r e g o i n g o n a t K o l l a m P o r t p r e m i s e s s i n c e F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 a s t h e t e a m h a s u n c o v e r e d a r r a y s o f a n t i q u e a r t i f a c t s , i n c l u d i n g C h i n e s e p o r c e l a i n a n d c o i n s . A C h i n e s e t e a m w i t h t h e P a l a c e M u s e u m , a t e a m f r o m I n d i a w i t h K e r a l a C o u n c i l f o r H i s t o r i c a l R e s e a r c h ( K C H R ) d i s c o v e r e d C h i n e s e c o i n s a n d a r t i f a c t s t h a t s h o w t r a d e l i n k s b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d a n c i e n t C h i n a . K o l l a m c i t y i s b o r d e r e d b y t h e p a n c h a y a t s o f N e e n d a k a r a a n d T h r i k k a r u v a t o t h e n o r t h , M a y y a n a d t o t h e s o u t h , a n d T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m a n d K o t t a m k a r a t o t h e e a s t , a n d b y t h e L a c c a d i v e S e a t o t h e w e s t . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y . T h e c i t y i s a b o u t a w a y f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m , a w a y f r o m K o c h i a n d a w a y f r o m K o z h i k o d e . T h e N a t i o n a l W a t e r w a y 3 a n d I t h i k k a r a r i v e r a r e t w o i m p o r t a n t w a t e r w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y . T h e l o n g K o l l a m C a n a l i s c o n n e c t i n g P a r a v u r L a k e a n s A s h t a m u d i L a k e . T h e K a l l a d a r i v e r , a n o t h e r r i v e r t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y , e m p t i e s i n t o A s h t a m u d i L a k e , w h i l e t h e I t h i k k a r a r i v e r r u n s t o P a r a v u r K a y a l . K a t t a k a y a l , a f r e s h w a t e r l a k e i n t h e c i t y , c o n n e c t s a n o t h e r w a t e r - b o d y n a m e d V a t t a k k a y a l w i t h L a k e A s h t a m u d i . I n M a r c h 2 0 1 6 , " I n d i a T i m e s " s e l e c t e d K o l l a m a s o n e o f t h e n i n e l e a s t p o l l u t e d c i t i e s o n e a r t h t o w h i c h a n y b o d y c a n r e l o c a t e . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e t o p 1 0 m o s t w e l c o m i n g p l a c e s i n I n d i a f o r t h e y e a r 2 0 2 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o B o o k i n g . c o m ' s t r a v e l l e r r e v i e w a w a r d s . K o l l a m i s a n a n c i e n t t r a d i n g t o w n – t r a d i n g w i t h R o m a n s , C h i n e s e , A r a b s , a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s – m e n t i o n e d i n h i s t o r i c a l c i t a t i o n s d a t i n g b a c k t o B i b l i c a l t i m e s a n d t h e r e i g n o f S o l o m o n , c o n n e c t i n g w i t h R e d S e a p o r t s o f t h e A r a b i a n S e a ( s u p p o r t e d b y a f i n d o f a n c i e n t R o m a n c o i n s ) . T h e r e w a s a l s o i n t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e A r y a n k a v u P a s s i n S c h e n k o t t a h G a p c o n n e c t i n g t h e a n c i e n t t o w n t o T a m i l N a d u . T h e o v e r l a n d t r a d e i n p e p p e r b y b u l l o c k c a r t a n d t h e t r a d e o v e r t h e w a t e r w a y s c o n n e c t i n g A l l e p e y a n d C o c h i n e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d e l i n k a g e s t h a t e n a b l e d i t t o g r o w i n t o o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t I n d i a n i n d u s t r i a l t o w n s h i p s . T h e r a i l l i n k s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d t o T a m i l N a d u s u p p o r t e d s t i l l s t r o n g e r t r a d e l i n k s . T h e f a c t o r i e s p r o c e s s i n g m a r i n e e x p o r t s a n d t h e p r o c e s s i n g a n d p a c k a g i n g o f c a s h e w n u t s e x t e n d e d i t s t r a d e a c r o s s t h e g l o b e . I t i s k n o w n f o r c a s h e w p r o c e s s i n g a n d c o i r m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u t h e r n g a t e w a y t o t h e b a c k w a t e r s o f K e r a l a a n d i s a p r o m i n e n t t o u r i s t d e s t i n a t i o n a t K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m u r b a n a r e a i n c l u d e s s u b u r b a n t o w n s s u c h a s P a r a v u r i n t h e s o u t h , K u n d a r a i n t h e e a s t a n d K a r u n a g a p a l l y i n t h e n o r t h o f t h e c i t y . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o w n s i n t h e c i t y s u b u r b s a r e E r a v i p u r a m , K o t t i y a m , K a n n a n a l l u r , a n d C h a v a r a . K o l l a m e x p e r i e n c e s a t r o p i c a l m o n s o o n c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n " A m " ) w i t h l i t t l e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h i s t h e d r y s e a s o n w i t h l e s s t h a n o f r a i n i n e a c h o f t h o s e m o n t h s . A p r i l t o N o v e m b e r i s t h e w e t s e a s o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e r a i n t h a n d u r i n g D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y i n J u n e a n d J u l y a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e S o u t h w e s t M o n s o o n . I n d i a c e n s u s , K o l l a m c i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 5 , 4 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e . T h e s e x r a t i o ( t h e n u m b e r o f f e m a l e s p e r 1 , 0 0 0 m a l e s ) w a s 1 , 1 1 2 , t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e d i s t r i c t o f K o l l a m r a n k e d s e v e n t h i n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e w h i l e t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m r a n k e d f o u r t h . K o l l a m h a d a n a v e r a g e l i t e r a c y r a t e o f 9 3 . 7 7 % , h i g h e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e o f 7 4 . 0 4 % . M a l e l i t e r a c y s t o o d a t 9 5 . 8 3 % , a n d f e m a l e a t 9 1 . 9 5 % . I n K o l l a m , 1 1 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r s i x y e a r s o f a g e . I n M a y 2 0 1 5 , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a v e d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d C i t y C o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m b y m e r g i n g T h r i k k a d a v o o r p a n c h a y a t h . S o t h e a r e a w i l l b e c o m e w i t h a t o t a l c i t y p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 8 4 , 8 9 2 . M a l a y a l a m i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e c i t y , w h i l e T a m i l i s u n d e r s t o o d b y s o m e s e c t i o n s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s o f A n g l o - I n d i a n s , K o n k a n i B r a h m i n s , T e l u g u C h e t t y a n d B e n g a l i m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s s e t t l e d i n t h e c i t y . F o r e a s e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , K o l l a m M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x z o n e s w i t h l o c a l z o n a l o f f i c e s f o r e a c h o n e . I n 2 0 1 4 , f o r m e r K o l l a m M a y o r M r s . P r a s a n n a E a r n e s t w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e B e s t L a d y M a y o r o f S o u t h I n d i a b y t h e R o t a r y C l u b o f T r i v a n d r u m R o y a l T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s a m i c r o c o s m o f K e r a l a s t a t e w i t h i t s r e s i d e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o v a r i e d r e l i g i o u s , e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y a n c i e n t t e m p l e s , c e n t u r i e s - o l d c h u r c h e s a n d m o s q u e s i n t h e c i t y a n d i t s s u b u r b s . K o l l a m i s a H i n d u m a j o r i t y c i t y i n K e r a l a . 5 6 . 3 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n b e l o n g s t o H i n d u c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e K o l l a m E r a ( a l s o k n o w n a s " M a l a y a l a m E r a " o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " o r " M a l a y a l a m C a l e n d a r " o r " M a l a b a r E r a " ) , s o l a r a n d s i d e r e a l H i n d u c a l e n d a r u s e d i n K e r a l a , h a s b e e n o r i g i n a t e d o n 8 2 5 C E ( P o t h u V a r s h a m ) a t ( K o l l a m ) c i t y . M u s l i m s a c c o u n t f o r 2 2 . 0 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . A s p e r t h e C e n s u s 2 0 1 1 d a t a , 8 0 , 9 3 5 i s t h e t o t a l M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n K o l l a m . T h e K a r b a l a M a i d a n a n d t h e a d j a c e n t M a k a n i m o s q u e s e r v e s a s t h e E i d g a h f o r t h e c i t y . T h e 3 0 0 - y e a r - o l d J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i a t K a r u v a h o u s e s t h e m o r t a l r e m a i n s o f a S u f i s a i n t , S y e d A b d u r R a h m a n J i f r i . C h r i s t i a n s a c c o u n t f o r 2 1 . 1 7 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f K o l l a m c i t y . T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n ( K o l l a m ) i s t h e f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . T h e d i o c e s e w a s f i r s t e r e c t e d b y P o p e J o h n X X I I o n 9 A u g u s t 1 3 2 9 . I t w a s r e - e r e c t e d o n 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 6 . T h e d i o c e s e c o v e r s a n a r e a o f a n d c o n t a i n s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 , 8 7 9 , 5 5 3 , C a t h o l i c s n u m b e r i n g 2 3 5 , 9 2 2 ( 4 . 8 % ) . T h e f a m o u s I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l , 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d , l o c a t e d i n T h a n g a s s e r y , i s t h e c o - c a t h e d r a l o f t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n . C S I K o l l a m - K o t t a r a k a r a D i o c e s e i s o n e o f t h e t w e n t y - f o u r d i o c e s e s o f t h e C h u r c h o f S o u t h I n d i a . T h e H e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e K e r a l a r e g i o n o f T h e P e n t e c o s t a l M i s s i o n f o r K o t t a r a k k a r a , i s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m C i t y i s a M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n w i t h e l e c t e d C o u n c i l l o r s f r o m i t s 5 5 d i v i s i o n s . T h e M a y o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e c o u n c i l l o r s , g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y h o l d i n g a m a j o r i t y . T h e C o r p o r a t i o n S e c r e t a r y h e a d s t h e o f f i c e o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e p r e s e n t M a y o r o f K o l l a m C o r p o r a t i o n i s A d v . V . R a j e n d r a b a b u o f C P I ( M ) . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i t y f a l l s u n d e r t h e K o l l a m C i t y P o l i c e C o m m i s s i o n e r a t e w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y a n I P S ( I n d i a n P o l i c e S e r v i c e ) c a d r e o f f i c e r a n d h e r e p o r t s t o t h e I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l o f P o l i c e ( I G P ) T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m R a n g e . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m e s u n d e r t h e S t a t e H o m e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a . K o l l a m C i t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b d i v i s i o n s , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , e a c h u n d e r a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r o f P o l i c e . W i t h a t o t a l u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 , 1 8 7 , 1 5 8 a n d 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 a s c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n , K o l l a m i s t h e f o u r t h m o s t p o p u l o u s c i t y i n t h e s t a t e a n d 4 9 t h o n t h e l i s t o f t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s u r b a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s i n I n d i a . t h e c i t y ' s u r b a n g r o w t h r a t e o f 1 5 4 . 5 9 % w a s t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a o f K o l l a m i n c l u d e s U l i y a k o v i l , A d i c h a n a l l o o r , A d i n a d , A y a n i v e l i k u l a n g a r a , C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r , E r a v i p u r a m ( P a r t ) , K a l l e l i b h a g o m , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m , K o t t a m k a r a , K u l a s e k h a r a p u r a m , M a y y a n a d , M e e n a d , N e d u m p a n a , N e e n d a k a r a , O a c h i r a , P a n a y a m , P a n m a n a , P a r a v u r , P e r i n a d , P o o t h a k k u l a m , T h a z h u t h a l a , T h o d i y o o r , T h r i k k a d a v o o r , T h r i k k a r u v a , T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m , a n d V a d a k k u m t h a l a . T h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p t h e C i t y o f K o l l a m a s a " P o r t C i t y o f K e r a l a " . R e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e M a r u t h a d i - E r a v i p u r a m a r e a i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r f i s h i n g , t o u r i s m a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o j e c t s w i l l b e i m p l e m e n t e d a s p a r t o f t h e p r o j e c t T h e c i t y l i f e o f K o l l a m h a s c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e . I n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a n d p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , K o l l a m c i t y i s i n f i f t h p o s i t i o n f r o m I n d i a a n d t h i r d i n K e r a l a . K o l l a m i s f a m o u s a s a c i t y w i t h e x c e l l e n t e x p o r t b a c k g r o u n d . 5 s t a r , 4 s t a r a n d 3 s t a r h o t e l s , m u l t i - s t o r i e d s h o p p i n g m a l l s , b r a n d e d j e w e l l e r y , t e x t i l e s h o w r o o m s a n d c a r s h o w r o o m s h a v e s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s . K o l l a m w a s t h e t h i r d c i t y i n K e r a l a ( a f t e r K o z h i k o d e a n d K o c h i ) t o a d o p t t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l c u l t u r e . K o l l a m d i s t r i c t r a n k s f i r s t i n l i v e s t o c k w e a l t h i n t h e s t a t e . D o w n t o w n K o l l a m i s t h e m a i n C B D o f K o l l a m c i t y . D a i r y f a r m i n g i s f a i r l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A l s o t h e r e i s a c h i l l i n g p l a n t i n t h e c i t y . K o l l a m i s a n i m p o r t a n t m a r i t i m e a n d p o r t c i t y . F i s h i n g h a s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e d i s t r i c t . N e e n d a k a r a a n d S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a v i l l a g e s i n t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y h a v e f i s h e r i e s . A n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 4 , 9 7 3 p e r s o n s a r e e n g a g e d i n f i s h i n g a n d a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s . C h e r i a z h e e k k a l , A l a p p a d , P a n d a r a t h u r u t h u , P u t h e n t h u r a , N e e n d a k a r a , T h a n g a s s e r i , E r a v i p u r a m a n d P a r a v u r a r e e i g h t o f t h e 2 6 i m p o r t a n t f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a r e 2 4 i n l a n d f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s i n i t i a t e d s t e p s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i s h i n g h a r b o u r a t N e e n d a k a r a . A v e r a g e f i s h l a n d i n g i s e s t i m a t e d a t 8 5 , 2 7 5 t o n n e s p e r y e a r . O n e - t h i r d o f t h e s t a t e ' s f i s h c a t c h i s f r o m K o l l a m . N e a r l y 3 0 0 0 m e c h a n i s e d b o a t s a r e o p e r a t i n g f r o m t h e f i s h i n g h a r b o u r . F F D A a n d V F F D A p r o m o t e f r e s h w a t e r f i s h c u l t u r e a n d p r a w n f a r m i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f i s h i n g v i l l a g e w i t h 1 0 0 h o u s e s i s b e i n g b u i l t a t E r a v i p u r a m . A p r a w n f a r m i s b e i n g b u i l t a t A y i r a m t h e n g u , a n d s e v e r a l n e w h a t c h e r i e s a r e p l a n n e d t o c a t e r t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e a q u a c u l t u r i s t s . K e r a l a ' s o n l y t u r k e y f a r m a n d a r e g i o n a l p o u l t r y f a r m a r e a t K u r e e p u z h a . T h e r e a r e t w o C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n d u s t r i a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y , t h e I n d i a n R a r e E a r t h s , C h a v a r a a n d P a r v a t h i M i l l s L t d . , K o l l a m . K e r a l a C e r a m i c s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a E l e c t r i c a l a n d A l l i e d E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p a n y i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a P r e m o P i p e f a c t o r y i n C h a v a r a , K e r a l a M i n e r a l s a n d M e t a l s L i m i t e d i n C h a v a r a a n d U n i t e d E l e c t r i c a l I n d u s t r i e s i n K o l l a m a r e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . O t h e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e p r i v a t e / c o o p e r a t i v e s e c t o r a r e A l u m i n i u m I n d u s t r i e s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , T h o m a s S t e p h e n & C o . i n K o l l a m , F l o o r c o i n P a r a v u r a n d C o o p e r a t i v e S p i n n i n g M i l l i n C h a t h a n n o o r . T h e b e a c h s a n d s o f t h e d i s t r i c t h a v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u c h h e a v y m i n e r a l s a s I l m e n i t e , R u t i l e , M o n o s i t e a n d Z i r c o n , w h i c h o f f e r s c o p e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s . B e s i d e s l a r g e d e p o s i t s o f C h i n a c l a y i n K u n d a r a , M u l a v a n a a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , t h e r e a r e a l s o l i m e - s h e l l d e p o s i t s i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e a n d B a u x i t e d e p o s i t s i n A d i c h a n a l l u r . K n o w n a s t h e " C a s h e w C a p i t a l o f t h e W o r l d " , K o l l a m i s n o t e d f o r i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c a s h e w b u s i n e s s a n d i s h o m e t o m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 c a s h e w - p r o c e s s i n g u n i t s . E v e r y y e a r , a b o u t 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f r a w c a s h e w s a r e i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e c i t y f o r p r o c e s s i n g a n d a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f p r o c e s s e d c a s h e w s a r e e x p o r t e d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s w o r l d w i d e . T h e C a s h e w E x p o r t P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( C E P C I ) e x p e c t s a r i s e i n e x p o r t s t o 2 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s b y 2 0 2 0 , a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 2 0 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e c u r r e n t f i g u r e . T h e K e r a l a S t a t e C a s h e w D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n L i m i t e d ( K S C D C ) i s s i t u a t e d a t M u n d a k k a l i n K o l l a m c i t y . T h e c o m p a n y o w n s 3 0 c a s h e w f a c t o r i e s a l l a c r o s s K e r a l a . O f t h e s e , 2 4 a r e l o c a t e d i n K o l l a m d i s t r i c t . K o l l a m i s o n e o f m a n y s e a f o o d e x p o r t h u b s i n I n d i a w i t h n u m e r o u s c o m p a n i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e c t o r . M o s t o f t h e s e a r e b a s e d i n t h e M a r u t h a d i , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a , K a v a n a d , N e e n d a k a r a , A s r a m a m , K i l i k o l l u r , T h i r u m u l l a v a r a m a n d U l i y a k o v i l a r e a s o f t h e c i t y . C a p i t h a n s , K i n g s M a r i n e E x p o r t e r s , I n d i a F o o d E x p o r t s a n d O c e a n i c F i s h e r i e s a r e e x a m p l e s o f s e a f o o d e x p o r t e r s . K o l l a m ' s A s h t a m u d i L a k e c l a m f i s h e r y w a s t h e f i r s t M a r i n e S t e w a r d s h i p C o u n c i l ( M S C ) c e r t i f i e d f i s h e r y i n I n d i a . T h e c l a m f i s h e r y s u p p o r t s a r o u n d 3 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , c l e a n i n g , p r o c e s s i n g a n d t r a d i n g o f c l a m s . A r o u n d 9 0 s p e c i e s o f f i s h a n d t e n s p e c i e s o f c l a m s a r e f o u n d i n t h e l a k e . K o l l a m F e s t i s K o l l a m ' s o w n a n n u a l f e s t i v a l , a t t r a c t i n g m o s t l y K e r a l i t e s b u t a l s o h u n d r e d s o f d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n t o u r i s t s t o K o l l a m . T h e m a i n v e n u e o f K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a n d g i g a n t i c A s h r a m a m M a i d a n . K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e s i g n a t u r e e v e n t o f K o l l a m . K o l l a m F e s t s e e k s t o s h o w c a s e K o l l a m ' s r i c h c u l t u r e a n d h e r i t a g e , t o u r i s m p o t e n t i a l a n d i n v e s t m e n t s i n n e w v e n t u r e s . K o l l a m P o o r a m , p a r t o f t h e A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e F e s t i v a l , i s u s u a l l y h e l d o n 1 5 A p r i l , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y o n 1 6 A p r i l . T h e p o o r a m i s h e l d a t t h e A s h r a m a m m a i d a n . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s T r o p h y B o a t R a c e ( P T B R ) i s a n a n n u a l r e g a t t a h e l d i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e i n K o l l a m . T h e e v e n t w a s i n a u g u r a t e d b y P r e s i d e n t P r a t h i b h a P a t i l i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . T h e e v e n t h a s b e e n r e s c h e d u l e d f r o m 2 0 1 2 . T h e c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m i s s e r v e d b y t h e T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t , w h i c h i s a b o u t 5 6 k i l o m e t e r s f r o m t h e c i t y v i a N H 6 6 . T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t i n a n o n - m e t r o c i t y i n I n d i a . i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n K e r a l a i n a r e a , a f t e r S h o r a n u r J u n c t i o n , w i t h a t o t a l o f 6 p l a t f o r m s . T h e s t a t i o n h a s 1 7 r a i l t r a c k s . K o l l a m j u n c t i o n h a s w o r l d ' s s e c o n d l o n g e s t r a i l w a y p l a t f o r m , m e a s u r i n g 1 1 8 0 . 5 m ( 3 8 7 3   f t ) . M a i n l i n e E l e c t r i c a l M u l t i p l e U n i t ( M E M U ) h a v e a m a i n t e n a n c e s h e d a t K o l l a m J u n c t i o n . T h e M E M U s e r v i c e s s t a r t e d f r o m K o l l a m t o E r n a k u l a m v i a A l a p p u z h a a n d K o t t a y a m i n t h e s e c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2 . B y 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , M E M U s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d N a g e r c o i l b e c a m e a r e a l i t y a n d l a t e r e x t e n d e d u p t o K a n y a k u m a r i . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i n a u g u r a t e d o n 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 3 f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k s o f M E M U r a k e s . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i s t h e l a r g e s t M E M U S h e d i n K e r a l a , w h i c h i s e q u i p p e d w i t h m o s t m o d e r n f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e i s a l o n g - s t a n d i n g d e m a n d f o r t h e K o l l a m T o w n R a i l w a y S t a t i o n i n t h e K o l l a m - P e r i n a d s t r e t c h a n d " S . N C o l l e g e R a i l w a y S t a t i o n " i n t h e K o l l a m - E r a v i p u r a m s t r e t c h . T h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s i n K o l l a m c i t y a r e K o l l a m J u n c t i o n r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , E r a v i p u r a m r a i l w a y s t a t i o n a n d K i l i k o l l u r r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . A n e w s u b u r b a n r a i l s y s t e m h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y t h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t a n d I n d i a n R a i l w a y s o n t h e r o u t e T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m - K o l l a m - H a r i p a d / C h e n g a n n u r f o r w h i c h M R V C i s t a s k e d t o c o n d u c t a s t u d y a n d s u b m i t a r e p o r t . T e n t r a i n s , e a c h w i t h s e v e n c o a c h e s , w i l l t r a n s p o r t p a s s e n g e r s b a c k a n d f o r t h a l o n g t h e T r i v a n d r u m - K o l l a m - C h e n g a n n u r - K o t t a r a k a r a - A d o o r s e c t i o n . T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s c o n n e c t e d t o a l m o s t a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d m a j o r t o w n s i n t h e s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g T r i v a n d r u m , A l a p p u z h a , K o c h i , P a l a k k a d , K o t t a y a m , K o t t a r a k k a r a , a n d P u n a l u r , a n d w i t h o t h e r I n d i a n c i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e N H 6 6 , N H 1 8 3 , N H 7 4 4 - a n d o t h e r s t a t e P W D R o a d s . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s p r o v i d e d b y s t a t e - o w n e d K e r a l a S t a t e R o a d T r a n s p o r t C o r p o r a t i o n ( K S R T C ) a n d p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t b u s o p e r a t o r s . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e f i v e K S R T C z o n e s i n K e r a l a . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s a l s o p r o v i d e d b y p r i v a t e t a x i s a n d a u t o r i c k s h a w s , a l s o c a l l e d a u t o s . T h e r e i s a c i t y p r i v a t e b u s s t a n d a t A n d a m u k k a m . T h e r e i s a K S R T C b u s s t a t i o n b e s i d e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . B u s e s t o v a r i o u s t o w n s i n K e r a l a a n d i n t e r s t a t e s e r v i c e s r u n f r o m t h i s s t a t i o n . T h e S t a t e W a t e r T r a n s p o r t D e p a r t m e n t o p e r a t e s b o a t s e r v i c e s t o W e s t K a l l a d a , M u n r o e I s l a n d , G u h a n a n d a p u r a m , D a l a v a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a f r o m K o l l a m K S W T D F e r r y T e r m i n a l s i t u a t e d o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . A s r a m a m L i n k R o a d i n t h e c i t y p a s s e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f e r r y t e r m i n a l . D o u b l e d e c k e r l u x u r y b o a t s r u n b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d A l l e p e y d a i l y . L u x u r y b o a t s , o p e r a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r i v a t e o w n e r s , o p e r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o a t j e t t y d u r i n g t h e t o u r i s t s e a s o n . T h e W e s t c o a s t c a n a l s y s t e m , w h i c h s t a r t s f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m i n t h e s o u t h a n d e n d s a t H o s d u r g i n t h e n o r t h , p a s s e s t h r o u g h P a r a v u r , t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m a n d K a r u n a g a p p a l l y t a l u k . K o l l a m P o r t i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p o r t i n K e r a l a , a f t e r C o c h i n P o r t T r u s t . I t i s o n e o f t w o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o r t s i n K e r a l a . C a r g o h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s b e g a n o p e r a t i o n i n 2 0 1 3 . F o r e i g n s h i p s a r r i v e i n t h e p o r t r e g u l a r l y w i t h t h e M V A l i n a , a v e s s e l r e g i s t e r e d i n A n t i g u a a n c h o r e d a t t h e p o r t o n 4 A p r i l 2 0 1 4 . O n c e t h e P o r t s t a r t s f u n c t i o n i n g i n f u l l - f l e d g e d , i t w i l l m a k e t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f K o l l a m - b a s e d c a s h e w c o m p a n i e s m o r e e a s y . S h r e y a s S h i p p i n g C o m p a n y i s n o w r u n n i n g a r e g u l a r c o n t a i n e r s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m P o r t a n d K o c h i P o r t . T h e r e a r e m a n y r e s p e c t e d c o l l e g e s , s c h o o l s a n d l e a r n i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o e d u c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t a n d l a t e s t k n o w l e d g e t o t h e s c h o l a r s . T h e T h a n g a l K u n j u M u s a l i a r C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e s c h o o l o f i t s k i n d i n t h e s t a t e , i s a t K i l i k o l l u r , a b o u t e a s t o f K o l l a m c i t y , a n d i s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e f o r a l l K o l l a m i t e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a s g r a n t e d a c a d e m i c a u t o n o m y t o F a t i m a M a t a N a t i o n a l C o l l e g e , a n o t h e r p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e c i t y . S r e e N a r a y a n a C o l l e g e , B i s h o p J e r o m e I n s t i t u t e ( a n i n t e g r a t e d c a m p u s p r o v i d i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e , E n g i n e e r i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s ) , a n d T r a v a n c o r e B u s i n e s s A c a d e m y a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e t w o l a w c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y , S r e e N a r a y a n a G u r u C o l l e g e o f L e g a l S t u d i e s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f S r e e N a r a y a n a T r u s t a n d N S S L a w C o l l e g e m a n a g e d b y t h e N . S . S . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e b e s t s c h o o l s i n K o l l a m i n c l u d i n g T r i n i t y L y c e u m S c h o o l , I n f a n t J e s u s S c h o o l , S t A l o y s i u s H . S . S , T h e o x f o r d s c h o o l , S r i S r i A c a d e m y e t c . K e r a l a S t a t e I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n ( K S I D ) , a d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e u n d e r D e p a r t m e n t o f l a b o u r a n d S k i l l s , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a , i s l o c a t e d a t C h a n d a n a t h o p e i n K o l l a m . I t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 2 0 0 8 a n d w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t s t a t e - o w n e d d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e s i n I n d i a . K S I D c u r r e n t l y c o n d u c t s P o s t G r a d u a t e D i p l o m a P r o g r a m s i n D e s i g n d e v e l o p e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n , A h m e d a b a d . I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f I n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n ( I I I C - K o l l a m ) i s a n i n s t i t u t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s s i t u a t e d a t C h a v a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o s u p p o r t t h e s k i l l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y , K o l l a m , K e r a l a i s a f a s h i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n s t i t u t e s i t u a t e d a t V e l l i m o n , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e c h n i c a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f T e x t i l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e t w o I M K ( I n s t i t u t e o f M a n a g e m e n t , K e r a l a ) E x t e n s i o n C e n t r e s a c t i v e i n t h e c i t y . K e r a l a M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e i s s i t u a t e d a t N e e n d a k a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o g i v e m a r i t i m e t r a i n i n g f o r t h e s t u d e n t s i n K e r a l a . M o r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d a t N e e n d a k a r a m a r i t i m e i n s t i t u t e u n d e r t h e B o a t C r e w t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e . A p a r t f r o m c o l l e g e s , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b a n k c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m i s k n o w n a s I n d i a ' s h u b f o r b a n k t e s t c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s w i t h a r o u n d 4 0 s u c h i n s t i t u t e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t . S t u d e n t s f r o m v a r i o u s I n d i a n s t a t e s s u c h a s T a m i l N a d u , K a r n a t a k a , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , B i h a r a n d M a d h y a P r a d e s h a l s o c o m e h e r e f o r c o a c h i n g . C r i c k e t i s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s p o r t , f o l l o w e d b y h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l . K o l l a m i s h o m e t o a n u m b e r o f l o c a l c r i c k e t , h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l t e a m s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n d i s t r i c t , s t a t e - l e v e l a n d z o n e m a t c h e s . A n I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o c k e y S t a d i u m w i t h a s t r o - t u r f f a c i l i t y i s t h e r e a t A s r a m a m i n t h e c i t y , b u i l t a t a c o s t o f R s . 1 3 c r o r e . T h e l a n d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t a d i u m w a s t a k e n o v e r f r o m t h e P o s t a l D e p a r t m e n t a t A s r a m a m , K o l l a m . T h e c i t y h a s a n o t h e r s t a d i u m n a m e d t h e L a l B a h a d u r S h a s t r i S t a d i u m , K o l l a m . I t i s a m u l t i p u r p o s e s t a d i u m a n d h a s r e p e a t e d l y h o s t e d s u c h s p o r t s e v e n t s a s t h e R a n j i T r o p h y , S a n t h o s h T r o p h y a n d N a t i o n a l G a m e s . T w o o p e n g r o u n d s i n t h e c i t y , t h e A s r a m a m M a i d a n a n d P e e r a n k i M a i d a n , a r e a l s o u s e d f o r s p o r t s e v e n t s , p r a c t i c e a n d w a r m - u p m a t c h e s . H i n d u s a n d t e m p l e s A n a n d a v a l l e e s h w a r a m S r i M a h a d e v a r T e m p l e i s a 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d a n c i e n t H i n d u t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y . T h e 4 0 0 - y e a r - o l d S a n c t u m s a n c t o r u m o f t h i s t e m p l e i s f i n i s h e d i n t e a k . A m m a c h i v e e d u M u h u r t h i t e m p l e i s a n o t h e r m a j o r t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d a r o u n d 6 0 0 y e a r s a g o b y t h e A m m a c h i V e e d u f a m i l y , a r i s t o c r a t s f r o m K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m p o o r a m , a m a j o r f e s t i v a l o f K o l l a m , i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a t e n - d a y f e s t i v a l , n o r m a l l y i n m i d A p r i l , o f A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e . K o t t a n k u l a n g a r a D e v i T e m p l e i s o n e o f t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s H i n d u t e m p l e s i n K e r a l a w e r e c r o s s - d r e s s i n g o f m e n f o r " C h a m a y a v i l a k k u " r i t u a l i s a p a r t o f t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v i t i e s . T h e m e n a l s o c a r r y l a r g e l a m p s . T h e f i r s t o f t h e t w o - d a y d r e s s i n g e v e n t d r e w t o a c l o s e e a r l y o n M o n d a y . M o r e o v e r , K o t t a r a k k a r a S r e e M a h a g a n a p a t h i K s h e t h r a m i n K o t t a r a k k a r a , P u t t i n g a l D e v i T e m p l e i n P a r a v u r , s o o r a n a d n o r t h a n a y a d i P a z h a y i d a m S r e e N a r a s i m h a S w a m i T e m p l e P o r u v a z h y P e r u v i r u t h y M a l a n a d a T e m p l e i n P o r u v a z h y , S a s t h a m c o t t a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a T e m p l e i n S a s t h a m k o t t a , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a t e m p l e , T h r i k k a d a v o o r S r e e M a h a d e v a T e m p l e i n K a d a v o o r a n d K a t t i l M e k k a t h i l D e v i T e m p l e i n P o n m a n a P a d a n a y a r k u l a n g a r a m a h a d e v a t e m p l e K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , A s h t a m u d i S r e e V e e r a b h a d r a S w a m y T e m p l e a r e t h e o t h e r f a m o u s H i n d u w o r s h i p c e n t r e s i n t h e K o l l a m M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c h u r c h e s T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l i n T a n g a s s e r i i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o r t u g u e s e d u r i n g 1 6 1 4 . I t i s n o w t h e p r o - c a t h e d r a l o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n – t h e a n c i e n t a n d f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e o f I n d i a . T h e c h u r c h r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f o l d Q u i l o n c i t y . S t . S e b a s t i a n ' s C h u r c h a t N e e n d a k a r a i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h i n t h e c i t y . T h e D u t c h C h u r c h i n M u n r o e I s l a n d i s b u i l t b y t h e D u t c h i n 1 8 7 8 . O u r L a d y o f V e l a n k a n n i S h r i n e i n C u t c h e r y i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p p l a c e i n K o l l a m c i t y . S a i n t C a s i m i r C h u r c h i n K a d a v o o r , H o l y F a m i l y C h u r c h i n K a v a n a d , S t . S t e p h e n ' s C h u r c h i n T h o p p u a n d S t . T h o m a s C h u r c h i n K a d a p p a k a d a a r e s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n K o l l a m . M u s l i m s a n d m o s q u e s K o t t u k a d u J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r J u m a - A - M a s j i d , V a l i y a p a l l i i n J o n a k a p p u r a m , C h i n n a k a d a J u m a M a s j i d , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n K o l l u r v i l a , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n T h a t t a m a l a a n d K o i v i l a J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a a r e t h e o t h e r m a j o r M o s q u e s i n K o l l a m . N o t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s b o r n i n K o l l a m i n c l u d e :

History ; Pandya rule

The Malayalam calendar began in 825 CE in Kollam, which was a thriving port city during the Pandya dynasty. Kollam was an important center for global sea trade in the 13th century, alongside cities like Alexandria and Malacca. The city had a rich history, being part of the Chera dynasty and later becoming the capital of the independent Venad or Kingdom of Quilon. It was a significant hub for spices, pearls, and diamonds, with trade connections to Egypt, Rome, and China. The city was also home to a Christian community, with a bishop consecrated in Persia in the 7th century.

In 825 CE, the Malayalam calendar, or "Kollavarsham", was created in Kollam at meetings held in the city. The present Malayalam calendar is said to have begun with the re-founding of the town, which was rebuilt after its destruction by fire. The name Kollam is believed to have been derived from the Sanskrit word "Kollam", meaning pepper. As the ancient city of Quilon, Kollam was a flourishing port during the Pandya dynasty (c. 3rd century BC–12th century), and later became the capital of the independent Venad or the Kingdom of Quilon on its foundation in c. 825. Kollam was considered one of the four early entrepots in global sea trade during the 13th century, along with Alexandria and Cairo in Egypt, the Chinese city of Quanzhou, and Malacca in the Malaysian archipelago. It seems that trade at Kollam seems to have flourished right into the Medieval period as in 1280, there is instance of envoys of Yuan China coming to Kollam for establishing relations between the local ruler and China The ancient political and cultural history of Kollam was almost entirely independent from that of the rest of Kerala. The Chera dynasty governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. This included Palakkad Gap, Coimbatore, Salem, and Kolli Hills. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c. first and the fourth centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu. However the southern region of present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and Alappuzha) was under Ay dynasty, who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai than Cheras. Along with (Muziris and Tyndis), Quilon was an ancient seaport on the Malabar Coast of India from the early centuries before the Christian era. Kollam served as a major port city for Pandya dynasty on the western coast while Kulasekharapatnam served Pandyas on the eastern coast. The city had a high commercial reputation from the days of the Phoenicians and Ancient Romans. Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) mentions Greek ships anchored at Muziris and Nelcynda. There was also a land route over the Western Ghats. Spices, pearls, diamonds, and silk were exported to Egypt and Rome from these ports. Pearls and diamonds came to the Chera Kingdom from Ceylon and the southeastern coast of India, then known as the Pandyan Kingdom. Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek Nestorian sailor, in his book the Christian Topography who visited the Malabar Coast in 550, mentions an enclave of Christian believers in "Male" (Malabar Coast). He writes, "In the island of Tabropane (Ceylon), there is a church of Christians, and clerics and faithful. Likewise at Male, where the pepper grows, and in the farming community of Kalliana (Kalliankal at Nillackal) there is also a bishop consecrated in Persia in accordance with the Nicea Sunnahadose of 325 AD." The Nestorian Patriarch Jesujabus, who died in 660 AD, mentions Kollam in his letter to Simon, Metropolitan of Persia. Kollam Sabor and Mar Proth with sanction from Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal, the king of the independent Venad or the State of Quilon, a feudatory under the Chera kingdom. It is believed that Mar Sapor Iso also proposed that the Chera king create a new seaport near Kollam in lieu of his request that he rebuild the almost vanished inland seaport at Kollam (kore-ke-ni) near Backare (Thevalakara), also known as Nelcynda and Tyndis to the Romans and Greeks and as Thondi to the Tamils, which had been without trade for several centuries because the Cheras were overrun by the Pallavas in the sixth century, ending the spice trade from the Malabar coast. This allowed the Nestorians to stay in the Chera kingdom for several decades and introduce the Christian faith among the Catholic bishop-designate to Kollam, the oldest Catholic diocese in India. He also gives true and imaginary descriptions of life in 'India the Major' in the period before Marco Polo visited the city. Sulaiman al-Tajir, a Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam. In 13th century CE, Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, a Pandya ruler fought a war in Venad and captured the city of Kollam. The city appears on the Catalan Atlas of 1375 CE as Columbo and Colobo. The map marks this city as a Christian city, ruled by a Christian ruler. The text above the picture of the king in Thangasseri, an old Portuguese-built church, remains as a memento of the Portuguese rule of the area. The Battle of Quilon was fought in 1809 between a troop of the Indian kingdom of Travancore led by the then Dalawa (prime minister) of Travancore, Velu Thampi Dalawa and the British East India Company led by Colonel Chalmers at Cantonment Maidan in Quilon. The battle lasted for only six hours and was the result of the East India Company's invasion of Quilon and their garrison situated near the Cantonment Maidan. The company forces won the battle while all the insurrectionist who participated in the war were court-martialed and subsequently hanged at the maidan. In the early 18th century CE, the Travancore royal family adopted some members from the royal family of Kolathunadu based at Kannur, and Parappanad based in present-day Malappuram district. Later, Venad Kingdom was completely merged with the Kingdom of Travancore during the rein of Marthanda Varma and Kollam remained as the capital of Travancore Kingdom. Later on, the capital of Travancore was relocated to Thiruvananthapuram. Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755. The Government Secretariat was also situated in Kollam till the 1830s. It was moved to Thiruvananthapuram during the reign of Swathi Thirunal. Excavations are going on at Kollam Port premises since February 2014 as the team has uncovered arrays of antique artifacts, including Chinese porcelain and coins. A Chinese team with the Palace Museum, a team from India

Kollam

I n 8 2 5 C E , t h e M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r , o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " , w a s c r e a t e d i n K o l l a m a t m e e t i n g s h e l d i n t h e c i t y . T h e p r e s e n t M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r i s s a i d t o h a v e b e g u n w i t h t h e r e - f o u n d i n g o f t h e t o w n , w h i c h w a s r e b u i l t a f t e r i t s d e s t r u c t i o n b y f i r e . T h e n a m e K o l l a m i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d " K o l l a m " , m e a n i n g p e p p e r . A s t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Q u i l o n , K o l l a m w a s a f l o u r i s h i n g p o r t d u r i n g t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y ( c . 3 r d c e n t u r y B C – 1 2 t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d l a t e r b e c a m e t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e K i n g d o m o f Q u i l o n o n i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n c . 8 2 5 . K o l l a m w a s c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f o u r e a r l y e n t r e p o t s i n g l o b a l s e a t r a d e d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , a l o n g w i t h A l e x a n d r i a a n d C a i r o i n E g y p t , t h e C h i n e s e c i t y o f Q u a n z h o u , a n d M a l a c c a i n t h e M a l a y s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o . I t s e e m s t h a t t r a d e a t K o l l a m s e e m s t o h a v e f l o u r i s h e d r i g h t i n t o t h e M e d i e v a l p e r i o d a s i n 1 2 8 0 , t h e r e i s i n s t a n c e o f e n v o y s o f Y u a n C h i n a c o m i n g t o K o l l a m f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e l o c a l r u l e r a n d C h i n a T h e a n c i e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f K o l l a m w a s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f K e r a l a . T h e C h e r a d y n a s t y g o v e r n e d t h e a r e a o f M a l a b a r C o a s t b e t w e e n A l a p p u z h a i n t h e s o u t h t o K a s a r a g o d i n t h e n o r t h . T h i s i n c l u d e d P a l a k k a d G a p , C o i m b a t o r e , S a l e m , a n d K o l l i H i l l s . T h e r e g i o n a r o u n d C o i m b a t o r e w a s r u l e d b y t h e C h e r a s d u r i n g S a n g a m p e r i o d b e t w e e n c . f i r s t a n d t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s C E a n d i t s e r v e d a s t h e e a s t e r n e n t r a n c e t o t h e P a l a k k a d G a p , t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a d e r o u t e b e t w e e n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t a n d T a m i l N a d u . H o w e v e r t h e s o u t h e r n r e g i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y K e r a l a s t a t e ( T h e c o a s t a l b e l t b e t w e e n T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a ) w a s u n d e r A y d y n a s t y , w h o w a s m o r e r e l a t e d t o t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y o f M a d u r a i t h a n C h e r a s . A l o n g w i t h ( M u z i r i s a n d T y n d i s ) , Q u i l o n w a s a n a n c i e n t s e a p o r t o n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t o f I n d i a f r o m t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . K o l l a m s e r v e d a s a m a j o r p o r t c i t y f o r P a n d y a d y n a s t y o n t h e w e s t e r n c o a s t w h i l e K u l a s e k h a r a p a t n a m s e r v e d P a n d y a s o n t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t . T h e c i t y h a d a h i g h c o m m e r c i a l r e p u t a t i o n f r o m t h e d a y s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d A n c i e n t R o m a n s . P l i n y t h e E l d e r ( 2 3 – 7 9 A D ) m e n t i o n s G r e e k s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t M u z i r i s a n d N e l c y n d a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a l a n d r o u t e o v e r t h e W e s t e r n G h a t s . S p i c e s , p e a r l s , d i a m o n d s , a n d s i l k w e r e e x p o r t e d t o E g y p t a n d R o m e f r o m t h e s e p o r t s . P e a r l s a n d d i a m o n d s c a m e t o t h e C h e r a K i n g d o m f r o m C e y l o n a n d t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o a s t o f I n d i a , t h e n k n o w n a s t h e P a n d y a n K i n g d o m . C o s m a s I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , a G r e e k N e s t o r i a n s a i l o r , i n h i s b o o k t h e C h r i s t i a n T o p o g r a p h y w h o v i s i t e d t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t i n 5 5 0 , m e n t i o n s a n e n c l a v e o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s i n " M a l e " ( M a l a b a r C o a s t ) . H e w r i t e s , " I n t h e i s l a n d o f T a b r o p a n e ( C e y l o n ) , t h e r e i s a c h u r c h o f C h r i s t i a n s , a n d c l e r i c s a n d f a i t h f u l . L i k e w i s e a t M a l e , w h e r e t h e p e p p e r g r o w s , a n d i n t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y o f K a l l i a n a ( K a l l i a n k a l a t N i l l a c k a l ) t h e r e i s a l s o a b i s h o p c o n s e c r a t e d i n P e r s i a i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e N i c e a S u n n a h a d o s e o f 3 2 5 A D . " T h e N e s t o r i a n P a t r i a r c h J e s u j a b u s , w h o d i e d i n 6 6 0 A D , m e n t i o n s K o l l a m i n h i s l e t t e r t o S i m o n , M e t r o p o l i t a n o f P e r s i a . K o l l a m i s a l s o h o m e t o o n e o f t h e o l d e s t m o s q u e s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e g e n d o f C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l s , t h e f i r s t I n d i a n m o s q u e w a s b u i l t i n 6 2 4 A D a t K o d u n g a l l u r w i t h t h e m a n d a t e o f t h e l a s t t h e r u l e r ( t h e C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l ) o f C h e r a d y n a s t y , w h o l e f t f r o m D h a r m a d o m t o M e c c a a n d c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( c . 5 7 0 – 6 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o " Q i s s a t S h a k a r w a t i F a r m a d " , t h e " M a s j i d s " a t K o d u n g a l l u r , K o l l a m , M a d a y i , B a r k u r , M a n g a l o r e , K a s a r a g o d , K a n n u r , D h a r m a d a m , P a n t h a l a y i n i , a n d C h a l i y a m , w e r e b u i l t d u r i n g t h e e r a o f M a l i k D i n a r , a n d t h e y a r e a m o n g t h e o l d e s t " M a s j i d " s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a l i k D i n a r d i e d a t T h a l a n g a r a i n K a s a r a g o d t o w n . T h e p o r t a t K o l l a m , t h e n k n o w n a s Q u i l o n , w a s f o u n d e d i n 8 2 5 b y t h e N e s t o r i a n C h r i s t i a n s M a r S a b o r a n d M a r P r o t h w i t h s a n c t i o n f r o m A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l , t h e k i n g o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e S t a t e o f Q u i l o n , a f e u d a t o r y u n d e r t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a r S a p o r I s o a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e C h e r a k i n g c r e a t e a n e w s e a p o r t n e a r K o l l a m i n l i e u o f h i s r e q u e s t t h a t h e r e b u i l d t h e a l m o s t v a n i s h e d i n l a n d s e a p o r t a t K o l l a m ( k o r e - k e - n i ) n e a r B a c k a r e ( T h e v a l a k a r a ) , a l s o k n o w n a s N e l c y n d a a n d T y n d i s t o t h e R o m a n s a n d G r e e k s a n d a s T h o n d i t o t h e T a m i l s , w h i c h h a d b e e n w i t h o u t t r a d e f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e c a u s e t h e C h e r a s w e r e o v e r r u n b y t h e P a l l a v a s i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , e n d i n g t h e s p i c e t r a d e f r o m t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e N e s t o r i a n s t o s t a y i n t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a n d i n t r o d u c e t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r s u b - c a s t e s i n t h e S t . T h o m a s t r a d i t i o n , w i t h t h e S y r i a n l i t u r g y a s a b a s i s f o r t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , w i t h o u t r e p l a c i n g t h e S a n s k r i t a n d V e d i c p r a y e r s . T h e T h a r i s a p a l l i p l a t e s p r e s e n t e d t o M a r u v a n S a p o r I s o b y A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l g r a n t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o v e r s e e i n g f o r e i g n t r a d e i n t h e c i t y a s w e l l a s c o n t r o l o v e r i t s w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s i n a m o v e d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e Q u i l o n ' s t r a d e a n d w e a l t h . T h e t w o C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o u n d i n g C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s w i t h S y r i a n l i t u r g y a l o n g t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t , d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e a n c i e n t V e d i c A d v a i t a m p r o p o u n d e d b y A d i S h a n k a r a i n t h e e a r l y n i n t h c e n t u r y a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r S u b C a s t e s , a s M a l a y a l a m w a s n o t a c c e p t e d a s a l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . T h u s b e g a n t h e M a l a y a l a m E r a , k n o w n a s K o l l a V a r s h a m a f t e r t h e c i t y , i n d i c a t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f K o l l a m i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . T h e P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t S o l e y m a n o f S i r a f v i s i t e d M a l a b a r i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d f o u n d Q u i l o n t o b e t h e o n l y p o r t i n I n d i a u s e d b y t h e h u g e C h i n e s e s h i p s a s t h e i r t r a n s s h i p m e n t h u b f o r g o o d s o n t h e i r w a y f r o m C h i n a t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . T h e r u l e r s o f K o l l a m ( f o r m e r l y c a l l e d ' D e s i n g a n a d u ' ) h a d t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a a n d e x c h a n g e d e m b a s s i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e T a n g d y n a s t y ( 6 1 8 – 9 1 3 ) , Q u i l o n w a s t h e i r c h i e f p o r t o f c a l l b e f o r e t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e C h i n e s e t r a d e d e c r e a s e d a b o u t 6 0 0 a n d w a s a g a i n r e v i v e d i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . " M i r a b i l i a D e s c r i p t a " b y B i s h o p C a t a l a n i g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e i n K o l l a m , w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e C a t h o l i c b i s h o p - d e s i g n a t e t o K o l l a m , t h e o l d e s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . H e a l s o g i v e s t r u e a n d i m a g i n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l i f e i n ' I n d i a t h e M a j o r ' i n t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e M a r c o P o l o v i s i t e d t h e c i t y . S u l a i m a n a l - T a j i r , a P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t w h o v i s i t e d K e r a l a d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S t h a n u R a v i V a r m a ( 9 t h c e n t u r y C E ) , r e c o r d s t h a t t h e r e w a s e x t e n s i v e t r a d e b e t w e e n K e r a l a a n d C h i n a a t t h a t t i m e , b a s e d a t t h e p o r t o f K o l l a m . I n 1 3 t h c e n t u r y C E , M a r a v a r m a n K u l a s e k a r a P a n d y a n I , a P a n d y a r u l e r f o u g h t a w a r i n V e n a d a n d c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a p p e a r s o n t h e C a t a l a n A t l a s o f 1 3 7 5 C E a s C o l u m b o a n d C o l o b o . T h e m a p m a r k s t h i s c i t y a s a C h r i s t i a n c i t y , r u l e d b y a C h r i s t i a n r u l e r . T h e t e x t a b o v e t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e k i n g s a y s : " A ç í s e n y [ o ] r e j a l o r e y C o l o b o , c h r i s t i à . P r u v í n c i a d e C o l u m b o " ( H e r e r e i g n s t h e L o r d K i n g C o l o b o , C h r i s t i a n , P r o v i n c e o f C o l u m b o ) . T h e c i t y w a s m u c h f r e q u e n t e d b y t h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s C E , f o l l o w e d b y t h e D o m i n i c a n a n d F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s f r o m E u r o p e . T h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s c a l l e d t h e c i t y C o l õ b o / C o l o m b o . I n 1 3 2 9 C E P o p e J o h n X X I I e s t a b l i s h e d K o l l a m / C o l u m b o a s t h e f i r s t a n d o n l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c b i s h o p r i c o n t h e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t , a n d a p p o i n t e d J o r d a n o f C a t a l o n i a , a D o m i n i c a n f r i a r , a s t h e d i o c e s e ' s f i r s t b i s h o p o f t h e L a t i n s e c t . T h e P o p e ' s L a t i n s c r i b e s a s s i g n e d t h e n a m e " C o l u m b u m " t o C o l u m b o . A c c o r d i n g t o a b o o k a u t h o r e d b y I l a r i u s A u g u s t u s , p u b l i s h e d A p r i l , 2 0 2 1 ( " ' C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s : B u r i e d d e e p i n L a t i n t h e I n d i a n o r i g i n o f t h e g r e a t e x p l o r e r f r o m G e n o a " ' ) , t h e w o r d s C o l u m b u m , C o l u m b u s a n d C o l u m b o a p p e a r f o r t h e v e r y f i r s t t i m e i n a n o t a r i a l d e e d ( l e a s e c o n t r a c t ) o f a c e r t a i n M o u s s o i n G e n o a i n 1 3 2 9 C E . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r i n t h e f o r m o f a t o p o n y m . T h e a u t h o r t h e n s h o w s , t h r o u g h t h e L a t i n t e x t o f s e v e r a l o t h e r n o t a r i a l d e e d s a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s o n c h u r c h h i s t o r y , h o w C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s - a l s o c a r r y i n g t h e s a m e t o p o n y m . - w a s p a r t o f M o u s s o ' s f a m i l y , a n d h e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n l i n e a g e ( a l t h o u g h b o r n i n G e n o a ) . T h e p o r t a t K o z h i k o d e h e l d s u p e r i o r e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n m e d i e v a l K e r a l a c o a s t , w h i l e K a n n u r , K o l l a m , a n d K o c h i , w e r e c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y p o r t s , w h e r e t h e t r a d e r s f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w o u l d g a t h e r . T h e P o r t u g u e s e a r r i v e d a t K a p p a d K o z h i k o d e i n 1 4 9 8 d u r i n g t h e A g e o f D i s c o v e r y , t h u s o p e n i n g a d i r e c t s e a r o u t e f r o m E u r o p e t o I n d i a . T h e y w e r e t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a t r a d i n g c e n t e r i n T a n g a s s e r i , K o l l a m i n 1 5 0 2 , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r t r a d e i n p e p p e r . I n t h e w a r s w i t h t h e M o o r s / A r a b s t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e a n c i e n t c h u r c h ( t e m p l e ) o f S t T h o m a s T r a d i t i o n a t T h e v a l a k a r a w a s d e s t r o y e d . I n 1 5 1 7 , t h e P o r t u g u e s e b u i l t t h e S t . T h o m a s F o r t i n T h a n g a s s e r i , w h i c h w a s d e s t r o y e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t w a r s w i t h t h e D u t c h . I n 1 6 6 1 , t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c i t y . T h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e o l d P o r t u g u e s e F o r t , l a t e r r e n o v a t e d b y t h e D u t c h , c a n b e f o u n d a t T h a n g a s s e r i . I n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , T r a v a n c o r e c o n q u e r e d K o l l a m , f o l l o w e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n 1 7 9 5 . T h a n g a s s e r i r e m a i n s t o d a y a s a n A n g l o - I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h o u g h f e w A n g l o - I n d i a n s r e m a i n . T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C h u r c h i n T h a n g a s s e r i , a n o l d P o r t u g u e s e - b u i l t c h u r c h , r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f t h e a r e a . T h e B a t t l e o f Q u i l o n w a s f o u g h t i n 1 8 0 9 b e t w e e n a t r o o p o f t h e I n d i a n k i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e l e d b y t h e t h e n D a l a w a ( p r i m e m i n i s t e r ) o f T r a v a n c o r e , V e l u T h a m p i D a l a w a a n d t h e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y l e d b y C o l o n e l C h a l m e r s a t C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n i n Q u i l o n . T h e b a t t l e l a s t e d f o r o n l y s i x h o u r s a n d w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s i n v a s i o n o f Q u i l o n a n d t h e i r g a r r i s o n s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n . T h e c o m p a n y f o r c e s w o n t h e b a t t l e w h i l e a l l t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e w a r w e r e c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h a n g e d a t t h e m a i d a n . I n t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y C E , t h e T r a v a n c o r e r o y a l f a m i l y a d o p t e d s o m e m e m b e r s f r o m t h e r o y a l f a m i l y o f K o l a t h u n a d u b a s e d a t K a n n u r , a n d P a r a p p a n a d b a s e d i n p r e s e n t - d a y M a l a p p u r a m d i s t r i c t . L a t e r , V e n a d K i n g d o m w a s c o m p l e t e l y m e r g e d w i t h t h e K i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e d u r i n g t h e r e i n o f M a r t h a n d a V a r m a a n d K o l l a m r e m a i n e d a s t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e K i n g d o m . L a t e r o n , t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e w a s r e l o c a t e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m . T r a v a n c o r e b e c a m e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t s t a t e i n K e r a l a b y d e f e a t i n g t h e p o w e r f u l Z a m o r i n o f K o z h i k o d e i n t h e b a t t l e o f P u r a k k a d i n 1 7 5 5 . T h e G o v e r n m e n t S e c r e t a r i a t w a s a l s o s i t u a t e d i n K o l l a m t i l l t h e 1 8 3 0 s . I t w a s m o v e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S w a t h i T h i r u n a l . E x c a v a t i o n s a r e g o i n g o n a t K o l l a m P o r t p r e m i s e s s i n c e F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 a s t h e t e a m h a s u n c o v e r e d a r r a y s o f a n t i q u e a r t i f a c t s , i n c l u d i n g C h i n e s e p o r c e l a i n a n d c o i n s . A C h i n e s e t e a m w i t h t h e P a l a c e M u s e u m , a t e a m f r o m I n d i a w i t h K e r a l a C o u n c i l f o r H i s t o r i c a l R e s e a r c h ( K C H R ) d i s c o v e r e d C h i n e s e c o i n s a n d a r t i f a c t s t h a t s h o w t r a d e l i n k s b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d a n c i e n t C h i n a . K o l l a m c i t y i s b o r d e r e d b y t h e p a n c h a y a t s o f N e e n d a k a r a a n d T h r i k k a r u v a t o t h e n o r t h , M a y y a n a d t o t h e s o u t h , a n d T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m a n d K o t t a m k a r a t o t h e e a s t , a n d b y t h e L a c c a d i v e S e a t o t h e w e s t . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y . T h e c i t y i s a b o u t a w a y f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m , a w a y f r o m K o c h i a n d a w a y f r o m K o z h i k o d e . T h e N a t i o n a l W a t e r w a y 3 a n d I t h i k k a r a r i v e r a r e t w o i m p o r t a n t w a t e r w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y . T h e l o n g K o l l a m C a n a l i s c o n n e c t i n g P a r a v u r L a k e a n s A s h t a m u d i L a k e . T h e K a l l a d a r i v e r , a n o t h e r r i v e r t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y , e m p t i e s i n t o A s h t a m u d i L a k e , w h i l e t h e I t h i k k a r a r i v e r r u n s t o P a r a v u r K a y a l . K a t t a k a y a l , a f r e s h w a t e r l a k e i n t h e c i t y , c o n n e c t s a n o t h e r w a t e r - b o d y n a m e d V a t t a k k a y a l w i t h L a k e A s h t a m u d i . I n M a r c h 2 0 1 6 , " I n d i a T i m e s " s e l e c t e d K o l l a m a s o n e o f t h e n i n e l e a s t p o l l u t e d c i t i e s o n e a r t h t o w h i c h a n y b o d y c a n r e l o c a t e . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e t o p 1 0 m o s t w e l c o m i n g p l a c e s i n I n d i a f o r t h e y e a r 2 0 2 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o B o o k i n g . c o m ' s t r a v e l l e r r e v i e w a w a r d s . K o l l a m i s a n a n c i e n t t r a d i n g t o w n – t r a d i n g w i t h R o m a n s , C h i n e s e , A r a b s , a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s – m e n t i o n e d i n h i s t o r i c a l c i t a t i o n s d a t i n g b a c k t o B i b l i c a l t i m e s a n d t h e r e i g n o f S o l o m o n , c o n n e c t i n g w i t h R e d S e a p o r t s o f t h e A r a b i a n S e a ( s u p p o r t e d b y a f i n d o f a n c i e n t R o m a n c o i n s ) . T h e r e w a s a l s o i n t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e A r y a n k a v u P a s s i n S c h e n k o t t a h G a p c o n n e c t i n g t h e a n c i e n t t o w n t o T a m i l N a d u . T h e o v e r l a n d t r a d e i n p e p p e r b y b u l l o c k c a r t a n d t h e t r a d e o v e r t h e w a t e r w a y s c o n n e c t i n g A l l e p e y a n d C o c h i n e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d e l i n k a g e s t h a t e n a b l e d i t t o g r o w i n t o o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t I n d i a n i n d u s t r i a l t o w n s h i p s . T h e r a i l l i n k s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d t o T a m i l N a d u s u p p o r t e d s t i l l s t r o n g e r t r a d e l i n k s . T h e f a c t o r i e s p r o c e s s i n g m a r i n e e x p o r t s a n d t h e p r o c e s s i n g a n d p a c k a g i n g o f c a s h e w n u t s e x t e n d e d i t s t r a d e a c r o s s t h e g l o b e . I t i s k n o w n f o r c a s h e w p r o c e s s i n g a n d c o i r m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u t h e r n g a t e w a y t o t h e b a c k w a t e r s o f K e r a l a a n d i s a p r o m i n e n t t o u r i s t d e s t i n a t i o n a t K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m u r b a n a r e a i n c l u d e s s u b u r b a n t o w n s s u c h a s P a r a v u r i n t h e s o u t h , K u n d a r a i n t h e e a s t a n d K a r u n a g a p a l l y i n t h e n o r t h o f t h e c i t y . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o w n s i n t h e c i t y s u b u r b s a r e E r a v i p u r a m , K o t t i y a m , K a n n a n a l l u r , a n d C h a v a r a . K o l l a m e x p e r i e n c e s a t r o p i c a l m o n s o o n c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n " A m " ) w i t h l i t t l e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h i s t h e d r y s e a s o n w i t h l e s s t h a n o f r a i n i n e a c h o f t h o s e m o n t h s . A p r i l t o N o v e m b e r i s t h e w e t s e a s o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e r a i n t h a n d u r i n g D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y i n J u n e a n d J u l y a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e S o u t h w e s t M o n s o o n . I n d i a c e n s u s , K o l l a m c i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 5 , 4 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e . T h e s e x r a t i o ( t h e n u m b e r o f f e m a l e s p e r 1 , 0 0 0 m a l e s ) w a s 1 , 1 1 2 , t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e d i s t r i c t o f K o l l a m r a n k e d s e v e n t h i n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e w h i l e t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m r a n k e d f o u r t h . K o l l a m h a d a n a v e r a g e l i t e r a c y r a t e o f 9 3 . 7 7 % , h i g h e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e o f 7 4 . 0 4 % . M a l e l i t e r a c y s t o o d a t 9 5 . 8 3 % , a n d f e m a l e a t 9 1 . 9 5 % . I n K o l l a m , 1 1 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r s i x y e a r s o f a g e . I n M a y 2 0 1 5 , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a v e d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d C i t y C o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m b y m e r g i n g T h r i k k a d a v o o r p a n c h a y a t h . S o t h e a r e a w i l l b e c o m e w i t h a t o t a l c i t y p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 8 4 , 8 9 2 . M a l a y a l a m i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e c i t y , w h i l e T a m i l i s u n d e r s t o o d b y s o m e s e c t i o n s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s o f A n g l o - I n d i a n s , K o n k a n i B r a h m i n s , T e l u g u C h e t t y a n d B e n g a l i m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s s e t t l e d i n t h e c i t y . F o r e a s e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , K o l l a m M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x z o n e s w i t h l o c a l z o n a l o f f i c e s f o r e a c h o n e . I n 2 0 1 4 , f o r m e r K o l l a m M a y o r M r s . P r a s a n n a E a r n e s t w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e B e s t L a d y M a y o r o f S o u t h I n d i a b y t h e R o t a r y C l u b o f T r i v a n d r u m R o y a l T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s a m i c r o c o s m o f K e r a l a s t a t e w i t h i t s r e s i d e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o v a r i e d r e l i g i o u s , e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y a n c i e n t t e m p l e s , c e n t u r i e s - o l d c h u r c h e s a n d m o s q u e s i n t h e c i t y a n d i t s s u b u r b s . K o l l a m i s a H i n d u m a j o r i t y c i t y i n K e r a l a . 5 6 . 3 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n b e l o n g s t o H i n d u c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e K o l l a m E r a ( a l s o k n o w n a s " M a l a y a l a m E r a " o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " o r " M a l a y a l a m C a l e n d a r " o r " M a l a b a r E r a " ) , s o l a r a n d s i d e r e a l H i n d u c a l e n d a r u s e d i n K e r a l a , h a s b e e n o r i g i n a t e d o n 8 2 5 C E ( P o t h u V a r s h a m ) a t ( K o l l a m ) c i t y . M u s l i m s a c c o u n t f o r 2 2 . 0 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . A s p e r t h e C e n s u s 2 0 1 1 d a t a , 8 0 , 9 3 5 i s t h e t o t a l M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n K o l l a m . T h e K a r b a l a M a i d a n a n d t h e a d j a c e n t M a k a n i m o s q u e s e r v e s a s t h e E i d g a h f o r t h e c i t y . T h e 3 0 0 - y e a r - o l d J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i a t K a r u v a h o u s e s t h e m o r t a l r e m a i n s o f a S u f i s a i n t , S y e d A b d u r R a h m a n J i f r i . C h r i s t i a n s a c c o u n t f o r 2 1 . 1 7 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f K o l l a m c i t y . T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n ( K o l l a m ) i s t h e f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . T h e d i o c e s e w a s f i r s t e r e c t e d b y P o p e J o h n X X I I o n 9 A u g u s t 1 3 2 9 . I t w a s r e - e r e c t e d o n 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 6 . T h e d i o c e s e c o v e r s a n a r e a o f a n d c o n t a i n s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 , 8 7 9 , 5 5 3 , C a t h o l i c s n u m b e r i n g 2 3 5 , 9 2 2 ( 4 . 8 % ) . T h e f a m o u s I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l , 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d , l o c a t e d i n T h a n g a s s e r y , i s t h e c o - c a t h e d r a l o f t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n . C S I K o l l a m - K o t t a r a k a r a D i o c e s e i s o n e o f t h e t w e n t y - f o u r d i o c e s e s o f t h e C h u r c h o f S o u t h I n d i a . T h e H e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e K e r a l a r e g i o n o f T h e P e n t e c o s t a l M i s s i o n f o r K o t t a r a k k a r a , i s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m C i t y i s a M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n w i t h e l e c t e d C o u n c i l l o r s f r o m i t s 5 5 d i v i s i o n s . T h e M a y o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e c o u n c i l l o r s , g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y h o l d i n g a m a j o r i t y . T h e C o r p o r a t i o n S e c r e t a r y h e a d s t h e o f f i c e o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e p r e s e n t M a y o r o f K o l l a m C o r p o r a t i o n i s A d v . V . R a j e n d r a b a b u o f C P I ( M ) . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i t y f a l l s u n d e r t h e K o l l a m C i t y P o l i c e C o m m i s s i o n e r a t e w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y a n I P S ( I n d i a n P o l i c e S e r v i c e ) c a d r e o f f i c e r a n d h e r e p o r t s t o t h e I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l o f P o l i c e ( I G P ) T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m R a n g e . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m e s u n d e r t h e S t a t e H o m e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a . K o l l a m C i t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b d i v i s i o n s , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , e a c h u n d e r a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r o f P o l i c e . W i t h a t o t a l u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 , 1 8 7 , 1 5 8 a n d 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 a s c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n , K o l l a m i s t h e f o u r t h m o s t p o p u l o u s c i t y i n t h e s t a t e a n d 4 9 t h o n t h e l i s t o f t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s u r b a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s i n I n d i a . t h e c i t y ' s u r b a n g r o w t h r a t e o f 1 5 4 . 5 9 % w a s t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a o f K o l l a m i n c l u d e s U l i y a k o v i l , A d i c h a n a l l o o r , A d i n a d , A y a n i v e l i k u l a n g a r a , C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r , E r a v i p u r a m ( P a r t ) , K a l l e l i b h a g o m , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m , K o t t a m k a r a , K u l a s e k h a r a p u r a m , M a y y a n a d , M e e n a d , N e d u m p a n a , N e e n d a k a r a , O a c h i r a , P a n a y a m , P a n m a n a , P a r a v u r , P e r i n a d , P o o t h a k k u l a m , T h a z h u t h a l a , T h o d i y o o r , T h r i k k a d a v o o r , T h r i k k a r u v a , T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m , a n d V a d a k k u m t h a l a . T h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p t h e C i t y o f K o l l a m a s a " P o r t C i t y o f K e r a l a " . R e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e M a r u t h a d i - E r a v i p u r a m a r e a i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r f i s h i n g , t o u r i s m a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o j e c t s w i l l b e i m p l e m e n t e d a s p a r t o f t h e p r o j e c t T h e c i t y l i f e o f K o l l a m h a s c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e . I n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a n d p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , K o l l a m c i t y i s i n f i f t h p o s i t i o n f r o m I n d i a a n d t h i r d i n K e r a l a . K o l l a m i s f a m o u s a s a c i t y w i t h e x c e l l e n t e x p o r t b a c k g r o u n d . 5 s t a r , 4 s t a r a n d 3 s t a r h o t e l s , m u l t i - s t o r i e d s h o p p i n g m a l l s , b r a n d e d j e w e l l e r y , t e x t i l e s h o w r o o m s a n d c a r s h o w r o o m s h a v e s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s . K o l l a m w a s t h e t h i r d c i t y i n K e r a l a ( a f t e r K o z h i k o d e a n d K o c h i ) t o a d o p t t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l c u l t u r e . K o l l a m d i s t r i c t r a n k s f i r s t i n l i v e s t o c k w e a l t h i n t h e s t a t e . D o w n t o w n K o l l a m i s t h e m a i n C B D o f K o l l a m c i t y . D a i r y f a r m i n g i s f a i r l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A l s o t h e r e i s a c h i l l i n g p l a n t i n t h e c i t y . K o l l a m i s a n i m p o r t a n t m a r i t i m e a n d p o r t c i t y . F i s h i n g h a s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e d i s t r i c t . N e e n d a k a r a a n d S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a v i l l a g e s i n t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y h a v e f i s h e r i e s . A n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 4 , 9 7 3 p e r s o n s a r e e n g a g e d i n f i s h i n g a n d a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s . C h e r i a z h e e k k a l , A l a p p a d , P a n d a r a t h u r u t h u , P u t h e n t h u r a , N e e n d a k a r a , T h a n g a s s e r i , E r a v i p u r a m a n d P a r a v u r a r e e i g h t o f t h e 2 6 i m p o r t a n t f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a r e 2 4 i n l a n d f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s i n i t i a t e d s t e p s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i s h i n g h a r b o u r a t N e e n d a k a r a . A v e r a g e f i s h l a n d i n g i s e s t i m a t e d a t 8 5 , 2 7 5 t o n n e s p e r y e a r . O n e - t h i r d o f t h e s t a t e ' s f i s h c a t c h i s f r o m K o l l a m . N e a r l y 3 0 0 0 m e c h a n i s e d b o a t s a r e o p e r a t i n g f r o m t h e f i s h i n g h a r b o u r . F F D A a n d V F F D A p r o m o t e f r e s h w a t e r f i s h c u l t u r e a n d p r a w n f a r m i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f i s h i n g v i l l a g e w i t h 1 0 0 h o u s e s i s b e i n g b u i l t a t E r a v i p u r a m . A p r a w n f a r m i s b e i n g b u i l t a t A y i r a m t h e n g u , a n d s e v e r a l n e w h a t c h e r i e s a r e p l a n n e d t o c a t e r t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e a q u a c u l t u r i s t s . K e r a l a ' s o n l y t u r k e y f a r m a n d a r e g i o n a l p o u l t r y f a r m a r e a t K u r e e p u z h a . T h e r e a r e t w o C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n d u s t r i a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y , t h e I n d i a n R a r e E a r t h s , C h a v a r a a n d P a r v a t h i M i l l s L t d . , K o l l a m . K e r a l a C e r a m i c s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a E l e c t r i c a l a n d A l l i e d E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p a n y i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a P r e m o P i p e f a c t o r y i n C h a v a r a , K e r a l a M i n e r a l s a n d M e t a l s L i m i t e d i n C h a v a r a a n d U n i t e d E l e c t r i c a l I n d u s t r i e s i n K o l l a m a r e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . O t h e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e p r i v a t e / c o o p e r a t i v e s e c t o r a r e A l u m i n i u m I n d u s t r i e s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , T h o m a s S t e p h e n & C o . i n K o l l a m , F l o o r c o i n P a r a v u r a n d C o o p e r a t i v e S p i n n i n g M i l l i n C h a t h a n n o o r . T h e b e a c h s a n d s o f t h e d i s t r i c t h a v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u c h h e a v y m i n e r a l s a s I l m e n i t e , R u t i l e , M o n o s i t e a n d Z i r c o n , w h i c h o f f e r s c o p e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s . B e s i d e s l a r g e d e p o s i t s o f C h i n a c l a y i n K u n d a r a , M u l a v a n a a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , t h e r e a r e a l s o l i m e - s h e l l d e p o s i t s i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e a n d B a u x i t e d e p o s i t s i n A d i c h a n a l l u r . K n o w n a s t h e " C a s h e w C a p i t a l o f t h e W o r l d " , K o l l a m i s n o t e d f o r i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c a s h e w b u s i n e s s a n d i s h o m e t o m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 c a s h e w - p r o c e s s i n g u n i t s . E v e r y y e a r , a b o u t 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f r a w c a s h e w s a r e i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e c i t y f o r p r o c e s s i n g a n d a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f p r o c e s s e d c a s h e w s a r e e x p o r t e d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s w o r l d w i d e . T h e C a s h e w E x p o r t P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( C E P C I ) e x p e c t s a r i s e i n e x p o r t s t o 2 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s b y 2 0 2 0 , a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 2 0 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e c u r r e n t f i g u r e . T h e K e r a l a S t a t e C a s h e w D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n L i m i t e d ( K S C D C ) i s s i t u a t e d a t M u n d a k k a l i n K o l l a m c i t y . T h e c o m p a n y o w n s 3 0 c a s h e w f a c t o r i e s a l l a c r o s s K e r a l a . O f t h e s e , 2 4 a r e l o c a t e d i n K o l l a m d i s t r i c t . K o l l a m i s o n e o f m a n y s e a f o o d e x p o r t h u b s i n I n d i a w i t h n u m e r o u s c o m p a n i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e c t o r . M o s t o f t h e s e a r e b a s e d i n t h e M a r u t h a d i , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a , K a v a n a d , N e e n d a k a r a , A s r a m a m , K i l i k o l l u r , T h i r u m u l l a v a r a m a n d U l i y a k o v i l a r e a s o f t h e c i t y . C a p i t h a n s , K i n g s M a r i n e E x p o r t e r s , I n d i a F o o d E x p o r t s a n d O c e a n i c F i s h e r i e s a r e e x a m p l e s o f s e a f o o d e x p o r t e r s . K o l l a m ' s A s h t a m u d i L a k e c l a m f i s h e r y w a s t h e f i r s t M a r i n e S t e w a r d s h i p C o u n c i l ( M S C ) c e r t i f i e d f i s h e r y i n I n d i a . T h e c l a m f i s h e r y s u p p o r t s a r o u n d 3 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , c l e a n i n g , p r o c e s s i n g a n d t r a d i n g o f c l a m s . A r o u n d 9 0 s p e c i e s o f f i s h a n d t e n s p e c i e s o f c l a m s a r e f o u n d i n t h e l a k e . K o l l a m F e s t i s K o l l a m ' s o w n a n n u a l f e s t i v a l , a t t r a c t i n g m o s t l y K e r a l i t e s b u t a l s o h u n d r e d s o f d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n t o u r i s t s t o K o l l a m . T h e m a i n v e n u e o f K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a n d g i g a n t i c A s h r a m a m M a i d a n . K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e s i g n a t u r e e v e n t o f K o l l a m . K o l l a m F e s t s e e k s t o s h o w c a s e K o l l a m ' s r i c h c u l t u r e a n d h e r i t a g e , t o u r i s m p o t e n t i a l a n d i n v e s t m e n t s i n n e w v e n t u r e s . K o l l a m P o o r a m , p a r t o f t h e A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e F e s t i v a l , i s u s u a l l y h e l d o n 1 5 A p r i l , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y o n 1 6 A p r i l . T h e p o o r a m i s h e l d a t t h e A s h r a m a m m a i d a n . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s T r o p h y B o a t R a c e ( P T B R ) i s a n a n n u a l r e g a t t a h e l d i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e i n K o l l a m . T h e e v e n t w a s i n a u g u r a t e d b y P r e s i d e n t P r a t h i b h a P a t i l i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . T h e e v e n t h a s b e e n r e s c h e d u l e d f r o m 2 0 1 2 . T h e c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m i s s e r v e d b y t h e T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t , w h i c h i s a b o u t 5 6 k i l o m e t e r s f r o m t h e c i t y v i a N H 6 6 . T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t i n a n o n - m e t r o c i t y i n I n d i a . i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n K e r a l a i n a r e a , a f t e r S h o r a n u r J u n c t i o n , w i t h a t o t a l o f 6 p l a t f o r m s . T h e s t a t i o n h a s 1 7 r a i l t r a c k s . K o l l a m j u n c t i o n h a s w o r l d ' s s e c o n d l o n g e s t r a i l w a y p l a t f o r m , m e a s u r i n g 1 1 8 0 . 5 m ( 3 8 7 3   f t ) . M a i n l i n e E l e c t r i c a l M u l t i p l e U n i t ( M E M U ) h a v e a m a i n t e n a n c e s h e d a t K o l l a m J u n c t i o n . T h e M E M U s e r v i c e s s t a r t e d f r o m K o l l a m t o E r n a k u l a m v i a A l a p p u z h a a n d K o t t a y a m i n t h e s e c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2 . B y 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , M E M U s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d N a g e r c o i l b e c a m e a r e a l i t y a n d l a t e r e x t e n d e d u p t o K a n y a k u m a r i . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i n a u g u r a t e d o n 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 3 f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k s o f M E M U r a k e s . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i s t h e l a r g e s t M E M U S h e d i n K e r a l a , w h i c h i s e q u i p p e d w i t h m o s t m o d e r n f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e i s a l o n g - s t a n d i n g d e m a n d f o r t h e K o l l a m T o w n R a i l w a y S t a t i o n i n t h e K o l l a m - P e r i n a d s t r e t c h a n d " S . N C o l l e g e R a i l w a y S t a t i o n " i n t h e K o l l a m - E r a v i p u r a m s t r e t c h . T h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s i n K o l l a m c i t y a r e K o l l a m J u n c t i o n r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , E r a v i p u r a m r a i l w a y s t a t i o n a n d K i l i k o l l u r r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . A n e w s u b u r b a n r a i l s y s t e m h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y t h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t a n d I n d i a n R a i l w a y s o n t h e r o u t e T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m - K o l l a m - H a r i p a d / C h e n g a n n u r f o r w h i c h M R V C i s t a s k e d t o c o n d u c t a s t u d y a n d s u b m i t a r e p o r t . T e n t r a i n s , e a c h w i t h s e v e n c o a c h e s , w i l l t r a n s p o r t p a s s e n g e r s b a c k a n d f o r t h a l o n g t h e T r i v a n d r u m - K o l l a m - C h e n g a n n u r - K o t t a r a k a r a - A d o o r s e c t i o n . T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s c o n n e c t e d t o a l m o s t a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d m a j o r t o w n s i n t h e s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g T r i v a n d r u m , A l a p p u z h a , K o c h i , P a l a k k a d , K o t t a y a m , K o t t a r a k k a r a , a n d P u n a l u r , a n d w i t h o t h e r I n d i a n c i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e N H 6 6 , N H 1 8 3 , N H 7 4 4 - a n d o t h e r s t a t e P W D R o a d s . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s p r o v i d e d b y s t a t e - o w n e d K e r a l a S t a t e R o a d T r a n s p o r t C o r p o r a t i o n ( K S R T C ) a n d p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t b u s o p e r a t o r s . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e f i v e K S R T C z o n e s i n K e r a l a . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s a l s o p r o v i d e d b y p r i v a t e t a x i s a n d a u t o r i c k s h a w s , a l s o c a l l e d a u t o s . T h e r e i s a c i t y p r i v a t e b u s s t a n d a t A n d a m u k k a m . T h e r e i s a K S R T C b u s s t a t i o n b e s i d e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . B u s e s t o v a r i o u s t o w n s i n K e r a l a a n d i n t e r s t a t e s e r v i c e s r u n f r o m t h i s s t a t i o n . T h e S t a t e W a t e r T r a n s p o r t D e p a r t m e n t o p e r a t e s b o a t s e r v i c e s t o W e s t K a l l a d a , M u n r o e I s l a n d , G u h a n a n d a p u r a m , D a l a v a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a f r o m K o l l a m K S W T D F e r r y T e r m i n a l s i t u a t e d o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . A s r a m a m L i n k R o a d i n t h e c i t y p a s s e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f e r r y t e r m i n a l . D o u b l e d e c k e r l u x u r y b o a t s r u n b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d A l l e p e y d a i l y . L u x u r y b o a t s , o p e r a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r i v a t e o w n e r s , o p e r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o a t j e t t y d u r i n g t h e t o u r i s t s e a s o n . T h e W e s t c o a s t c a n a l s y s t e m , w h i c h s t a r t s f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m i n t h e s o u t h a n d e n d s a t H o s d u r g i n t h e n o r t h , p a s s e s t h r o u g h P a r a v u r , t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m a n d K a r u n a g a p p a l l y t a l u k . K o l l a m P o r t i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p o r t i n K e r a l a , a f t e r C o c h i n P o r t T r u s t . I t i s o n e o f t w o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o r t s i n K e r a l a . C a r g o h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s b e g a n o p e r a t i o n i n 2 0 1 3 . F o r e i g n s h i p s a r r i v e i n t h e p o r t r e g u l a r l y w i t h t h e M V A l i n a , a v e s s e l r e g i s t e r e d i n A n t i g u a a n c h o r e d a t t h e p o r t o n 4 A p r i l 2 0 1 4 . O n c e t h e P o r t s t a r t s f u n c t i o n i n g i n f u l l - f l e d g e d , i t w i l l m a k e t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f K o l l a m - b a s e d c a s h e w c o m p a n i e s m o r e e a s y . S h r e y a s S h i p p i n g C o m p a n y i s n o w r u n n i n g a r e g u l a r c o n t a i n e r s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m P o r t a n d K o c h i P o r t . T h e r e a r e m a n y r e s p e c t e d c o l l e g e s , s c h o o l s a n d l e a r n i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o e d u c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t a n d l a t e s t k n o w l e d g e t o t h e s c h o l a r s . T h e T h a n g a l K u n j u M u s a l i a r C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e s c h o o l o f i t s k i n d i n t h e s t a t e , i s a t K i l i k o l l u r , a b o u t e a s t o f K o l l a m c i t y , a n d i s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e f o r a l l K o l l a m i t e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a s g r a n t e d a c a d e m i c a u t o n o m y t o F a t i m a M a t a N a t i o n a l C o l l e g e , a n o t h e r p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e c i t y . S r e e N a r a y a n a C o l l e g e , B i s h o p J e r o m e I n s t i t u t e ( a n i n t e g r a t e d c a m p u s p r o v i d i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e , E n g i n e e r i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s ) , a n d T r a v a n c o r e B u s i n e s s A c a d e m y a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e t w o l a w c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y , S r e e N a r a y a n a G u r u C o l l e g e o f L e g a l S t u d i e s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f S r e e N a r a y a n a T r u s t a n d N S S L a w C o l l e g e m a n a g e d b y t h e N . S . S . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e b e s t s c h o o l s i n K o l l a m i n c l u d i n g T r i n i t y L y c e u m S c h o o l , I n f a n t J e s u s S c h o o l , S t A l o y s i u s H . S . S , T h e o x f o r d s c h o o l , S r i S r i A c a d e m y e t c . K e r a l a S t a t e I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n ( K S I D ) , a d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e u n d e r D e p a r t m e n t o f l a b o u r a n d S k i l l s , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a , i s l o c a t e d a t C h a n d a n a t h o p e i n K o l l a m . I t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 2 0 0 8 a n d w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t s t a t e - o w n e d d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e s i n I n d i a . K S I D c u r r e n t l y c o n d u c t s P o s t G r a d u a t e D i p l o m a P r o g r a m s i n D e s i g n d e v e l o p e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n , A h m e d a b a d . I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f I n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n ( I I I C - K o l l a m ) i s a n i n s t i t u t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s s i t u a t e d a t C h a v a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o s u p p o r t t h e s k i l l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y , K o l l a m , K e r a l a i s a f a s h i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n s t i t u t e s i t u a t e d a t V e l l i m o n , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e c h n i c a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f T e x t i l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e t w o I M K ( I n s t i t u t e o f M a n a g e m e n t , K e r a l a ) E x t e n s i o n C e n t r e s a c t i v e i n t h e c i t y . K e r a l a M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e i s s i t u a t e d a t N e e n d a k a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o g i v e m a r i t i m e t r a i n i n g f o r t h e s t u d e n t s i n K e r a l a . M o r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d a t N e e n d a k a r a m a r i t i m e i n s t i t u t e u n d e r t h e B o a t C r e w t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e . A p a r t f r o m c o l l e g e s , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b a n k c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m i s k n o w n a s I n d i a ' s h u b f o r b a n k t e s t c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s w i t h a r o u n d 4 0 s u c h i n s t i t u t e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t . S t u d e n t s f r o m v a r i o u s I n d i a n s t a t e s s u c h a s T a m i l N a d u , K a r n a t a k a , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , B i h a r a n d M a d h y a P r a d e s h a l s o c o m e h e r e f o r c o a c h i n g . C r i c k e t i s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s p o r t , f o l l o w e d b y h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l . K o l l a m i s h o m e t o a n u m b e r o f l o c a l c r i c k e t , h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l t e a m s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n d i s t r i c t , s t a t e - l e v e l a n d z o n e m a t c h e s . A n I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o c k e y S t a d i u m w i t h a s t r o - t u r f f a c i l i t y i s t h e r e a t A s r a m a m i n t h e c i t y , b u i l t a t a c o s t o f R s . 1 3 c r o r e . T h e l a n d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t a d i u m w a s t a k e n o v e r f r o m t h e P o s t a l D e p a r t m e n t a t A s r a m a m , K o l l a m . T h e c i t y h a s a n o t h e r s t a d i u m n a m e d t h e L a l B a h a d u r S h a s t r i S t a d i u m , K o l l a m . I t i s a m u l t i p u r p o s e s t a d i u m a n d h a s r e p e a t e d l y h o s t e d s u c h s p o r t s e v e n t s a s t h e R a n j i T r o p h y , S a n t h o s h T r o p h y a n d N a t i o n a l G a m e s . T w o o p e n g r o u n d s i n t h e c i t y , t h e A s r a m a m M a i d a n a n d P e e r a n k i M a i d a n , a r e a l s o u s e d f o r s p o r t s e v e n t s , p r a c t i c e a n d w a r m - u p m a t c h e s . H i n d u s a n d t e m p l e s A n a n d a v a l l e e s h w a r a m S r i M a h a d e v a r T e m p l e i s a 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d a n c i e n t H i n d u t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y . T h e 4 0 0 - y e a r - o l d S a n c t u m s a n c t o r u m o f t h i s t e m p l e i s f i n i s h e d i n t e a k . A m m a c h i v e e d u M u h u r t h i t e m p l e i s a n o t h e r m a j o r t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d a r o u n d 6 0 0 y e a r s a g o b y t h e A m m a c h i V e e d u f a m i l y , a r i s t o c r a t s f r o m K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m p o o r a m , a m a j o r f e s t i v a l o f K o l l a m , i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a t e n - d a y f e s t i v a l , n o r m a l l y i n m i d A p r i l , o f A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e . K o t t a n k u l a n g a r a D e v i T e m p l e i s o n e o f t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s H i n d u t e m p l e s i n K e r a l a w e r e c r o s s - d r e s s i n g o f m e n f o r " C h a m a y a v i l a k k u " r i t u a l i s a p a r t o f t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v i t i e s . T h e m e n a l s o c a r r y l a r g e l a m p s . T h e f i r s t o f t h e t w o - d a y d r e s s i n g e v e n t d r e w t o a c l o s e e a r l y o n M o n d a y . M o r e o v e r , K o t t a r a k k a r a S r e e M a h a g a n a p a t h i K s h e t h r a m i n K o t t a r a k k a r a , P u t t i n g a l D e v i T e m p l e i n P a r a v u r , s o o r a n a d n o r t h a n a y a d i P a z h a y i d a m S r e e N a r a s i m h a S w a m i T e m p l e P o r u v a z h y P e r u v i r u t h y M a l a n a d a T e m p l e i n P o r u v a z h y , S a s t h a m c o t t a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a T e m p l e i n S a s t h a m k o t t a , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a t e m p l e , T h r i k k a d a v o o r S r e e M a h a d e v a T e m p l e i n K a d a v o o r a n d K a t t i l M e k k a t h i l D e v i T e m p l e i n P o n m a n a P a d a n a y a r k u l a n g a r a m a h a d e v a t e m p l e K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , A s h t a m u d i S r e e V e e r a b h a d r a S w a m y T e m p l e a r e t h e o t h e r f a m o u s H i n d u w o r s h i p c e n t r e s i n t h e K o l l a m M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c h u r c h e s T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l i n T a n g a s s e r i i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o r t u g u e s e d u r i n g 1 6 1 4 . I t i s n o w t h e p r o - c a t h e d r a l o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n – t h e a n c i e n t a n d f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e o f I n d i a . T h e c h u r c h r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f o l d Q u i l o n c i t y . S t . S e b a s t i a n ' s C h u r c h a t N e e n d a k a r a i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h i n t h e c i t y . T h e D u t c h C h u r c h i n M u n r o e I s l a n d i s b u i l t b y t h e D u t c h i n 1 8 7 8 . O u r L a d y o f V e l a n k a n n i S h r i n e i n C u t c h e r y i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p p l a c e i n K o l l a m c i t y . S a i n t C a s i m i r C h u r c h i n K a d a v o o r , H o l y F a m i l y C h u r c h i n K a v a n a d , S t . S t e p h e n ' s C h u r c h i n T h o p p u a n d S t . T h o m a s C h u r c h i n K a d a p p a k a d a a r e s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n K o l l a m . M u s l i m s a n d m o s q u e s K o t t u k a d u J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r J u m a - A - M a s j i d , V a l i y a p a l l i i n J o n a k a p p u r a m , C h i n n a k a d a J u m a M a s j i d , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n K o l l u r v i l a , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n T h a t t a m a l a a n d K o i v i l a J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a a r e t h e o t h e r m a j o r M o s q u e s i n K o l l a m . N o t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s b o r n i n K o l l a m i n c l u d e :

History ; Capital of Venad (9th to 12th centuries)

Kollam was a significant port city in ancient India, particularly during the 9th to 12th centuries when it was the capital of the Venad Kingdom. The city played a crucial role in global sea trade, alongside other prominent ports like Alexandria, Cairo, Quanzhou, and Malacca. Its strategic location facilitated trade with countries like China, Egypt, and Rome. The city's history is marked by the presence of various dynasties, including the Pandya, Chera, and Ay dynasties. The arrival of Christian missionaries and traders led to the establishment of Christian churches and the introduction of the Syrian liturgy. Kollam's significance declined with the rise of other ports, but it remains an important historical site, with ongoing excavations uncovering antique artifacts and coins.

In 825 CE, the Malayalam calendar, or "Kollavarsham", was created in Kollam at meetings held in the city. The present Malayalam calendar is said to have begun with the re-founding of the town, which was rebuilt after its destruction by fire. The name Kollam is believed to have been derived from the Sanskrit word "Kollam", meaning pepper. As the ancient city of Quilon, Kollam was a flourishing port during the Pandya dynasty (c. 3rd century BC–12th century), and later became the capital of the independent Venad or the Kingdom of Quilon on its foundation in c. 825. Kollam was considered one of the four early entrepots in global sea trade during the 13th century, along with Alexandria and Cairo in Egypt, the Chinese city of Quanzhou, and Malacca in the Malaysian archipelago. It seems that trade at Kollam seems to have flourished right into the Medieval period as in 1280, there is instance of envoys of Yuan China coming to Kollam for establishing relations between the local ruler and China The ancient political and cultural history of Kollam was almost entirely independent from that of the rest of Kerala. The Chera dynasty governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. This included Palakkad Gap, Coimbatore, Salem, and Kolli Hills. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c. first and the fourth centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu. However the southern region of present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and Alappuzha) was under Ay dynasty, who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai than Cheras. Along with (Muziris and Tyndis), Quilon was an ancient seaport on the Malabar Coast of India from the early centuries before the Christian era. Kollam served as a major port city for Pandya dynasty on the western coast while Kulasekharapatnam served Pandyas on the eastern coast. The city had a high commercial reputation from the days of the Phoenicians and Ancient Romans. Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) mentions Greek ships anchored at Muziris and Nelcynda. There was also a land route over the Western Ghats. Spices, pearls, diamonds, and silk were exported to Egypt Sabor and Mar Proth with sanction from Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal, the king of the independent Venad or the State of Quilon, a feudatory under the Chera kingdom. It is believed that Mar Sapor Iso also proposed that the Chera king create a new seaport near Kollam in lieu of his request that he rebuild the almost vanished inland seaport at Kollam (kore-ke-ni) near Backare (Thevalakara), also known as Nelcynda and Tyndis to the Romans and Greeks and as Thondi to the Tamils, which had been without trade for several centuries because the Cheras were overrun by the Pallavas in the sixth century, ending the spice trade from the Malabar coast. This allowed the Nestorians to stay in the Chera kingdom for several decades and introduce the Christian faith among the Nampoothiri Vaishnavites and Nair sub-castes in the St. Thomas tradition, with the Syrian liturgy as a basis for the Doctrine of the Trinity, without replacing the Sanskrit and Vedic prayers. The Tharisapalli plates presented to Maruvan Sapor Iso by Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal granted the Christians the privilege of overseeing foreign trade in the city as well as control over its weights and measures in a move designed to increase Quilon's trade and wealth. The two Christians were also instrumental in founding Christian churches with Syrian liturgy along the Malabar coast, distinct from the ancient Vedic Advaitam propounded by Adi Shankara in the early ninth century among the Nampoothiri Vaishnavites and Nair Sub Castes, as Malayalam was not accepted as a liturgical language until the early 18th century. Thus began the Malayalam Era, known as Kolla Varsham after the city, indicating the importance of Kollam in the ninth century. The Persian merchant Soleyman of Siraf visited Malabar in the ninth century and found Quilon to be the only port in India used by the huge Chinese ships as their transshipment hub for goods on their way from China to the Persian Gulf. The rulers of Kollam (formerly called 'Desinganadu') had trade relations with China and exchanged embassies. According to the records of the Tang dynasty (618–913), Quilon was their chief port of call before the seventh century. The Chinese trade decreased about 600 and was again revived in the 13th century. "Mirabilia Descripta" by Bishop Catalani gives a description of life in Kollam, which he saw as the Catholic bishop-designate to Kollam, the oldest Catholic diocese in India. He also gives true and imaginary descriptions of life in 'India the Major' in the period before Marco Polo visited the city. Sulaiman al-Tajir, a Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam. In 13th century CE, Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, a Pandya ruler fought a war in Venad and captured the city of Kollam. The city appears on the Catalan Atlas of 1375 CE as Columbo and Colobo. The map marks this city as a Christian city, ruled by a Christian ruler. The text above the picture of the king of Kolathunadu based at Kannur, and Parappanad based in present-day Malappuram district. Later, Venad Kingdom was completely merged with the Kingdom of Travancore during the rein of Marthanda Varma and Kollam remained as the capital of Travancore Kingdom. Later on, the capital of Travancore was relocated to Thiruvananthapuram. Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755. The Government Secretariat was also situated in Kollam till the 1830s. It was moved to Thiruvananthapuram during the reign of Swathi Thirunal. Excavations are going on at Kollam Port premises since February 2014 as the team has uncovered arrays of antique artifacts, including Chinese porcelain and coins. A Chinese team with the Palace Museum, a team from India

Kollam

I n 8 2 5 C E , t h e M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r , o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " , w a s c r e a t e d i n K o l l a m a t m e e t i n g s h e l d i n t h e c i t y . T h e p r e s e n t M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r i s s a i d t o h a v e b e g u n w i t h t h e r e - f o u n d i n g o f t h e t o w n , w h i c h w a s r e b u i l t a f t e r i t s d e s t r u c t i o n b y f i r e . T h e n a m e K o l l a m i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d " K o l l a m " , m e a n i n g p e p p e r . A s t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Q u i l o n , K o l l a m w a s a f l o u r i s h i n g p o r t d u r i n g t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y ( c . 3 r d c e n t u r y B C – 1 2 t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d l a t e r b e c a m e t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e K i n g d o m o f Q u i l o n o n i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n c . 8 2 5 . K o l l a m w a s c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f o u r e a r l y e n t r e p o t s i n g l o b a l s e a t r a d e d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , a l o n g w i t h A l e x a n d r i a a n d C a i r o i n E g y p t , t h e C h i n e s e c i t y o f Q u a n z h o u , a n d M a l a c c a i n t h e M a l a y s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o . I t s e e m s t h a t t r a d e a t K o l l a m s e e m s t o h a v e f l o u r i s h e d r i g h t i n t o t h e M e d i e v a l p e r i o d a s i n 1 2 8 0 , t h e r e i s i n s t a n c e o f e n v o y s o f Y u a n C h i n a c o m i n g t o K o l l a m f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e l o c a l r u l e r a n d C h i n a T h e a n c i e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f K o l l a m w a s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f K e r a l a . T h e C h e r a d y n a s t y g o v e r n e d t h e a r e a o f M a l a b a r C o a s t b e t w e e n A l a p p u z h a i n t h e s o u t h t o K a s a r a g o d i n t h e n o r t h . T h i s i n c l u d e d P a l a k k a d G a p , C o i m b a t o r e , S a l e m , a n d K o l l i H i l l s . T h e r e g i o n a r o u n d C o i m b a t o r e w a s r u l e d b y t h e C h e r a s d u r i n g S a n g a m p e r i o d b e t w e e n c . f i r s t a n d t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s C E a n d i t s e r v e d a s t h e e a s t e r n e n t r a n c e t o t h e P a l a k k a d G a p , t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a d e r o u t e b e t w e e n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t a n d T a m i l N a d u . H o w e v e r t h e s o u t h e r n r e g i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y K e r a l a s t a t e ( T h e c o a s t a l b e l t b e t w e e n T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a ) w a s u n d e r A y d y n a s t y , w h o w a s m o r e r e l a t e d t o t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y o f M a d u r a i t h a n C h e r a s . A l o n g w i t h ( M u z i r i s a n d T y n d i s ) , Q u i l o n w a s a n a n c i e n t s e a p o r t o n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t o f I n d i a f r o m t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . K o l l a m s e r v e d a s a m a j o r p o r t c i t y f o r P a n d y a d y n a s t y o n t h e w e s t e r n c o a s t w h i l e K u l a s e k h a r a p a t n a m s e r v e d P a n d y a s o n t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t . T h e c i t y h a d a h i g h c o m m e r c i a l r e p u t a t i o n f r o m t h e d a y s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d A n c i e n t R o m a n s . P l i n y t h e E l d e r ( 2 3 – 7 9 A D ) m e n t i o n s G r e e k s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t M u z i r i s a n d N e l c y n d a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a l a n d r o u t e o v e r t h e W e s t e r n G h a t s . S p i c e s , p e a r l s , d i a m o n d s , a n d s i l k w e r e e x p o r t e d t o E g y p t a n d R o m e f r o m t h e s e p o r t s . P e a r l s a n d d i a m o n d s c a m e t o t h e C h e r a K i n g d o m f r o m C e y l o n a n d t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o a s t o f I n d i a , t h e n k n o w n a s t h e P a n d y a n K i n g d o m . C o s m a s I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , a G r e e k N e s t o r i a n s a i l o r , i n h i s b o o k t h e C h r i s t i a n T o p o g r a p h y w h o v i s i t e d t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t i n 5 5 0 , m e n t i o n s a n e n c l a v e o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s i n " M a l e " ( M a l a b a r C o a s t ) . H e w r i t e s , " I n t h e i s l a n d o f T a b r o p a n e ( C e y l o n ) , t h e r e i s a c h u r c h o f C h r i s t i a n s , a n d c l e r i c s a n d f a i t h f u l . L i k e w i s e a t M a l e , w h e r e t h e p e p p e r g r o w s , a n d i n t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y o f K a l l i a n a ( K a l l i a n k a l a t N i l l a c k a l ) t h e r e i s a l s o a b i s h o p c o n s e c r a t e d i n P e r s i a i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e N i c e a S u n n a h a d o s e o f 3 2 5 A D . " T h e N e s t o r i a n P a t r i a r c h J e s u j a b u s , w h o d i e d i n 6 6 0 A D , m e n t i o n s K o l l a m i n h i s l e t t e r t o S i m o n , M e t r o p o l i t a n o f P e r s i a . K o l l a m i s a l s o h o m e t o o n e o f t h e o l d e s t m o s q u e s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e g e n d o f C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l s , t h e f i r s t I n d i a n m o s q u e w a s b u i l t i n 6 2 4 A D a t K o d u n g a l l u r w i t h t h e m a n d a t e o f t h e l a s t t h e r u l e r ( t h e C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l ) o f C h e r a d y n a s t y , w h o l e f t f r o m D h a r m a d o m t o M e c c a a n d c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( c . 5 7 0 – 6 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o " Q i s s a t S h a k a r w a t i F a r m a d " , t h e " M a s j i d s " a t K o d u n g a l l u r , K o l l a m , M a d a y i , B a r k u r , M a n g a l o r e , K a s a r a g o d , K a n n u r , D h a r m a d a m , P a n t h a l a y i n i , a n d C h a l i y a m , w e r e b u i l t d u r i n g t h e e r a o f M a l i k D i n a r , a n d t h e y a r e a m o n g t h e o l d e s t " M a s j i d " s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a l i k D i n a r d i e d a t T h a l a n g a r a i n K a s a r a g o d t o w n . T h e p o r t a t K o l l a m , t h e n k n o w n a s Q u i l o n , w a s f o u n d e d i n 8 2 5 b y t h e N e s t o r i a n C h r i s t i a n s M a r S a b o r a n d M a r P r o t h w i t h s a n c t i o n f r o m A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l , t h e k i n g o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e S t a t e o f Q u i l o n , a f e u d a t o r y u n d e r t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a r S a p o r I s o a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e C h e r a k i n g c r e a t e a n e w s e a p o r t n e a r K o l l a m i n l i e u o f h i s r e q u e s t t h a t h e r e b u i l d t h e a l m o s t v a n i s h e d i n l a n d s e a p o r t a t K o l l a m ( k o r e - k e - n i ) n e a r B a c k a r e ( T h e v a l a k a r a ) , a l s o k n o w n a s N e l c y n d a a n d T y n d i s t o t h e R o m a n s a n d G r e e k s a n d a s T h o n d i t o t h e T a m i l s , w h i c h h a d b e e n w i t h o u t t r a d e f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e c a u s e t h e C h e r a s w e r e o v e r r u n b y t h e P a l l a v a s i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , e n d i n g t h e s p i c e t r a d e f r o m t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e N e s t o r i a n s t o s t a y i n t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a n d i n t r o d u c e t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r s u b - c a s t e s i n t h e S t . T h o m a s t r a d i t i o n , w i t h t h e S y r i a n l i t u r g y a s a b a s i s f o r t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , w i t h o u t r e p l a c i n g t h e S a n s k r i t a n d V e d i c p r a y e r s . T h e T h a r i s a p a l l i p l a t e s p r e s e n t e d t o M a r u v a n S a p o r I s o b y A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l g r a n t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o v e r s e e i n g f o r e i g n t r a d e i n t h e c i t y a s w e l l a s c o n t r o l o v e r i t s w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s i n a m o v e d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e Q u i l o n ' s t r a d e a n d w e a l t h . T h e t w o C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o u n d i n g C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s w i t h S y r i a n l i t u r g y a l o n g t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t , d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e a n c i e n t V e d i c A d v a i t a m p r o p o u n d e d b y A d i S h a n k a r a i n t h e e a r l y n i n t h c e n t u r y a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r S u b C a s t e s , a s M a l a y a l a m w a s n o t a c c e p t e d a s a l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . T h u s b e g a n t h e M a l a y a l a m E r a , k n o w n a s K o l l a V a r s h a m a f t e r t h e c i t y , i n d i c a t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f K o l l a m i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . T h e P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t S o l e y m a n o f S i r a f v i s i t e d M a l a b a r i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d f o u n d Q u i l o n t o b e t h e o n l y p o r t i n I n d i a u s e d b y t h e h u g e C h i n e s e s h i p s a s t h e i r t r a n s s h i p m e n t h u b f o r g o o d s o n t h e i r w a y f r o m C h i n a t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . T h e r u l e r s o f K o l l a m ( f o r m e r l y c a l l e d ' D e s i n g a n a d u ' ) h a d t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a a n d e x c h a n g e d e m b a s s i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e T a n g d y n a s t y ( 6 1 8 – 9 1 3 ) , Q u i l o n w a s t h e i r c h i e f p o r t o f c a l l b e f o r e t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e C h i n e s e t r a d e d e c r e a s e d a b o u t 6 0 0 a n d w a s a g a i n r e v i v e d i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . " M i r a b i l i a D e s c r i p t a " b y B i s h o p C a t a l a n i g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e i n K o l l a m , w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e C a t h o l i c b i s h o p - d e s i g n a t e t o K o l l a m , t h e o l d e s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . H e a l s o g i v e s t r u e a n d i m a g i n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l i f e i n ' I n d i a t h e M a j o r ' i n t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e M a r c o P o l o v i s i t e d t h e c i t y . S u l a i m a n a l - T a j i r , a P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t w h o v i s i t e d K e r a l a d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S t h a n u R a v i V a r m a ( 9 t h c e n t u r y C E ) , r e c o r d s t h a t t h e r e w a s e x t e n s i v e t r a d e b e t w e e n K e r a l a a n d C h i n a a t t h a t t i m e , b a s e d a t t h e p o r t o f K o l l a m . I n 1 3 t h c e n t u r y C E , M a r a v a r m a n K u l a s e k a r a P a n d y a n I , a P a n d y a r u l e r f o u g h t a w a r i n V e n a d a n d c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a p p e a r s o n t h e C a t a l a n A t l a s o f 1 3 7 5 C E a s C o l u m b o a n d C o l o b o . T h e m a p m a r k s t h i s c i t y a s a C h r i s t i a n c i t y , r u l e d b y a C h r i s t i a n r u l e r . T h e t e x t a b o v e t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e k i n g s a y s : " A ç í s e n y [ o ] r e j a l o r e y C o l o b o , c h r i s t i à . P r u v í n c i a d e C o l u m b o " ( H e r e r e i g n s t h e L o r d K i n g C o l o b o , C h r i s t i a n , P r o v i n c e o f C o l u m b o ) . T h e c i t y w a s m u c h f r e q u e n t e d b y t h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s C E , f o l l o w e d b y t h e D o m i n i c a n a n d F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s f r o m E u r o p e . T h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s c a l l e d t h e c i t y C o l õ b o / C o l o m b o . I n 1 3 2 9 C E P o p e J o h n X X I I e s t a b l i s h e d K o l l a m / C o l u m b o a s t h e f i r s t a n d o n l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c b i s h o p r i c o n t h e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t , a n d a p p o i n t e d J o r d a n o f C a t a l o n i a , a D o m i n i c a n f r i a r , a s t h e d i o c e s e ' s f i r s t b i s h o p o f t h e L a t i n s e c t . T h e P o p e ' s L a t i n s c r i b e s a s s i g n e d t h e n a m e " C o l u m b u m " t o C o l u m b o . A c c o r d i n g t o a b o o k a u t h o r e d b y I l a r i u s A u g u s t u s , p u b l i s h e d A p r i l , 2 0 2 1 ( " ' C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s : B u r i e d d e e p i n L a t i n t h e I n d i a n o r i g i n o f t h e g r e a t e x p l o r e r f r o m G e n o a " ' ) , t h e w o r d s C o l u m b u m , C o l u m b u s a n d C o l u m b o a p p e a r f o r t h e v e r y f i r s t t i m e i n a n o t a r i a l d e e d ( l e a s e c o n t r a c t ) o f a c e r t a i n M o u s s o i n G e n o a i n 1 3 2 9 C E . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r i n t h e f o r m o f a t o p o n y m . T h e a u t h o r t h e n s h o w s , t h r o u g h t h e L a t i n t e x t o f s e v e r a l o t h e r n o t a r i a l d e e d s a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s o n c h u r c h h i s t o r y , h o w C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s - a l s o c a r r y i n g t h e s a m e t o p o n y m . - w a s p a r t o f M o u s s o ' s f a m i l y , a n d h e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n l i n e a g e ( a l t h o u g h b o r n i n G e n o a ) . T h e p o r t a t K o z h i k o d e h e l d s u p e r i o r e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n m e d i e v a l K e r a l a c o a s t , w h i l e K a n n u r , K o l l a m , a n d K o c h i , w e r e c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y p o r t s , w h e r e t h e t r a d e r s f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w o u l d g a t h e r . T h e P o r t u g u e s e a r r i v e d a t K a p p a d K o z h i k o d e i n 1 4 9 8 d u r i n g t h e A g e o f D i s c o v e r y , t h u s o p e n i n g a d i r e c t s e a r o u t e f r o m E u r o p e t o I n d i a . T h e y w e r e t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a t r a d i n g c e n t e r i n T a n g a s s e r i , K o l l a m i n 1 5 0 2 , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r t r a d e i n p e p p e r . I n t h e w a r s w i t h t h e M o o r s / A r a b s t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e a n c i e n t c h u r c h ( t e m p l e ) o f S t T h o m a s T r a d i t i o n a t T h e v a l a k a r a w a s d e s t r o y e d . I n 1 5 1 7 , t h e P o r t u g u e s e b u i l t t h e S t . T h o m a s F o r t i n T h a n g a s s e r i , w h i c h w a s d e s t r o y e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t w a r s w i t h t h e D u t c h . I n 1 6 6 1 , t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c i t y . T h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e o l d P o r t u g u e s e F o r t , l a t e r r e n o v a t e d b y t h e D u t c h , c a n b e f o u n d a t T h a n g a s s e r i . I n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , T r a v a n c o r e c o n q u e r e d K o l l a m , f o l l o w e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n 1 7 9 5 . T h a n g a s s e r i r e m a i n s t o d a y a s a n A n g l o - I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h o u g h f e w A n g l o - I n d i a n s r e m a i n . T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C h u r c h i n T h a n g a s s e r i , a n o l d P o r t u g u e s e - b u i l t c h u r c h , r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f t h e a r e a . T h e B a t t l e o f Q u i l o n w a s f o u g h t i n 1 8 0 9 b e t w e e n a t r o o p o f t h e I n d i a n k i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e l e d b y t h e t h e n D a l a w a ( p r i m e m i n i s t e r ) o f T r a v a n c o r e , V e l u T h a m p i D a l a w a a n d t h e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y l e d b y C o l o n e l C h a l m e r s a t C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n i n Q u i l o n . T h e b a t t l e l a s t e d f o r o n l y s i x h o u r s a n d w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s i n v a s i o n o f Q u i l o n a n d t h e i r g a r r i s o n s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n . T h e c o m p a n y f o r c e s w o n t h e b a t t l e w h i l e a l l t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e w a r w e r e c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h a n g e d a t t h e m a i d a n . I n t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y C E , t h e T r a v a n c o r e r o y a l f a m i l y a d o p t e d s o m e m e m b e r s f r o m t h e r o y a l f a m i l y o f K o l a t h u n a d u b a s e d a t K a n n u r , a n d P a r a p p a n a d b a s e d i n p r e s e n t - d a y M a l a p p u r a m d i s t r i c t . L a t e r , V e n a d K i n g d o m w a s c o m p l e t e l y m e r g e d w i t h t h e K i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e d u r i n g t h e r e i n o f M a r t h a n d a V a r m a a n d K o l l a m r e m a i n e d a s t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e K i n g d o m . L a t e r o n , t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e w a s r e l o c a t e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m . T r a v a n c o r e b e c a m e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t s t a t e i n K e r a l a b y d e f e a t i n g t h e p o w e r f u l Z a m o r i n o f K o z h i k o d e i n t h e b a t t l e o f P u r a k k a d i n 1 7 5 5 . T h e G o v e r n m e n t S e c r e t a r i a t w a s a l s o s i t u a t e d i n K o l l a m t i l l t h e 1 8 3 0 s . I t w a s m o v e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S w a t h i T h i r u n a l . E x c a v a t i o n s a r e g o i n g o n a t K o l l a m P o r t p r e m i s e s s i n c e F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 a s t h e t e a m h a s u n c o v e r e d a r r a y s o f a n t i q u e a r t i f a c t s , i n c l u d i n g C h i n e s e p o r c e l a i n a n d c o i n s . A C h i n e s e t e a m w i t h t h e P a l a c e M u s e u m , a t e a m f r o m I n d i a w i t h K e r a l a C o u n c i l f o r H i s t o r i c a l R e s e a r c h ( K C H R ) d i s c o v e r e d C h i n e s e c o i n s a n d a r t i f a c t s t h a t s h o w t r a d e l i n k s b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d a n c i e n t C h i n a . K o l l a m c i t y i s b o r d e r e d b y t h e p a n c h a y a t s o f N e e n d a k a r a a n d T h r i k k a r u v a t o t h e n o r t h , M a y y a n a d t o t h e s o u t h , a n d T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m a n d K o t t a m k a r a t o t h e e a s t , a n d b y t h e L a c c a d i v e S e a t o t h e w e s t . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y . T h e c i t y i s a b o u t a w a y f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m , a w a y f r o m K o c h i a n d a w a y f r o m K o z h i k o d e . T h e N a t i o n a l W a t e r w a y 3 a n d I t h i k k a r a r i v e r a r e t w o i m p o r t a n t w a t e r w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y . T h e l o n g K o l l a m C a n a l i s c o n n e c t i n g P a r a v u r L a k e a n s A s h t a m u d i L a k e . T h e K a l l a d a r i v e r , a n o t h e r r i v e r t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y , e m p t i e s i n t o A s h t a m u d i L a k e , w h i l e t h e I t h i k k a r a r i v e r r u n s t o P a r a v u r K a y a l . K a t t a k a y a l , a f r e s h w a t e r l a k e i n t h e c i t y , c o n n e c t s a n o t h e r w a t e r - b o d y n a m e d V a t t a k k a y a l w i t h L a k e A s h t a m u d i . I n M a r c h 2 0 1 6 , " I n d i a T i m e s " s e l e c t e d K o l l a m a s o n e o f t h e n i n e l e a s t p o l l u t e d c i t i e s o n e a r t h t o w h i c h a n y b o d y c a n r e l o c a t e . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e t o p 1 0 m o s t w e l c o m i n g p l a c e s i n I n d i a f o r t h e y e a r 2 0 2 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o B o o k i n g . c o m ' s t r a v e l l e r r e v i e w a w a r d s . K o l l a m i s a n a n c i e n t t r a d i n g t o w n – t r a d i n g w i t h R o m a n s , C h i n e s e , A r a b s , a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s – m e n t i o n e d i n h i s t o r i c a l c i t a t i o n s d a t i n g b a c k t o B i b l i c a l t i m e s a n d t h e r e i g n o f S o l o m o n , c o n n e c t i n g w i t h R e d S e a p o r t s o f t h e A r a b i a n S e a ( s u p p o r t e d b y a f i n d o f a n c i e n t R o m a n c o i n s ) . T h e r e w a s a l s o i n t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e A r y a n k a v u P a s s i n S c h e n k o t t a h G a p c o n n e c t i n g t h e a n c i e n t t o w n t o T a m i l N a d u . T h e o v e r l a n d t r a d e i n p e p p e r b y b u l l o c k c a r t a n d t h e t r a d e o v e r t h e w a t e r w a y s c o n n e c t i n g A l l e p e y a n d C o c h i n e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d e l i n k a g e s t h a t e n a b l e d i t t o g r o w i n t o o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t I n d i a n i n d u s t r i a l t o w n s h i p s . T h e r a i l l i n k s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d t o T a m i l N a d u s u p p o r t e d s t i l l s t r o n g e r t r a d e l i n k s . T h e f a c t o r i e s p r o c e s s i n g m a r i n e e x p o r t s a n d t h e p r o c e s s i n g a n d p a c k a g i n g o f c a s h e w n u t s e x t e n d e d i t s t r a d e a c r o s s t h e g l o b e . I t i s k n o w n f o r c a s h e w p r o c e s s i n g a n d c o i r m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u t h e r n g a t e w a y t o t h e b a c k w a t e r s o f K e r a l a a n d i s a p r o m i n e n t t o u r i s t d e s t i n a t i o n a t K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m u r b a n a r e a i n c l u d e s s u b u r b a n t o w n s s u c h a s P a r a v u r i n t h e s o u t h , K u n d a r a i n t h e e a s t a n d K a r u n a g a p a l l y i n t h e n o r t h o f t h e c i t y . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o w n s i n t h e c i t y s u b u r b s a r e E r a v i p u r a m , K o t t i y a m , K a n n a n a l l u r , a n d C h a v a r a . K o l l a m e x p e r i e n c e s a t r o p i c a l m o n s o o n c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n " A m " ) w i t h l i t t l e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h i s t h e d r y s e a s o n w i t h l e s s t h a n o f r a i n i n e a c h o f t h o s e m o n t h s . A p r i l t o N o v e m b e r i s t h e w e t s e a s o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e r a i n t h a n d u r i n g D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y i n J u n e a n d J u l y a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e S o u t h w e s t M o n s o o n . I n d i a c e n s u s , K o l l a m c i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 5 , 4 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e . T h e s e x r a t i o ( t h e n u m b e r o f f e m a l e s p e r 1 , 0 0 0 m a l e s ) w a s 1 , 1 1 2 , t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e d i s t r i c t o f K o l l a m r a n k e d s e v e n t h i n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e w h i l e t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m r a n k e d f o u r t h . K o l l a m h a d a n a v e r a g e l i t e r a c y r a t e o f 9 3 . 7 7 % , h i g h e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e o f 7 4 . 0 4 % . M a l e l i t e r a c y s t o o d a t 9 5 . 8 3 % , a n d f e m a l e a t 9 1 . 9 5 % . I n K o l l a m , 1 1 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r s i x y e a r s o f a g e . I n M a y 2 0 1 5 , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a v e d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d C i t y C o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m b y m e r g i n g T h r i k k a d a v o o r p a n c h a y a t h . S o t h e a r e a w i l l b e c o m e w i t h a t o t a l c i t y p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 8 4 , 8 9 2 . M a l a y a l a m i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e c i t y , w h i l e T a m i l i s u n d e r s t o o d b y s o m e s e c t i o n s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s o f A n g l o - I n d i a n s , K o n k a n i B r a h m i n s , T e l u g u C h e t t y a n d B e n g a l i m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s s e t t l e d i n t h e c i t y . F o r e a s e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , K o l l a m M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x z o n e s w i t h l o c a l z o n a l o f f i c e s f o r e a c h o n e . I n 2 0 1 4 , f o r m e r K o l l a m M a y o r M r s . P r a s a n n a E a r n e s t w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e B e s t L a d y M a y o r o f S o u t h I n d i a b y t h e R o t a r y C l u b o f T r i v a n d r u m R o y a l T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s a m i c r o c o s m o f K e r a l a s t a t e w i t h i t s r e s i d e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o v a r i e d r e l i g i o u s , e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y a n c i e n t t e m p l e s , c e n t u r i e s - o l d c h u r c h e s a n d m o s q u e s i n t h e c i t y a n d i t s s u b u r b s . K o l l a m i s a H i n d u m a j o r i t y c i t y i n K e r a l a . 5 6 . 3 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n b e l o n g s t o H i n d u c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e K o l l a m E r a ( a l s o k n o w n a s " M a l a y a l a m E r a " o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " o r " M a l a y a l a m C a l e n d a r " o r " M a l a b a r E r a " ) , s o l a r a n d s i d e r e a l H i n d u c a l e n d a r u s e d i n K e r a l a , h a s b e e n o r i g i n a t e d o n 8 2 5 C E ( P o t h u V a r s h a m ) a t ( K o l l a m ) c i t y . M u s l i m s a c c o u n t f o r 2 2 . 0 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . A s p e r t h e C e n s u s 2 0 1 1 d a t a , 8 0 , 9 3 5 i s t h e t o t a l M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n K o l l a m . T h e K a r b a l a M a i d a n a n d t h e a d j a c e n t M a k a n i m o s q u e s e r v e s a s t h e E i d g a h f o r t h e c i t y . T h e 3 0 0 - y e a r - o l d J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i a t K a r u v a h o u s e s t h e m o r t a l r e m a i n s o f a S u f i s a i n t , S y e d A b d u r R a h m a n J i f r i . C h r i s t i a n s a c c o u n t f o r 2 1 . 1 7 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f K o l l a m c i t y . T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n ( K o l l a m ) i s t h e f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . T h e d i o c e s e w a s f i r s t e r e c t e d b y P o p e J o h n X X I I o n 9 A u g u s t 1 3 2 9 . I t w a s r e - e r e c t e d o n 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 6 . T h e d i o c e s e c o v e r s a n a r e a o f a n d c o n t a i n s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 , 8 7 9 , 5 5 3 , C a t h o l i c s n u m b e r i n g 2 3 5 , 9 2 2 ( 4 . 8 % ) . T h e f a m o u s I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l , 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d , l o c a t e d i n T h a n g a s s e r y , i s t h e c o - c a t h e d r a l o f t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n . C S I K o l l a m - K o t t a r a k a r a D i o c e s e i s o n e o f t h e t w e n t y - f o u r d i o c e s e s o f t h e C h u r c h o f S o u t h I n d i a . T h e H e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e K e r a l a r e g i o n o f T h e P e n t e c o s t a l M i s s i o n f o r K o t t a r a k k a r a , i s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m C i t y i s a M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n w i t h e l e c t e d C o u n c i l l o r s f r o m i t s 5 5 d i v i s i o n s . T h e M a y o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e c o u n c i l l o r s , g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y h o l d i n g a m a j o r i t y . T h e C o r p o r a t i o n S e c r e t a r y h e a d s t h e o f f i c e o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e p r e s e n t M a y o r o f K o l l a m C o r p o r a t i o n i s A d v . V . R a j e n d r a b a b u o f C P I ( M ) . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i t y f a l l s u n d e r t h e K o l l a m C i t y P o l i c e C o m m i s s i o n e r a t e w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y a n I P S ( I n d i a n P o l i c e S e r v i c e ) c a d r e o f f i c e r a n d h e r e p o r t s t o t h e I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l o f P o l i c e ( I G P ) T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m R a n g e . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m e s u n d e r t h e S t a t e H o m e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a . K o l l a m C i t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b d i v i s i o n s , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , e a c h u n d e r a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r o f P o l i c e . W i t h a t o t a l u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 , 1 8 7 , 1 5 8 a n d 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 a s c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n , K o l l a m i s t h e f o u r t h m o s t p o p u l o u s c i t y i n t h e s t a t e a n d 4 9 t h o n t h e l i s t o f t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s u r b a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s i n I n d i a . t h e c i t y ' s u r b a n g r o w t h r a t e o f 1 5 4 . 5 9 % w a s t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a o f K o l l a m i n c l u d e s U l i y a k o v i l , A d i c h a n a l l o o r , A d i n a d , A y a n i v e l i k u l a n g a r a , C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r , E r a v i p u r a m ( P a r t ) , K a l l e l i b h a g o m , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m , K o t t a m k a r a , K u l a s e k h a r a p u r a m , M a y y a n a d , M e e n a d , N e d u m p a n a , N e e n d a k a r a , O a c h i r a , P a n a y a m , P a n m a n a , P a r a v u r , P e r i n a d , P o o t h a k k u l a m , T h a z h u t h a l a , T h o d i y o o r , T h r i k k a d a v o o r , T h r i k k a r u v a , T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m , a n d V a d a k k u m t h a l a . T h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p t h e C i t y o f K o l l a m a s a " P o r t C i t y o f K e r a l a " . R e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e M a r u t h a d i - E r a v i p u r a m a r e a i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r f i s h i n g , t o u r i s m a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o j e c t s w i l l b e i m p l e m e n t e d a s p a r t o f t h e p r o j e c t T h e c i t y l i f e o f K o l l a m h a s c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e . I n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a n d p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , K o l l a m c i t y i s i n f i f t h p o s i t i o n f r o m I n d i a a n d t h i r d i n K e r a l a . K o l l a m i s f a m o u s a s a c i t y w i t h e x c e l l e n t e x p o r t b a c k g r o u n d . 5 s t a r , 4 s t a r a n d 3 s t a r h o t e l s , m u l t i - s t o r i e d s h o p p i n g m a l l s , b r a n d e d j e w e l l e r y , t e x t i l e s h o w r o o m s a n d c a r s h o w r o o m s h a v e s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s . K o l l a m w a s t h e t h i r d c i t y i n K e r a l a ( a f t e r K o z h i k o d e a n d K o c h i ) t o a d o p t t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l c u l t u r e . K o l l a m d i s t r i c t r a n k s f i r s t i n l i v e s t o c k w e a l t h i n t h e s t a t e . D o w n t o w n K o l l a m i s t h e m a i n C B D o f K o l l a m c i t y . D a i r y f a r m i n g i s f a i r l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A l s o t h e r e i s a c h i l l i n g p l a n t i n t h e c i t y . K o l l a m i s a n i m p o r t a n t m a r i t i m e a n d p o r t c i t y . F i s h i n g h a s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e d i s t r i c t . N e e n d a k a r a a n d S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a v i l l a g e s i n t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y h a v e f i s h e r i e s . A n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 4 , 9 7 3 p e r s o n s a r e e n g a g e d i n f i s h i n g a n d a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s . C h e r i a z h e e k k a l , A l a p p a d , P a n d a r a t h u r u t h u , P u t h e n t h u r a , N e e n d a k a r a , T h a n g a s s e r i , E r a v i p u r a m a n d P a r a v u r a r e e i g h t o f t h e 2 6 i m p o r t a n t f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a r e 2 4 i n l a n d f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s i n i t i a t e d s t e p s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i s h i n g h a r b o u r a t N e e n d a k a r a . A v e r a g e f i s h l a n d i n g i s e s t i m a t e d a t 8 5 , 2 7 5 t o n n e s p e r y e a r . O n e - t h i r d o f t h e s t a t e ' s f i s h c a t c h i s f r o m K o l l a m . N e a r l y 3 0 0 0 m e c h a n i s e d b o a t s a r e o p e r a t i n g f r o m t h e f i s h i n g h a r b o u r . F F D A a n d V F F D A p r o m o t e f r e s h w a t e r f i s h c u l t u r e a n d p r a w n f a r m i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f i s h i n g v i l l a g e w i t h 1 0 0 h o u s e s i s b e i n g b u i l t a t E r a v i p u r a m . A p r a w n f a r m i s b e i n g b u i l t a t A y i r a m t h e n g u , a n d s e v e r a l n e w h a t c h e r i e s a r e p l a n n e d t o c a t e r t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e a q u a c u l t u r i s t s . K e r a l a ' s o n l y t u r k e y f a r m a n d a r e g i o n a l p o u l t r y f a r m a r e a t K u r e e p u z h a . T h e r e a r e t w o C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n d u s t r i a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y , t h e I n d i a n R a r e E a r t h s , C h a v a r a a n d P a r v a t h i M i l l s L t d . , K o l l a m . K e r a l a C e r a m i c s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a E l e c t r i c a l a n d A l l i e d E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p a n y i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a P r e m o P i p e f a c t o r y i n C h a v a r a , K e r a l a M i n e r a l s a n d M e t a l s L i m i t e d i n C h a v a r a a n d U n i t e d E l e c t r i c a l I n d u s t r i e s i n K o l l a m a r e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . O t h e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e p r i v a t e / c o o p e r a t i v e s e c t o r a r e A l u m i n i u m I n d u s t r i e s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , T h o m a s S t e p h e n & C o . i n K o l l a m , F l o o r c o i n P a r a v u r a n d C o o p e r a t i v e S p i n n i n g M i l l i n C h a t h a n n o o r . T h e b e a c h s a n d s o f t h e d i s t r i c t h a v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u c h h e a v y m i n e r a l s a s I l m e n i t e , R u t i l e , M o n o s i t e a n d Z i r c o n , w h i c h o f f e r s c o p e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s . B e s i d e s l a r g e d e p o s i t s o f C h i n a c l a y i n K u n d a r a , M u l a v a n a a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , t h e r e a r e a l s o l i m e - s h e l l d e p o s i t s i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e a n d B a u x i t e d e p o s i t s i n A d i c h a n a l l u r . K n o w n a s t h e " C a s h e w C a p i t a l o f t h e W o r l d " , K o l l a m i s n o t e d f o r i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c a s h e w b u s i n e s s a n d i s h o m e t o m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 c a s h e w - p r o c e s s i n g u n i t s . E v e r y y e a r , a b o u t 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f r a w c a s h e w s a r e i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e c i t y f o r p r o c e s s i n g a n d a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f p r o c e s s e d c a s h e w s a r e e x p o r t e d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s w o r l d w i d e . T h e C a s h e w E x p o r t P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( C E P C I ) e x p e c t s a r i s e i n e x p o r t s t o 2 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s b y 2 0 2 0 , a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 2 0 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e c u r r e n t f i g u r e . T h e K e r a l a S t a t e C a s h e w D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n L i m i t e d ( K S C D C ) i s s i t u a t e d a t M u n d a k k a l i n K o l l a m c i t y . T h e c o m p a n y o w n s 3 0 c a s h e w f a c t o r i e s a l l a c r o s s K e r a l a . O f t h e s e , 2 4 a r e l o c a t e d i n K o l l a m d i s t r i c t . K o l l a m i s o n e o f m a n y s e a f o o d e x p o r t h u b s i n I n d i a w i t h n u m e r o u s c o m p a n i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e c t o r . M o s t o f t h e s e a r e b a s e d i n t h e M a r u t h a d i , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a , K a v a n a d , N e e n d a k a r a , A s r a m a m , K i l i k o l l u r , T h i r u m u l l a v a r a m a n d U l i y a k o v i l a r e a s o f t h e c i t y . C a p i t h a n s , K i n g s M a r i n e E x p o r t e r s , I n d i a F o o d E x p o r t s a n d O c e a n i c F i s h e r i e s a r e e x a m p l e s o f s e a f o o d e x p o r t e r s . K o l l a m ' s A s h t a m u d i L a k e c l a m f i s h e r y w a s t h e f i r s t M a r i n e S t e w a r d s h i p C o u n c i l ( M S C ) c e r t i f i e d f i s h e r y i n I n d i a . T h e c l a m f i s h e r y s u p p o r t s a r o u n d 3 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , c l e a n i n g , p r o c e s s i n g a n d t r a d i n g o f c l a m s . A r o u n d 9 0 s p e c i e s o f f i s h a n d t e n s p e c i e s o f c l a m s a r e f o u n d i n t h e l a k e . K o l l a m F e s t i s K o l l a m ' s o w n a n n u a l f e s t i v a l , a t t r a c t i n g m o s t l y K e r a l i t e s b u t a l s o h u n d r e d s o f d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n t o u r i s t s t o K o l l a m . T h e m a i n v e n u e o f K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a n d g i g a n t i c A s h r a m a m M a i d a n . K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e s i g n a t u r e e v e n t o f K o l l a m . K o l l a m F e s t s e e k s t o s h o w c a s e K o l l a m ' s r i c h c u l t u r e a n d h e r i t a g e , t o u r i s m p o t e n t i a l a n d i n v e s t m e n t s i n n e w v e n t u r e s . K o l l a m P o o r a m , p a r t o f t h e A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e F e s t i v a l , i s u s u a l l y h e l d o n 1 5 A p r i l , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y o n 1 6 A p r i l . T h e p o o r a m i s h e l d a t t h e A s h r a m a m m a i d a n . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s T r o p h y B o a t R a c e ( P T B R ) i s a n a n n u a l r e g a t t a h e l d i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e i n K o l l a m . T h e e v e n t w a s i n a u g u r a t e d b y P r e s i d e n t P r a t h i b h a P a t i l i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . T h e e v e n t h a s b e e n r e s c h e d u l e d f r o m 2 0 1 2 . T h e c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m i s s e r v e d b y t h e T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t , w h i c h i s a b o u t 5 6 k i l o m e t e r s f r o m t h e c i t y v i a N H 6 6 . T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t i n a n o n - m e t r o c i t y i n I n d i a . i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n K e r a l a i n a r e a , a f t e r S h o r a n u r J u n c t i o n , w i t h a t o t a l o f 6 p l a t f o r m s . T h e s t a t i o n h a s 1 7 r a i l t r a c k s . K o l l a m j u n c t i o n h a s w o r l d ' s s e c o n d l o n g e s t r a i l w a y p l a t f o r m , m e a s u r i n g 1 1 8 0 . 5 m ( 3 8 7 3   f t ) . M a i n l i n e E l e c t r i c a l M u l t i p l e U n i t ( M E M U ) h a v e a m a i n t e n a n c e s h e d a t K o l l a m J u n c t i o n . T h e M E M U s e r v i c e s s t a r t e d f r o m K o l l a m t o E r n a k u l a m v i a A l a p p u z h a a n d K o t t a y a m i n t h e s e c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2 . B y 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , M E M U s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d N a g e r c o i l b e c a m e a r e a l i t y a n d l a t e r e x t e n d e d u p t o K a n y a k u m a r i . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i n a u g u r a t e d o n 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 3 f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k s o f M E M U r a k e s . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i s t h e l a r g e s t M E M U S h e d i n K e r a l a , w h i c h i s e q u i p p e d w i t h m o s t m o d e r n f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e i s a l o n g - s t a n d i n g d e m a n d f o r t h e K o l l a m T o w n R a i l w a y S t a t i o n i n t h e K o l l a m - P e r i n a d s t r e t c h a n d " S . N C o l l e g e R a i l w a y S t a t i o n " i n t h e K o l l a m - E r a v i p u r a m s t r e t c h . T h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s i n K o l l a m c i t y a r e K o l l a m J u n c t i o n r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , E r a v i p u r a m r a i l w a y s t a t i o n a n d K i l i k o l l u r r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . A n e w s u b u r b a n r a i l s y s t e m h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y t h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t a n d I n d i a n R a i l w a y s o n t h e r o u t e T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m - K o l l a m - H a r i p a d / C h e n g a n n u r f o r w h i c h M R V C i s t a s k e d t o c o n d u c t a s t u d y a n d s u b m i t a r e p o r t . T e n t r a i n s , e a c h w i t h s e v e n c o a c h e s , w i l l t r a n s p o r t p a s s e n g e r s b a c k a n d f o r t h a l o n g t h e T r i v a n d r u m - K o l l a m - C h e n g a n n u r - K o t t a r a k a r a - A d o o r s e c t i o n . T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s c o n n e c t e d t o a l m o s t a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d m a j o r t o w n s i n t h e s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g T r i v a n d r u m , A l a p p u z h a , K o c h i , P a l a k k a d , K o t t a y a m , K o t t a r a k k a r a , a n d P u n a l u r , a n d w i t h o t h e r I n d i a n c i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e N H 6 6 , N H 1 8 3 , N H 7 4 4 - a n d o t h e r s t a t e P W D R o a d s . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s p r o v i d e d b y s t a t e - o w n e d K e r a l a S t a t e R o a d T r a n s p o r t C o r p o r a t i o n ( K S R T C ) a n d p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t b u s o p e r a t o r s . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e f i v e K S R T C z o n e s i n K e r a l a . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s a l s o p r o v i d e d b y p r i v a t e t a x i s a n d a u t o r i c k s h a w s , a l s o c a l l e d a u t o s . T h e r e i s a c i t y p r i v a t e b u s s t a n d a t A n d a m u k k a m . T h e r e i s a K S R T C b u s s t a t i o n b e s i d e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . B u s e s t o v a r i o u s t o w n s i n K e r a l a a n d i n t e r s t a t e s e r v i c e s r u n f r o m t h i s s t a t i o n . T h e S t a t e W a t e r T r a n s p o r t D e p a r t m e n t o p e r a t e s b o a t s e r v i c e s t o W e s t K a l l a d a , M u n r o e I s l a n d , G u h a n a n d a p u r a m , D a l a v a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a f r o m K o l l a m K S W T D F e r r y T e r m i n a l s i t u a t e d o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . A s r a m a m L i n k R o a d i n t h e c i t y p a s s e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f e r r y t e r m i n a l . D o u b l e d e c k e r l u x u r y b o a t s r u n b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d A l l e p e y d a i l y . L u x u r y b o a t s , o p e r a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r i v a t e o w n e r s , o p e r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o a t j e t t y d u r i n g t h e t o u r i s t s e a s o n . T h e W e s t c o a s t c a n a l s y s t e m , w h i c h s t a r t s f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m i n t h e s o u t h a n d e n d s a t H o s d u r g i n t h e n o r t h , p a s s e s t h r o u g h P a r a v u r , t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m a n d K a r u n a g a p p a l l y t a l u k . K o l l a m P o r t i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p o r t i n K e r a l a , a f t e r C o c h i n P o r t T r u s t . I t i s o n e o f t w o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o r t s i n K e r a l a . C a r g o h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s b e g a n o p e r a t i o n i n 2 0 1 3 . F o r e i g n s h i p s a r r i v e i n t h e p o r t r e g u l a r l y w i t h t h e M V A l i n a , a v e s s e l r e g i s t e r e d i n A n t i g u a a n c h o r e d a t t h e p o r t o n 4 A p r i l 2 0 1 4 . O n c e t h e P o r t s t a r t s f u n c t i o n i n g i n f u l l - f l e d g e d , i t w i l l m a k e t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f K o l l a m - b a s e d c a s h e w c o m p a n i e s m o r e e a s y . S h r e y a s S h i p p i n g C o m p a n y i s n o w r u n n i n g a r e g u l a r c o n t a i n e r s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m P o r t a n d K o c h i P o r t . T h e r e a r e m a n y r e s p e c t e d c o l l e g e s , s c h o o l s a n d l e a r n i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o e d u c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t a n d l a t e s t k n o w l e d g e t o t h e s c h o l a r s . T h e T h a n g a l K u n j u M u s a l i a r C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e s c h o o l o f i t s k i n d i n t h e s t a t e , i s a t K i l i k o l l u r , a b o u t e a s t o f K o l l a m c i t y , a n d i s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e f o r a l l K o l l a m i t e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a s g r a n t e d a c a d e m i c a u t o n o m y t o F a t i m a M a t a N a t i o n a l C o l l e g e , a n o t h e r p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e c i t y . S r e e N a r a y a n a C o l l e g e , B i s h o p J e r o m e I n s t i t u t e ( a n i n t e g r a t e d c a m p u s p r o v i d i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e , E n g i n e e r i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s ) , a n d T r a v a n c o r e B u s i n e s s A c a d e m y a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e t w o l a w c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y , S r e e N a r a y a n a G u r u C o l l e g e o f L e g a l S t u d i e s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f S r e e N a r a y a n a T r u s t a n d N S S L a w C o l l e g e m a n a g e d b y t h e N . S . S . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e b e s t s c h o o l s i n K o l l a m i n c l u d i n g T r i n i t y L y c e u m S c h o o l , I n f a n t J e s u s S c h o o l , S t A l o y s i u s H . S . S , T h e o x f o r d s c h o o l , S r i S r i A c a d e m y e t c . K e r a l a S t a t e I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n ( K S I D ) , a d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e u n d e r D e p a r t m e n t o f l a b o u r a n d S k i l l s , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a , i s l o c a t e d a t C h a n d a n a t h o p e i n K o l l a m . I t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 2 0 0 8 a n d w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t s t a t e - o w n e d d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e s i n I n d i a . K S I D c u r r e n t l y c o n d u c t s P o s t G r a d u a t e D i p l o m a P r o g r a m s i n D e s i g n d e v e l o p e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n , A h m e d a b a d . I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f I n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n ( I I I C - K o l l a m ) i s a n i n s t i t u t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s s i t u a t e d a t C h a v a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o s u p p o r t t h e s k i l l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y , K o l l a m , K e r a l a i s a f a s h i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n s t i t u t e s i t u a t e d a t V e l l i m o n , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e c h n i c a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f T e x t i l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e t w o I M K ( I n s t i t u t e o f M a n a g e m e n t , K e r a l a ) E x t e n s i o n C e n t r e s a c t i v e i n t h e c i t y . K e r a l a M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e i s s i t u a t e d a t N e e n d a k a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o g i v e m a r i t i m e t r a i n i n g f o r t h e s t u d e n t s i n K e r a l a . M o r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d a t N e e n d a k a r a m a r i t i m e i n s t i t u t e u n d e r t h e B o a t C r e w t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e . A p a r t f r o m c o l l e g e s , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b a n k c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m i s k n o w n a s I n d i a ' s h u b f o r b a n k t e s t c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s w i t h a r o u n d 4 0 s u c h i n s t i t u t e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t . S t u d e n t s f r o m v a r i o u s I n d i a n s t a t e s s u c h a s T a m i l N a d u , K a r n a t a k a , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , B i h a r a n d M a d h y a P r a d e s h a l s o c o m e h e r e f o r c o a c h i n g . C r i c k e t i s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s p o r t , f o l l o w e d b y h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l . K o l l a m i s h o m e t o a n u m b e r o f l o c a l c r i c k e t , h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l t e a m s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n d i s t r i c t , s t a t e - l e v e l a n d z o n e m a t c h e s . A n I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o c k e y S t a d i u m w i t h a s t r o - t u r f f a c i l i t y i s t h e r e a t A s r a m a m i n t h e c i t y , b u i l t a t a c o s t o f R s . 1 3 c r o r e . T h e l a n d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t a d i u m w a s t a k e n o v e r f r o m t h e P o s t a l D e p a r t m e n t a t A s r a m a m , K o l l a m . T h e c i t y h a s a n o t h e r s t a d i u m n a m e d t h e L a l B a h a d u r S h a s t r i S t a d i u m , K o l l a m . I t i s a m u l t i p u r p o s e s t a d i u m a n d h a s r e p e a t e d l y h o s t e d s u c h s p o r t s e v e n t s a s t h e R a n j i T r o p h y , S a n t h o s h T r o p h y a n d N a t i o n a l G a m e s . T w o o p e n g r o u n d s i n t h e c i t y , t h e A s r a m a m M a i d a n a n d P e e r a n k i M a i d a n , a r e a l s o u s e d f o r s p o r t s e v e n t s , p r a c t i c e a n d w a r m - u p m a t c h e s . H i n d u s a n d t e m p l e s A n a n d a v a l l e e s h w a r a m S r i M a h a d e v a r T e m p l e i s a 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d a n c i e n t H i n d u t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y . T h e 4 0 0 - y e a r - o l d S a n c t u m s a n c t o r u m o f t h i s t e m p l e i s f i n i s h e d i n t e a k . A m m a c h i v e e d u M u h u r t h i t e m p l e i s a n o t h e r m a j o r t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d a r o u n d 6 0 0 y e a r s a g o b y t h e A m m a c h i V e e d u f a m i l y , a r i s t o c r a t s f r o m K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m p o o r a m , a m a j o r f e s t i v a l o f K o l l a m , i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a t e n - d a y f e s t i v a l , n o r m a l l y i n m i d A p r i l , o f A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e . K o t t a n k u l a n g a r a D e v i T e m p l e i s o n e o f t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s H i n d u t e m p l e s i n K e r a l a w e r e c r o s s - d r e s s i n g o f m e n f o r " C h a m a y a v i l a k k u " r i t u a l i s a p a r t o f t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v i t i e s . T h e m e n a l s o c a r r y l a r g e l a m p s . T h e f i r s t o f t h e t w o - d a y d r e s s i n g e v e n t d r e w t o a c l o s e e a r l y o n M o n d a y . M o r e o v e r , K o t t a r a k k a r a S r e e M a h a g a n a p a t h i K s h e t h r a m i n K o t t a r a k k a r a , P u t t i n g a l D e v i T e m p l e i n P a r a v u r , s o o r a n a d n o r t h a n a y a d i P a z h a y i d a m S r e e N a r a s i m h a S w a m i T e m p l e P o r u v a z h y P e r u v i r u t h y M a l a n a d a T e m p l e i n P o r u v a z h y , S a s t h a m c o t t a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a T e m p l e i n S a s t h a m k o t t a , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a t e m p l e , T h r i k k a d a v o o r S r e e M a h a d e v a T e m p l e i n K a d a v o o r a n d K a t t i l M e k k a t h i l D e v i T e m p l e i n P o n m a n a P a d a n a y a r k u l a n g a r a m a h a d e v a t e m p l e K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , A s h t a m u d i S r e e V e e r a b h a d r a S w a m y T e m p l e a r e t h e o t h e r f a m o u s H i n d u w o r s h i p c e n t r e s i n t h e K o l l a m M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c h u r c h e s T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l i n T a n g a s s e r i i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o r t u g u e s e d u r i n g 1 6 1 4 . I t i s n o w t h e p r o - c a t h e d r a l o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n – t h e a n c i e n t a n d f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e o f I n d i a . T h e c h u r c h r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f o l d Q u i l o n c i t y . S t . S e b a s t i a n ' s C h u r c h a t N e e n d a k a r a i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h i n t h e c i t y . T h e D u t c h C h u r c h i n M u n r o e I s l a n d i s b u i l t b y t h e D u t c h i n 1 8 7 8 . O u r L a d y o f V e l a n k a n n i S h r i n e i n C u t c h e r y i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p p l a c e i n K o l l a m c i t y . S a i n t C a s i m i r C h u r c h i n K a d a v o o r , H o l y F a m i l y C h u r c h i n K a v a n a d , S t . S t e p h e n ' s C h u r c h i n T h o p p u a n d S t . T h o m a s C h u r c h i n K a d a p p a k a d a a r e s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n K o l l a m . M u s l i m s a n d m o s q u e s K o t t u k a d u J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r J u m a - A - M a s j i d , V a l i y a p a l l i i n J o n a k a p p u r a m , C h i n n a k a d a J u m a M a s j i d , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n K o l l u r v i l a , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n T h a t t a m a l a a n d K o i v i l a J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a a r e t h e o t h e r m a j o r M o s q u e s i n K o l l a m . N o t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s b o r n i n K o l l a m i n c l u d e :

Geography

The geography of Kollam, located in the Malaysian archipelago, features a unique blend of natural resources, including rivers, lakes, and coastal areas. The city is situated near the Arabian Sea and is connected to other regions through various waterways, including the National Waterway 3 and the Ithikkara River. The surrounding landscape is characterized by hills, valleys, and plains, making it an ideal location for trade and commerce. The city's proximity to the sea and its natural harbors have facilitated maritime trade since ancient times, with connections to the Roman Empire, China, and other Oriental nations. Today, Kollam remains an important center for trade, industry, and tourism, with a strong focus on cashew processing, coir manufacturing, and fishing.

in the Malaysian archipelago. It seems that trade at Kollam seems to have flourished right into the Medieval period as in 1280, there is instance of envoys of Yuan China coming to Kollam for establishing relations between the local ruler and China The ancient political and cultural history of Kollam was almost entirely independent from that of the rest of Kerala. The Chera dynasty governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. This included Palakkad Gap, Coimbatore, Salem, and Kolli Hills. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c. first and the fourth centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu. However the southern region of present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and Alappuzha) was under Ay dynasty, who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai than Cheras. Along with (Muziris and Tyndis), Quilon was an ancient seaport on the Malabar Coast of India from the early centuries before the Christian era. Kollam served as a major port city for Pandya dynasty on the western coast while Kulasekharapatnam served Pandyas on the eastern coast. The city had a high commercial reputation from the days of the Phoenicians and Ancient Romans. Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) mentions Greek ships anchored at Muziris and Nelcynda. There was also a land route over the Western Ghats. Spices, pearls, diamonds, and silk were exported to Egypt and Rome from these ports. Pearls and diamonds came to the Chera Kingdom from Ceylon and the southeastern coast of India, then known as the Pandyan Kingdom. Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek Nestorian sailor, in his book the Christian Topography who visited the Malabar Coast in 550, mentions an enclave of Christian believers in "Male" (Malabar Coast). He writes, "In the island of Tabropane (Ceylon), there is a church of Christians, and clerics and faithful. Likewise at Male, where the pepper grows, and in the farming community of Kalliana (Kalliankal at Nillackal) there is also a bishop consecrated in Persia in accordance with the Nicea Sunnahadose of 325 AD." The Nestorian Patriarch Jesujabus, who died in 660 AD, mentions Kollam in his letter to Simon, Metropolitan of Persia. Kollam with Kerala Council for Historical Research (KCHR) discovered Chinese coins and artifacts that show trade links between Kollam and ancient China. Kollam city is bordered by the panchayats of Neendakara and Thrikkaruva to the north, Mayyanad to the south, and Thrikkovilvattom and Kottamkara to the east, and by the Laccadive Sea to the west. Ashtamudi Lake is in the heart of the city. The city is about away from Thiruvananthapuram, away from Kochi and away from Kozhikode. The National Waterway 3 and Ithikkara river are two important waterways passing through the city. The long Kollam Canal is connecting Paravur Lake ans Ashtamudi Lake. The Kallada river, another river that flows through the suburbs of the city, empties into Ashtamudi Lake, while the Ithikkara river runs to Paravur Kayal. Kattakayal, a freshwater lake in the city, connects another water-body named Vattakkayal with Lake Ashtamudi. In March 2016, "IndiaTimes" selected Kollam as one of the nine least polluted cities on earth to which anybody can relocate. Kollam is one among the top 10 most welcoming places in India for the year 2020, according to Booking.com's traveller review awards. Kollam is an ancient trading town – trading with Romans, Chinese, Arabs, and other Orientals – mentioned in historical citations dating back to Biblical times and the reign of Solomon, connecting with Red Sea ports of the Arabian Sea (supported by a find of ancient Roman coins). There was also internal trade through the Aryankavu Pass in Schenkottah Gap connecting the ancient town to Tamil Nadu. The overland trade in pepper by bullock cart and the trade over the waterways connecting Allepey and Cochin established trade linkages that enabled it to grow into one of the earliest Indian industrial townships. The rail links later established to Tamil Nadu supported still stronger trade links. The factories processing marine exports and the processing and packaging of cashewnuts extended its trade across the globe. It is known for cashew processing and coir manufacturing. Ashtamudi Lake is considered the southern gateway to the backwaters of Kerala and is a prominent tourist destination at Kollam. The Kollam urban area includes suburban towns such as Paravur in the south, Kundara in the east and Karunagapally in the north of the city. Other important towns in the city suburbs are Eravipuram, Kottiyam, Kannanallur, and Chavara. in the economy of the district. Neendakara and Sakthikulangara villages in the suburbs of the city have fisheries. An estimated 134,973 persons are engaged in fishing and allied activities. Cheriazheekkal, Alappad, Pandarathuruthu, Puthenthura, Neendakara, Thangasseri, Eravipuram and Paravur are eight of the 26 important fishing villages. There are 24 inland fishing villages. The Government has initiated steps for establishing a fishing harbour at Neendakara. Average fish landing is estimated at 85,275 tonnes per year. One-third of the state's fish catch is from Kollam. Nearly 3000 mechanised boats are operating from the fishing harbour. FFDA and VFFDA promote fresh water fish culture and prawn farming respectively. A fishing village with 100 houses is being built at Eravipuram. A prawn farm is being built at Ayiramthengu, and several new hatcheries are planned to cater to the needs of the aquaculturists. Kerala's only turkey farm and a regional poultry farm are at Kureepuzha. There are two Central Government industrial operations in the city, the Indian Rare Earths, Chavara and Parvathi Mills Ltd., Kollam. Kerala Ceramics Ltd. in Kundara, Kerala Electrical and Allied Engineering Company in Kundara, Kerala Premo Pipe factory in Chavara, Kerala Minerals and Metals Limited in Chavara and United Electrical Industries in Kollam are Kerala Government-owned companies. Other major industries in the private/cooperative sector are Aluminium Industries Ltd. in Kundara, Thomas Stephen & Co. in Kollam, Floorco in Paravur and Cooperative Spinning Mill in Chathannoor. The beach sands of the district have concentrations of such heavy minerals as Ilmenite, Rutile, Monosite and Zircon, which offer scope for

Kollam

I n 8 2 5 C E , t h e M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r , o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " , w a s c r e a t e d i n K o l l a m a t m e e t i n g s h e l d i n t h e c i t y . T h e p r e s e n t M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r i s s a i d t o h a v e b e g u n w i t h t h e r e - f o u n d i n g o f t h e t o w n , w h i c h w a s r e b u i l t a f t e r i t s d e s t r u c t i o n b y f i r e . T h e n a m e K o l l a m i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d " K o l l a m " , m e a n i n g p e p p e r . A s t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Q u i l o n , K o l l a m w a s a f l o u r i s h i n g p o r t d u r i n g t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y ( c . 3 r d c e n t u r y B C – 1 2 t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d l a t e r b e c a m e t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e K i n g d o m o f Q u i l o n o n i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n c . 8 2 5 . K o l l a m w a s c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f o u r e a r l y e n t r e p o t s i n g l o b a l s e a t r a d e d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , a l o n g w i t h A l e x a n d r i a a n d C a i r o i n E g y p t , t h e C h i n e s e c i t y o f Q u a n z h o u , a n d M a l a c c a i n t h e M a l a y s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o . I t s e e m s t h a t t r a d e a t K o l l a m s e e m s t o h a v e f l o u r i s h e d r i g h t i n t o t h e M e d i e v a l p e r i o d a s i n 1 2 8 0 , t h e r e i s i n s t a n c e o f e n v o y s o f Y u a n C h i n a c o m i n g t o K o l l a m f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e l o c a l r u l e r a n d C h i n a T h e a n c i e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f K o l l a m w a s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f K e r a l a . T h e C h e r a d y n a s t y g o v e r n e d t h e a r e a o f M a l a b a r C o a s t b e t w e e n A l a p p u z h a i n t h e s o u t h t o K a s a r a g o d i n t h e n o r t h . T h i s i n c l u d e d P a l a k k a d G a p , C o i m b a t o r e , S a l e m , a n d K o l l i H i l l s . T h e r e g i o n a r o u n d C o i m b a t o r e w a s r u l e d b y t h e C h e r a s d u r i n g S a n g a m p e r i o d b e t w e e n c . f i r s t a n d t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s C E a n d i t s e r v e d a s t h e e a s t e r n e n t r a n c e t o t h e P a l a k k a d G a p , t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a d e r o u t e b e t w e e n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t a n d T a m i l N a d u . H o w e v e r t h e s o u t h e r n r e g i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y K e r a l a s t a t e ( T h e c o a s t a l b e l t b e t w e e n T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a ) w a s u n d e r A y d y n a s t y , w h o w a s m o r e r e l a t e d t o t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y o f M a d u r a i t h a n C h e r a s . A l o n g w i t h ( M u z i r i s a n d T y n d i s ) , Q u i l o n w a s a n a n c i e n t s e a p o r t o n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t o f I n d i a f r o m t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . K o l l a m s e r v e d a s a m a j o r p o r t c i t y f o r P a n d y a d y n a s t y o n t h e w e s t e r n c o a s t w h i l e K u l a s e k h a r a p a t n a m s e r v e d P a n d y a s o n t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t . T h e c i t y h a d a h i g h c o m m e r c i a l r e p u t a t i o n f r o m t h e d a y s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d A n c i e n t R o m a n s . P l i n y t h e E l d e r ( 2 3 – 7 9 A D ) m e n t i o n s G r e e k s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t M u z i r i s a n d N e l c y n d a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a l a n d r o u t e o v e r t h e W e s t e r n G h a t s . S p i c e s , p e a r l s , d i a m o n d s , a n d s i l k w e r e e x p o r t e d t o E g y p t a n d R o m e f r o m t h e s e p o r t s . P e a r l s a n d d i a m o n d s c a m e t o t h e C h e r a K i n g d o m f r o m C e y l o n a n d t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o a s t o f I n d i a , t h e n k n o w n a s t h e P a n d y a n K i n g d o m . C o s m a s I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , a G r e e k N e s t o r i a n s a i l o r , i n h i s b o o k t h e C h r i s t i a n T o p o g r a p h y w h o v i s i t e d t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t i n 5 5 0 , m e n t i o n s a n e n c l a v e o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s i n " M a l e " ( M a l a b a r C o a s t ) . H e w r i t e s , " I n t h e i s l a n d o f T a b r o p a n e ( C e y l o n ) , t h e r e i s a c h u r c h o f C h r i s t i a n s , a n d c l e r i c s a n d f a i t h f u l . L i k e w i s e a t M a l e , w h e r e t h e p e p p e r g r o w s , a n d i n t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y o f K a l l i a n a ( K a l l i a n k a l a t N i l l a c k a l ) t h e r e i s a l s o a b i s h o p c o n s e c r a t e d i n P e r s i a i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e N i c e a S u n n a h a d o s e o f 3 2 5 A D . " T h e N e s t o r i a n P a t r i a r c h J e s u j a b u s , w h o d i e d i n 6 6 0 A D , m e n t i o n s K o l l a m i n h i s l e t t e r t o S i m o n , M e t r o p o l i t a n o f P e r s i a . K o l l a m i s a l s o h o m e t o o n e o f t h e o l d e s t m o s q u e s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e g e n d o f C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l s , t h e f i r s t I n d i a n m o s q u e w a s b u i l t i n 6 2 4 A D a t K o d u n g a l l u r w i t h t h e m a n d a t e o f t h e l a s t t h e r u l e r ( t h e C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l ) o f C h e r a d y n a s t y , w h o l e f t f r o m D h a r m a d o m t o M e c c a a n d c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( c . 5 7 0 – 6 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o " Q i s s a t S h a k a r w a t i F a r m a d " , t h e " M a s j i d s " a t K o d u n g a l l u r , K o l l a m , M a d a y i , B a r k u r , M a n g a l o r e , K a s a r a g o d , K a n n u r , D h a r m a d a m , P a n t h a l a y i n i , a n d C h a l i y a m , w e r e b u i l t d u r i n g t h e e r a o f M a l i k D i n a r , a n d t h e y a r e a m o n g t h e o l d e s t " M a s j i d " s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a l i k D i n a r d i e d a t T h a l a n g a r a i n K a s a r a g o d t o w n . T h e p o r t a t K o l l a m , t h e n k n o w n a s Q u i l o n , w a s f o u n d e d i n 8 2 5 b y t h e N e s t o r i a n C h r i s t i a n s M a r S a b o r a n d M a r P r o t h w i t h s a n c t i o n f r o m A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l , t h e k i n g o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e S t a t e o f Q u i l o n , a f e u d a t o r y u n d e r t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a r S a p o r I s o a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e C h e r a k i n g c r e a t e a n e w s e a p o r t n e a r K o l l a m i n l i e u o f h i s r e q u e s t t h a t h e r e b u i l d t h e a l m o s t v a n i s h e d i n l a n d s e a p o r t a t K o l l a m ( k o r e - k e - n i ) n e a r B a c k a r e ( T h e v a l a k a r a ) , a l s o k n o w n a s N e l c y n d a a n d T y n d i s t o t h e R o m a n s a n d G r e e k s a n d a s T h o n d i t o t h e T a m i l s , w h i c h h a d b e e n w i t h o u t t r a d e f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e c a u s e t h e C h e r a s w e r e o v e r r u n b y t h e P a l l a v a s i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , e n d i n g t h e s p i c e t r a d e f r o m t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e N e s t o r i a n s t o s t a y i n t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a n d i n t r o d u c e t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r s u b - c a s t e s i n t h e S t . T h o m a s t r a d i t i o n , w i t h t h e S y r i a n l i t u r g y a s a b a s i s f o r t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , w i t h o u t r e p l a c i n g t h e S a n s k r i t a n d V e d i c p r a y e r s . T h e T h a r i s a p a l l i p l a t e s p r e s e n t e d t o M a r u v a n S a p o r I s o b y A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l g r a n t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o v e r s e e i n g f o r e i g n t r a d e i n t h e c i t y a s w e l l a s c o n t r o l o v e r i t s w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s i n a m o v e d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e Q u i l o n ' s t r a d e a n d w e a l t h . T h e t w o C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o u n d i n g C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s w i t h S y r i a n l i t u r g y a l o n g t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t , d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e a n c i e n t V e d i c A d v a i t a m p r o p o u n d e d b y A d i S h a n k a r a i n t h e e a r l y n i n t h c e n t u r y a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r S u b C a s t e s , a s M a l a y a l a m w a s n o t a c c e p t e d a s a l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . T h u s b e g a n t h e M a l a y a l a m E r a , k n o w n a s K o l l a V a r s h a m a f t e r t h e c i t y , i n d i c a t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f K o l l a m i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . T h e P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t S o l e y m a n o f S i r a f v i s i t e d M a l a b a r i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d f o u n d Q u i l o n t o b e t h e o n l y p o r t i n I n d i a u s e d b y t h e h u g e C h i n e s e s h i p s a s t h e i r t r a n s s h i p m e n t h u b f o r g o o d s o n t h e i r w a y f r o m C h i n a t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . T h e r u l e r s o f K o l l a m ( f o r m e r l y c a l l e d ' D e s i n g a n a d u ' ) h a d t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a a n d e x c h a n g e d e m b a s s i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e T a n g d y n a s t y ( 6 1 8 – 9 1 3 ) , Q u i l o n w a s t h e i r c h i e f p o r t o f c a l l b e f o r e t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e C h i n e s e t r a d e d e c r e a s e d a b o u t 6 0 0 a n d w a s a g a i n r e v i v e d i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . " M i r a b i l i a D e s c r i p t a " b y B i s h o p C a t a l a n i g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e i n K o l l a m , w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e C a t h o l i c b i s h o p - d e s i g n a t e t o K o l l a m , t h e o l d e s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . H e a l s o g i v e s t r u e a n d i m a g i n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l i f e i n ' I n d i a t h e M a j o r ' i n t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e M a r c o P o l o v i s i t e d t h e c i t y . S u l a i m a n a l - T a j i r , a P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t w h o v i s i t e d K e r a l a d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S t h a n u R a v i V a r m a ( 9 t h c e n t u r y C E ) , r e c o r d s t h a t t h e r e w a s e x t e n s i v e t r a d e b e t w e e n K e r a l a a n d C h i n a a t t h a t t i m e , b a s e d a t t h e p o r t o f K o l l a m . I n 1 3 t h c e n t u r y C E , M a r a v a r m a n K u l a s e k a r a P a n d y a n I , a P a n d y a r u l e r f o u g h t a w a r i n V e n a d a n d c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a p p e a r s o n t h e C a t a l a n A t l a s o f 1 3 7 5 C E a s C o l u m b o a n d C o l o b o . T h e m a p m a r k s t h i s c i t y a s a C h r i s t i a n c i t y , r u l e d b y a C h r i s t i a n r u l e r . T h e t e x t a b o v e t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e k i n g s a y s : " A ç í s e n y [ o ] r e j a l o r e y C o l o b o , c h r i s t i à . P r u v í n c i a d e C o l u m b o " ( H e r e r e i g n s t h e L o r d K i n g C o l o b o , C h r i s t i a n , P r o v i n c e o f C o l u m b o ) . T h e c i t y w a s m u c h f r e q u e n t e d b y t h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s C E , f o l l o w e d b y t h e D o m i n i c a n a n d F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s f r o m E u r o p e . T h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s c a l l e d t h e c i t y C o l õ b o / C o l o m b o . I n 1 3 2 9 C E P o p e J o h n X X I I e s t a b l i s h e d K o l l a m / C o l u m b o a s t h e f i r s t a n d o n l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c b i s h o p r i c o n t h e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t , a n d a p p o i n t e d J o r d a n o f C a t a l o n i a , a D o m i n i c a n f r i a r , a s t h e d i o c e s e ' s f i r s t b i s h o p o f t h e L a t i n s e c t . T h e P o p e ' s L a t i n s c r i b e s a s s i g n e d t h e n a m e " C o l u m b u m " t o C o l u m b o . A c c o r d i n g t o a b o o k a u t h o r e d b y I l a r i u s A u g u s t u s , p u b l i s h e d A p r i l , 2 0 2 1 ( " ' C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s : B u r i e d d e e p i n L a t i n t h e I n d i a n o r i g i n o f t h e g r e a t e x p l o r e r f r o m G e n o a " ' ) , t h e w o r d s C o l u m b u m , C o l u m b u s a n d C o l u m b o a p p e a r f o r t h e v e r y f i r s t t i m e i n a n o t a r i a l d e e d ( l e a s e c o n t r a c t ) o f a c e r t a i n M o u s s o i n G e n o a i n 1 3 2 9 C E . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r i n t h e f o r m o f a t o p o n y m . T h e a u t h o r t h e n s h o w s , t h r o u g h t h e L a t i n t e x t o f s e v e r a l o t h e r n o t a r i a l d e e d s a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s o n c h u r c h h i s t o r y , h o w C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s - a l s o c a r r y i n g t h e s a m e t o p o n y m . - w a s p a r t o f M o u s s o ' s f a m i l y , a n d h e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n l i n e a g e ( a l t h o u g h b o r n i n G e n o a ) . T h e p o r t a t K o z h i k o d e h e l d s u p e r i o r e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n m e d i e v a l K e r a l a c o a s t , w h i l e K a n n u r , K o l l a m , a n d K o c h i , w e r e c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y p o r t s , w h e r e t h e t r a d e r s f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w o u l d g a t h e r . T h e P o r t u g u e s e a r r i v e d a t K a p p a d K o z h i k o d e i n 1 4 9 8 d u r i n g t h e A g e o f D i s c o v e r y , t h u s o p e n i n g a d i r e c t s e a r o u t e f r o m E u r o p e t o I n d i a . T h e y w e r e t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a t r a d i n g c e n t e r i n T a n g a s s e r i , K o l l a m i n 1 5 0 2 , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r t r a d e i n p e p p e r . I n t h e w a r s w i t h t h e M o o r s / A r a b s t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e a n c i e n t c h u r c h ( t e m p l e ) o f S t T h o m a s T r a d i t i o n a t T h e v a l a k a r a w a s d e s t r o y e d . I n 1 5 1 7 , t h e P o r t u g u e s e b u i l t t h e S t . T h o m a s F o r t i n T h a n g a s s e r i , w h i c h w a s d e s t r o y e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t w a r s w i t h t h e D u t c h . I n 1 6 6 1 , t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c i t y . T h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e o l d P o r t u g u e s e F o r t , l a t e r r e n o v a t e d b y t h e D u t c h , c a n b e f o u n d a t T h a n g a s s e r i . I n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , T r a v a n c o r e c o n q u e r e d K o l l a m , f o l l o w e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n 1 7 9 5 . T h a n g a s s e r i r e m a i n s t o d a y a s a n A n g l o - I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h o u g h f e w A n g l o - I n d i a n s r e m a i n . T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C h u r c h i n T h a n g a s s e r i , a n o l d P o r t u g u e s e - b u i l t c h u r c h , r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f t h e a r e a . T h e B a t t l e o f Q u i l o n w a s f o u g h t i n 1 8 0 9 b e t w e e n a t r o o p o f t h e I n d i a n k i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e l e d b y t h e t h e n D a l a w a ( p r i m e m i n i s t e r ) o f T r a v a n c o r e , V e l u T h a m p i D a l a w a a n d t h e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y l e d b y C o l o n e l C h a l m e r s a t C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n i n Q u i l o n . T h e b a t t l e l a s t e d f o r o n l y s i x h o u r s a n d w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s i n v a s i o n o f Q u i l o n a n d t h e i r g a r r i s o n s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n . T h e c o m p a n y f o r c e s w o n t h e b a t t l e w h i l e a l l t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e w a r w e r e c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h a n g e d a t t h e m a i d a n . I n t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y C E , t h e T r a v a n c o r e r o y a l f a m i l y a d o p t e d s o m e m e m b e r s f r o m t h e r o y a l f a m i l y o f K o l a t h u n a d u b a s e d a t K a n n u r , a n d P a r a p p a n a d b a s e d i n p r e s e n t - d a y M a l a p p u r a m d i s t r i c t . L a t e r , V e n a d K i n g d o m w a s c o m p l e t e l y m e r g e d w i t h t h e K i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e d u r i n g t h e r e i n o f M a r t h a n d a V a r m a a n d K o l l a m r e m a i n e d a s t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e K i n g d o m . L a t e r o n , t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e w a s r e l o c a t e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m . T r a v a n c o r e b e c a m e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t s t a t e i n K e r a l a b y d e f e a t i n g t h e p o w e r f u l Z a m o r i n o f K o z h i k o d e i n t h e b a t t l e o f P u r a k k a d i n 1 7 5 5 . T h e G o v e r n m e n t S e c r e t a r i a t w a s a l s o s i t u a t e d i n K o l l a m t i l l t h e 1 8 3 0 s . I t w a s m o v e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S w a t h i T h i r u n a l . E x c a v a t i o n s a r e g o i n g o n a t K o l l a m P o r t p r e m i s e s s i n c e F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 a s t h e t e a m h a s u n c o v e r e d a r r a y s o f a n t i q u e a r t i f a c t s , i n c l u d i n g C h i n e s e p o r c e l a i n a n d c o i n s . A C h i n e s e t e a m w i t h t h e P a l a c e M u s e u m , a t e a m f r o m I n d i a w i t h K e r a l a C o u n c i l f o r H i s t o r i c a l R e s e a r c h ( K C H R ) d i s c o v e r e d C h i n e s e c o i n s a n d a r t i f a c t s t h a t s h o w t r a d e l i n k s b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d a n c i e n t C h i n a . K o l l a m c i t y i s b o r d e r e d b y t h e p a n c h a y a t s o f N e e n d a k a r a a n d T h r i k k a r u v a t o t h e n o r t h , M a y y a n a d t o t h e s o u t h , a n d T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m a n d K o t t a m k a r a t o t h e e a s t , a n d b y t h e L a c c a d i v e S e a t o t h e w e s t . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y . T h e c i t y i s a b o u t a w a y f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m , a w a y f r o m K o c h i a n d a w a y f r o m K o z h i k o d e . T h e N a t i o n a l W a t e r w a y 3 a n d I t h i k k a r a r i v e r a r e t w o i m p o r t a n t w a t e r w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y . T h e l o n g K o l l a m C a n a l i s c o n n e c t i n g P a r a v u r L a k e a n s A s h t a m u d i L a k e . T h e K a l l a d a r i v e r , a n o t h e r r i v e r t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y , e m p t i e s i n t o A s h t a m u d i L a k e , w h i l e t h e I t h i k k a r a r i v e r r u n s t o P a r a v u r K a y a l . K a t t a k a y a l , a f r e s h w a t e r l a k e i n t h e c i t y , c o n n e c t s a n o t h e r w a t e r - b o d y n a m e d V a t t a k k a y a l w i t h L a k e A s h t a m u d i . I n M a r c h 2 0 1 6 , " I n d i a T i m e s " s e l e c t e d K o l l a m a s o n e o f t h e n i n e l e a s t p o l l u t e d c i t i e s o n e a r t h t o w h i c h a n y b o d y c a n r e l o c a t e . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e t o p 1 0 m o s t w e l c o m i n g p l a c e s i n I n d i a f o r t h e y e a r 2 0 2 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o B o o k i n g . c o m ' s t r a v e l l e r r e v i e w a w a r d s . K o l l a m i s a n a n c i e n t t r a d i n g t o w n – t r a d i n g w i t h R o m a n s , C h i n e s e , A r a b s , a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s – m e n t i o n e d i n h i s t o r i c a l c i t a t i o n s d a t i n g b a c k t o B i b l i c a l t i m e s a n d t h e r e i g n o f S o l o m o n , c o n n e c t i n g w i t h R e d S e a p o r t s o f t h e A r a b i a n S e a ( s u p p o r t e d b y a f i n d o f a n c i e n t R o m a n c o i n s ) . T h e r e w a s a l s o i n t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e A r y a n k a v u P a s s i n S c h e n k o t t a h G a p c o n n e c t i n g t h e a n c i e n t t o w n t o T a m i l N a d u . T h e o v e r l a n d t r a d e i n p e p p e r b y b u l l o c k c a r t a n d t h e t r a d e o v e r t h e w a t e r w a y s c o n n e c t i n g A l l e p e y a n d C o c h i n e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d e l i n k a g e s t h a t e n a b l e d i t t o g r o w i n t o o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t I n d i a n i n d u s t r i a l t o w n s h i p s . T h e r a i l l i n k s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d t o T a m i l N a d u s u p p o r t e d s t i l l s t r o n g e r t r a d e l i n k s . T h e f a c t o r i e s p r o c e s s i n g m a r i n e e x p o r t s a n d t h e p r o c e s s i n g a n d p a c k a g i n g o f c a s h e w n u t s e x t e n d e d i t s t r a d e a c r o s s t h e g l o b e . I t i s k n o w n f o r c a s h e w p r o c e s s i n g a n d c o i r m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u t h e r n g a t e w a y t o t h e b a c k w a t e r s o f K e r a l a a n d i s a p r o m i n e n t t o u r i s t d e s t i n a t i o n a t K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m u r b a n a r e a i n c l u d e s s u b u r b a n t o w n s s u c h a s P a r a v u r i n t h e s o u t h , K u n d a r a i n t h e e a s t a n d K a r u n a g a p a l l y i n t h e n o r t h o f t h e c i t y . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o w n s i n t h e c i t y s u b u r b s a r e E r a v i p u r a m , K o t t i y a m , K a n n a n a l l u r , a n d C h a v a r a . K o l l a m e x p e r i e n c e s a t r o p i c a l m o n s o o n c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n " A m " ) w i t h l i t t l e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h i s t h e d r y s e a s o n w i t h l e s s t h a n o f r a i n i n e a c h o f t h o s e m o n t h s . A p r i l t o N o v e m b e r i s t h e w e t s e a s o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e r a i n t h a n d u r i n g D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y i n J u n e a n d J u l y a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e S o u t h w e s t M o n s o o n . I n d i a c e n s u s , K o l l a m c i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 5 , 4 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e . T h e s e x r a t i o ( t h e n u m b e r o f f e m a l e s p e r 1 , 0 0 0 m a l e s ) w a s 1 , 1 1 2 , t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e d i s t r i c t o f K o l l a m r a n k e d s e v e n t h i n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e w h i l e t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m r a n k e d f o u r t h . K o l l a m h a d a n a v e r a g e l i t e r a c y r a t e o f 9 3 . 7 7 % , h i g h e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e o f 7 4 . 0 4 % . M a l e l i t e r a c y s t o o d a t 9 5 . 8 3 % , a n d f e m a l e a t 9 1 . 9 5 % . I n K o l l a m , 1 1 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r s i x y e a r s o f a g e . I n M a y 2 0 1 5 , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a v e d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d C i t y C o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m b y m e r g i n g T h r i k k a d a v o o r p a n c h a y a t h . S o t h e a r e a w i l l b e c o m e w i t h a t o t a l c i t y p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 8 4 , 8 9 2 . M a l a y a l a m i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e c i t y , w h i l e T a m i l i s u n d e r s t o o d b y s o m e s e c t i o n s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s o f A n g l o - I n d i a n s , K o n k a n i B r a h m i n s , T e l u g u C h e t t y a n d B e n g a l i m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s s e t t l e d i n t h e c i t y . F o r e a s e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , K o l l a m M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x z o n e s w i t h l o c a l z o n a l o f f i c e s f o r e a c h o n e . I n 2 0 1 4 , f o r m e r K o l l a m M a y o r M r s . P r a s a n n a E a r n e s t w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e B e s t L a d y M a y o r o f S o u t h I n d i a b y t h e R o t a r y C l u b o f T r i v a n d r u m R o y a l T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s a m i c r o c o s m o f K e r a l a s t a t e w i t h i t s r e s i d e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o v a r i e d r e l i g i o u s , e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y a n c i e n t t e m p l e s , c e n t u r i e s - o l d c h u r c h e s a n d m o s q u e s i n t h e c i t y a n d i t s s u b u r b s . K o l l a m i s a H i n d u m a j o r i t y c i t y i n K e r a l a . 5 6 . 3 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n b e l o n g s t o H i n d u c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e K o l l a m E r a ( a l s o k n o w n a s " M a l a y a l a m E r a " o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " o r " M a l a y a l a m C a l e n d a r " o r " M a l a b a r E r a " ) , s o l a r a n d s i d e r e a l H i n d u c a l e n d a r u s e d i n K e r a l a , h a s b e e n o r i g i n a t e d o n 8 2 5 C E ( P o t h u V a r s h a m ) a t ( K o l l a m ) c i t y . M u s l i m s a c c o u n t f o r 2 2 . 0 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . A s p e r t h e C e n s u s 2 0 1 1 d a t a , 8 0 , 9 3 5 i s t h e t o t a l M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n K o l l a m . T h e K a r b a l a M a i d a n a n d t h e a d j a c e n t M a k a n i m o s q u e s e r v e s a s t h e E i d g a h f o r t h e c i t y . T h e 3 0 0 - y e a r - o l d J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i a t K a r u v a h o u s e s t h e m o r t a l r e m a i n s o f a S u f i s a i n t , S y e d A b d u r R a h m a n J i f r i . C h r i s t i a n s a c c o u n t f o r 2 1 . 1 7 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f K o l l a m c i t y . T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n ( K o l l a m ) i s t h e f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . T h e d i o c e s e w a s f i r s t e r e c t e d b y P o p e J o h n X X I I o n 9 A u g u s t 1 3 2 9 . I t w a s r e - e r e c t e d o n 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 6 . T h e d i o c e s e c o v e r s a n a r e a o f a n d c o n t a i n s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 , 8 7 9 , 5 5 3 , C a t h o l i c s n u m b e r i n g 2 3 5 , 9 2 2 ( 4 . 8 % ) . T h e f a m o u s I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l , 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d , l o c a t e d i n T h a n g a s s e r y , i s t h e c o - c a t h e d r a l o f t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n . C S I K o l l a m - K o t t a r a k a r a D i o c e s e i s o n e o f t h e t w e n t y - f o u r d i o c e s e s o f t h e C h u r c h o f S o u t h I n d i a . T h e H e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e K e r a l a r e g i o n o f T h e P e n t e c o s t a l M i s s i o n f o r K o t t a r a k k a r a , i s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m C i t y i s a M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n w i t h e l e c t e d C o u n c i l l o r s f r o m i t s 5 5 d i v i s i o n s . T h e M a y o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e c o u n c i l l o r s , g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y h o l d i n g a m a j o r i t y . T h e C o r p o r a t i o n S e c r e t a r y h e a d s t h e o f f i c e o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e p r e s e n t M a y o r o f K o l l a m C o r p o r a t i o n i s A d v . V . R a j e n d r a b a b u o f C P I ( M ) . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i t y f a l l s u n d e r t h e K o l l a m C i t y P o l i c e C o m m i s s i o n e r a t e w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y a n I P S ( I n d i a n P o l i c e S e r v i c e ) c a d r e o f f i c e r a n d h e r e p o r t s t o t h e I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l o f P o l i c e ( I G P ) T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m R a n g e . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m e s u n d e r t h e S t a t e H o m e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a . K o l l a m C i t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b d i v i s i o n s , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , e a c h u n d e r a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r o f P o l i c e . W i t h a t o t a l u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 , 1 8 7 , 1 5 8 a n d 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 a s c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n , K o l l a m i s t h e f o u r t h m o s t p o p u l o u s c i t y i n t h e s t a t e a n d 4 9 t h o n t h e l i s t o f t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s u r b a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s i n I n d i a . t h e c i t y ' s u r b a n g r o w t h r a t e o f 1 5 4 . 5 9 % w a s t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a o f K o l l a m i n c l u d e s U l i y a k o v i l , A d i c h a n a l l o o r , A d i n a d , A y a n i v e l i k u l a n g a r a , C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r , E r a v i p u r a m ( P a r t ) , K a l l e l i b h a g o m , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m , K o t t a m k a r a , K u l a s e k h a r a p u r a m , M a y y a n a d , M e e n a d , N e d u m p a n a , N e e n d a k a r a , O a c h i r a , P a n a y a m , P a n m a n a , P a r a v u r , P e r i n a d , P o o t h a k k u l a m , T h a z h u t h a l a , T h o d i y o o r , T h r i k k a d a v o o r , T h r i k k a r u v a , T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m , a n d V a d a k k u m t h a l a . T h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p t h e C i t y o f K o l l a m a s a " P o r t C i t y o f K e r a l a " . R e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e M a r u t h a d i - E r a v i p u r a m a r e a i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r f i s h i n g , t o u r i s m a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o j e c t s w i l l b e i m p l e m e n t e d a s p a r t o f t h e p r o j e c t T h e c i t y l i f e o f K o l l a m h a s c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e . I n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a n d p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , K o l l a m c i t y i s i n f i f t h p o s i t i o n f r o m I n d i a a n d t h i r d i n K e r a l a . K o l l a m i s f a m o u s a s a c i t y w i t h e x c e l l e n t e x p o r t b a c k g r o u n d . 5 s t a r , 4 s t a r a n d 3 s t a r h o t e l s , m u l t i - s t o r i e d s h o p p i n g m a l l s , b r a n d e d j e w e l l e r y , t e x t i l e s h o w r o o m s a n d c a r s h o w r o o m s h a v e s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s . K o l l a m w a s t h e t h i r d c i t y i n K e r a l a ( a f t e r K o z h i k o d e a n d K o c h i ) t o a d o p t t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l c u l t u r e . K o l l a m d i s t r i c t r a n k s f i r s t i n l i v e s t o c k w e a l t h i n t h e s t a t e . D o w n t o w n K o l l a m i s t h e m a i n C B D o f K o l l a m c i t y . D a i r y f a r m i n g i s f a i r l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A l s o t h e r e i s a c h i l l i n g p l a n t i n t h e c i t y . K o l l a m i s a n i m p o r t a n t m a r i t i m e a n d p o r t c i t y . F i s h i n g h a s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e d i s t r i c t . N e e n d a k a r a a n d S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a v i l l a g e s i n t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y h a v e f i s h e r i e s . A n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 4 , 9 7 3 p e r s o n s a r e e n g a g e d i n f i s h i n g a n d a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s . C h e r i a z h e e k k a l , A l a p p a d , P a n d a r a t h u r u t h u , P u t h e n t h u r a , N e e n d a k a r a , T h a n g a s s e r i , E r a v i p u r a m a n d P a r a v u r a r e e i g h t o f t h e 2 6 i m p o r t a n t f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a r e 2 4 i n l a n d f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s i n i t i a t e d s t e p s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i s h i n g h a r b o u r a t N e e n d a k a r a . A v e r a g e f i s h l a n d i n g i s e s t i m a t e d a t 8 5 , 2 7 5 t o n n e s p e r y e a r . O n e - t h i r d o f t h e s t a t e ' s f i s h c a t c h i s f r o m K o l l a m . N e a r l y 3 0 0 0 m e c h a n i s e d b o a t s a r e o p e r a t i n g f r o m t h e f i s h i n g h a r b o u r . F F D A a n d V F F D A p r o m o t e f r e s h w a t e r f i s h c u l t u r e a n d p r a w n f a r m i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f i s h i n g v i l l a g e w i t h 1 0 0 h o u s e s i s b e i n g b u i l t a t E r a v i p u r a m . A p r a w n f a r m i s b e i n g b u i l t a t A y i r a m t h e n g u , a n d s e v e r a l n e w h a t c h e r i e s a r e p l a n n e d t o c a t e r t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e a q u a c u l t u r i s t s . K e r a l a ' s o n l y t u r k e y f a r m a n d a r e g i o n a l p o u l t r y f a r m a r e a t K u r e e p u z h a . T h e r e a r e t w o C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n d u s t r i a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y , t h e I n d i a n R a r e E a r t h s , C h a v a r a a n d P a r v a t h i M i l l s L t d . , K o l l a m . K e r a l a C e r a m i c s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a E l e c t r i c a l a n d A l l i e d E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p a n y i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a P r e m o P i p e f a c t o r y i n C h a v a r a , K e r a l a M i n e r a l s a n d M e t a l s L i m i t e d i n C h a v a r a a n d U n i t e d E l e c t r i c a l I n d u s t r i e s i n K o l l a m a r e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . O t h e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e p r i v a t e / c o o p e r a t i v e s e c t o r a r e A l u m i n i u m I n d u s t r i e s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , T h o m a s S t e p h e n & C o . i n K o l l a m , F l o o r c o i n P a r a v u r a n d C o o p e r a t i v e S p i n n i n g M i l l i n C h a t h a n n o o r . T h e b e a c h s a n d s o f t h e d i s t r i c t h a v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u c h h e a v y m i n e r a l s a s I l m e n i t e , R u t i l e , M o n o s i t e a n d Z i r c o n , w h i c h o f f e r s c o p e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s . B e s i d e s l a r g e d e p o s i t s o f C h i n a c l a y i n K u n d a r a , M u l a v a n a a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , t h e r e a r e a l s o l i m e - s h e l l d e p o s i t s i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e a n d B a u x i t e d e p o s i t s i n A d i c h a n a l l u r . K n o w n a s t h e " C a s h e w C a p i t a l o f t h e W o r l d " , K o l l a m i s n o t e d f o r i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c a s h e w b u s i n e s s a n d i s h o m e t o m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 c a s h e w - p r o c e s s i n g u n i t s . E v e r y y e a r , a b o u t 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f r a w c a s h e w s a r e i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e c i t y f o r p r o c e s s i n g a n d a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f p r o c e s s e d c a s h e w s a r e e x p o r t e d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s w o r l d w i d e . T h e C a s h e w E x p o r t P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( C E P C I ) e x p e c t s a r i s e i n e x p o r t s t o 2 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s b y 2 0 2 0 , a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 2 0 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e c u r r e n t f i g u r e . T h e K e r a l a S t a t e C a s h e w D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n L i m i t e d ( K S C D C ) i s s i t u a t e d a t M u n d a k k a l i n K o l l a m c i t y . T h e c o m p a n y o w n s 3 0 c a s h e w f a c t o r i e s a l l a c r o s s K e r a l a . O f t h e s e , 2 4 a r e l o c a t e d i n K o l l a m d i s t r i c t . K o l l a m i s o n e o f m a n y s e a f o o d e x p o r t h u b s i n I n d i a w i t h n u m e r o u s c o m p a n i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e c t o r . M o s t o f t h e s e a r e b a s e d i n t h e M a r u t h a d i , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a , K a v a n a d , N e e n d a k a r a , A s r a m a m , K i l i k o l l u r , T h i r u m u l l a v a r a m a n d U l i y a k o v i l a r e a s o f t h e c i t y . C a p i t h a n s , K i n g s M a r i n e E x p o r t e r s , I n d i a F o o d E x p o r t s a n d O c e a n i c F i s h e r i e s a r e e x a m p l e s o f s e a f o o d e x p o r t e r s . K o l l a m ' s A s h t a m u d i L a k e c l a m f i s h e r y w a s t h e f i r s t M a r i n e S t e w a r d s h i p C o u n c i l ( M S C ) c e r t i f i e d f i s h e r y i n I n d i a . T h e c l a m f i s h e r y s u p p o r t s a r o u n d 3 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , c l e a n i n g , p r o c e s s i n g a n d t r a d i n g o f c l a m s . A r o u n d 9 0 s p e c i e s o f f i s h a n d t e n s p e c i e s o f c l a m s a r e f o u n d i n t h e l a k e . K o l l a m F e s t i s K o l l a m ' s o w n a n n u a l f e s t i v a l , a t t r a c t i n g m o s t l y K e r a l i t e s b u t a l s o h u n d r e d s o f d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n t o u r i s t s t o K o l l a m . T h e m a i n v e n u e o f K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a n d g i g a n t i c A s h r a m a m M a i d a n . K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e s i g n a t u r e e v e n t o f K o l l a m . K o l l a m F e s t s e e k s t o s h o w c a s e K o l l a m ' s r i c h c u l t u r e a n d h e r i t a g e , t o u r i s m p o t e n t i a l a n d i n v e s t m e n t s i n n e w v e n t u r e s . K o l l a m P o o r a m , p a r t o f t h e A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e F e s t i v a l , i s u s u a l l y h e l d o n 1 5 A p r i l , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y o n 1 6 A p r i l . T h e p o o r a m i s h e l d a t t h e A s h r a m a m m a i d a n . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s T r o p h y B o a t R a c e ( P T B R ) i s a n a n n u a l r e g a t t a h e l d i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e i n K o l l a m . T h e e v e n t w a s i n a u g u r a t e d b y P r e s i d e n t P r a t h i b h a P a t i l i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . T h e e v e n t h a s b e e n r e s c h e d u l e d f r o m 2 0 1 2 . T h e c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m i s s e r v e d b y t h e T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t , w h i c h i s a b o u t 5 6 k i l o m e t e r s f r o m t h e c i t y v i a N H 6 6 . T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t i n a n o n - m e t r o c i t y i n I n d i a . i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n K e r a l a i n a r e a , a f t e r S h o r a n u r J u n c t i o n , w i t h a t o t a l o f 6 p l a t f o r m s . T h e s t a t i o n h a s 1 7 r a i l t r a c k s . K o l l a m j u n c t i o n h a s w o r l d ' s s e c o n d l o n g e s t r a i l w a y p l a t f o r m , m e a s u r i n g 1 1 8 0 . 5 m ( 3 8 7 3   f t ) . M a i n l i n e E l e c t r i c a l M u l t i p l e U n i t ( M E M U ) h a v e a m a i n t e n a n c e s h e d a t K o l l a m J u n c t i o n . T h e M E M U s e r v i c e s s t a r t e d f r o m K o l l a m t o E r n a k u l a m v i a A l a p p u z h a a n d K o t t a y a m i n t h e s e c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2 . B y 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , M E M U s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d N a g e r c o i l b e c a m e a r e a l i t y a n d l a t e r e x t e n d e d u p t o K a n y a k u m a r i . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i n a u g u r a t e d o n 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 3 f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k s o f M E M U r a k e s . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i s t h e l a r g e s t M E M U S h e d i n K e r a l a , w h i c h i s e q u i p p e d w i t h m o s t m o d e r n f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e i s a l o n g - s t a n d i n g d e m a n d f o r t h e K o l l a m T o w n R a i l w a y S t a t i o n i n t h e K o l l a m - P e r i n a d s t r e t c h a n d " S . N C o l l e g e R a i l w a y S t a t i o n " i n t h e K o l l a m - E r a v i p u r a m s t r e t c h . T h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s i n K o l l a m c i t y a r e K o l l a m J u n c t i o n r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , E r a v i p u r a m r a i l w a y s t a t i o n a n d K i l i k o l l u r r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . A n e w s u b u r b a n r a i l s y s t e m h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y t h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t a n d I n d i a n R a i l w a y s o n t h e r o u t e T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m - K o l l a m - H a r i p a d / C h e n g a n n u r f o r w h i c h M R V C i s t a s k e d t o c o n d u c t a s t u d y a n d s u b m i t a r e p o r t . T e n t r a i n s , e a c h w i t h s e v e n c o a c h e s , w i l l t r a n s p o r t p a s s e n g e r s b a c k a n d f o r t h a l o n g t h e T r i v a n d r u m - K o l l a m - C h e n g a n n u r - K o t t a r a k a r a - A d o o r s e c t i o n . T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s c o n n e c t e d t o a l m o s t a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d m a j o r t o w n s i n t h e s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g T r i v a n d r u m , A l a p p u z h a , K o c h i , P a l a k k a d , K o t t a y a m , K o t t a r a k k a r a , a n d P u n a l u r , a n d w i t h o t h e r I n d i a n c i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e N H 6 6 , N H 1 8 3 , N H 7 4 4 - a n d o t h e r s t a t e P W D R o a d s . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s p r o v i d e d b y s t a t e - o w n e d K e r a l a S t a t e R o a d T r a n s p o r t C o r p o r a t i o n ( K S R T C ) a n d p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t b u s o p e r a t o r s . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e f i v e K S R T C z o n e s i n K e r a l a . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s a l s o p r o v i d e d b y p r i v a t e t a x i s a n d a u t o r i c k s h a w s , a l s o c a l l e d a u t o s . T h e r e i s a c i t y p r i v a t e b u s s t a n d a t A n d a m u k k a m . T h e r e i s a K S R T C b u s s t a t i o n b e s i d e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . B u s e s t o v a r i o u s t o w n s i n K e r a l a a n d i n t e r s t a t e s e r v i c e s r u n f r o m t h i s s t a t i o n . T h e S t a t e W a t e r T r a n s p o r t D e p a r t m e n t o p e r a t e s b o a t s e r v i c e s t o W e s t K a l l a d a , M u n r o e I s l a n d , G u h a n a n d a p u r a m , D a l a v a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a f r o m K o l l a m K S W T D F e r r y T e r m i n a l s i t u a t e d o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . A s r a m a m L i n k R o a d i n t h e c i t y p a s s e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f e r r y t e r m i n a l . D o u b l e d e c k e r l u x u r y b o a t s r u n b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d A l l e p e y d a i l y . L u x u r y b o a t s , o p e r a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r i v a t e o w n e r s , o p e r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o a t j e t t y d u r i n g t h e t o u r i s t s e a s o n . T h e W e s t c o a s t c a n a l s y s t e m , w h i c h s t a r t s f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m i n t h e s o u t h a n d e n d s a t H o s d u r g i n t h e n o r t h , p a s s e s t h r o u g h P a r a v u r , t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m a n d K a r u n a g a p p a l l y t a l u k . K o l l a m P o r t i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p o r t i n K e r a l a , a f t e r C o c h i n P o r t T r u s t . I t i s o n e o f t w o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o r t s i n K e r a l a . C a r g o h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s b e g a n o p e r a t i o n i n 2 0 1 3 . F o r e i g n s h i p s a r r i v e i n t h e p o r t r e g u l a r l y w i t h t h e M V A l i n a , a v e s s e l r e g i s t e r e d i n A n t i g u a a n c h o r e d a t t h e p o r t o n 4 A p r i l 2 0 1 4 . O n c e t h e P o r t s t a r t s f u n c t i o n i n g i n f u l l - f l e d g e d , i t w i l l m a k e t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f K o l l a m - b a s e d c a s h e w c o m p a n i e s m o r e e a s y . S h r e y a s S h i p p i n g C o m p a n y i s n o w r u n n i n g a r e g u l a r c o n t a i n e r s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m P o r t a n d K o c h i P o r t . T h e r e a r e m a n y r e s p e c t e d c o l l e g e s , s c h o o l s a n d l e a r n i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o e d u c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t a n d l a t e s t k n o w l e d g e t o t h e s c h o l a r s . T h e T h a n g a l K u n j u M u s a l i a r C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e s c h o o l o f i t s k i n d i n t h e s t a t e , i s a t K i l i k o l l u r , a b o u t e a s t o f K o l l a m c i t y , a n d i s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e f o r a l l K o l l a m i t e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a s g r a n t e d a c a d e m i c a u t o n o m y t o F a t i m a M a t a N a t i o n a l C o l l e g e , a n o t h e r p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e c i t y . S r e e N a r a y a n a C o l l e g e , B i s h o p J e r o m e I n s t i t u t e ( a n i n t e g r a t e d c a m p u s p r o v i d i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e , E n g i n e e r i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s ) , a n d T r a v a n c o r e B u s i n e s s A c a d e m y a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e t w o l a w c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y , S r e e N a r a y a n a G u r u C o l l e g e o f L e g a l S t u d i e s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f S r e e N a r a y a n a T r u s t a n d N S S L a w C o l l e g e m a n a g e d b y t h e N . S . S . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e b e s t s c h o o l s i n K o l l a m i n c l u d i n g T r i n i t y L y c e u m S c h o o l , I n f a n t J e s u s S c h o o l , S t A l o y s i u s H . S . S , T h e o x f o r d s c h o o l , S r i S r i A c a d e m y e t c . K e r a l a S t a t e I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n ( K S I D ) , a d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e u n d e r D e p a r t m e n t o f l a b o u r a n d S k i l l s , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a , i s l o c a t e d a t C h a n d a n a t h o p e i n K o l l a m . I t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 2 0 0 8 a n d w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t s t a t e - o w n e d d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e s i n I n d i a . K S I D c u r r e n t l y c o n d u c t s P o s t G r a d u a t e D i p l o m a P r o g r a m s i n D e s i g n d e v e l o p e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n , A h m e d a b a d . I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f I n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n ( I I I C - K o l l a m ) i s a n i n s t i t u t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s s i t u a t e d a t C h a v a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o s u p p o r t t h e s k i l l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y , K o l l a m , K e r a l a i s a f a s h i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n s t i t u t e s i t u a t e d a t V e l l i m o n , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e c h n i c a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f T e x t i l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e t w o I M K ( I n s t i t u t e o f M a n a g e m e n t , K e r a l a ) E x t e n s i o n C e n t r e s a c t i v e i n t h e c i t y . K e r a l a M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e i s s i t u a t e d a t N e e n d a k a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o g i v e m a r i t i m e t r a i n i n g f o r t h e s t u d e n t s i n K e r a l a . M o r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d a t N e e n d a k a r a m a r i t i m e i n s t i t u t e u n d e r t h e B o a t C r e w t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e . A p a r t f r o m c o l l e g e s , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b a n k c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m i s k n o w n a s I n d i a ' s h u b f o r b a n k t e s t c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s w i t h a r o u n d 4 0 s u c h i n s t i t u t e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t . S t u d e n t s f r o m v a r i o u s I n d i a n s t a t e s s u c h a s T a m i l N a d u , K a r n a t a k a , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , B i h a r a n d M a d h y a P r a d e s h a l s o c o m e h e r e f o r c o a c h i n g . C r i c k e t i s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s p o r t , f o l l o w e d b y h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l . K o l l a m i s h o m e t o a n u m b e r o f l o c a l c r i c k e t , h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l t e a m s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n d i s t r i c t , s t a t e - l e v e l a n d z o n e m a t c h e s . A n I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o c k e y S t a d i u m w i t h a s t r o - t u r f f a c i l i t y i s t h e r e a t A s r a m a m i n t h e c i t y , b u i l t a t a c o s t o f R s . 1 3 c r o r e . T h e l a n d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t a d i u m w a s t a k e n o v e r f r o m t h e P o s t a l D e p a r t m e n t a t A s r a m a m , K o l l a m . T h e c i t y h a s a n o t h e r s t a d i u m n a m e d t h e L a l B a h a d u r S h a s t r i S t a d i u m , K o l l a m . I t i s a m u l t i p u r p o s e s t a d i u m a n d h a s r e p e a t e d l y h o s t e d s u c h s p o r t s e v e n t s a s t h e R a n j i T r o p h y , S a n t h o s h T r o p h y a n d N a t i o n a l G a m e s . T w o o p e n g r o u n d s i n t h e c i t y , t h e A s r a m a m M a i d a n a n d P e e r a n k i M a i d a n , a r e a l s o u s e d f o r s p o r t s e v e n t s , p r a c t i c e a n d w a r m - u p m a t c h e s . H i n d u s a n d t e m p l e s A n a n d a v a l l e e s h w a r a m S r i M a h a d e v a r T e m p l e i s a 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d a n c i e n t H i n d u t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y . T h e 4 0 0 - y e a r - o l d S a n c t u m s a n c t o r u m o f t h i s t e m p l e i s f i n i s h e d i n t e a k . A m m a c h i v e e d u M u h u r t h i t e m p l e i s a n o t h e r m a j o r t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d a r o u n d 6 0 0 y e a r s a g o b y t h e A m m a c h i V e e d u f a m i l y , a r i s t o c r a t s f r o m K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m p o o r a m , a m a j o r f e s t i v a l o f K o l l a m , i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a t e n - d a y f e s t i v a l , n o r m a l l y i n m i d A p r i l , o f A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e . K o t t a n k u l a n g a r a D e v i T e m p l e i s o n e o f t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s H i n d u t e m p l e s i n K e r a l a w e r e c r o s s - d r e s s i n g o f m e n f o r " C h a m a y a v i l a k k u " r i t u a l i s a p a r t o f t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v i t i e s . T h e m e n a l s o c a r r y l a r g e l a m p s . T h e f i r s t o f t h e t w o - d a y d r e s s i n g e v e n t d r e w t o a c l o s e e a r l y o n M o n d a y . M o r e o v e r , K o t t a r a k k a r a S r e e M a h a g a n a p a t h i K s h e t h r a m i n K o t t a r a k k a r a , P u t t i n g a l D e v i T e m p l e i n P a r a v u r , s o o r a n a d n o r t h a n a y a d i P a z h a y i d a m S r e e N a r a s i m h a S w a m i T e m p l e P o r u v a z h y P e r u v i r u t h y M a l a n a d a T e m p l e i n P o r u v a z h y , S a s t h a m c o t t a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a T e m p l e i n S a s t h a m k o t t a , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a t e m p l e , T h r i k k a d a v o o r S r e e M a h a d e v a T e m p l e i n K a d a v o o r a n d K a t t i l M e k k a t h i l D e v i T e m p l e i n P o n m a n a P a d a n a y a r k u l a n g a r a m a h a d e v a t e m p l e K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , A s h t a m u d i S r e e V e e r a b h a d r a S w a m y T e m p l e a r e t h e o t h e r f a m o u s H i n d u w o r s h i p c e n t r e s i n t h e K o l l a m M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c h u r c h e s T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l i n T a n g a s s e r i i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o r t u g u e s e d u r i n g 1 6 1 4 . I t i s n o w t h e p r o - c a t h e d r a l o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n – t h e a n c i e n t a n d f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e o f I n d i a . T h e c h u r c h r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f o l d Q u i l o n c i t y . S t . S e b a s t i a n ' s C h u r c h a t N e e n d a k a r a i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h i n t h e c i t y . T h e D u t c h C h u r c h i n M u n r o e I s l a n d i s b u i l t b y t h e D u t c h i n 1 8 7 8 . O u r L a d y o f V e l a n k a n n i S h r i n e i n C u t c h e r y i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p p l a c e i n K o l l a m c i t y . S a i n t C a s i m i r C h u r c h i n K a d a v o o r , H o l y F a m i l y C h u r c h i n K a v a n a d , S t . S t e p h e n ' s C h u r c h i n T h o p p u a n d S t . T h o m a s C h u r c h i n K a d a p p a k a d a a r e s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n K o l l a m . M u s l i m s a n d m o s q u e s K o t t u k a d u J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r J u m a - A - M a s j i d , V a l i y a p a l l i i n J o n a k a p p u r a m , C h i n n a k a d a J u m a M a s j i d , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n K o l l u r v i l a , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n T h a t t a m a l a a n d K o i v i l a J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a a r e t h e o t h e r m a j o r M o s q u e s i n K o l l a m . N o t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s b o r n i n K o l l a m i n c l u d e :

Demographics

The demographics of Kollam reveal a city with a population of 349,033 and a density of 5,400 persons per square kilometer. The sex ratio is 1,112, with a high literacy rate of 93.77%. The city has a diverse population with Hindus forming the majority (56.35%), followed by Muslims (22.05%) and Christians (21.17%). The city has a significant presence of various ethnic and linguistic groups, with Malayalam being the most widely spoken language.

Kollam experiences a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen "Am") with little seasonal variation in temperatures. December to March is the dry season with less than of rain in each of those months. April to November is the wet season, with considerably more rain than during December to March, especially in June and July at the height of the Southwest Monsoon. India census, Kollam city had a population of 349,033 with a density of 5,400 persons per square kilometre. The sex ratio (the number of females per 1,000 males) was 1,112, the highest in the state. The district of Kollam ranked seventh in population in the state while the city of Kollam ranked fourth. Kollam had an average literacy rate of 93.77%, higher than the national average of 74.04%. Male literacy stood at 95.83%, and female at 91.95%. In Kollam, 11% of the population was under six years of age. In May 2015, Government of Kerala have decided to expand City Corporation of Kollam by merging Thrikkadavoor panchayath. So the area will become with a total city population of 384,892. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and official language of the city, while Tamil is understood by some sections in the city. There are also small communities of Anglo-Indians, Konkani Brahmins, Telugu Chetty and Bengali migrant labourers settled in the city. For ease of administration, Kollam Municipal Corporation is divided into six zones with local zonal offices for each one. In 2014, former Kollam Mayor Mrs. Prasanna Earnest was selected as the Best Lady Mayor of South India by the Rotary Club of Trivandrum Royal The city of Kollam is a microcosm of Kerala state with its residents belonging to varied religious, ethnic and linguistic groups. There are so many ancient temples, centuries-old churches and mosques in the city and its suburbs. Kollam is a Hindu majority city in Kerala. 56.35% of Kollam's total population belongs to Hindu community. Moreover, the Kollam Era (also known as "Malayalam Era" or "Kollavarsham" or "Malayalam Calendar" or "Malabar Era"), solar and sidereal Hindu calendar used in Kerala, has been originated on 825 CE (Pothu Varsham) at (Kollam) city. Muslims account for 22.05% of Kollam's total population. As per the Census 2011 data, 80,935 is the total Muslim population in Kollam. The Karbala Maidan and the adjacent Makani mosque serves as the Eid gah for the city. The 300-year-old Juma-'Ath Palli at Karuva houses the mortal remains of a Sufi saint, Syed Abdur Rahman Jifri. Christians account for 21.17% of the total population of Kollam city. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon (Kollam) is the first Catholic diocese in India. The diocese was first erected by Pope John XXII on 9 August 1329. It was re-erected on 1 September 1886. The diocese covers an area of and contains a population of 4,879,553, Catholics numbering 235,922 (4.8%). The famous Infant Jesus Cathedral, 400 years old, located in Thangassery, is the co-cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon. CSI Kollam-Kottarakara Diocese is one of the twenty-four dioceses of the Church of South India. The Headquarters of the Kerala a total urban population of 1,187,158 and 349,033 as city corporation's population, Kollam is the fourth most populous city in the state and 49th on the list of the most populous urban agglomerations in India. the city's urban growth rate of 154.59% was the second highest in the state. The Metropolitan area of Kollam includes Uliyakovil, Adichanalloor, Adinad, Ayanivelikulangara, Chavara, Elampalloor, Eravipuram (Part), Kallelibhagom, Karunagappally, Kollam, Kottamkara, Kulasekharapuram, Mayyanad, Meenad, Nedumpana, Neendakara, Oachira, Panayam, Panmana, Paravur, Perinad, Poothakkulam, Thazhuthala, Thodiyoor, Thrikkadavoor, Thrikkaruva, Thrikkovilvattom, and Vadakkumthala. The Kerala Government has decided to develop the City of Kollam as a "Port City of Kerala". Regeneration of the Maruthadi-Eravipuram area including construction of facilities for fishing, tourism and entertainment projects will be implemented as part of the project The city life in the economy of the district. Neendakara and Sakthikulangara villages in the suburbs of the city have fisheries. An estimated 134,973 persons are engaged in fishing and allied activities. Cheriazheekkal, Alappad, Pandarathuruthu, Puthenthura, Neendakara, Thangasseri, Eravipuram and Paravur are eight of the 26 important fishing villages. There are 24 inland fishing villages. The Government has initiated steps for establishing a fishing harbour at Neendakara. Average fish landing is estimated at 85,275 tonnes per year. One-third of the state's fish catch is from Kollam. Nearly 3000 mechanised boats are operating from the fishing harbour. FFDA and VFFDA promote fresh water fish culture and prawn farming respectively. A fishing village with 100 houses is being built at Eravipuram. A prawn farm is being built at Ayiramthengu, and several new hatcheries owns 30 cashew factories all across Kerala. Of these, 24 are located in Kollam district. Kollam is one of many seafood export hubs in India with numerous companies involved in the sector. Most of these are based in the Maruthadi, Sakthikulangara, Kavanad, Neendakara, Asramam, Kilikollur, Thirumullavaram and Uliyakovil areas of the city. Capithans, Kings Marine Exporters, India Food Exports and Oceanic Fisheries are examples of seafood exporters. Kollam's Ashtamudi Lake clam fishery was the first Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certified fishery in India. The clam fishery supports around 3,000 people involved in the collection, cleaning, processing and trading of clams. Around 90 species of fish and ten species of clams are found in the lake. Kollam Fest is Kollam's own annual festival, attracting mostly Keralites but also hundreds National Games. Two open grounds in the city, the Asramam Maidan and Peeranki Maidan, are also used for sports events, practice and warm-up matches. Hindus and temples Anandavalleeshwaram Sri Mahadevar Temple is a 400 years old ancient Hindu temple in the city. The 400-year-old Sanctum sanctorum of this temple is finished in teak. Ammachiveedu Muhurthi temple is another major temple in the city that have been founded around 600 years ago by the Ammachi Veedu family, aristocrats from Kollam. The Kollam pooram, a major festival of Kollam, is the culmination of a ten-day festival, normally in mid April, of Asramam Sree Krishna Swamy Temple. Kottankulangara Devi Temple is one of the world-famous Hindu temples in Kerala were cross-dressing of men for "Chamayavilakku" ritual is a part of traditional

Kollam

I n 8 2 5 C E , t h e M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r , o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " , w a s c r e a t e d i n K o l l a m a t m e e t i n g s h e l d i n t h e c i t y . T h e p r e s e n t M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r i s s a i d t o h a v e b e g u n w i t h t h e r e - f o u n d i n g o f t h e t o w n , w h i c h w a s r e b u i l t a f t e r i t s d e s t r u c t i o n b y f i r e . T h e n a m e K o l l a m i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d " K o l l a m " , m e a n i n g p e p p e r . A s t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Q u i l o n , K o l l a m w a s a f l o u r i s h i n g p o r t d u r i n g t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y ( c . 3 r d c e n t u r y B C – 1 2 t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d l a t e r b e c a m e t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e K i n g d o m o f Q u i l o n o n i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n c . 8 2 5 . K o l l a m w a s c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f o u r e a r l y e n t r e p o t s i n g l o b a l s e a t r a d e d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , a l o n g w i t h A l e x a n d r i a a n d C a i r o i n E g y p t , t h e C h i n e s e c i t y o f Q u a n z h o u , a n d M a l a c c a i n t h e M a l a y s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o . I t s e e m s t h a t t r a d e a t K o l l a m s e e m s t o h a v e f l o u r i s h e d r i g h t i n t o t h e M e d i e v a l p e r i o d a s i n 1 2 8 0 , t h e r e i s i n s t a n c e o f e n v o y s o f Y u a n C h i n a c o m i n g t o K o l l a m f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e l o c a l r u l e r a n d C h i n a T h e a n c i e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f K o l l a m w a s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f K e r a l a . T h e C h e r a d y n a s t y g o v e r n e d t h e a r e a o f M a l a b a r C o a s t b e t w e e n A l a p p u z h a i n t h e s o u t h t o K a s a r a g o d i n t h e n o r t h . T h i s i n c l u d e d P a l a k k a d G a p , C o i m b a t o r e , S a l e m , a n d K o l l i H i l l s . T h e r e g i o n a r o u n d C o i m b a t o r e w a s r u l e d b y t h e C h e r a s d u r i n g S a n g a m p e r i o d b e t w e e n c . f i r s t a n d t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s C E a n d i t s e r v e d a s t h e e a s t e r n e n t r a n c e t o t h e P a l a k k a d G a p , t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a d e r o u t e b e t w e e n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t a n d T a m i l N a d u . H o w e v e r t h e s o u t h e r n r e g i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y K e r a l a s t a t e ( T h e c o a s t a l b e l t b e t w e e n T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a ) w a s u n d e r A y d y n a s t y , w h o w a s m o r e r e l a t e d t o t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y o f M a d u r a i t h a n C h e r a s . A l o n g w i t h ( M u z i r i s a n d T y n d i s ) , Q u i l o n w a s a n a n c i e n t s e a p o r t o n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t o f I n d i a f r o m t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . K o l l a m s e r v e d a s a m a j o r p o r t c i t y f o r P a n d y a d y n a s t y o n t h e w e s t e r n c o a s t w h i l e K u l a s e k h a r a p a t n a m s e r v e d P a n d y a s o n t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t . T h e c i t y h a d a h i g h c o m m e r c i a l r e p u t a t i o n f r o m t h e d a y s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d A n c i e n t R o m a n s . P l i n y t h e E l d e r ( 2 3 – 7 9 A D ) m e n t i o n s G r e e k s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t M u z i r i s a n d N e l c y n d a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a l a n d r o u t e o v e r t h e W e s t e r n G h a t s . S p i c e s , p e a r l s , d i a m o n d s , a n d s i l k w e r e e x p o r t e d t o E g y p t a n d R o m e f r o m t h e s e p o r t s . P e a r l s a n d d i a m o n d s c a m e t o t h e C h e r a K i n g d o m f r o m C e y l o n a n d t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o a s t o f I n d i a , t h e n k n o w n a s t h e P a n d y a n K i n g d o m . C o s m a s I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , a G r e e k N e s t o r i a n s a i l o r , i n h i s b o o k t h e C h r i s t i a n T o p o g r a p h y w h o v i s i t e d t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t i n 5 5 0 , m e n t i o n s a n e n c l a v e o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s i n " M a l e " ( M a l a b a r C o a s t ) . H e w r i t e s , " I n t h e i s l a n d o f T a b r o p a n e ( C e y l o n ) , t h e r e i s a c h u r c h o f C h r i s t i a n s , a n d c l e r i c s a n d f a i t h f u l . L i k e w i s e a t M a l e , w h e r e t h e p e p p e r g r o w s , a n d i n t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y o f K a l l i a n a ( K a l l i a n k a l a t N i l l a c k a l ) t h e r e i s a l s o a b i s h o p c o n s e c r a t e d i n P e r s i a i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e N i c e a S u n n a h a d o s e o f 3 2 5 A D . " T h e N e s t o r i a n P a t r i a r c h J e s u j a b u s , w h o d i e d i n 6 6 0 A D , m e n t i o n s K o l l a m i n h i s l e t t e r t o S i m o n , M e t r o p o l i t a n o f P e r s i a . K o l l a m i s a l s o h o m e t o o n e o f t h e o l d e s t m o s q u e s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e g e n d o f C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l s , t h e f i r s t I n d i a n m o s q u e w a s b u i l t i n 6 2 4 A D a t K o d u n g a l l u r w i t h t h e m a n d a t e o f t h e l a s t t h e r u l e r ( t h e C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l ) o f C h e r a d y n a s t y , w h o l e f t f r o m D h a r m a d o m t o M e c c a a n d c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( c . 5 7 0 – 6 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o " Q i s s a t S h a k a r w a t i F a r m a d " , t h e " M a s j i d s " a t K o d u n g a l l u r , K o l l a m , M a d a y i , B a r k u r , M a n g a l o r e , K a s a r a g o d , K a n n u r , D h a r m a d a m , P a n t h a l a y i n i , a n d C h a l i y a m , w e r e b u i l t d u r i n g t h e e r a o f M a l i k D i n a r , a n d t h e y a r e a m o n g t h e o l d e s t " M a s j i d " s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a l i k D i n a r d i e d a t T h a l a n g a r a i n K a s a r a g o d t o w n . T h e p o r t a t K o l l a m , t h e n k n o w n a s Q u i l o n , w a s f o u n d e d i n 8 2 5 b y t h e N e s t o r i a n C h r i s t i a n s M a r S a b o r a n d M a r P r o t h w i t h s a n c t i o n f r o m A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l , t h e k i n g o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e S t a t e o f Q u i l o n , a f e u d a t o r y u n d e r t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a r S a p o r I s o a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e C h e r a k i n g c r e a t e a n e w s e a p o r t n e a r K o l l a m i n l i e u o f h i s r e q u e s t t h a t h e r e b u i l d t h e a l m o s t v a n i s h e d i n l a n d s e a p o r t a t K o l l a m ( k o r e - k e - n i ) n e a r B a c k a r e ( T h e v a l a k a r a ) , a l s o k n o w n a s N e l c y n d a a n d T y n d i s t o t h e R o m a n s a n d G r e e k s a n d a s T h o n d i t o t h e T a m i l s , w h i c h h a d b e e n w i t h o u t t r a d e f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e c a u s e t h e C h e r a s w e r e o v e r r u n b y t h e P a l l a v a s i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , e n d i n g t h e s p i c e t r a d e f r o m t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e N e s t o r i a n s t o s t a y i n t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a n d i n t r o d u c e t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r s u b - c a s t e s i n t h e S t . T h o m a s t r a d i t i o n , w i t h t h e S y r i a n l i t u r g y a s a b a s i s f o r t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , w i t h o u t r e p l a c i n g t h e S a n s k r i t a n d V e d i c p r a y e r s . T h e T h a r i s a p a l l i p l a t e s p r e s e n t e d t o M a r u v a n S a p o r I s o b y A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l g r a n t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o v e r s e e i n g f o r e i g n t r a d e i n t h e c i t y a s w e l l a s c o n t r o l o v e r i t s w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s i n a m o v e d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e Q u i l o n ' s t r a d e a n d w e a l t h . T h e t w o C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o u n d i n g C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s w i t h S y r i a n l i t u r g y a l o n g t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t , d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e a n c i e n t V e d i c A d v a i t a m p r o p o u n d e d b y A d i S h a n k a r a i n t h e e a r l y n i n t h c e n t u r y a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r S u b C a s t e s , a s M a l a y a l a m w a s n o t a c c e p t e d a s a l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . T h u s b e g a n t h e M a l a y a l a m E r a , k n o w n a s K o l l a V a r s h a m a f t e r t h e c i t y , i n d i c a t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f K o l l a m i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . T h e P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t S o l e y m a n o f S i r a f v i s i t e d M a l a b a r i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d f o u n d Q u i l o n t o b e t h e o n l y p o r t i n I n d i a u s e d b y t h e h u g e C h i n e s e s h i p s a s t h e i r t r a n s s h i p m e n t h u b f o r g o o d s o n t h e i r w a y f r o m C h i n a t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . T h e r u l e r s o f K o l l a m ( f o r m e r l y c a l l e d ' D e s i n g a n a d u ' ) h a d t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a a n d e x c h a n g e d e m b a s s i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e T a n g d y n a s t y ( 6 1 8 – 9 1 3 ) , Q u i l o n w a s t h e i r c h i e f p o r t o f c a l l b e f o r e t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e C h i n e s e t r a d e d e c r e a s e d a b o u t 6 0 0 a n d w a s a g a i n r e v i v e d i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . " M i r a b i l i a D e s c r i p t a " b y B i s h o p C a t a l a n i g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e i n K o l l a m , w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e C a t h o l i c b i s h o p - d e s i g n a t e t o K o l l a m , t h e o l d e s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . H e a l s o g i v e s t r u e a n d i m a g i n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l i f e i n ' I n d i a t h e M a j o r ' i n t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e M a r c o P o l o v i s i t e d t h e c i t y . S u l a i m a n a l - T a j i r , a P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t w h o v i s i t e d K e r a l a d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S t h a n u R a v i V a r m a ( 9 t h c e n t u r y C E ) , r e c o r d s t h a t t h e r e w a s e x t e n s i v e t r a d e b e t w e e n K e r a l a a n d C h i n a a t t h a t t i m e , b a s e d a t t h e p o r t o f K o l l a m . I n 1 3 t h c e n t u r y C E , M a r a v a r m a n K u l a s e k a r a P a n d y a n I , a P a n d y a r u l e r f o u g h t a w a r i n V e n a d a n d c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a p p e a r s o n t h e C a t a l a n A t l a s o f 1 3 7 5 C E a s C o l u m b o a n d C o l o b o . T h e m a p m a r k s t h i s c i t y a s a C h r i s t i a n c i t y , r u l e d b y a C h r i s t i a n r u l e r . T h e t e x t a b o v e t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e k i n g s a y s : " A ç í s e n y [ o ] r e j a l o r e y C o l o b o , c h r i s t i à . P r u v í n c i a d e C o l u m b o " ( H e r e r e i g n s t h e L o r d K i n g C o l o b o , C h r i s t i a n , P r o v i n c e o f C o l u m b o ) . T h e c i t y w a s m u c h f r e q u e n t e d b y t h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s C E , f o l l o w e d b y t h e D o m i n i c a n a n d F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s f r o m E u r o p e . T h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s c a l l e d t h e c i t y C o l õ b o / C o l o m b o . I n 1 3 2 9 C E P o p e J o h n X X I I e s t a b l i s h e d K o l l a m / C o l u m b o a s t h e f i r s t a n d o n l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c b i s h o p r i c o n t h e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t , a n d a p p o i n t e d J o r d a n o f C a t a l o n i a , a D o m i n i c a n f r i a r , a s t h e d i o c e s e ' s f i r s t b i s h o p o f t h e L a t i n s e c t . T h e P o p e ' s L a t i n s c r i b e s a s s i g n e d t h e n a m e " C o l u m b u m " t o C o l u m b o . A c c o r d i n g t o a b o o k a u t h o r e d b y I l a r i u s A u g u s t u s , p u b l i s h e d A p r i l , 2 0 2 1 ( " ' C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s : B u r i e d d e e p i n L a t i n t h e I n d i a n o r i g i n o f t h e g r e a t e x p l o r e r f r o m G e n o a " ' ) , t h e w o r d s C o l u m b u m , C o l u m b u s a n d C o l u m b o a p p e a r f o r t h e v e r y f i r s t t i m e i n a n o t a r i a l d e e d ( l e a s e c o n t r a c t ) o f a c e r t a i n M o u s s o i n G e n o a i n 1 3 2 9 C E . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r i n t h e f o r m o f a t o p o n y m . T h e a u t h o r t h e n s h o w s , t h r o u g h t h e L a t i n t e x t o f s e v e r a l o t h e r n o t a r i a l d e e d s a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s o n c h u r c h h i s t o r y , h o w C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s - a l s o c a r r y i n g t h e s a m e t o p o n y m . - w a s p a r t o f M o u s s o ' s f a m i l y , a n d h e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n l i n e a g e ( a l t h o u g h b o r n i n G e n o a ) . T h e p o r t a t K o z h i k o d e h e l d s u p e r i o r e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n m e d i e v a l K e r a l a c o a s t , w h i l e K a n n u r , K o l l a m , a n d K o c h i , w e r e c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y p o r t s , w h e r e t h e t r a d e r s f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w o u l d g a t h e r . T h e P o r t u g u e s e a r r i v e d a t K a p p a d K o z h i k o d e i n 1 4 9 8 d u r i n g t h e A g e o f D i s c o v e r y , t h u s o p e n i n g a d i r e c t s e a r o u t e f r o m E u r o p e t o I n d i a . T h e y w e r e t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a t r a d i n g c e n t e r i n T a n g a s s e r i , K o l l a m i n 1 5 0 2 , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r t r a d e i n p e p p e r . I n t h e w a r s w i t h t h e M o o r s / A r a b s t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e a n c i e n t c h u r c h ( t e m p l e ) o f S t T h o m a s T r a d i t i o n a t T h e v a l a k a r a w a s d e s t r o y e d . I n 1 5 1 7 , t h e P o r t u g u e s e b u i l t t h e S t . T h o m a s F o r t i n T h a n g a s s e r i , w h i c h w a s d e s t r o y e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t w a r s w i t h t h e D u t c h . I n 1 6 6 1 , t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c i t y . T h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e o l d P o r t u g u e s e F o r t , l a t e r r e n o v a t e d b y t h e D u t c h , c a n b e f o u n d a t T h a n g a s s e r i . I n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , T r a v a n c o r e c o n q u e r e d K o l l a m , f o l l o w e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n 1 7 9 5 . T h a n g a s s e r i r e m a i n s t o d a y a s a n A n g l o - I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h o u g h f e w A n g l o - I n d i a n s r e m a i n . T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C h u r c h i n T h a n g a s s e r i , a n o l d P o r t u g u e s e - b u i l t c h u r c h , r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f t h e a r e a . T h e B a t t l e o f Q u i l o n w a s f o u g h t i n 1 8 0 9 b e t w e e n a t r o o p o f t h e I n d i a n k i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e l e d b y t h e t h e n D a l a w a ( p r i m e m i n i s t e r ) o f T r a v a n c o r e , V e l u T h a m p i D a l a w a a n d t h e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y l e d b y C o l o n e l C h a l m e r s a t C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n i n Q u i l o n . T h e b a t t l e l a s t e d f o r o n l y s i x h o u r s a n d w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s i n v a s i o n o f Q u i l o n a n d t h e i r g a r r i s o n s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n . T h e c o m p a n y f o r c e s w o n t h e b a t t l e w h i l e a l l t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e w a r w e r e c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h a n g e d a t t h e m a i d a n . I n t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y C E , t h e T r a v a n c o r e r o y a l f a m i l y a d o p t e d s o m e m e m b e r s f r o m t h e r o y a l f a m i l y o f K o l a t h u n a d u b a s e d a t K a n n u r , a n d P a r a p p a n a d b a s e d i n p r e s e n t - d a y M a l a p p u r a m d i s t r i c t . L a t e r , V e n a d K i n g d o m w a s c o m p l e t e l y m e r g e d w i t h t h e K i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e d u r i n g t h e r e i n o f M a r t h a n d a V a r m a a n d K o l l a m r e m a i n e d a s t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e K i n g d o m . L a t e r o n , t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e w a s r e l o c a t e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m . T r a v a n c o r e b e c a m e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t s t a t e i n K e r a l a b y d e f e a t i n g t h e p o w e r f u l Z a m o r i n o f K o z h i k o d e i n t h e b a t t l e o f P u r a k k a d i n 1 7 5 5 . T h e G o v e r n m e n t S e c r e t a r i a t w a s a l s o s i t u a t e d i n K o l l a m t i l l t h e 1 8 3 0 s . I t w a s m o v e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S w a t h i T h i r u n a l . E x c a v a t i o n s a r e g o i n g o n a t K o l l a m P o r t p r e m i s e s s i n c e F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 a s t h e t e a m h a s u n c o v e r e d a r r a y s o f a n t i q u e a r t i f a c t s , i n c l u d i n g C h i n e s e p o r c e l a i n a n d c o i n s . A C h i n e s e t e a m w i t h t h e P a l a c e M u s e u m , a t e a m f r o m I n d i a w i t h K e r a l a C o u n c i l f o r H i s t o r i c a l R e s e a r c h ( K C H R ) d i s c o v e r e d C h i n e s e c o i n s a n d a r t i f a c t s t h a t s h o w t r a d e l i n k s b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d a n c i e n t C h i n a . K o l l a m c i t y i s b o r d e r e d b y t h e p a n c h a y a t s o f N e e n d a k a r a a n d T h r i k k a r u v a t o t h e n o r t h , M a y y a n a d t o t h e s o u t h , a n d T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m a n d K o t t a m k a r a t o t h e e a s t , a n d b y t h e L a c c a d i v e S e a t o t h e w e s t . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y . T h e c i t y i s a b o u t a w a y f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m , a w a y f r o m K o c h i a n d a w a y f r o m K o z h i k o d e . T h e N a t i o n a l W a t e r w a y 3 a n d I t h i k k a r a r i v e r a r e t w o i m p o r t a n t w a t e r w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y . T h e l o n g K o l l a m C a n a l i s c o n n e c t i n g P a r a v u r L a k e a n s A s h t a m u d i L a k e . T h e K a l l a d a r i v e r , a n o t h e r r i v e r t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y , e m p t i e s i n t o A s h t a m u d i L a k e , w h i l e t h e I t h i k k a r a r i v e r r u n s t o P a r a v u r K a y a l . K a t t a k a y a l , a f r e s h w a t e r l a k e i n t h e c i t y , c o n n e c t s a n o t h e r w a t e r - b o d y n a m e d V a t t a k k a y a l w i t h L a k e A s h t a m u d i . I n M a r c h 2 0 1 6 , " I n d i a T i m e s " s e l e c t e d K o l l a m a s o n e o f t h e n i n e l e a s t p o l l u t e d c i t i e s o n e a r t h t o w h i c h a n y b o d y c a n r e l o c a t e . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e t o p 1 0 m o s t w e l c o m i n g p l a c e s i n I n d i a f o r t h e y e a r 2 0 2 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o B o o k i n g . c o m ' s t r a v e l l e r r e v i e w a w a r d s . K o l l a m i s a n a n c i e n t t r a d i n g t o w n – t r a d i n g w i t h R o m a n s , C h i n e s e , A r a b s , a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s – m e n t i o n e d i n h i s t o r i c a l c i t a t i o n s d a t i n g b a c k t o B i b l i c a l t i m e s a n d t h e r e i g n o f S o l o m o n , c o n n e c t i n g w i t h R e d S e a p o r t s o f t h e A r a b i a n S e a ( s u p p o r t e d b y a f i n d o f a n c i e n t R o m a n c o i n s ) . T h e r e w a s a l s o i n t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e A r y a n k a v u P a s s i n S c h e n k o t t a h G a p c o n n e c t i n g t h e a n c i e n t t o w n t o T a m i l N a d u . T h e o v e r l a n d t r a d e i n p e p p e r b y b u l l o c k c a r t a n d t h e t r a d e o v e r t h e w a t e r w a y s c o n n e c t i n g A l l e p e y a n d C o c h i n e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d e l i n k a g e s t h a t e n a b l e d i t t o g r o w i n t o o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t I n d i a n i n d u s t r i a l t o w n s h i p s . T h e r a i l l i n k s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d t o T a m i l N a d u s u p p o r t e d s t i l l s t r o n g e r t r a d e l i n k s . T h e f a c t o r i e s p r o c e s s i n g m a r i n e e x p o r t s a n d t h e p r o c e s s i n g a n d p a c k a g i n g o f c a s h e w n u t s e x t e n d e d i t s t r a d e a c r o s s t h e g l o b e . I t i s k n o w n f o r c a s h e w p r o c e s s i n g a n d c o i r m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u t h e r n g a t e w a y t o t h e b a c k w a t e r s o f K e r a l a a n d i s a p r o m i n e n t t o u r i s t d e s t i n a t i o n a t K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m u r b a n a r e a i n c l u d e s s u b u r b a n t o w n s s u c h a s P a r a v u r i n t h e s o u t h , K u n d a r a i n t h e e a s t a n d K a r u n a g a p a l l y i n t h e n o r t h o f t h e c i t y . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o w n s i n t h e c i t y s u b u r b s a r e E r a v i p u r a m , K o t t i y a m , K a n n a n a l l u r , a n d C h a v a r a . K o l l a m e x p e r i e n c e s a t r o p i c a l m o n s o o n c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n " A m " ) w i t h l i t t l e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h i s t h e d r y s e a s o n w i t h l e s s t h a n o f r a i n i n e a c h o f t h o s e m o n t h s . A p r i l t o N o v e m b e r i s t h e w e t s e a s o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e r a i n t h a n d u r i n g D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y i n J u n e a n d J u l y a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e S o u t h w e s t M o n s o o n . I n d i a c e n s u s , K o l l a m c i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 5 , 4 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e . T h e s e x r a t i o ( t h e n u m b e r o f f e m a l e s p e r 1 , 0 0 0 m a l e s ) w a s 1 , 1 1 2 , t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e d i s t r i c t o f K o l l a m r a n k e d s e v e n t h i n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e w h i l e t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m r a n k e d f o u r t h . K o l l a m h a d a n a v e r a g e l i t e r a c y r a t e o f 9 3 . 7 7 % , h i g h e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e o f 7 4 . 0 4 % . M a l e l i t e r a c y s t o o d a t 9 5 . 8 3 % , a n d f e m a l e a t 9 1 . 9 5 % . I n K o l l a m , 1 1 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r s i x y e a r s o f a g e . I n M a y 2 0 1 5 , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a v e d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d C i t y C o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m b y m e r g i n g T h r i k k a d a v o o r p a n c h a y a t h . S o t h e a r e a w i l l b e c o m e w i t h a t o t a l c i t y p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 8 4 , 8 9 2 . M a l a y a l a m i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e c i t y , w h i l e T a m i l i s u n d e r s t o o d b y s o m e s e c t i o n s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s o f A n g l o - I n d i a n s , K o n k a n i B r a h m i n s , T e l u g u C h e t t y a n d B e n g a l i m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s s e t t l e d i n t h e c i t y . F o r e a s e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , K o l l a m M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x z o n e s w i t h l o c a l z o n a l o f f i c e s f o r e a c h o n e . I n 2 0 1 4 , f o r m e r K o l l a m M a y o r M r s . P r a s a n n a E a r n e s t w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e B e s t L a d y M a y o r o f S o u t h I n d i a b y t h e R o t a r y C l u b o f T r i v a n d r u m R o y a l T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s a m i c r o c o s m o f K e r a l a s t a t e w i t h i t s r e s i d e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o v a r i e d r e l i g i o u s , e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y a n c i e n t t e m p l e s , c e n t u r i e s - o l d c h u r c h e s a n d m o s q u e s i n t h e c i t y a n d i t s s u b u r b s . K o l l a m i s a H i n d u m a j o r i t y c i t y i n K e r a l a . 5 6 . 3 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n b e l o n g s t o H i n d u c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e K o l l a m E r a ( a l s o k n o w n a s " M a l a y a l a m E r a " o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " o r " M a l a y a l a m C a l e n d a r " o r " M a l a b a r E r a " ) , s o l a r a n d s i d e r e a l H i n d u c a l e n d a r u s e d i n K e r a l a , h a s b e e n o r i g i n a t e d o n 8 2 5 C E ( P o t h u V a r s h a m ) a t ( K o l l a m ) c i t y . M u s l i m s a c c o u n t f o r 2 2 . 0 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . A s p e r t h e C e n s u s 2 0 1 1 d a t a , 8 0 , 9 3 5 i s t h e t o t a l M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n K o l l a m . T h e K a r b a l a M a i d a n a n d t h e a d j a c e n t M a k a n i m o s q u e s e r v e s a s t h e E i d g a h f o r t h e c i t y . T h e 3 0 0 - y e a r - o l d J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i a t K a r u v a h o u s e s t h e m o r t a l r e m a i n s o f a S u f i s a i n t , S y e d A b d u r R a h m a n J i f r i . C h r i s t i a n s a c c o u n t f o r 2 1 . 1 7 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f K o l l a m c i t y . T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n ( K o l l a m ) i s t h e f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . T h e d i o c e s e w a s f i r s t e r e c t e d b y P o p e J o h n X X I I o n 9 A u g u s t 1 3 2 9 . I t w a s r e - e r e c t e d o n 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 6 . T h e d i o c e s e c o v e r s a n a r e a o f a n d c o n t a i n s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 , 8 7 9 , 5 5 3 , C a t h o l i c s n u m b e r i n g 2 3 5 , 9 2 2 ( 4 . 8 % ) . T h e f a m o u s I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l , 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d , l o c a t e d i n T h a n g a s s e r y , i s t h e c o - c a t h e d r a l o f t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n . C S I K o l l a m - K o t t a r a k a r a D i o c e s e i s o n e o f t h e t w e n t y - f o u r d i o c e s e s o f t h e C h u r c h o f S o u t h I n d i a . T h e H e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e K e r a l a r e g i o n o f T h e P e n t e c o s t a l M i s s i o n f o r K o t t a r a k k a r a , i s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m C i t y i s a M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n w i t h e l e c t e d C o u n c i l l o r s f r o m i t s 5 5 d i v i s i o n s . T h e M a y o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e c o u n c i l l o r s , g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y h o l d i n g a m a j o r i t y . T h e C o r p o r a t i o n S e c r e t a r y h e a d s t h e o f f i c e o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e p r e s e n t M a y o r o f K o l l a m C o r p o r a t i o n i s A d v . V . R a j e n d r a b a b u o f C P I ( M ) . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i t y f a l l s u n d e r t h e K o l l a m C i t y P o l i c e C o m m i s s i o n e r a t e w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y a n I P S ( I n d i a n P o l i c e S e r v i c e ) c a d r e o f f i c e r a n d h e r e p o r t s t o t h e I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l o f P o l i c e ( I G P ) T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m R a n g e . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m e s u n d e r t h e S t a t e H o m e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a . K o l l a m C i t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b d i v i s i o n s , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , e a c h u n d e r a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r o f P o l i c e . W i t h a t o t a l u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 , 1 8 7 , 1 5 8 a n d 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 a s c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n , K o l l a m i s t h e f o u r t h m o s t p o p u l o u s c i t y i n t h e s t a t e a n d 4 9 t h o n t h e l i s t o f t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s u r b a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s i n I n d i a . t h e c i t y ' s u r b a n g r o w t h r a t e o f 1 5 4 . 5 9 % w a s t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a o f K o l l a m i n c l u d e s U l i y a k o v i l , A d i c h a n a l l o o r , A d i n a d , A y a n i v e l i k u l a n g a r a , C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r , E r a v i p u r a m ( P a r t ) , K a l l e l i b h a g o m , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m , K o t t a m k a r a , K u l a s e k h a r a p u r a m , M a y y a n a d , M e e n a d , N e d u m p a n a , N e e n d a k a r a , O a c h i r a , P a n a y a m , P a n m a n a , P a r a v u r , P e r i n a d , P o o t h a k k u l a m , T h a z h u t h a l a , T h o d i y o o r , T h r i k k a d a v o o r , T h r i k k a r u v a , T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m , a n d V a d a k k u m t h a l a . T h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p t h e C i t y o f K o l l a m a s a " P o r t C i t y o f K e r a l a " . R e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e M a r u t h a d i - E r a v i p u r a m a r e a i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r f i s h i n g , t o u r i s m a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o j e c t s w i l l b e i m p l e m e n t e d a s p a r t o f t h e p r o j e c t T h e c i t y l i f e o f K o l l a m h a s c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e . I n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a n d p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , K o l l a m c i t y i s i n f i f t h p o s i t i o n f r o m I n d i a a n d t h i r d i n K e r a l a . K o l l a m i s f a m o u s a s a c i t y w i t h e x c e l l e n t e x p o r t b a c k g r o u n d . 5 s t a r , 4 s t a r a n d 3 s t a r h o t e l s , m u l t i - s t o r i e d s h o p p i n g m a l l s , b r a n d e d j e w e l l e r y , t e x t i l e s h o w r o o m s a n d c a r s h o w r o o m s h a v e s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s . K o l l a m w a s t h e t h i r d c i t y i n K e r a l a ( a f t e r K o z h i k o d e a n d K o c h i ) t o a d o p t t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l c u l t u r e . K o l l a m d i s t r i c t r a n k s f i r s t i n l i v e s t o c k w e a l t h i n t h e s t a t e . D o w n t o w n K o l l a m i s t h e m a i n C B D o f K o l l a m c i t y . D a i r y f a r m i n g i s f a i r l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A l s o t h e r e i s a c h i l l i n g p l a n t i n t h e c i t y . K o l l a m i s a n i m p o r t a n t m a r i t i m e a n d p o r t c i t y . F i s h i n g h a s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e d i s t r i c t . N e e n d a k a r a a n d S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a v i l l a g e s i n t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y h a v e f i s h e r i e s . A n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 4 , 9 7 3 p e r s o n s a r e e n g a g e d i n f i s h i n g a n d a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s . C h e r i a z h e e k k a l , A l a p p a d , P a n d a r a t h u r u t h u , P u t h e n t h u r a , N e e n d a k a r a , T h a n g a s s e r i , E r a v i p u r a m a n d P a r a v u r a r e e i g h t o f t h e 2 6 i m p o r t a n t f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a r e 2 4 i n l a n d f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s i n i t i a t e d s t e p s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i s h i n g h a r b o u r a t N e e n d a k a r a . A v e r a g e f i s h l a n d i n g i s e s t i m a t e d a t 8 5 , 2 7 5 t o n n e s p e r y e a r . O n e - t h i r d o f t h e s t a t e ' s f i s h c a t c h i s f r o m K o l l a m . N e a r l y 3 0 0 0 m e c h a n i s e d b o a t s a r e o p e r a t i n g f r o m t h e f i s h i n g h a r b o u r . F F D A a n d V F F D A p r o m o t e f r e s h w a t e r f i s h c u l t u r e a n d p r a w n f a r m i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f i s h i n g v i l l a g e w i t h 1 0 0 h o u s e s i s b e i n g b u i l t a t E r a v i p u r a m . A p r a w n f a r m i s b e i n g b u i l t a t A y i r a m t h e n g u , a n d s e v e r a l n e w h a t c h e r i e s a r e p l a n n e d t o c a t e r t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e a q u a c u l t u r i s t s . K e r a l a ' s o n l y t u r k e y f a r m a n d a r e g i o n a l p o u l t r y f a r m a r e a t K u r e e p u z h a . T h e r e a r e t w o C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n d u s t r i a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y , t h e I n d i a n R a r e E a r t h s , C h a v a r a a n d P a r v a t h i M i l l s L t d . , K o l l a m . K e r a l a C e r a m i c s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a E l e c t r i c a l a n d A l l i e d E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p a n y i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a P r e m o P i p e f a c t o r y i n C h a v a r a , K e r a l a M i n e r a l s a n d M e t a l s L i m i t e d i n C h a v a r a a n d U n i t e d E l e c t r i c a l I n d u s t r i e s i n K o l l a m a r e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . O t h e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e p r i v a t e / c o o p e r a t i v e s e c t o r a r e A l u m i n i u m I n d u s t r i e s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , T h o m a s S t e p h e n & C o . i n K o l l a m , F l o o r c o i n P a r a v u r a n d C o o p e r a t i v e S p i n n i n g M i l l i n C h a t h a n n o o r . T h e b e a c h s a n d s o f t h e d i s t r i c t h a v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u c h h e a v y m i n e r a l s a s I l m e n i t e , R u t i l e , M o n o s i t e a n d Z i r c o n , w h i c h o f f e r s c o p e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s . B e s i d e s l a r g e d e p o s i t s o f C h i n a c l a y i n K u n d a r a , M u l a v a n a a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , t h e r e a r e a l s o l i m e - s h e l l d e p o s i t s i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e a n d B a u x i t e d e p o s i t s i n A d i c h a n a l l u r . K n o w n a s t h e " C a s h e w C a p i t a l o f t h e W o r l d " , K o l l a m i s n o t e d f o r i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c a s h e w b u s i n e s s a n d i s h o m e t o m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 c a s h e w - p r o c e s s i n g u n i t s . E v e r y y e a r , a b o u t 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f r a w c a s h e w s a r e i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e c i t y f o r p r o c e s s i n g a n d a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f p r o c e s s e d c a s h e w s a r e e x p o r t e d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s w o r l d w i d e . T h e C a s h e w E x p o r t P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( C E P C I ) e x p e c t s a r i s e i n e x p o r t s t o 2 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s b y 2 0 2 0 , a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 2 0 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e c u r r e n t f i g u r e . T h e K e r a l a S t a t e C a s h e w D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n L i m i t e d ( K S C D C ) i s s i t u a t e d a t M u n d a k k a l i n K o l l a m c i t y . T h e c o m p a n y o w n s 3 0 c a s h e w f a c t o r i e s a l l a c r o s s K e r a l a . O f t h e s e , 2 4 a r e l o c a t e d i n K o l l a m d i s t r i c t . K o l l a m i s o n e o f m a n y s e a f o o d e x p o r t h u b s i n I n d i a w i t h n u m e r o u s c o m p a n i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e c t o r . M o s t o f t h e s e a r e b a s e d i n t h e M a r u t h a d i , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a , K a v a n a d , N e e n d a k a r a , A s r a m a m , K i l i k o l l u r , T h i r u m u l l a v a r a m a n d U l i y a k o v i l a r e a s o f t h e c i t y . C a p i t h a n s , K i n g s M a r i n e E x p o r t e r s , I n d i a F o o d E x p o r t s a n d O c e a n i c F i s h e r i e s a r e e x a m p l e s o f s e a f o o d e x p o r t e r s . K o l l a m ' s A s h t a m u d i L a k e c l a m f i s h e r y w a s t h e f i r s t M a r i n e S t e w a r d s h i p C o u n c i l ( M S C ) c e r t i f i e d f i s h e r y i n I n d i a . T h e c l a m f i s h e r y s u p p o r t s a r o u n d 3 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , c l e a n i n g , p r o c e s s i n g a n d t r a d i n g o f c l a m s . A r o u n d 9 0 s p e c i e s o f f i s h a n d t e n s p e c i e s o f c l a m s a r e f o u n d i n t h e l a k e . K o l l a m F e s t i s K o l l a m ' s o w n a n n u a l f e s t i v a l , a t t r a c t i n g m o s t l y K e r a l i t e s b u t a l s o h u n d r e d s o f d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n t o u r i s t s t o K o l l a m . T h e m a i n v e n u e o f K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a n d g i g a n t i c A s h r a m a m M a i d a n . K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e s i g n a t u r e e v e n t o f K o l l a m . K o l l a m F e s t s e e k s t o s h o w c a s e K o l l a m ' s r i c h c u l t u r e a n d h e r i t a g e , t o u r i s m p o t e n t i a l a n d i n v e s t m e n t s i n n e w v e n t u r e s . K o l l a m P o o r a m , p a r t o f t h e A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e F e s t i v a l , i s u s u a l l y h e l d o n 1 5 A p r i l , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y o n 1 6 A p r i l . T h e p o o r a m i s h e l d a t t h e A s h r a m a m m a i d a n . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s T r o p h y B o a t R a c e ( P T B R ) i s a n a n n u a l r e g a t t a h e l d i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e i n K o l l a m . T h e e v e n t w a s i n a u g u r a t e d b y P r e s i d e n t P r a t h i b h a P a t i l i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . T h e e v e n t h a s b e e n r e s c h e d u l e d f r o m 2 0 1 2 . T h e c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m i s s e r v e d b y t h e T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t , w h i c h i s a b o u t 5 6 k i l o m e t e r s f r o m t h e c i t y v i a N H 6 6 . T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t i n a n o n - m e t r o c i t y i n I n d i a . i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n K e r a l a i n a r e a , a f t e r S h o r a n u r J u n c t i o n , w i t h a t o t a l o f 6 p l a t f o r m s . T h e s t a t i o n h a s 1 7 r a i l t r a c k s . K o l l a m j u n c t i o n h a s w o r l d ' s s e c o n d l o n g e s t r a i l w a y p l a t f o r m , m e a s u r i n g 1 1 8 0 . 5 m ( 3 8 7 3   f t ) . M a i n l i n e E l e c t r i c a l M u l t i p l e U n i t ( M E M U ) h a v e a m a i n t e n a n c e s h e d a t K o l l a m J u n c t i o n . T h e M E M U s e r v i c e s s t a r t e d f r o m K o l l a m t o E r n a k u l a m v i a A l a p p u z h a a n d K o t t a y a m i n t h e s e c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2 . B y 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , M E M U s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d N a g e r c o i l b e c a m e a r e a l i t y a n d l a t e r e x t e n d e d u p t o K a n y a k u m a r i . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i n a u g u r a t e d o n 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 3 f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k s o f M E M U r a k e s . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i s t h e l a r g e s t M E M U S h e d i n K e r a l a , w h i c h i s e q u i p p e d w i t h m o s t m o d e r n f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e i s a l o n g - s t a n d i n g d e m a n d f o r t h e K o l l a m T o w n R a i l w a y S t a t i o n i n t h e K o l l a m - P e r i n a d s t r e t c h a n d " S . N C o l l e g e R a i l w a y S t a t i o n " i n t h e K o l l a m - E r a v i p u r a m s t r e t c h . T h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s i n K o l l a m c i t y a r e K o l l a m J u n c t i o n r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , E r a v i p u r a m r a i l w a y s t a t i o n a n d K i l i k o l l u r r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . A n e w s u b u r b a n r a i l s y s t e m h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y t h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t a n d I n d i a n R a i l w a y s o n t h e r o u t e T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m - K o l l a m - H a r i p a d / C h e n g a n n u r f o r w h i c h M R V C i s t a s k e d t o c o n d u c t a s t u d y a n d s u b m i t a r e p o r t . T e n t r a i n s , e a c h w i t h s e v e n c o a c h e s , w i l l t r a n s p o r t p a s s e n g e r s b a c k a n d f o r t h a l o n g t h e T r i v a n d r u m - K o l l a m - C h e n g a n n u r - K o t t a r a k a r a - A d o o r s e c t i o n . T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s c o n n e c t e d t o a l m o s t a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d m a j o r t o w n s i n t h e s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g T r i v a n d r u m , A l a p p u z h a , K o c h i , P a l a k k a d , K o t t a y a m , K o t t a r a k k a r a , a n d P u n a l u r , a n d w i t h o t h e r I n d i a n c i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e N H 6 6 , N H 1 8 3 , N H 7 4 4 - a n d o t h e r s t a t e P W D R o a d s . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s p r o v i d e d b y s t a t e - o w n e d K e r a l a S t a t e R o a d T r a n s p o r t C o r p o r a t i o n ( K S R T C ) a n d p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t b u s o p e r a t o r s . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e f i v e K S R T C z o n e s i n K e r a l a . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s a l s o p r o v i d e d b y p r i v a t e t a x i s a n d a u t o r i c k s h a w s , a l s o c a l l e d a u t o s . T h e r e i s a c i t y p r i v a t e b u s s t a n d a t A n d a m u k k a m . T h e r e i s a K S R T C b u s s t a t i o n b e s i d e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . B u s e s t o v a r i o u s t o w n s i n K e r a l a a n d i n t e r s t a t e s e r v i c e s r u n f r o m t h i s s t a t i o n . T h e S t a t e W a t e r T r a n s p o r t D e p a r t m e n t o p e r a t e s b o a t s e r v i c e s t o W e s t K a l l a d a , M u n r o e I s l a n d , G u h a n a n d a p u r a m , D a l a v a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a f r o m K o l l a m K S W T D F e r r y T e r m i n a l s i t u a t e d o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . A s r a m a m L i n k R o a d i n t h e c i t y p a s s e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f e r r y t e r m i n a l . D o u b l e d e c k e r l u x u r y b o a t s r u n b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d A l l e p e y d a i l y . L u x u r y b o a t s , o p e r a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r i v a t e o w n e r s , o p e r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o a t j e t t y d u r i n g t h e t o u r i s t s e a s o n . T h e W e s t c o a s t c a n a l s y s t e m , w h i c h s t a r t s f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m i n t h e s o u t h a n d e n d s a t H o s d u r g i n t h e n o r t h , p a s s e s t h r o u g h P a r a v u r , t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m a n d K a r u n a g a p p a l l y t a l u k . K o l l a m P o r t i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p o r t i n K e r a l a , a f t e r C o c h i n P o r t T r u s t . I t i s o n e o f t w o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o r t s i n K e r a l a . C a r g o h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s b e g a n o p e r a t i o n i n 2 0 1 3 . F o r e i g n s h i p s a r r i v e i n t h e p o r t r e g u l a r l y w i t h t h e M V A l i n a , a v e s s e l r e g i s t e r e d i n A n t i g u a a n c h o r e d a t t h e p o r t o n 4 A p r i l 2 0 1 4 . O n c e t h e P o r t s t a r t s f u n c t i o n i n g i n f u l l - f l e d g e d , i t w i l l m a k e t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f K o l l a m - b a s e d c a s h e w c o m p a n i e s m o r e e a s y . S h r e y a s S h i p p i n g C o m p a n y i s n o w r u n n i n g a r e g u l a r c o n t a i n e r s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m P o r t a n d K o c h i P o r t . T h e r e a r e m a n y r e s p e c t e d c o l l e g e s , s c h o o l s a n d l e a r n i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o e d u c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t a n d l a t e s t k n o w l e d g e t o t h e s c h o l a r s . T h e T h a n g a l K u n j u M u s a l i a r C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e s c h o o l o f i t s k i n d i n t h e s t a t e , i s a t K i l i k o l l u r , a b o u t e a s t o f K o l l a m c i t y , a n d i s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e f o r a l l K o l l a m i t e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a s g r a n t e d a c a d e m i c a u t o n o m y t o F a t i m a M a t a N a t i o n a l C o l l e g e , a n o t h e r p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e c i t y . S r e e N a r a y a n a C o l l e g e , B i s h o p J e r o m e I n s t i t u t e ( a n i n t e g r a t e d c a m p u s p r o v i d i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e , E n g i n e e r i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s ) , a n d T r a v a n c o r e B u s i n e s s A c a d e m y a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e t w o l a w c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y , S r e e N a r a y a n a G u r u C o l l e g e o f L e g a l S t u d i e s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f S r e e N a r a y a n a T r u s t a n d N S S L a w C o l l e g e m a n a g e d b y t h e N . S . S . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e b e s t s c h o o l s i n K o l l a m i n c l u d i n g T r i n i t y L y c e u m S c h o o l , I n f a n t J e s u s S c h o o l , S t A l o y s i u s H . S . S , T h e o x f o r d s c h o o l , S r i S r i A c a d e m y e t c . K e r a l a S t a t e I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n ( K S I D ) , a d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e u n d e r D e p a r t m e n t o f l a b o u r a n d S k i l l s , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a , i s l o c a t e d a t C h a n d a n a t h o p e i n K o l l a m . I t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 2 0 0 8 a n d w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t s t a t e - o w n e d d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e s i n I n d i a . K S I D c u r r e n t l y c o n d u c t s P o s t G r a d u a t e D i p l o m a P r o g r a m s i n D e s i g n d e v e l o p e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n , A h m e d a b a d . I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f I n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n ( I I I C - K o l l a m ) i s a n i n s t i t u t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s s i t u a t e d a t C h a v a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o s u p p o r t t h e s k i l l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y , K o l l a m , K e r a l a i s a f a s h i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n s t i t u t e s i t u a t e d a t V e l l i m o n , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e c h n i c a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f T e x t i l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e t w o I M K ( I n s t i t u t e o f M a n a g e m e n t , K e r a l a ) E x t e n s i o n C e n t r e s a c t i v e i n t h e c i t y . K e r a l a M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e i s s i t u a t e d a t N e e n d a k a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o g i v e m a r i t i m e t r a i n i n g f o r t h e s t u d e n t s i n K e r a l a . M o r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d a t N e e n d a k a r a m a r i t i m e i n s t i t u t e u n d e r t h e B o a t C r e w t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e . A p a r t f r o m c o l l e g e s , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b a n k c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m i s k n o w n a s I n d i a ' s h u b f o r b a n k t e s t c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s w i t h a r o u n d 4 0 s u c h i n s t i t u t e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t . S t u d e n t s f r o m v a r i o u s I n d i a n s t a t e s s u c h a s T a m i l N a d u , K a r n a t a k a , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , B i h a r a n d M a d h y a P r a d e s h a l s o c o m e h e r e f o r c o a c h i n g . C r i c k e t i s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s p o r t , f o l l o w e d b y h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l . K o l l a m i s h o m e t o a n u m b e r o f l o c a l c r i c k e t , h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l t e a m s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n d i s t r i c t , s t a t e - l e v e l a n d z o n e m a t c h e s . A n I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o c k e y S t a d i u m w i t h a s t r o - t u r f f a c i l i t y i s t h e r e a t A s r a m a m i n t h e c i t y , b u i l t a t a c o s t o f R s . 1 3 c r o r e . T h e l a n d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t a d i u m w a s t a k e n o v e r f r o m t h e P o s t a l D e p a r t m e n t a t A s r a m a m , K o l l a m . T h e c i t y h a s a n o t h e r s t a d i u m n a m e d t h e L a l B a h a d u r S h a s t r i S t a d i u m , K o l l a m . I t i s a m u l t i p u r p o s e s t a d i u m a n d h a s r e p e a t e d l y h o s t e d s u c h s p o r t s e v e n t s a s t h e R a n j i T r o p h y , S a n t h o s h T r o p h y a n d N a t i o n a l G a m e s . T w o o p e n g r o u n d s i n t h e c i t y , t h e A s r a m a m M a i d a n a n d P e e r a n k i M a i d a n , a r e a l s o u s e d f o r s p o r t s e v e n t s , p r a c t i c e a n d w a r m - u p m a t c h e s . H i n d u s a n d t e m p l e s A n a n d a v a l l e e s h w a r a m S r i M a h a d e v a r T e m p l e i s a 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d a n c i e n t H i n d u t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y . T h e 4 0 0 - y e a r - o l d S a n c t u m s a n c t o r u m o f t h i s t e m p l e i s f i n i s h e d i n t e a k . A m m a c h i v e e d u M u h u r t h i t e m p l e i s a n o t h e r m a j o r t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d a r o u n d 6 0 0 y e a r s a g o b y t h e A m m a c h i V e e d u f a m i l y , a r i s t o c r a t s f r o m K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m p o o r a m , a m a j o r f e s t i v a l o f K o l l a m , i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a t e n - d a y f e s t i v a l , n o r m a l l y i n m i d A p r i l , o f A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e . K o t t a n k u l a n g a r a D e v i T e m p l e i s o n e o f t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s H i n d u t e m p l e s i n K e r a l a w e r e c r o s s - d r e s s i n g o f m e n f o r " C h a m a y a v i l a k k u " r i t u a l i s a p a r t o f t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v i t i e s . T h e m e n a l s o c a r r y l a r g e l a m p s . T h e f i r s t o f t h e t w o - d a y d r e s s i n g e v e n t d r e w t o a c l o s e e a r l y o n M o n d a y . M o r e o v e r , K o t t a r a k k a r a S r e e M a h a g a n a p a t h i K s h e t h r a m i n K o t t a r a k k a r a , P u t t i n g a l D e v i T e m p l e i n P a r a v u r , s o o r a n a d n o r t h a n a y a d i P a z h a y i d a m S r e e N a r a s i m h a S w a m i T e m p l e P o r u v a z h y P e r u v i r u t h y M a l a n a d a T e m p l e i n P o r u v a z h y , S a s t h a m c o t t a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a T e m p l e i n S a s t h a m k o t t a , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a t e m p l e , T h r i k k a d a v o o r S r e e M a h a d e v a T e m p l e i n K a d a v o o r a n d K a t t i l M e k k a t h i l D e v i T e m p l e i n P o n m a n a P a d a n a y a r k u l a n g a r a m a h a d e v a t e m p l e K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , A s h t a m u d i S r e e V e e r a b h a d r a S w a m y T e m p l e a r e t h e o t h e r f a m o u s H i n d u w o r s h i p c e n t r e s i n t h e K o l l a m M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c h u r c h e s T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l i n T a n g a s s e r i i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o r t u g u e s e d u r i n g 1 6 1 4 . I t i s n o w t h e p r o - c a t h e d r a l o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n – t h e a n c i e n t a n d f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e o f I n d i a . T h e c h u r c h r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f o l d Q u i l o n c i t y . S t . S e b a s t i a n ' s C h u r c h a t N e e n d a k a r a i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h i n t h e c i t y . T h e D u t c h C h u r c h i n M u n r o e I s l a n d i s b u i l t b y t h e D u t c h i n 1 8 7 8 . O u r L a d y o f V e l a n k a n n i S h r i n e i n C u t c h e r y i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p p l a c e i n K o l l a m c i t y . S a i n t C a s i m i r C h u r c h i n K a d a v o o r , H o l y F a m i l y C h u r c h i n K a v a n a d , S t . S t e p h e n ' s C h u r c h i n T h o p p u a n d S t . T h o m a s C h u r c h i n K a d a p p a k a d a a r e s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n K o l l a m . M u s l i m s a n d m o s q u e s K o t t u k a d u J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r J u m a - A - M a s j i d , V a l i y a p a l l i i n J o n a k a p p u r a m , C h i n n a k a d a J u m a M a s j i d , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n K o l l u r v i l a , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n T h a t t a m a l a a n d K o i v i l a J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a a r e t h e o t h e r m a j o r M o s q u e s i n K o l l a m . N o t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s b o r n i n K o l l a m i n c l u d e :

Demographics ; Population

The demographics of Kollam, India include a population of 349,033 with a density of 5,400 persons per square kilometer. The sex ratio is 1,112, with male literacy at 95.83% and female literacy at 91.95%. The city has a diverse population with Hindus making up 56.35%, Muslims 22.05%, and Christians 21.17%. The city has a strong fishing industry, with an estimated 134,973 persons engaged in fishing and allied activities.

and Rome from these ports. Pearls and diamonds came to the Chera Kingdom from Ceylon and the southeastern coast of India, then known as the Pandyan Kingdom. Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek Nestorian sailor, in his book the Christian Topography who visited the Malabar Coast in 550, mentions an enclave of Christian believers in "Male" (Malabar Coast). He writes, "In the island of Tabropane (Ceylon), there is a church of Christians, and clerics and faithful. Likewise at Male, where the pepper grows, and in the farming community of Kalliana (Kalliankal at Nillackal) there is also a bishop consecrated in Persia in accordance with the Nicea Sunnahadose of 325 AD." The Nestorian Patriarch Jesujabus, who died in 660 AD, mentions Kollam in his letter to Simon, Metropolitan of Persia. Kollam Kollam experiences a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen "Am") with little seasonal variation in temperatures. December to March is the dry season with less than of rain in each of those months. April to November is the wet season, with considerably more rain than during December to March, especially in June and July at the height of the Southwest Monsoon. India census, Kollam city had a population of 349,033 with a density of 5,400 persons per square kilometre. The sex ratio (the number of females per 1,000 males) was 1,112, the highest in the state. The district of Kollam ranked seventh in population in the state while the city of Kollam ranked fourth. Kollam had an average literacy rate of 93.77%, higher than the national average of 74.04%. Male literacy stood at 95.83%, and female at 91.95%. In Kollam, 11% of the population was under six years of age. In May 2015, Government of Kerala have decided to expand City Corporation of Kollam by merging Thrikkadavoor panchayath. So the area will become with a total city population of 384,892. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and official language of the city, while Tamil is understood by some sections in the city. There are also small communities of Anglo-Indians, Konkani Brahmins, Telugu Chetty and Bengali migrant labourers settled in the city. For ease of administration, Kollam Municipal Corporation is divided into six zones with local zonal offices for each one. In 2014, former Kollam Mayor Mrs. Prasanna Earnest was selected as the Best Lady Mayor of South India by the Rotary Club of Trivandrum Royal The city of Kollam is a microcosm of Kerala state with its residents belonging to varied religious, ethnic and linguistic groups. There are so many ancient temples, centuries-old churches and mosques in the city and its suburbs. Kollam is a Hindu majority city in Kerala. 56.35% of Kollam's total population belongs to Hindu community. Moreover, the Kollam Era (also known as "Malayalam Era" or "Kollavarsham" or "Malayalam Calendar" or "Malabar Era"), solar and sidereal Hindu calendar used in Kerala, has been originated on 825 CE (Pothu Varsham) at (Kollam) city. Muslims account for 22.05% of Kollam's total population. As per the Census 2011 data, 80,935 is the total Muslim population in Kollam. The Karbala Maidan and the adjacent Makani mosque serves as the Eid gah for the city. The 300-year-old Juma-'Ath Palli at Karuva houses the mortal remains of a Sufi saint, Syed Abdur Rahman Jifri. Christians account for 21.17% of the total population of Kollam city. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon (Kollam) is the first Catholic diocese in India. The diocese was first erected by Pope John XXII on 9 August 1329. It was re-erected on 1 September 1886. The diocese covers an area of and contains a population of 4,879,553, Catholics numbering 235,922 (4.8%). The famous Infant Jesus Cathedral, 400 years old, located in Thangassery, is the co-cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon. CSI Kollam-Kottarakara Diocese is one of the twenty-four dioceses of the Church of South India. The Headquarters of the Kerala a total urban population of 1,187,158 and 349,033 as city corporation's population, Kollam is the fourth most populous city in the state and 49th on the list of the most populous urban agglomerations in India. the city's urban growth rate of 154.59% was the second highest in the state. The Metropolitan area of Kollam includes Uliyakovil, Adichanalloor, Adinad, Ayanivelikulangara, Chavara, Elampalloor, Eravipuram (Part), Kallelibhagom, Karunagappally, Kollam, Kottamkara, Kulasekharapuram, Mayyanad, Meenad, Nedumpana, Neendakara, Oachira, Panayam, Panmana, Paravur, Perinad, Poothakkulam, Thazhuthala, Thodiyoor, Thrikkadavoor, Thrikkaruva, Thrikkovilvattom, and Vadakkumthala. The Kerala Government has decided to develop the City of Kollam as a "Port City of Kerala". Regeneration of the Maruthadi-Eravipuram area including construction of facilities for fishing, tourism and entertainment projects will be implemented as part of the project The city life in the economy of the district. Neendakara and Sakthikulangara villages in the suburbs of the city have fisheries. An estimated 134,973 persons are engaged in fishing and allied activities. Cheriazheekkal, Alappad, Pandarathuruthu, Puthenthura, Neendakara, Thangasseri, Eravipuram and Paravur are eight of the 26 important fishing villages. There are 24 inland fishing villages. The Government has initiated steps for establishing a fishing harbour at Neendakara. Average fish landing is estimated at 85,275 tonnes per year. One-third of the state's fish catch is from Kollam. Nearly 3000 mechanised boats are operating from the fishing harbour. FFDA and VFFDA promote fresh water fish culture and prawn farming respectively. A fishing village with 100 houses is being built at Eravipuram. A prawn farm is being built at Ayiramthengu, and several new hatcheries owns 30 cashew factories all across Kerala. Of these, 24 are located in Kollam district. Kollam is one of many seafood export hubs in India with numerous companies involved in the sector. Most of these are based in the Maruthadi, Sakthikulangara, Kavanad, Neendakara, Asramam, Kilikollur, Thirumullavaram and Uliyakovil areas of the city. Capithans, Kings Marine Exporters, India Food Exports and Oceanic Fisheries are examples of seafood exporters. Kollam's Ashtamudi Lake clam fishery was the first Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certified fishery in India. The clam fishery supports around 3,000 people involved in the collection, cleaning, processing and trading of clams. Around 90 species of fish and ten species of clams are found in the lake. Kollam Fest is Kollam's own annual festival, attracting mostly Keralites but also hundreds

Kollam

I n 8 2 5 C E , t h e M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r , o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " , w a s c r e a t e d i n K o l l a m a t m e e t i n g s h e l d i n t h e c i t y . T h e p r e s e n t M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r i s s a i d t o h a v e b e g u n w i t h t h e r e - f o u n d i n g o f t h e t o w n , w h i c h w a s r e b u i l t a f t e r i t s d e s t r u c t i o n b y f i r e . T h e n a m e K o l l a m i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d " K o l l a m " , m e a n i n g p e p p e r . A s t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Q u i l o n , K o l l a m w a s a f l o u r i s h i n g p o r t d u r i n g t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y ( c . 3 r d c e n t u r y B C – 1 2 t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d l a t e r b e c a m e t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e K i n g d o m o f Q u i l o n o n i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n c . 8 2 5 . K o l l a m w a s c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f o u r e a r l y e n t r e p o t s i n g l o b a l s e a t r a d e d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , a l o n g w i t h A l e x a n d r i a a n d C a i r o i n E g y p t , t h e C h i n e s e c i t y o f Q u a n z h o u , a n d M a l a c c a i n t h e M a l a y s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o . I t s e e m s t h a t t r a d e a t K o l l a m s e e m s t o h a v e f l o u r i s h e d r i g h t i n t o t h e M e d i e v a l p e r i o d a s i n 1 2 8 0 , t h e r e i s i n s t a n c e o f e n v o y s o f Y u a n C h i n a c o m i n g t o K o l l a m f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e l o c a l r u l e r a n d C h i n a T h e a n c i e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f K o l l a m w a s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f K e r a l a . T h e C h e r a d y n a s t y g o v e r n e d t h e a r e a o f M a l a b a r C o a s t b e t w e e n A l a p p u z h a i n t h e s o u t h t o K a s a r a g o d i n t h e n o r t h . T h i s i n c l u d e d P a l a k k a d G a p , C o i m b a t o r e , S a l e m , a n d K o l l i H i l l s . T h e r e g i o n a r o u n d C o i m b a t o r e w a s r u l e d b y t h e C h e r a s d u r i n g S a n g a m p e r i o d b e t w e e n c . f i r s t a n d t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s C E a n d i t s e r v e d a s t h e e a s t e r n e n t r a n c e t o t h e P a l a k k a d G a p , t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a d e r o u t e b e t w e e n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t a n d T a m i l N a d u . H o w e v e r t h e s o u t h e r n r e g i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y K e r a l a s t a t e ( T h e c o a s t a l b e l t b e t w e e n T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a ) w a s u n d e r A y d y n a s t y , w h o w a s m o r e r e l a t e d t o t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y o f M a d u r a i t h a n C h e r a s . A l o n g w i t h ( M u z i r i s a n d T y n d i s ) , Q u i l o n w a s a n a n c i e n t s e a p o r t o n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t o f I n d i a f r o m t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . K o l l a m s e r v e d a s a m a j o r p o r t c i t y f o r P a n d y a d y n a s t y o n t h e w e s t e r n c o a s t w h i l e K u l a s e k h a r a p a t n a m s e r v e d P a n d y a s o n t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t . T h e c i t y h a d a h i g h c o m m e r c i a l r e p u t a t i o n f r o m t h e d a y s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d A n c i e n t R o m a n s . P l i n y t h e E l d e r ( 2 3 – 7 9 A D ) m e n t i o n s G r e e k s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t M u z i r i s a n d N e l c y n d a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a l a n d r o u t e o v e r t h e W e s t e r n G h a t s . S p i c e s , p e a r l s , d i a m o n d s , a n d s i l k w e r e e x p o r t e d t o E g y p t a n d R o m e f r o m t h e s e p o r t s . P e a r l s a n d d i a m o n d s c a m e t o t h e C h e r a K i n g d o m f r o m C e y l o n a n d t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o a s t o f I n d i a , t h e n k n o w n a s t h e P a n d y a n K i n g d o m . C o s m a s I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , a G r e e k N e s t o r i a n s a i l o r , i n h i s b o o k t h e C h r i s t i a n T o p o g r a p h y w h o v i s i t e d t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t i n 5 5 0 , m e n t i o n s a n e n c l a v e o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s i n " M a l e " ( M a l a b a r C o a s t ) . H e w r i t e s , " I n t h e i s l a n d o f T a b r o p a n e ( C e y l o n ) , t h e r e i s a c h u r c h o f C h r i s t i a n s , a n d c l e r i c s a n d f a i t h f u l . L i k e w i s e a t M a l e , w h e r e t h e p e p p e r g r o w s , a n d i n t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y o f K a l l i a n a ( K a l l i a n k a l a t N i l l a c k a l ) t h e r e i s a l s o a b i s h o p c o n s e c r a t e d i n P e r s i a i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e N i c e a S u n n a h a d o s e o f 3 2 5 A D . " T h e N e s t o r i a n P a t r i a r c h J e s u j a b u s , w h o d i e d i n 6 6 0 A D , m e n t i o n s K o l l a m i n h i s l e t t e r t o S i m o n , M e t r o p o l i t a n o f P e r s i a . K o l l a m i s a l s o h o m e t o o n e o f t h e o l d e s t m o s q u e s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e g e n d o f C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l s , t h e f i r s t I n d i a n m o s q u e w a s b u i l t i n 6 2 4 A D a t K o d u n g a l l u r w i t h t h e m a n d a t e o f t h e l a s t t h e r u l e r ( t h e C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l ) o f C h e r a d y n a s t y , w h o l e f t f r o m D h a r m a d o m t o M e c c a a n d c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( c . 5 7 0 – 6 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o " Q i s s a t S h a k a r w a t i F a r m a d " , t h e " M a s j i d s " a t K o d u n g a l l u r , K o l l a m , M a d a y i , B a r k u r , M a n g a l o r e , K a s a r a g o d , K a n n u r , D h a r m a d a m , P a n t h a l a y i n i , a n d C h a l i y a m , w e r e b u i l t d u r i n g t h e e r a o f M a l i k D i n a r , a n d t h e y a r e a m o n g t h e o l d e s t " M a s j i d " s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a l i k D i n a r d i e d a t T h a l a n g a r a i n K a s a r a g o d t o w n . T h e p o r t a t K o l l a m , t h e n k n o w n a s Q u i l o n , w a s f o u n d e d i n 8 2 5 b y t h e N e s t o r i a n C h r i s t i a n s M a r S a b o r a n d M a r P r o t h w i t h s a n c t i o n f r o m A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l , t h e k i n g o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e S t a t e o f Q u i l o n , a f e u d a t o r y u n d e r t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a r S a p o r I s o a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e C h e r a k i n g c r e a t e a n e w s e a p o r t n e a r K o l l a m i n l i e u o f h i s r e q u e s t t h a t h e r e b u i l d t h e a l m o s t v a n i s h e d i n l a n d s e a p o r t a t K o l l a m ( k o r e - k e - n i ) n e a r B a c k a r e ( T h e v a l a k a r a ) , a l s o k n o w n a s N e l c y n d a a n d T y n d i s t o t h e R o m a n s a n d G r e e k s a n d a s T h o n d i t o t h e T a m i l s , w h i c h h a d b e e n w i t h o u t t r a d e f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e c a u s e t h e C h e r a s w e r e o v e r r u n b y t h e P a l l a v a s i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , e n d i n g t h e s p i c e t r a d e f r o m t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e N e s t o r i a n s t o s t a y i n t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a n d i n t r o d u c e t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r s u b - c a s t e s i n t h e S t . T h o m a s t r a d i t i o n , w i t h t h e S y r i a n l i t u r g y a s a b a s i s f o r t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , w i t h o u t r e p l a c i n g t h e S a n s k r i t a n d V e d i c p r a y e r s . T h e T h a r i s a p a l l i p l a t e s p r e s e n t e d t o M a r u v a n S a p o r I s o b y A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l g r a n t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o v e r s e e i n g f o r e i g n t r a d e i n t h e c i t y a s w e l l a s c o n t r o l o v e r i t s w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s i n a m o v e d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e Q u i l o n ' s t r a d e a n d w e a l t h . T h e t w o C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o u n d i n g C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s w i t h S y r i a n l i t u r g y a l o n g t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t , d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e a n c i e n t V e d i c A d v a i t a m p r o p o u n d e d b y A d i S h a n k a r a i n t h e e a r l y n i n t h c e n t u r y a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r S u b C a s t e s , a s M a l a y a l a m w a s n o t a c c e p t e d a s a l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . T h u s b e g a n t h e M a l a y a l a m E r a , k n o w n a s K o l l a V a r s h a m a f t e r t h e c i t y , i n d i c a t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f K o l l a m i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . T h e P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t S o l e y m a n o f S i r a f v i s i t e d M a l a b a r i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d f o u n d Q u i l o n t o b e t h e o n l y p o r t i n I n d i a u s e d b y t h e h u g e C h i n e s e s h i p s a s t h e i r t r a n s s h i p m e n t h u b f o r g o o d s o n t h e i r w a y f r o m C h i n a t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . T h e r u l e r s o f K o l l a m ( f o r m e r l y c a l l e d ' D e s i n g a n a d u ' ) h a d t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a a n d e x c h a n g e d e m b a s s i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e T a n g d y n a s t y ( 6 1 8 – 9 1 3 ) , Q u i l o n w a s t h e i r c h i e f p o r t o f c a l l b e f o r e t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e C h i n e s e t r a d e d e c r e a s e d a b o u t 6 0 0 a n d w a s a g a i n r e v i v e d i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . " M i r a b i l i a D e s c r i p t a " b y B i s h o p C a t a l a n i g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e i n K o l l a m , w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e C a t h o l i c b i s h o p - d e s i g n a t e t o K o l l a m , t h e o l d e s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . H e a l s o g i v e s t r u e a n d i m a g i n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l i f e i n ' I n d i a t h e M a j o r ' i n t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e M a r c o P o l o v i s i t e d t h e c i t y . S u l a i m a n a l - T a j i r , a P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t w h o v i s i t e d K e r a l a d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S t h a n u R a v i V a r m a ( 9 t h c e n t u r y C E ) , r e c o r d s t h a t t h e r e w a s e x t e n s i v e t r a d e b e t w e e n K e r a l a a n d C h i n a a t t h a t t i m e , b a s e d a t t h e p o r t o f K o l l a m . I n 1 3 t h c e n t u r y C E , M a r a v a r m a n K u l a s e k a r a P a n d y a n I , a P a n d y a r u l e r f o u g h t a w a r i n V e n a d a n d c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a p p e a r s o n t h e C a t a l a n A t l a s o f 1 3 7 5 C E a s C o l u m b o a n d C o l o b o . T h e m a p m a r k s t h i s c i t y a s a C h r i s t i a n c i t y , r u l e d b y a C h r i s t i a n r u l e r . T h e t e x t a b o v e t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e k i n g s a y s : " A ç í s e n y [ o ] r e j a l o r e y C o l o b o , c h r i s t i à . P r u v í n c i a d e C o l u m b o " ( H e r e r e i g n s t h e L o r d K i n g C o l o b o , C h r i s t i a n , P r o v i n c e o f C o l u m b o ) . T h e c i t y w a s m u c h f r e q u e n t e d b y t h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s C E , f o l l o w e d b y t h e D o m i n i c a n a n d F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s f r o m E u r o p e . T h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s c a l l e d t h e c i t y C o l õ b o / C o l o m b o . I n 1 3 2 9 C E P o p e J o h n X X I I e s t a b l i s h e d K o l l a m / C o l u m b o a s t h e f i r s t a n d o n l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c b i s h o p r i c o n t h e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t , a n d a p p o i n t e d J o r d a n o f C a t a l o n i a , a D o m i n i c a n f r i a r , a s t h e d i o c e s e ' s f i r s t b i s h o p o f t h e L a t i n s e c t . T h e P o p e ' s L a t i n s c r i b e s a s s i g n e d t h e n a m e " C o l u m b u m " t o C o l u m b o . A c c o r d i n g t o a b o o k a u t h o r e d b y I l a r i u s A u g u s t u s , p u b l i s h e d A p r i l , 2 0 2 1 ( " ' C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s : B u r i e d d e e p i n L a t i n t h e I n d i a n o r i g i n o f t h e g r e a t e x p l o r e r f r o m G e n o a " ' ) , t h e w o r d s C o l u m b u m , C o l u m b u s a n d C o l u m b o a p p e a r f o r t h e v e r y f i r s t t i m e i n a n o t a r i a l d e e d ( l e a s e c o n t r a c t ) o f a c e r t a i n M o u s s o i n G e n o a i n 1 3 2 9 C E . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r i n t h e f o r m o f a t o p o n y m . T h e a u t h o r t h e n s h o w s , t h r o u g h t h e L a t i n t e x t o f s e v e r a l o t h e r n o t a r i a l d e e d s a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s o n c h u r c h h i s t o r y , h o w C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s - a l s o c a r r y i n g t h e s a m e t o p o n y m . - w a s p a r t o f M o u s s o ' s f a m i l y , a n d h e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n l i n e a g e ( a l t h o u g h b o r n i n G e n o a ) . T h e p o r t a t K o z h i k o d e h e l d s u p e r i o r e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n m e d i e v a l K e r a l a c o a s t , w h i l e K a n n u r , K o l l a m , a n d K o c h i , w e r e c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y p o r t s , w h e r e t h e t r a d e r s f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w o u l d g a t h e r . T h e P o r t u g u e s e a r r i v e d a t K a p p a d K o z h i k o d e i n 1 4 9 8 d u r i n g t h e A g e o f D i s c o v e r y , t h u s o p e n i n g a d i r e c t s e a r o u t e f r o m E u r o p e t o I n d i a . T h e y w e r e t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a t r a d i n g c e n t e r i n T a n g a s s e r i , K o l l a m i n 1 5 0 2 , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r t r a d e i n p e p p e r . I n t h e w a r s w i t h t h e M o o r s / A r a b s t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e a n c i e n t c h u r c h ( t e m p l e ) o f S t T h o m a s T r a d i t i o n a t T h e v a l a k a r a w a s d e s t r o y e d . I n 1 5 1 7 , t h e P o r t u g u e s e b u i l t t h e S t . T h o m a s F o r t i n T h a n g a s s e r i , w h i c h w a s d e s t r o y e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t w a r s w i t h t h e D u t c h . I n 1 6 6 1 , t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c i t y . T h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e o l d P o r t u g u e s e F o r t , l a t e r r e n o v a t e d b y t h e D u t c h , c a n b e f o u n d a t T h a n g a s s e r i . I n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , T r a v a n c o r e c o n q u e r e d K o l l a m , f o l l o w e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n 1 7 9 5 . T h a n g a s s e r i r e m a i n s t o d a y a s a n A n g l o - I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h o u g h f e w A n g l o - I n d i a n s r e m a i n . T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C h u r c h i n T h a n g a s s e r i , a n o l d P o r t u g u e s e - b u i l t c h u r c h , r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f t h e a r e a . T h e B a t t l e o f Q u i l o n w a s f o u g h t i n 1 8 0 9 b e t w e e n a t r o o p o f t h e I n d i a n k i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e l e d b y t h e t h e n D a l a w a ( p r i m e m i n i s t e r ) o f T r a v a n c o r e , V e l u T h a m p i D a l a w a a n d t h e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y l e d b y C o l o n e l C h a l m e r s a t C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n i n Q u i l o n . T h e b a t t l e l a s t e d f o r o n l y s i x h o u r s a n d w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s i n v a s i o n o f Q u i l o n a n d t h e i r g a r r i s o n s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n . T h e c o m p a n y f o r c e s w o n t h e b a t t l e w h i l e a l l t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e w a r w e r e c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h a n g e d a t t h e m a i d a n . I n t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y C E , t h e T r a v a n c o r e r o y a l f a m i l y a d o p t e d s o m e m e m b e r s f r o m t h e r o y a l f a m i l y o f K o l a t h u n a d u b a s e d a t K a n n u r , a n d P a r a p p a n a d b a s e d i n p r e s e n t - d a y M a l a p p u r a m d i s t r i c t . L a t e r , V e n a d K i n g d o m w a s c o m p l e t e l y m e r g e d w i t h t h e K i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e d u r i n g t h e r e i n o f M a r t h a n d a V a r m a a n d K o l l a m r e m a i n e d a s t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e K i n g d o m . L a t e r o n , t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e w a s r e l o c a t e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m . T r a v a n c o r e b e c a m e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t s t a t e i n K e r a l a b y d e f e a t i n g t h e p o w e r f u l Z a m o r i n o f K o z h i k o d e i n t h e b a t t l e o f P u r a k k a d i n 1 7 5 5 . T h e G o v e r n m e n t S e c r e t a r i a t w a s a l s o s i t u a t e d i n K o l l a m t i l l t h e 1 8 3 0 s . I t w a s m o v e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S w a t h i T h i r u n a l . E x c a v a t i o n s a r e g o i n g o n a t K o l l a m P o r t p r e m i s e s s i n c e F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 a s t h e t e a m h a s u n c o v e r e d a r r a y s o f a n t i q u e a r t i f a c t s , i n c l u d i n g C h i n e s e p o r c e l a i n a n d c o i n s . A C h i n e s e t e a m w i t h t h e P a l a c e M u s e u m , a t e a m f r o m I n d i a w i t h K e r a l a C o u n c i l f o r H i s t o r i c a l R e s e a r c h ( K C H R ) d i s c o v e r e d C h i n e s e c o i n s a n d a r t i f a c t s t h a t s h o w t r a d e l i n k s b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d a n c i e n t C h i n a . K o l l a m c i t y i s b o r d e r e d b y t h e p a n c h a y a t s o f N e e n d a k a r a a n d T h r i k k a r u v a t o t h e n o r t h , M a y y a n a d t o t h e s o u t h , a n d T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m a n d K o t t a m k a r a t o t h e e a s t , a n d b y t h e L a c c a d i v e S e a t o t h e w e s t . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y . T h e c i t y i s a b o u t a w a y f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m , a w a y f r o m K o c h i a n d a w a y f r o m K o z h i k o d e . T h e N a t i o n a l W a t e r w a y 3 a n d I t h i k k a r a r i v e r a r e t w o i m p o r t a n t w a t e r w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y . T h e l o n g K o l l a m C a n a l i s c o n n e c t i n g P a r a v u r L a k e a n s A s h t a m u d i L a k e . T h e K a l l a d a r i v e r , a n o t h e r r i v e r t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y , e m p t i e s i n t o A s h t a m u d i L a k e , w h i l e t h e I t h i k k a r a r i v e r r u n s t o P a r a v u r K a y a l . K a t t a k a y a l , a f r e s h w a t e r l a k e i n t h e c i t y , c o n n e c t s a n o t h e r w a t e r - b o d y n a m e d V a t t a k k a y a l w i t h L a k e A s h t a m u d i . I n M a r c h 2 0 1 6 , " I n d i a T i m e s " s e l e c t e d K o l l a m a s o n e o f t h e n i n e l e a s t p o l l u t e d c i t i e s o n e a r t h t o w h i c h a n y b o d y c a n r e l o c a t e . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e t o p 1 0 m o s t w e l c o m i n g p l a c e s i n I n d i a f o r t h e y e a r 2 0 2 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o B o o k i n g . c o m ' s t r a v e l l e r r e v i e w a w a r d s . K o l l a m i s a n a n c i e n t t r a d i n g t o w n – t r a d i n g w i t h R o m a n s , C h i n e s e , A r a b s , a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s – m e n t i o n e d i n h i s t o r i c a l c i t a t i o n s d a t i n g b a c k t o B i b l i c a l t i m e s a n d t h e r e i g n o f S o l o m o n , c o n n e c t i n g w i t h R e d S e a p o r t s o f t h e A r a b i a n S e a ( s u p p o r t e d b y a f i n d o f a n c i e n t R o m a n c o i n s ) . T h e r e w a s a l s o i n t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e A r y a n k a v u P a s s i n S c h e n k o t t a h G a p c o n n e c t i n g t h e a n c i e n t t o w n t o T a m i l N a d u . T h e o v e r l a n d t r a d e i n p e p p e r b y b u l l o c k c a r t a n d t h e t r a d e o v e r t h e w a t e r w a y s c o n n e c t i n g A l l e p e y a n d C o c h i n e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d e l i n k a g e s t h a t e n a b l e d i t t o g r o w i n t o o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t I n d i a n i n d u s t r i a l t o w n s h i p s . T h e r a i l l i n k s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d t o T a m i l N a d u s u p p o r t e d s t i l l s t r o n g e r t r a d e l i n k s . T h e f a c t o r i e s p r o c e s s i n g m a r i n e e x p o r t s a n d t h e p r o c e s s i n g a n d p a c k a g i n g o f c a s h e w n u t s e x t e n d e d i t s t r a d e a c r o s s t h e g l o b e . I t i s k n o w n f o r c a s h e w p r o c e s s i n g a n d c o i r m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u t h e r n g a t e w a y t o t h e b a c k w a t e r s o f K e r a l a a n d i s a p r o m i n e n t t o u r i s t d e s t i n a t i o n a t K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m u r b a n a r e a i n c l u d e s s u b u r b a n t o w n s s u c h a s P a r a v u r i n t h e s o u t h , K u n d a r a i n t h e e a s t a n d K a r u n a g a p a l l y i n t h e n o r t h o f t h e c i t y . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o w n s i n t h e c i t y s u b u r b s a r e E r a v i p u r a m , K o t t i y a m , K a n n a n a l l u r , a n d C h a v a r a . K o l l a m e x p e r i e n c e s a t r o p i c a l m o n s o o n c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n " A m " ) w i t h l i t t l e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h i s t h e d r y s e a s o n w i t h l e s s t h a n o f r a i n i n e a c h o f t h o s e m o n t h s . A p r i l t o N o v e m b e r i s t h e w e t s e a s o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e r a i n t h a n d u r i n g D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y i n J u n e a n d J u l y a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e S o u t h w e s t M o n s o o n . I n d i a c e n s u s , K o l l a m c i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 5 , 4 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e . T h e s e x r a t i o ( t h e n u m b e r o f f e m a l e s p e r 1 , 0 0 0 m a l e s ) w a s 1 , 1 1 2 , t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e d i s t r i c t o f K o l l a m r a n k e d s e v e n t h i n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e w h i l e t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m r a n k e d f o u r t h . K o l l a m h a d a n a v e r a g e l i t e r a c y r a t e o f 9 3 . 7 7 % , h i g h e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e o f 7 4 . 0 4 % . M a l e l i t e r a c y s t o o d a t 9 5 . 8 3 % , a n d f e m a l e a t 9 1 . 9 5 % . I n K o l l a m , 1 1 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r s i x y e a r s o f a g e . I n M a y 2 0 1 5 , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a v e d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d C i t y C o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m b y m e r g i n g T h r i k k a d a v o o r p a n c h a y a t h . S o t h e a r e a w i l l b e c o m e w i t h a t o t a l c i t y p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 8 4 , 8 9 2 . M a l a y a l a m i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e c i t y , w h i l e T a m i l i s u n d e r s t o o d b y s o m e s e c t i o n s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s o f A n g l o - I n d i a n s , K o n k a n i B r a h m i n s , T e l u g u C h e t t y a n d B e n g a l i m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s s e t t l e d i n t h e c i t y . F o r e a s e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , K o l l a m M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x z o n e s w i t h l o c a l z o n a l o f f i c e s f o r e a c h o n e . I n 2 0 1 4 , f o r m e r K o l l a m M a y o r M r s . P r a s a n n a E a r n e s t w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e B e s t L a d y M a y o r o f S o u t h I n d i a b y t h e R o t a r y C l u b o f T r i v a n d r u m R o y a l T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s a m i c r o c o s m o f K e r a l a s t a t e w i t h i t s r e s i d e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o v a r i e d r e l i g i o u s , e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y a n c i e n t t e m p l e s , c e n t u r i e s - o l d c h u r c h e s a n d m o s q u e s i n t h e c i t y a n d i t s s u b u r b s . K o l l a m i s a H i n d u m a j o r i t y c i t y i n K e r a l a . 5 6 . 3 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n b e l o n g s t o H i n d u c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e K o l l a m E r a ( a l s o k n o w n a s " M a l a y a l a m E r a " o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " o r " M a l a y a l a m C a l e n d a r " o r " M a l a b a r E r a " ) , s o l a r a n d s i d e r e a l H i n d u c a l e n d a r u s e d i n K e r a l a , h a s b e e n o r i g i n a t e d o n 8 2 5 C E ( P o t h u V a r s h a m ) a t ( K o l l a m ) c i t y . M u s l i m s a c c o u n t f o r 2 2 . 0 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . A s p e r t h e C e n s u s 2 0 1 1 d a t a , 8 0 , 9 3 5 i s t h e t o t a l M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n K o l l a m . T h e K a r b a l a M a i d a n a n d t h e a d j a c e n t M a k a n i m o s q u e s e r v e s a s t h e E i d g a h f o r t h e c i t y . T h e 3 0 0 - y e a r - o l d J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i a t K a r u v a h o u s e s t h e m o r t a l r e m a i n s o f a S u f i s a i n t , S y e d A b d u r R a h m a n J i f r i . C h r i s t i a n s a c c o u n t f o r 2 1 . 1 7 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f K o l l a m c i t y . T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n ( K o l l a m ) i s t h e f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . T h e d i o c e s e w a s f i r s t e r e c t e d b y P o p e J o h n X X I I o n 9 A u g u s t 1 3 2 9 . I t w a s r e - e r e c t e d o n 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 6 . T h e d i o c e s e c o v e r s a n a r e a o f a n d c o n t a i n s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 , 8 7 9 , 5 5 3 , C a t h o l i c s n u m b e r i n g 2 3 5 , 9 2 2 ( 4 . 8 % ) . T h e f a m o u s I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l , 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d , l o c a t e d i n T h a n g a s s e r y , i s t h e c o - c a t h e d r a l o f t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n . C S I K o l l a m - K o t t a r a k a r a D i o c e s e i s o n e o f t h e t w e n t y - f o u r d i o c e s e s o f t h e C h u r c h o f S o u t h I n d i a . T h e H e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e K e r a l a r e g i o n o f T h e P e n t e c o s t a l M i s s i o n f o r K o t t a r a k k a r a , i s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m C i t y i s a M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n w i t h e l e c t e d C o u n c i l l o r s f r o m i t s 5 5 d i v i s i o n s . T h e M a y o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e c o u n c i l l o r s , g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y h o l d i n g a m a j o r i t y . T h e C o r p o r a t i o n S e c r e t a r y h e a d s t h e o f f i c e o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e p r e s e n t M a y o r o f K o l l a m C o r p o r a t i o n i s A d v . V . R a j e n d r a b a b u o f C P I ( M ) . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i t y f a l l s u n d e r t h e K o l l a m C i t y P o l i c e C o m m i s s i o n e r a t e w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y a n I P S ( I n d i a n P o l i c e S e r v i c e ) c a d r e o f f i c e r a n d h e r e p o r t s t o t h e I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l o f P o l i c e ( I G P ) T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m R a n g e . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m e s u n d e r t h e S t a t e H o m e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a . K o l l a m C i t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b d i v i s i o n s , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , e a c h u n d e r a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r o f P o l i c e . W i t h a t o t a l u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 , 1 8 7 , 1 5 8 a n d 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 a s c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n , K o l l a m i s t h e f o u r t h m o s t p o p u l o u s c i t y i n t h e s t a t e a n d 4 9 t h o n t h e l i s t o f t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s u r b a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s i n I n d i a . t h e c i t y ' s u r b a n g r o w t h r a t e o f 1 5 4 . 5 9 % w a s t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a o f K o l l a m i n c l u d e s U l i y a k o v i l , A d i c h a n a l l o o r , A d i n a d , A y a n i v e l i k u l a n g a r a , C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r , E r a v i p u r a m ( P a r t ) , K a l l e l i b h a g o m , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m , K o t t a m k a r a , K u l a s e k h a r a p u r a m , M a y y a n a d , M e e n a d , N e d u m p a n a , N e e n d a k a r a , O a c h i r a , P a n a y a m , P a n m a n a , P a r a v u r , P e r i n a d , P o o t h a k k u l a m , T h a z h u t h a l a , T h o d i y o o r , T h r i k k a d a v o o r , T h r i k k a r u v a , T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m , a n d V a d a k k u m t h a l a . T h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p t h e C i t y o f K o l l a m a s a " P o r t C i t y o f K e r a l a " . R e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e M a r u t h a d i - E r a v i p u r a m a r e a i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r f i s h i n g , t o u r i s m a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o j e c t s w i l l b e i m p l e m e n t e d a s p a r t o f t h e p r o j e c t T h e c i t y l i f e o f K o l l a m h a s c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e . I n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a n d p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , K o l l a m c i t y i s i n f i f t h p o s i t i o n f r o m I n d i a a n d t h i r d i n K e r a l a . K o l l a m i s f a m o u s a s a c i t y w i t h e x c e l l e n t e x p o r t b a c k g r o u n d . 5 s t a r , 4 s t a r a n d 3 s t a r h o t e l s , m u l t i - s t o r i e d s h o p p i n g m a l l s , b r a n d e d j e w e l l e r y , t e x t i l e s h o w r o o m s a n d c a r s h o w r o o m s h a v e s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s . K o l l a m w a s t h e t h i r d c i t y i n K e r a l a ( a f t e r K o z h i k o d e a n d K o c h i ) t o a d o p t t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l c u l t u r e . K o l l a m d i s t r i c t r a n k s f i r s t i n l i v e s t o c k w e a l t h i n t h e s t a t e . D o w n t o w n K o l l a m i s t h e m a i n C B D o f K o l l a m c i t y . D a i r y f a r m i n g i s f a i r l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A l s o t h e r e i s a c h i l l i n g p l a n t i n t h e c i t y . K o l l a m i s a n i m p o r t a n t m a r i t i m e a n d p o r t c i t y . F i s h i n g h a s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e d i s t r i c t . N e e n d a k a r a a n d S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a v i l l a g e s i n t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y h a v e f i s h e r i e s . A n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 4 , 9 7 3 p e r s o n s a r e e n g a g e d i n f i s h i n g a n d a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s . C h e r i a z h e e k k a l , A l a p p a d , P a n d a r a t h u r u t h u , P u t h e n t h u r a , N e e n d a k a r a , T h a n g a s s e r i , E r a v i p u r a m a n d P a r a v u r a r e e i g h t o f t h e 2 6 i m p o r t a n t f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a r e 2 4 i n l a n d f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s i n i t i a t e d s t e p s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i s h i n g h a r b o u r a t N e e n d a k a r a . A v e r a g e f i s h l a n d i n g i s e s t i m a t e d a t 8 5 , 2 7 5 t o n n e s p e r y e a r . O n e - t h i r d o f t h e s t a t e ' s f i s h c a t c h i s f r o m K o l l a m . N e a r l y 3 0 0 0 m e c h a n i s e d b o a t s a r e o p e r a t i n g f r o m t h e f i s h i n g h a r b o u r . F F D A a n d V F F D A p r o m o t e f r e s h w a t e r f i s h c u l t u r e a n d p r a w n f a r m i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f i s h i n g v i l l a g e w i t h 1 0 0 h o u s e s i s b e i n g b u i l t a t E r a v i p u r a m . A p r a w n f a r m i s b e i n g b u i l t a t A y i r a m t h e n g u , a n d s e v e r a l n e w h a t c h e r i e s a r e p l a n n e d t o c a t e r t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e a q u a c u l t u r i s t s . K e r a l a ' s o n l y t u r k e y f a r m a n d a r e g i o n a l p o u l t r y f a r m a r e a t K u r e e p u z h a . T h e r e a r e t w o C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n d u s t r i a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y , t h e I n d i a n R a r e E a r t h s , C h a v a r a a n d P a r v a t h i M i l l s L t d . , K o l l a m . K e r a l a C e r a m i c s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a E l e c t r i c a l a n d A l l i e d E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p a n y i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a P r e m o P i p e f a c t o r y i n C h a v a r a , K e r a l a M i n e r a l s a n d M e t a l s L i m i t e d i n C h a v a r a a n d U n i t e d E l e c t r i c a l I n d u s t r i e s i n K o l l a m a r e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . O t h e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e p r i v a t e / c o o p e r a t i v e s e c t o r a r e A l u m i n i u m I n d u s t r i e s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , T h o m a s S t e p h e n & C o . i n K o l l a m , F l o o r c o i n P a r a v u r a n d C o o p e r a t i v e S p i n n i n g M i l l i n C h a t h a n n o o r . T h e b e a c h s a n d s o f t h e d i s t r i c t h a v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u c h h e a v y m i n e r a l s a s I l m e n i t e , R u t i l e , M o n o s i t e a n d Z i r c o n , w h i c h o f f e r s c o p e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s . B e s i d e s l a r g e d e p o s i t s o f C h i n a c l a y i n K u n d a r a , M u l a v a n a a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , t h e r e a r e a l s o l i m e - s h e l l d e p o s i t s i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e a n d B a u x i t e d e p o s i t s i n A d i c h a n a l l u r . K n o w n a s t h e " C a s h e w C a p i t a l o f t h e W o r l d " , K o l l a m i s n o t e d f o r i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c a s h e w b u s i n e s s a n d i s h o m e t o m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 c a s h e w - p r o c e s s i n g u n i t s . E v e r y y e a r , a b o u t 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f r a w c a s h e w s a r e i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e c i t y f o r p r o c e s s i n g a n d a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f p r o c e s s e d c a s h e w s a r e e x p o r t e d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s w o r l d w i d e . T h e C a s h e w E x p o r t P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( C E P C I ) e x p e c t s a r i s e i n e x p o r t s t o 2 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s b y 2 0 2 0 , a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 2 0 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e c u r r e n t f i g u r e . T h e K e r a l a S t a t e C a s h e w D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n L i m i t e d ( K S C D C ) i s s i t u a t e d a t M u n d a k k a l i n K o l l a m c i t y . T h e c o m p a n y o w n s 3 0 c a s h e w f a c t o r i e s a l l a c r o s s K e r a l a . O f t h e s e , 2 4 a r e l o c a t e d i n K o l l a m d i s t r i c t . K o l l a m i s o n e o f m a n y s e a f o o d e x p o r t h u b s i n I n d i a w i t h n u m e r o u s c o m p a n i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e c t o r . M o s t o f t h e s e a r e b a s e d i n t h e M a r u t h a d i , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a , K a v a n a d , N e e n d a k a r a , A s r a m a m , K i l i k o l l u r , T h i r u m u l l a v a r a m a n d U l i y a k o v i l a r e a s o f t h e c i t y . C a p i t h a n s , K i n g s M a r i n e E x p o r t e r s , I n d i a F o o d E x p o r t s a n d O c e a n i c F i s h e r i e s a r e e x a m p l e s o f s e a f o o d e x p o r t e r s . K o l l a m ' s A s h t a m u d i L a k e c l a m f i s h e r y w a s t h e f i r s t M a r i n e S t e w a r d s h i p C o u n c i l ( M S C ) c e r t i f i e d f i s h e r y i n I n d i a . T h e c l a m f i s h e r y s u p p o r t s a r o u n d 3 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , c l e a n i n g , p r o c e s s i n g a n d t r a d i n g o f c l a m s . A r o u n d 9 0 s p e c i e s o f f i s h a n d t e n s p e c i e s o f c l a m s a r e f o u n d i n t h e l a k e . K o l l a m F e s t i s K o l l a m ' s o w n a n n u a l f e s t i v a l , a t t r a c t i n g m o s t l y K e r a l i t e s b u t a l s o h u n d r e d s o f d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n t o u r i s t s t o K o l l a m . T h e m a i n v e n u e o f K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a n d g i g a n t i c A s h r a m a m M a i d a n . K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e s i g n a t u r e e v e n t o f K o l l a m . K o l l a m F e s t s e e k s t o s h o w c a s e K o l l a m ' s r i c h c u l t u r e a n d h e r i t a g e , t o u r i s m p o t e n t i a l a n d i n v e s t m e n t s i n n e w v e n t u r e s . K o l l a m P o o r a m , p a r t o f t h e A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e F e s t i v a l , i s u s u a l l y h e l d o n 1 5 A p r i l , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y o n 1 6 A p r i l . T h e p o o r a m i s h e l d a t t h e A s h r a m a m m a i d a n . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s T r o p h y B o a t R a c e ( P T B R ) i s a n a n n u a l r e g a t t a h e l d i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e i n K o l l a m . T h e e v e n t w a s i n a u g u r a t e d b y P r e s i d e n t P r a t h i b h a P a t i l i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . T h e e v e n t h a s b e e n r e s c h e d u l e d f r o m 2 0 1 2 . T h e c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m i s s e r v e d b y t h e T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t , w h i c h i s a b o u t 5 6 k i l o m e t e r s f r o m t h e c i t y v i a N H 6 6 . T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t i n a n o n - m e t r o c i t y i n I n d i a . i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n K e r a l a i n a r e a , a f t e r S h o r a n u r J u n c t i o n , w i t h a t o t a l o f 6 p l a t f o r m s . T h e s t a t i o n h a s 1 7 r a i l t r a c k s . K o l l a m j u n c t i o n h a s w o r l d ' s s e c o n d l o n g e s t r a i l w a y p l a t f o r m , m e a s u r i n g 1 1 8 0 . 5 m ( 3 8 7 3   f t ) . M a i n l i n e E l e c t r i c a l M u l t i p l e U n i t ( M E M U ) h a v e a m a i n t e n a n c e s h e d a t K o l l a m J u n c t i o n . T h e M E M U s e r v i c e s s t a r t e d f r o m K o l l a m t o E r n a k u l a m v i a A l a p p u z h a a n d K o t t a y a m i n t h e s e c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2 . B y 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , M E M U s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d N a g e r c o i l b e c a m e a r e a l i t y a n d l a t e r e x t e n d e d u p t o K a n y a k u m a r i . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i n a u g u r a t e d o n 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 3 f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k s o f M E M U r a k e s . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i s t h e l a r g e s t M E M U S h e d i n K e r a l a , w h i c h i s e q u i p p e d w i t h m o s t m o d e r n f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e i s a l o n g - s t a n d i n g d e m a n d f o r t h e K o l l a m T o w n R a i l w a y S t a t i o n i n t h e K o l l a m - P e r i n a d s t r e t c h a n d " S . N C o l l e g e R a i l w a y S t a t i o n " i n t h e K o l l a m - E r a v i p u r a m s t r e t c h . T h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s i n K o l l a m c i t y a r e K o l l a m J u n c t i o n r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , E r a v i p u r a m r a i l w a y s t a t i o n a n d K i l i k o l l u r r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . A n e w s u b u r b a n r a i l s y s t e m h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y t h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t a n d I n d i a n R a i l w a y s o n t h e r o u t e T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m - K o l l a m - H a r i p a d / C h e n g a n n u r f o r w h i c h M R V C i s t a s k e d t o c o n d u c t a s t u d y a n d s u b m i t a r e p o r t . T e n t r a i n s , e a c h w i t h s e v e n c o a c h e s , w i l l t r a n s p o r t p a s s e n g e r s b a c k a n d f o r t h a l o n g t h e T r i v a n d r u m - K o l l a m - C h e n g a n n u r - K o t t a r a k a r a - A d o o r s e c t i o n . T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s c o n n e c t e d t o a l m o s t a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d m a j o r t o w n s i n t h e s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g T r i v a n d r u m , A l a p p u z h a , K o c h i , P a l a k k a d , K o t t a y a m , K o t t a r a k k a r a , a n d P u n a l u r , a n d w i t h o t h e r I n d i a n c i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e N H 6 6 , N H 1 8 3 , N H 7 4 4 - a n d o t h e r s t a t e P W D R o a d s . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s p r o v i d e d b y s t a t e - o w n e d K e r a l a S t a t e R o a d T r a n s p o r t C o r p o r a t i o n ( K S R T C ) a n d p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t b u s o p e r a t o r s . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e f i v e K S R T C z o n e s i n K e r a l a . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s a l s o p r o v i d e d b y p r i v a t e t a x i s a n d a u t o r i c k s h a w s , a l s o c a l l e d a u t o s . T h e r e i s a c i t y p r i v a t e b u s s t a n d a t A n d a m u k k a m . T h e r e i s a K S R T C b u s s t a t i o n b e s i d e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . B u s e s t o v a r i o u s t o w n s i n K e r a l a a n d i n t e r s t a t e s e r v i c e s r u n f r o m t h i s s t a t i o n . T h e S t a t e W a t e r T r a n s p o r t D e p a r t m e n t o p e r a t e s b o a t s e r v i c e s t o W e s t K a l l a d a , M u n r o e I s l a n d , G u h a n a n d a p u r a m , D a l a v a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a f r o m K o l l a m K S W T D F e r r y T e r m i n a l s i t u a t e d o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . A s r a m a m L i n k R o a d i n t h e c i t y p a s s e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f e r r y t e r m i n a l . D o u b l e d e c k e r l u x u r y b o a t s r u n b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d A l l e p e y d a i l y . L u x u r y b o a t s , o p e r a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r i v a t e o w n e r s , o p e r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o a t j e t t y d u r i n g t h e t o u r i s t s e a s o n . T h e W e s t c o a s t c a n a l s y s t e m , w h i c h s t a r t s f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m i n t h e s o u t h a n d e n d s a t H o s d u r g i n t h e n o r t h , p a s s e s t h r o u g h P a r a v u r , t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m a n d K a r u n a g a p p a l l y t a l u k . K o l l a m P o r t i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p o r t i n K e r a l a , a f t e r C o c h i n P o r t T r u s t . I t i s o n e o f t w o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o r t s i n K e r a l a . C a r g o h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s b e g a n o p e r a t i o n i n 2 0 1 3 . F o r e i g n s h i p s a r r i v e i n t h e p o r t r e g u l a r l y w i t h t h e M V A l i n a , a v e s s e l r e g i s t e r e d i n A n t i g u a a n c h o r e d a t t h e p o r t o n 4 A p r i l 2 0 1 4 . O n c e t h e P o r t s t a r t s f u n c t i o n i n g i n f u l l - f l e d g e d , i t w i l l m a k e t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f K o l l a m - b a s e d c a s h e w c o m p a n i e s m o r e e a s y . S h r e y a s S h i p p i n g C o m p a n y i s n o w r u n n i n g a r e g u l a r c o n t a i n e r s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m P o r t a n d K o c h i P o r t . T h e r e a r e m a n y r e s p e c t e d c o l l e g e s , s c h o o l s a n d l e a r n i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o e d u c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t a n d l a t e s t k n o w l e d g e t o t h e s c h o l a r s . T h e T h a n g a l K u n j u M u s a l i a r C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e s c h o o l o f i t s k i n d i n t h e s t a t e , i s a t K i l i k o l l u r , a b o u t e a s t o f K o l l a m c i t y , a n d i s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e f o r a l l K o l l a m i t e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a s g r a n t e d a c a d e m i c a u t o n o m y t o F a t i m a M a t a N a t i o n a l C o l l e g e , a n o t h e r p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e c i t y . S r e e N a r a y a n a C o l l e g e , B i s h o p J e r o m e I n s t i t u t e ( a n i n t e g r a t e d c a m p u s p r o v i d i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e , E n g i n e e r i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s ) , a n d T r a v a n c o r e B u s i n e s s A c a d e m y a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e t w o l a w c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y , S r e e N a r a y a n a G u r u C o l l e g e o f L e g a l S t u d i e s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f S r e e N a r a y a n a T r u s t a n d N S S L a w C o l l e g e m a n a g e d b y t h e N . S . S . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e b e s t s c h o o l s i n K o l l a m i n c l u d i n g T r i n i t y L y c e u m S c h o o l , I n f a n t J e s u s S c h o o l , S t A l o y s i u s H . S . S , T h e o x f o r d s c h o o l , S r i S r i A c a d e m y e t c . K e r a l a S t a t e I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n ( K S I D ) , a d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e u n d e r D e p a r t m e n t o f l a b o u r a n d S k i l l s , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a , i s l o c a t e d a t C h a n d a n a t h o p e i n K o l l a m . I t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 2 0 0 8 a n d w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t s t a t e - o w n e d d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e s i n I n d i a . K S I D c u r r e n t l y c o n d u c t s P o s t G r a d u a t e D i p l o m a P r o g r a m s i n D e s i g n d e v e l o p e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n , A h m e d a b a d . I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f I n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n ( I I I C - K o l l a m ) i s a n i n s t i t u t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s s i t u a t e d a t C h a v a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o s u p p o r t t h e s k i l l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y , K o l l a m , K e r a l a i s a f a s h i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n s t i t u t e s i t u a t e d a t V e l l i m o n , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e c h n i c a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f T e x t i l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e t w o I M K ( I n s t i t u t e o f M a n a g e m e n t , K e r a l a ) E x t e n s i o n C e n t r e s a c t i v e i n t h e c i t y . K e r a l a M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e i s s i t u a t e d a t N e e n d a k a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o g i v e m a r i t i m e t r a i n i n g f o r t h e s t u d e n t s i n K e r a l a . M o r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d a t N e e n d a k a r a m a r i t i m e i n s t i t u t e u n d e r t h e B o a t C r e w t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e . A p a r t f r o m c o l l e g e s , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b a n k c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m i s k n o w n a s I n d i a ' s h u b f o r b a n k t e s t c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s w i t h a r o u n d 4 0 s u c h i n s t i t u t e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t . S t u d e n t s f r o m v a r i o u s I n d i a n s t a t e s s u c h a s T a m i l N a d u , K a r n a t a k a , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , B i h a r a n d M a d h y a P r a d e s h a l s o c o m e h e r e f o r c o a c h i n g . C r i c k e t i s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s p o r t , f o l l o w e d b y h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l . K o l l a m i s h o m e t o a n u m b e r o f l o c a l c r i c k e t , h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l t e a m s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n d i s t r i c t , s t a t e - l e v e l a n d z o n e m a t c h e s . A n I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o c k e y S t a d i u m w i t h a s t r o - t u r f f a c i l i t y i s t h e r e a t A s r a m a m i n t h e c i t y , b u i l t a t a c o s t o f R s . 1 3 c r o r e . T h e l a n d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t a d i u m w a s t a k e n o v e r f r o m t h e P o s t a l D e p a r t m e n t a t A s r a m a m , K o l l a m . T h e c i t y h a s a n o t h e r s t a d i u m n a m e d t h e L a l B a h a d u r S h a s t r i S t a d i u m , K o l l a m . I t i s a m u l t i p u r p o s e s t a d i u m a n d h a s r e p e a t e d l y h o s t e d s u c h s p o r t s e v e n t s a s t h e R a n j i T r o p h y , S a n t h o s h T r o p h y a n d N a t i o n a l G a m e s . T w o o p e n g r o u n d s i n t h e c i t y , t h e A s r a m a m M a i d a n a n d P e e r a n k i M a i d a n , a r e a l s o u s e d f o r s p o r t s e v e n t s , p r a c t i c e a n d w a r m - u p m a t c h e s . H i n d u s a n d t e m p l e s A n a n d a v a l l e e s h w a r a m S r i M a h a d e v a r T e m p l e i s a 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d a n c i e n t H i n d u t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y . T h e 4 0 0 - y e a r - o l d S a n c t u m s a n c t o r u m o f t h i s t e m p l e i s f i n i s h e d i n t e a k . A m m a c h i v e e d u M u h u r t h i t e m p l e i s a n o t h e r m a j o r t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d a r o u n d 6 0 0 y e a r s a g o b y t h e A m m a c h i V e e d u f a m i l y , a r i s t o c r a t s f r o m K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m p o o r a m , a m a j o r f e s t i v a l o f K o l l a m , i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a t e n - d a y f e s t i v a l , n o r m a l l y i n m i d A p r i l , o f A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e . K o t t a n k u l a n g a r a D e v i T e m p l e i s o n e o f t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s H i n d u t e m p l e s i n K e r a l a w e r e c r o s s - d r e s s i n g o f m e n f o r " C h a m a y a v i l a k k u " r i t u a l i s a p a r t o f t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v i t i e s . T h e m e n a l s o c a r r y l a r g e l a m p s . T h e f i r s t o f t h e t w o - d a y d r e s s i n g e v e n t d r e w t o a c l o s e e a r l y o n M o n d a y . M o r e o v e r , K o t t a r a k k a r a S r e e M a h a g a n a p a t h i K s h e t h r a m i n K o t t a r a k k a r a , P u t t i n g a l D e v i T e m p l e i n P a r a v u r , s o o r a n a d n o r t h a n a y a d i P a z h a y i d a m S r e e N a r a s i m h a S w a m i T e m p l e P o r u v a z h y P e r u v i r u t h y M a l a n a d a T e m p l e i n P o r u v a z h y , S a s t h a m c o t t a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a T e m p l e i n S a s t h a m k o t t a , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a t e m p l e , T h r i k k a d a v o o r S r e e M a h a d e v a T e m p l e i n K a d a v o o r a n d K a t t i l M e k k a t h i l D e v i T e m p l e i n P o n m a n a P a d a n a y a r k u l a n g a r a m a h a d e v a t e m p l e K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , A s h t a m u d i S r e e V e e r a b h a d r a S w a m y T e m p l e a r e t h e o t h e r f a m o u s H i n d u w o r s h i p c e n t r e s i n t h e K o l l a m M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c h u r c h e s T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l i n T a n g a s s e r i i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o r t u g u e s e d u r i n g 1 6 1 4 . I t i s n o w t h e p r o - c a t h e d r a l o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n – t h e a n c i e n t a n d f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e o f I n d i a . T h e c h u r c h r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f o l d Q u i l o n c i t y . S t . S e b a s t i a n ' s C h u r c h a t N e e n d a k a r a i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h i n t h e c i t y . T h e D u t c h C h u r c h i n M u n r o e I s l a n d i s b u i l t b y t h e D u t c h i n 1 8 7 8 . O u r L a d y o f V e l a n k a n n i S h r i n e i n C u t c h e r y i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p p l a c e i n K o l l a m c i t y . S a i n t C a s i m i r C h u r c h i n K a d a v o o r , H o l y F a m i l y C h u r c h i n K a v a n a d , S t . S t e p h e n ' s C h u r c h i n T h o p p u a n d S t . T h o m a s C h u r c h i n K a d a p p a k a d a a r e s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n K o l l a m . M u s l i m s a n d m o s q u e s K o t t u k a d u J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r J u m a - A - M a s j i d , V a l i y a p a l l i i n J o n a k a p p u r a m , C h i n n a k a d a J u m a M a s j i d , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n K o l l u r v i l a , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n T h a t t a m a l a a n d K o i v i l a J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a a r e t h e o t h e r m a j o r M o s q u e s i n K o l l a m . N o t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s b o r n i n K o l l a m i n c l u d e :

Demographics ; Religion

The demographics of Kollam city reveal a diverse population with various religious, ethnic, and linguistic groups. Hindus form the majority with 56.35% of the population, followed by Muslims (22.05%) and Christians (21.17%). The city has a mix of ancient temples, centuries-old churches, and mosques, reflecting its rich cultural heritage. The Kollam Era, a solar and sidereal Hindu calendar, originated in the city in 825 CE. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon, established in 1329, is the first Catholic diocese in India. CSI Kollam-Kottarakara Diocese is one of the 24 dioceses of the Church of South India. Note: This summary focuses on the demographics and religious aspects of Kollam city, highlighting the diversity of its population and the significance of its religious institutions.

the Nampoothiri Vaishnavites and Nair sub-castes in the St. Thomas tradition, with the Syrian liturgy as a basis for the Doctrine of the Trinity, without replacing the Sanskrit and Vedic prayers. The Tharisapalli plates presented to Maruvan Sapor Iso by Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal granted the Christians the privilege of overseeing foreign trade in the city as well as control over its weights and measures in a move designed to increase Quilon's trade and wealth. The two Christians were also instrumental in founding Christian churches with Syrian liturgy along the Malabar coast, distinct from the ancient Vedic Advaitam propounded by Adi Shankara in the early ninth century among the Nampoothiri Vaishnavites and Nair Sub Castes, as Malayalam was not accepted as a liturgical language until the early 18th century. Thus Kollam experiences a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen "Am") with little seasonal variation in temperatures. December to March is the dry season with less than of rain in each of those months. April to November is the wet season, with considerably more rain than during December to March, especially in June and July at the height of the Southwest Monsoon. India census, Kollam city had a population of 349,033 with a density of 5,400 persons per square kilometre. The sex ratio (the number of females per 1,000 males) was 1,112, the highest in the state. The district of Kollam ranked seventh in population in the state while the city of Kollam ranked fourth. Kollam had an average literacy rate of 93.77%, higher than the national average of 74.04%. Male literacy stood at 95.83%, and female at 91.95%. In Kollam, 11% of the population was under six years of age. In May 2015, Government of Kerala have decided to expand City Corporation of Kollam by merging Thrikkadavoor panchayath. So the area will become with a total city population of 384,892. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and official language of the city, while Tamil is understood by some sections in the city. There are also small communities of Anglo-Indians, Konkani Brahmins, Telugu Chetty and Bengali migrant labourers settled in the city. For ease of administration, Kollam Municipal Corporation is divided into six zones with local zonal offices for each one. In 2014, former Kollam Mayor Mrs. Prasanna Earnest was selected as the Best Lady Mayor of South India by the Rotary Club of Trivandrum Royal The city of Kollam is a microcosm of Kerala state with its residents belonging to varied religious, ethnic and linguistic groups. There are so many ancient temples, centuries-old churches and mosques in the city and its suburbs. Kollam is a Hindu majority city in Kerala. 56.35% of Kollam's total population belongs to Hindu community. Moreover, the Kollam Era (also known as "Malayalam Era" or "Kollavarsham" or "Malayalam Calendar" or "Malabar Era"), solar and sidereal Hindu calendar used in Kerala, has been originated on 825 CE (Pothu Varsham) at (Kollam) city. Muslims account for 22.05% of Kollam's total population. As per the Census 2011 data, 80,935 is the total Muslim population in Kollam. The Karbala Maidan and the adjacent Makani mosque serves as the Eid gah for the city. The 300-year-old Juma-'Ath Palli at Karuva houses the mortal remains of a Sufi saint, Syed Abdur Rahman Jifri. Christians account for 21.17% of the total population of Kollam city. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon (Kollam) is the first Catholic diocese in India. The diocese was first erected by Pope John XXII on 9 August 1329. It was re-erected on 1 September 1886. The diocese covers an area of and contains a population of 4,879,553, Catholics numbering 235,922 (4.8%). The famous Infant Jesus Cathedral, 400 years old, located in Thangassery, is the co-cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon. CSI Kollam-Kottarakara Diocese is one of the twenty-four dioceses of the Church of South India. The Headquarters of the Kerala a total urban population of 1,187,158 and 349,033 as city corporation's population, Kollam is the fourth most populous city in the state and 49th on the list of the most populous urban agglomerations in India. the city's urban growth rate of 154.59% was the second highest in the state. The Metropolitan area of Kollam includes Uliyakovil, Adichanalloor, Adinad, Ayanivelikulangara, Chavara, Elampalloor, Eravipuram (Part), Kallelibhagom, Karunagappally, Kollam, Kottamkara, Kulasekharapuram, Mayyanad, Meenad, Nedumpana, Neendakara, Oachira, Panayam, Panmana, Paravur, Perinad, Poothakkulam, Thazhuthala, Thodiyoor, Thrikkadavoor, Thrikkaruva, Thrikkovilvattom, and Vadakkumthala. The Kerala Government has decided to develop the City of Kollam as a "Port City of Kerala". Regeneration of the Maruthadi-Eravipuram area including construction of facilities for fishing, tourism and entertainment projects will be implemented as part of the project The city life National Games. Two open grounds in the city, the Asramam Maidan and Peeranki Maidan, are also used for sports events, practice and warm-up matches. Hindus and temples Anandavalleeshwaram Sri Mahadevar Temple is a 400 years old ancient Hindu temple in the city. The 400-year-old Sanctum sanctorum of this temple is finished in teak. Ammachiveedu Muhurthi temple is another major temple in the city that have been founded around 600 years ago by the Ammachi Veedu family, aristocrats from Kollam. The Kollam pooram, a major festival of Kollam, is the culmination of a ten-day festival, normally in mid April, of Asramam Sree Krishna Swamy Temple. Kottankulangara Devi Temple is one of the world-famous Hindu temples in Kerala were cross-dressing of men for "Chamayavilakku" ritual is a part of traditional festivities. The men also carry large lamps. The first of the two-day dressing event drew to a close early on Monday. Moreover, Kottarakkara Sree Mahaganapathi Kshethram in Kottarakkara, Puttingal Devi Temple in Paravur, sooranad north anayadi Pazhayidam Sree Narasimha Swami Temple Poruvazhy Peruviruthy Malanada Temple in Poruvazhy, Sasthamcotta Sree Dharma Sastha Temple in Sasthamkotta, Sakthikulangara Sree Dharma Sastha temple, Thrikkadavoor Sree Mahadeva Temple in Kadavoor and Kattil Mekkathil Devi Temple in Ponmana Padanayarkulangara mahadeva temple Karunagappally, Ashtamudi Sree Veerabhadra Swamy Temple are the other famous Hindu worship centres in the Kollam Metropolitan Area. Christianity and churches The Infant Jesus Cathedral in Tangasseri is established by Portuguese during 1614. It is now the pro-cathedral of Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon – the ancient and first Catholic diocese of India.

Kollam

I n 8 2 5 C E , t h e M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r , o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " , w a s c r e a t e d i n K o l l a m a t m e e t i n g s h e l d i n t h e c i t y . T h e p r e s e n t M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r i s s a i d t o h a v e b e g u n w i t h t h e r e - f o u n d i n g o f t h e t o w n , w h i c h w a s r e b u i l t a f t e r i t s d e s t r u c t i o n b y f i r e . T h e n a m e K o l l a m i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d " K o l l a m " , m e a n i n g p e p p e r . A s t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Q u i l o n , K o l l a m w a s a f l o u r i s h i n g p o r t d u r i n g t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y ( c . 3 r d c e n t u r y B C – 1 2 t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d l a t e r b e c a m e t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e K i n g d o m o f Q u i l o n o n i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n c . 8 2 5 . K o l l a m w a s c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f o u r e a r l y e n t r e p o t s i n g l o b a l s e a t r a d e d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , a l o n g w i t h A l e x a n d r i a a n d C a i r o i n E g y p t , t h e C h i n e s e c i t y o f Q u a n z h o u , a n d M a l a c c a i n t h e M a l a y s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o . I t s e e m s t h a t t r a d e a t K o l l a m s e e m s t o h a v e f l o u r i s h e d r i g h t i n t o t h e M e d i e v a l p e r i o d a s i n 1 2 8 0 , t h e r e i s i n s t a n c e o f e n v o y s o f Y u a n C h i n a c o m i n g t o K o l l a m f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e l o c a l r u l e r a n d C h i n a T h e a n c i e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f K o l l a m w a s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f K e r a l a . T h e C h e r a d y n a s t y g o v e r n e d t h e a r e a o f M a l a b a r C o a s t b e t w e e n A l a p p u z h a i n t h e s o u t h t o K a s a r a g o d i n t h e n o r t h . T h i s i n c l u d e d P a l a k k a d G a p , C o i m b a t o r e , S a l e m , a n d K o l l i H i l l s . T h e r e g i o n a r o u n d C o i m b a t o r e w a s r u l e d b y t h e C h e r a s d u r i n g S a n g a m p e r i o d b e t w e e n c . f i r s t a n d t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s C E a n d i t s e r v e d a s t h e e a s t e r n e n t r a n c e t o t h e P a l a k k a d G a p , t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a d e r o u t e b e t w e e n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t a n d T a m i l N a d u . H o w e v e r t h e s o u t h e r n r e g i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y K e r a l a s t a t e ( T h e c o a s t a l b e l t b e t w e e n T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a ) w a s u n d e r A y d y n a s t y , w h o w a s m o r e r e l a t e d t o t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y o f M a d u r a i t h a n C h e r a s . A l o n g w i t h ( M u z i r i s a n d T y n d i s ) , Q u i l o n w a s a n a n c i e n t s e a p o r t o n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t o f I n d i a f r o m t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . K o l l a m s e r v e d a s a m a j o r p o r t c i t y f o r P a n d y a d y n a s t y o n t h e w e s t e r n c o a s t w h i l e K u l a s e k h a r a p a t n a m s e r v e d P a n d y a s o n t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t . T h e c i t y h a d a h i g h c o m m e r c i a l r e p u t a t i o n f r o m t h e d a y s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d A n c i e n t R o m a n s . P l i n y t h e E l d e r ( 2 3 – 7 9 A D ) m e n t i o n s G r e e k s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t M u z i r i s a n d N e l c y n d a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a l a n d r o u t e o v e r t h e W e s t e r n G h a t s . S p i c e s , p e a r l s , d i a m o n d s , a n d s i l k w e r e e x p o r t e d t o E g y p t a n d R o m e f r o m t h e s e p o r t s . P e a r l s a n d d i a m o n d s c a m e t o t h e C h e r a K i n g d o m f r o m C e y l o n a n d t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o a s t o f I n d i a , t h e n k n o w n a s t h e P a n d y a n K i n g d o m . C o s m a s I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , a G r e e k N e s t o r i a n s a i l o r , i n h i s b o o k t h e C h r i s t i a n T o p o g r a p h y w h o v i s i t e d t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t i n 5 5 0 , m e n t i o n s a n e n c l a v e o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s i n " M a l e " ( M a l a b a r C o a s t ) . H e w r i t e s , " I n t h e i s l a n d o f T a b r o p a n e ( C e y l o n ) , t h e r e i s a c h u r c h o f C h r i s t i a n s , a n d c l e r i c s a n d f a i t h f u l . L i k e w i s e a t M a l e , w h e r e t h e p e p p e r g r o w s , a n d i n t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y o f K a l l i a n a ( K a l l i a n k a l a t N i l l a c k a l ) t h e r e i s a l s o a b i s h o p c o n s e c r a t e d i n P e r s i a i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e N i c e a S u n n a h a d o s e o f 3 2 5 A D . " T h e N e s t o r i a n P a t r i a r c h J e s u j a b u s , w h o d i e d i n 6 6 0 A D , m e n t i o n s K o l l a m i n h i s l e t t e r t o S i m o n , M e t r o p o l i t a n o f P e r s i a . K o l l a m i s a l s o h o m e t o o n e o f t h e o l d e s t m o s q u e s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e g e n d o f C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l s , t h e f i r s t I n d i a n m o s q u e w a s b u i l t i n 6 2 4 A D a t K o d u n g a l l u r w i t h t h e m a n d a t e o f t h e l a s t t h e r u l e r ( t h e C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l ) o f C h e r a d y n a s t y , w h o l e f t f r o m D h a r m a d o m t o M e c c a a n d c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( c . 5 7 0 – 6 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o " Q i s s a t S h a k a r w a t i F a r m a d " , t h e " M a s j i d s " a t K o d u n g a l l u r , K o l l a m , M a d a y i , B a r k u r , M a n g a l o r e , K a s a r a g o d , K a n n u r , D h a r m a d a m , P a n t h a l a y i n i , a n d C h a l i y a m , w e r e b u i l t d u r i n g t h e e r a o f M a l i k D i n a r , a n d t h e y a r e a m o n g t h e o l d e s t " M a s j i d " s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a l i k D i n a r d i e d a t T h a l a n g a r a i n K a s a r a g o d t o w n . T h e p o r t a t K o l l a m , t h e n k n o w n a s Q u i l o n , w a s f o u n d e d i n 8 2 5 b y t h e N e s t o r i a n C h r i s t i a n s M a r S a b o r a n d M a r P r o t h w i t h s a n c t i o n f r o m A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l , t h e k i n g o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e S t a t e o f Q u i l o n , a f e u d a t o r y u n d e r t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a r S a p o r I s o a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e C h e r a k i n g c r e a t e a n e w s e a p o r t n e a r K o l l a m i n l i e u o f h i s r e q u e s t t h a t h e r e b u i l d t h e a l m o s t v a n i s h e d i n l a n d s e a p o r t a t K o l l a m ( k o r e - k e - n i ) n e a r B a c k a r e ( T h e v a l a k a r a ) , a l s o k n o w n a s N e l c y n d a a n d T y n d i s t o t h e R o m a n s a n d G r e e k s a n d a s T h o n d i t o t h e T a m i l s , w h i c h h a d b e e n w i t h o u t t r a d e f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e c a u s e t h e C h e r a s w e r e o v e r r u n b y t h e P a l l a v a s i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , e n d i n g t h e s p i c e t r a d e f r o m t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e N e s t o r i a n s t o s t a y i n t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a n d i n t r o d u c e t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r s u b - c a s t e s i n t h e S t . T h o m a s t r a d i t i o n , w i t h t h e S y r i a n l i t u r g y a s a b a s i s f o r t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , w i t h o u t r e p l a c i n g t h e S a n s k r i t a n d V e d i c p r a y e r s . T h e T h a r i s a p a l l i p l a t e s p r e s e n t e d t o M a r u v a n S a p o r I s o b y A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l g r a n t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o v e r s e e i n g f o r e i g n t r a d e i n t h e c i t y a s w e l l a s c o n t r o l o v e r i t s w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s i n a m o v e d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e Q u i l o n ' s t r a d e a n d w e a l t h . T h e t w o C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o u n d i n g C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s w i t h S y r i a n l i t u r g y a l o n g t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t , d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e a n c i e n t V e d i c A d v a i t a m p r o p o u n d e d b y A d i S h a n k a r a i n t h e e a r l y n i n t h c e n t u r y a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r S u b C a s t e s , a s M a l a y a l a m w a s n o t a c c e p t e d a s a l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . T h u s b e g a n t h e M a l a y a l a m E r a , k n o w n a s K o l l a V a r s h a m a f t e r t h e c i t y , i n d i c a t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f K o l l a m i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . T h e P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t S o l e y m a n o f S i r a f v i s i t e d M a l a b a r i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d f o u n d Q u i l o n t o b e t h e o n l y p o r t i n I n d i a u s e d b y t h e h u g e C h i n e s e s h i p s a s t h e i r t r a n s s h i p m e n t h u b f o r g o o d s o n t h e i r w a y f r o m C h i n a t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . T h e r u l e r s o f K o l l a m ( f o r m e r l y c a l l e d ' D e s i n g a n a d u ' ) h a d t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a a n d e x c h a n g e d e m b a s s i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e T a n g d y n a s t y ( 6 1 8 – 9 1 3 ) , Q u i l o n w a s t h e i r c h i e f p o r t o f c a l l b e f o r e t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e C h i n e s e t r a d e d e c r e a s e d a b o u t 6 0 0 a n d w a s a g a i n r e v i v e d i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . " M i r a b i l i a D e s c r i p t a " b y B i s h o p C a t a l a n i g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e i n K o l l a m , w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e C a t h o l i c b i s h o p - d e s i g n a t e t o K o l l a m , t h e o l d e s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . H e a l s o g i v e s t r u e a n d i m a g i n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l i f e i n ' I n d i a t h e M a j o r ' i n t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e M a r c o P o l o v i s i t e d t h e c i t y . S u l a i m a n a l - T a j i r , a P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t w h o v i s i t e d K e r a l a d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S t h a n u R a v i V a r m a ( 9 t h c e n t u r y C E ) , r e c o r d s t h a t t h e r e w a s e x t e n s i v e t r a d e b e t w e e n K e r a l a a n d C h i n a a t t h a t t i m e , b a s e d a t t h e p o r t o f K o l l a m . I n 1 3 t h c e n t u r y C E , M a r a v a r m a n K u l a s e k a r a P a n d y a n I , a P a n d y a r u l e r f o u g h t a w a r i n V e n a d a n d c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a p p e a r s o n t h e C a t a l a n A t l a s o f 1 3 7 5 C E a s C o l u m b o a n d C o l o b o . T h e m a p m a r k s t h i s c i t y a s a C h r i s t i a n c i t y , r u l e d b y a C h r i s t i a n r u l e r . T h e t e x t a b o v e t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e k i n g s a y s : " A ç í s e n y [ o ] r e j a l o r e y C o l o b o , c h r i s t i à . P r u v í n c i a d e C o l u m b o " ( H e r e r e i g n s t h e L o r d K i n g C o l o b o , C h r i s t i a n , P r o v i n c e o f C o l u m b o ) . T h e c i t y w a s m u c h f r e q u e n t e d b y t h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s C E , f o l l o w e d b y t h e D o m i n i c a n a n d F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s f r o m E u r o p e . T h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s c a l l e d t h e c i t y C o l õ b o / C o l o m b o . I n 1 3 2 9 C E P o p e J o h n X X I I e s t a b l i s h e d K o l l a m / C o l u m b o a s t h e f i r s t a n d o n l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c b i s h o p r i c o n t h e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t , a n d a p p o i n t e d J o r d a n o f C a t a l o n i a , a D o m i n i c a n f r i a r , a s t h e d i o c e s e ' s f i r s t b i s h o p o f t h e L a t i n s e c t . T h e P o p e ' s L a t i n s c r i b e s a s s i g n e d t h e n a m e " C o l u m b u m " t o C o l u m b o . A c c o r d i n g t o a b o o k a u t h o r e d b y I l a r i u s A u g u s t u s , p u b l i s h e d A p r i l , 2 0 2 1 ( " ' C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s : B u r i e d d e e p i n L a t i n t h e I n d i a n o r i g i n o f t h e g r e a t e x p l o r e r f r o m G e n o a " ' ) , t h e w o r d s C o l u m b u m , C o l u m b u s a n d C o l u m b o a p p e a r f o r t h e v e r y f i r s t t i m e i n a n o t a r i a l d e e d ( l e a s e c o n t r a c t ) o f a c e r t a i n M o u s s o i n G e n o a i n 1 3 2 9 C E . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r i n t h e f o r m o f a t o p o n y m . T h e a u t h o r t h e n s h o w s , t h r o u g h t h e L a t i n t e x t o f s e v e r a l o t h e r n o t a r i a l d e e d s a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s o n c h u r c h h i s t o r y , h o w C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s - a l s o c a r r y i n g t h e s a m e t o p o n y m . - w a s p a r t o f M o u s s o ' s f a m i l y , a n d h e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n l i n e a g e ( a l t h o u g h b o r n i n G e n o a ) . T h e p o r t a t K o z h i k o d e h e l d s u p e r i o r e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n m e d i e v a l K e r a l a c o a s t , w h i l e K a n n u r , K o l l a m , a n d K o c h i , w e r e c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y p o r t s , w h e r e t h e t r a d e r s f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w o u l d g a t h e r . T h e P o r t u g u e s e a r r i v e d a t K a p p a d K o z h i k o d e i n 1 4 9 8 d u r i n g t h e A g e o f D i s c o v e r y , t h u s o p e n i n g a d i r e c t s e a r o u t e f r o m E u r o p e t o I n d i a . T h e y w e r e t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a t r a d i n g c e n t e r i n T a n g a s s e r i , K o l l a m i n 1 5 0 2 , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r t r a d e i n p e p p e r . I n t h e w a r s w i t h t h e M o o r s / A r a b s t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e a n c i e n t c h u r c h ( t e m p l e ) o f S t T h o m a s T r a d i t i o n a t T h e v a l a k a r a w a s d e s t r o y e d . I n 1 5 1 7 , t h e P o r t u g u e s e b u i l t t h e S t . T h o m a s F o r t i n T h a n g a s s e r i , w h i c h w a s d e s t r o y e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t w a r s w i t h t h e D u t c h . I n 1 6 6 1 , t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c i t y . T h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e o l d P o r t u g u e s e F o r t , l a t e r r e n o v a t e d b y t h e D u t c h , c a n b e f o u n d a t T h a n g a s s e r i . I n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , T r a v a n c o r e c o n q u e r e d K o l l a m , f o l l o w e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n 1 7 9 5 . T h a n g a s s e r i r e m a i n s t o d a y a s a n A n g l o - I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h o u g h f e w A n g l o - I n d i a n s r e m a i n . T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C h u r c h i n T h a n g a s s e r i , a n o l d P o r t u g u e s e - b u i l t c h u r c h , r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f t h e a r e a . T h e B a t t l e o f Q u i l o n w a s f o u g h t i n 1 8 0 9 b e t w e e n a t r o o p o f t h e I n d i a n k i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e l e d b y t h e t h e n D a l a w a ( p r i m e m i n i s t e r ) o f T r a v a n c o r e , V e l u T h a m p i D a l a w a a n d t h e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y l e d b y C o l o n e l C h a l m e r s a t C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n i n Q u i l o n . T h e b a t t l e l a s t e d f o r o n l y s i x h o u r s a n d w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s i n v a s i o n o f Q u i l o n a n d t h e i r g a r r i s o n s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n . T h e c o m p a n y f o r c e s w o n t h e b a t t l e w h i l e a l l t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e w a r w e r e c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h a n g e d a t t h e m a i d a n . I n t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y C E , t h e T r a v a n c o r e r o y a l f a m i l y a d o p t e d s o m e m e m b e r s f r o m t h e r o y a l f a m i l y o f K o l a t h u n a d u b a s e d a t K a n n u r , a n d P a r a p p a n a d b a s e d i n p r e s e n t - d a y M a l a p p u r a m d i s t r i c t . L a t e r , V e n a d K i n g d o m w a s c o m p l e t e l y m e r g e d w i t h t h e K i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e d u r i n g t h e r e i n o f M a r t h a n d a V a r m a a n d K o l l a m r e m a i n e d a s t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e K i n g d o m . L a t e r o n , t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e w a s r e l o c a t e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m . T r a v a n c o r e b e c a m e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t s t a t e i n K e r a l a b y d e f e a t i n g t h e p o w e r f u l Z a m o r i n o f K o z h i k o d e i n t h e b a t t l e o f P u r a k k a d i n 1 7 5 5 . T h e G o v e r n m e n t S e c r e t a r i a t w a s a l s o s i t u a t e d i n K o l l a m t i l l t h e 1 8 3 0 s . I t w a s m o v e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S w a t h i T h i r u n a l . E x c a v a t i o n s a r e g o i n g o n a t K o l l a m P o r t p r e m i s e s s i n c e F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 a s t h e t e a m h a s u n c o v e r e d a r r a y s o f a n t i q u e a r t i f a c t s , i n c l u d i n g C h i n e s e p o r c e l a i n a n d c o i n s . A C h i n e s e t e a m w i t h t h e P a l a c e M u s e u m , a t e a m f r o m I n d i a w i t h K e r a l a C o u n c i l f o r H i s t o r i c a l R e s e a r c h ( K C H R ) d i s c o v e r e d C h i n e s e c o i n s a n d a r t i f a c t s t h a t s h o w t r a d e l i n k s b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d a n c i e n t C h i n a . K o l l a m c i t y i s b o r d e r e d b y t h e p a n c h a y a t s o f N e e n d a k a r a a n d T h r i k k a r u v a t o t h e n o r t h , M a y y a n a d t o t h e s o u t h , a n d T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m a n d K o t t a m k a r a t o t h e e a s t , a n d b y t h e L a c c a d i v e S e a t o t h e w e s t . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y . T h e c i t y i s a b o u t a w a y f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m , a w a y f r o m K o c h i a n d a w a y f r o m K o z h i k o d e . T h e N a t i o n a l W a t e r w a y 3 a n d I t h i k k a r a r i v e r a r e t w o i m p o r t a n t w a t e r w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y . T h e l o n g K o l l a m C a n a l i s c o n n e c t i n g P a r a v u r L a k e a n s A s h t a m u d i L a k e . T h e K a l l a d a r i v e r , a n o t h e r r i v e r t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y , e m p t i e s i n t o A s h t a m u d i L a k e , w h i l e t h e I t h i k k a r a r i v e r r u n s t o P a r a v u r K a y a l . K a t t a k a y a l , a f r e s h w a t e r l a k e i n t h e c i t y , c o n n e c t s a n o t h e r w a t e r - b o d y n a m e d V a t t a k k a y a l w i t h L a k e A s h t a m u d i . I n M a r c h 2 0 1 6 , " I n d i a T i m e s " s e l e c t e d K o l l a m a s o n e o f t h e n i n e l e a s t p o l l u t e d c i t i e s o n e a r t h t o w h i c h a n y b o d y c a n r e l o c a t e . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e t o p 1 0 m o s t w e l c o m i n g p l a c e s i n I n d i a f o r t h e y e a r 2 0 2 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o B o o k i n g . c o m ' s t r a v e l l e r r e v i e w a w a r d s . K o l l a m i s a n a n c i e n t t r a d i n g t o w n – t r a d i n g w i t h R o m a n s , C h i n e s e , A r a b s , a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s – m e n t i o n e d i n h i s t o r i c a l c i t a t i o n s d a t i n g b a c k t o B i b l i c a l t i m e s a n d t h e r e i g n o f S o l o m o n , c o n n e c t i n g w i t h R e d S e a p o r t s o f t h e A r a b i a n S e a ( s u p p o r t e d b y a f i n d o f a n c i e n t R o m a n c o i n s ) . T h e r e w a s a l s o i n t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e A r y a n k a v u P a s s i n S c h e n k o t t a h G a p c o n n e c t i n g t h e a n c i e n t t o w n t o T a m i l N a d u . T h e o v e r l a n d t r a d e i n p e p p e r b y b u l l o c k c a r t a n d t h e t r a d e o v e r t h e w a t e r w a y s c o n n e c t i n g A l l e p e y a n d C o c h i n e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d e l i n k a g e s t h a t e n a b l e d i t t o g r o w i n t o o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t I n d i a n i n d u s t r i a l t o w n s h i p s . T h e r a i l l i n k s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d t o T a m i l N a d u s u p p o r t e d s t i l l s t r o n g e r t r a d e l i n k s . T h e f a c t o r i e s p r o c e s s i n g m a r i n e e x p o r t s a n d t h e p r o c e s s i n g a n d p a c k a g i n g o f c a s h e w n u t s e x t e n d e d i t s t r a d e a c r o s s t h e g l o b e . I t i s k n o w n f o r c a s h e w p r o c e s s i n g a n d c o i r m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u t h e r n g a t e w a y t o t h e b a c k w a t e r s o f K e r a l a a n d i s a p r o m i n e n t t o u r i s t d e s t i n a t i o n a t K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m u r b a n a r e a i n c l u d e s s u b u r b a n t o w n s s u c h a s P a r a v u r i n t h e s o u t h , K u n d a r a i n t h e e a s t a n d K a r u n a g a p a l l y i n t h e n o r t h o f t h e c i t y . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o w n s i n t h e c i t y s u b u r b s a r e E r a v i p u r a m , K o t t i y a m , K a n n a n a l l u r , a n d C h a v a r a . K o l l a m e x p e r i e n c e s a t r o p i c a l m o n s o o n c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n " A m " ) w i t h l i t t l e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h i s t h e d r y s e a s o n w i t h l e s s t h a n o f r a i n i n e a c h o f t h o s e m o n t h s . A p r i l t o N o v e m b e r i s t h e w e t s e a s o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e r a i n t h a n d u r i n g D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y i n J u n e a n d J u l y a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e S o u t h w e s t M o n s o o n . I n d i a c e n s u s , K o l l a m c i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 5 , 4 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e . T h e s e x r a t i o ( t h e n u m b e r o f f e m a l e s p e r 1 , 0 0 0 m a l e s ) w a s 1 , 1 1 2 , t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e d i s t r i c t o f K o l l a m r a n k e d s e v e n t h i n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e w h i l e t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m r a n k e d f o u r t h . K o l l a m h a d a n a v e r a g e l i t e r a c y r a t e o f 9 3 . 7 7 % , h i g h e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e o f 7 4 . 0 4 % . M a l e l i t e r a c y s t o o d a t 9 5 . 8 3 % , a n d f e m a l e a t 9 1 . 9 5 % . I n K o l l a m , 1 1 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r s i x y e a r s o f a g e . I n M a y 2 0 1 5 , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a v e d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d C i t y C o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m b y m e r g i n g T h r i k k a d a v o o r p a n c h a y a t h . S o t h e a r e a w i l l b e c o m e w i t h a t o t a l c i t y p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 8 4 , 8 9 2 . M a l a y a l a m i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e c i t y , w h i l e T a m i l i s u n d e r s t o o d b y s o m e s e c t i o n s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s o f A n g l o - I n d i a n s , K o n k a n i B r a h m i n s , T e l u g u C h e t t y a n d B e n g a l i m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s s e t t l e d i n t h e c i t y . F o r e a s e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , K o l l a m M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x z o n e s w i t h l o c a l z o n a l o f f i c e s f o r e a c h o n e . I n 2 0 1 4 , f o r m e r K o l l a m M a y o r M r s . P r a s a n n a E a r n e s t w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e B e s t L a d y M a y o r o f S o u t h I n d i a b y t h e R o t a r y C l u b o f T r i v a n d r u m R o y a l T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s a m i c r o c o s m o f K e r a l a s t a t e w i t h i t s r e s i d e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o v a r i e d r e l i g i o u s , e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y a n c i e n t t e m p l e s , c e n t u r i e s - o l d c h u r c h e s a n d m o s q u e s i n t h e c i t y a n d i t s s u b u r b s . K o l l a m i s a H i n d u m a j o r i t y c i t y i n K e r a l a . 5 6 . 3 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n b e l o n g s t o H i n d u c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e K o l l a m E r a ( a l s o k n o w n a s " M a l a y a l a m E r a " o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " o r " M a l a y a l a m C a l e n d a r " o r " M a l a b a r E r a " ) , s o l a r a n d s i d e r e a l H i n d u c a l e n d a r u s e d i n K e r a l a , h a s b e e n o r i g i n a t e d o n 8 2 5 C E ( P o t h u V a r s h a m ) a t ( K o l l a m ) c i t y . M u s l i m s a c c o u n t f o r 2 2 . 0 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . A s p e r t h e C e n s u s 2 0 1 1 d a t a , 8 0 , 9 3 5 i s t h e t o t a l M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n K o l l a m . T h e K a r b a l a M a i d a n a n d t h e a d j a c e n t M a k a n i m o s q u e s e r v e s a s t h e E i d g a h f o r t h e c i t y . T h e 3 0 0 - y e a r - o l d J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i a t K a r u v a h o u s e s t h e m o r t a l r e m a i n s o f a S u f i s a i n t , S y e d A b d u r R a h m a n J i f r i . C h r i s t i a n s a c c o u n t f o r 2 1 . 1 7 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f K o l l a m c i t y . T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n ( K o l l a m ) i s t h e f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . T h e d i o c e s e w a s f i r s t e r e c t e d b y P o p e J o h n X X I I o n 9 A u g u s t 1 3 2 9 . I t w a s r e - e r e c t e d o n 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 6 . T h e d i o c e s e c o v e r s a n a r e a o f a n d c o n t a i n s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 , 8 7 9 , 5 5 3 , C a t h o l i c s n u m b e r i n g 2 3 5 , 9 2 2 ( 4 . 8 % ) . T h e f a m o u s I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l , 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d , l o c a t e d i n T h a n g a s s e r y , i s t h e c o - c a t h e d r a l o f t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n . C S I K o l l a m - K o t t a r a k a r a D i o c e s e i s o n e o f t h e t w e n t y - f o u r d i o c e s e s o f t h e C h u r c h o f S o u t h I n d i a . T h e H e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e K e r a l a r e g i o n o f T h e P e n t e c o s t a l M i s s i o n f o r K o t t a r a k k a r a , i s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m C i t y i s a M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n w i t h e l e c t e d C o u n c i l l o r s f r o m i t s 5 5 d i v i s i o n s . T h e M a y o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e c o u n c i l l o r s , g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y h o l d i n g a m a j o r i t y . T h e C o r p o r a t i o n S e c r e t a r y h e a d s t h e o f f i c e o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e p r e s e n t M a y o r o f K o l l a m C o r p o r a t i o n i s A d v . V . R a j e n d r a b a b u o f C P I ( M ) . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i t y f a l l s u n d e r t h e K o l l a m C i t y P o l i c e C o m m i s s i o n e r a t e w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y a n I P S ( I n d i a n P o l i c e S e r v i c e ) c a d r e o f f i c e r a n d h e r e p o r t s t o t h e I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l o f P o l i c e ( I G P ) T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m R a n g e . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m e s u n d e r t h e S t a t e H o m e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a . K o l l a m C i t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b d i v i s i o n s , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , e a c h u n d e r a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r o f P o l i c e . W i t h a t o t a l u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 , 1 8 7 , 1 5 8 a n d 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 a s c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n , K o l l a m i s t h e f o u r t h m o s t p o p u l o u s c i t y i n t h e s t a t e a n d 4 9 t h o n t h e l i s t o f t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s u r b a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s i n I n d i a . t h e c i t y ' s u r b a n g r o w t h r a t e o f 1 5 4 . 5 9 % w a s t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a o f K o l l a m i n c l u d e s U l i y a k o v i l , A d i c h a n a l l o o r , A d i n a d , A y a n i v e l i k u l a n g a r a , C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r , E r a v i p u r a m ( P a r t ) , K a l l e l i b h a g o m , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m , K o t t a m k a r a , K u l a s e k h a r a p u r a m , M a y y a n a d , M e e n a d , N e d u m p a n a , N e e n d a k a r a , O a c h i r a , P a n a y a m , P a n m a n a , P a r a v u r , P e r i n a d , P o o t h a k k u l a m , T h a z h u t h a l a , T h o d i y o o r , T h r i k k a d a v o o r , T h r i k k a r u v a , T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m , a n d V a d a k k u m t h a l a . T h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p t h e C i t y o f K o l l a m a s a " P o r t C i t y o f K e r a l a " . R e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e M a r u t h a d i - E r a v i p u r a m a r e a i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r f i s h i n g , t o u r i s m a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o j e c t s w i l l b e i m p l e m e n t e d a s p a r t o f t h e p r o j e c t T h e c i t y l i f e o f K o l l a m h a s c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e . I n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a n d p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , K o l l a m c i t y i s i n f i f t h p o s i t i o n f r o m I n d i a a n d t h i r d i n K e r a l a . K o l l a m i s f a m o u s a s a c i t y w i t h e x c e l l e n t e x p o r t b a c k g r o u n d . 5 s t a r , 4 s t a r a n d 3 s t a r h o t e l s , m u l t i - s t o r i e d s h o p p i n g m a l l s , b r a n d e d j e w e l l e r y , t e x t i l e s h o w r o o m s a n d c a r s h o w r o o m s h a v e s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s . K o l l a m w a s t h e t h i r d c i t y i n K e r a l a ( a f t e r K o z h i k o d e a n d K o c h i ) t o a d o p t t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l c u l t u r e . K o l l a m d i s t r i c t r a n k s f i r s t i n l i v e s t o c k w e a l t h i n t h e s t a t e . D o w n t o w n K o l l a m i s t h e m a i n C B D o f K o l l a m c i t y . D a i r y f a r m i n g i s f a i r l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A l s o t h e r e i s a c h i l l i n g p l a n t i n t h e c i t y . K o l l a m i s a n i m p o r t a n t m a r i t i m e a n d p o r t c i t y . F i s h i n g h a s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e d i s t r i c t . N e e n d a k a r a a n d S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a v i l l a g e s i n t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y h a v e f i s h e r i e s . A n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 4 , 9 7 3 p e r s o n s a r e e n g a g e d i n f i s h i n g a n d a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s . C h e r i a z h e e k k a l , A l a p p a d , P a n d a r a t h u r u t h u , P u t h e n t h u r a , N e e n d a k a r a , T h a n g a s s e r i , E r a v i p u r a m a n d P a r a v u r a r e e i g h t o f t h e 2 6 i m p o r t a n t f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a r e 2 4 i n l a n d f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s i n i t i a t e d s t e p s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i s h i n g h a r b o u r a t N e e n d a k a r a . A v e r a g e f i s h l a n d i n g i s e s t i m a t e d a t 8 5 , 2 7 5 t o n n e s p e r y e a r . O n e - t h i r d o f t h e s t a t e ' s f i s h c a t c h i s f r o m K o l l a m . N e a r l y 3 0 0 0 m e c h a n i s e d b o a t s a r e o p e r a t i n g f r o m t h e f i s h i n g h a r b o u r . F F D A a n d V F F D A p r o m o t e f r e s h w a t e r f i s h c u l t u r e a n d p r a w n f a r m i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f i s h i n g v i l l a g e w i t h 1 0 0 h o u s e s i s b e i n g b u i l t a t E r a v i p u r a m . A p r a w n f a r m i s b e i n g b u i l t a t A y i r a m t h e n g u , a n d s e v e r a l n e w h a t c h e r i e s a r e p l a n n e d t o c a t e r t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e a q u a c u l t u r i s t s . K e r a l a ' s o n l y t u r k e y f a r m a n d a r e g i o n a l p o u l t r y f a r m a r e a t K u r e e p u z h a . T h e r e a r e t w o C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n d u s t r i a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y , t h e I n d i a n R a r e E a r t h s , C h a v a r a a n d P a r v a t h i M i l l s L t d . , K o l l a m . K e r a l a C e r a m i c s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a E l e c t r i c a l a n d A l l i e d E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p a n y i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a P r e m o P i p e f a c t o r y i n C h a v a r a , K e r a l a M i n e r a l s a n d M e t a l s L i m i t e d i n C h a v a r a a n d U n i t e d E l e c t r i c a l I n d u s t r i e s i n K o l l a m a r e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . O t h e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e p r i v a t e / c o o p e r a t i v e s e c t o r a r e A l u m i n i u m I n d u s t r i e s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , T h o m a s S t e p h e n & C o . i n K o l l a m , F l o o r c o i n P a r a v u r a n d C o o p e r a t i v e S p i n n i n g M i l l i n C h a t h a n n o o r . T h e b e a c h s a n d s o f t h e d i s t r i c t h a v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u c h h e a v y m i n e r a l s a s I l m e n i t e , R u t i l e , M o n o s i t e a n d Z i r c o n , w h i c h o f f e r s c o p e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s . B e s i d e s l a r g e d e p o s i t s o f C h i n a c l a y i n K u n d a r a , M u l a v a n a a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , t h e r e a r e a l s o l i m e - s h e l l d e p o s i t s i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e a n d B a u x i t e d e p o s i t s i n A d i c h a n a l l u r . K n o w n a s t h e " C a s h e w C a p i t a l o f t h e W o r l d " , K o l l a m i s n o t e d f o r i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c a s h e w b u s i n e s s a n d i s h o m e t o m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 c a s h e w - p r o c e s s i n g u n i t s . E v e r y y e a r , a b o u t 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f r a w c a s h e w s a r e i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e c i t y f o r p r o c e s s i n g a n d a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f p r o c e s s e d c a s h e w s a r e e x p o r t e d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s w o r l d w i d e . T h e C a s h e w E x p o r t P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( C E P C I ) e x p e c t s a r i s e i n e x p o r t s t o 2 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s b y 2 0 2 0 , a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 2 0 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e c u r r e n t f i g u r e . T h e K e r a l a S t a t e C a s h e w D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n L i m i t e d ( K S C D C ) i s s i t u a t e d a t M u n d a k k a l i n K o l l a m c i t y . T h e c o m p a n y o w n s 3 0 c a s h e w f a c t o r i e s a l l a c r o s s K e r a l a . O f t h e s e , 2 4 a r e l o c a t e d i n K o l l a m d i s t r i c t . K o l l a m i s o n e o f m a n y s e a f o o d e x p o r t h u b s i n I n d i a w i t h n u m e r o u s c o m p a n i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e c t o r . M o s t o f t h e s e a r e b a s e d i n t h e M a r u t h a d i , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a , K a v a n a d , N e e n d a k a r a , A s r a m a m , K i l i k o l l u r , T h i r u m u l l a v a r a m a n d U l i y a k o v i l a r e a s o f t h e c i t y . C a p i t h a n s , K i n g s M a r i n e E x p o r t e r s , I n d i a F o o d E x p o r t s a n d O c e a n i c F i s h e r i e s a r e e x a m p l e s o f s e a f o o d e x p o r t e r s . K o l l a m ' s A s h t a m u d i L a k e c l a m f i s h e r y w a s t h e f i r s t M a r i n e S t e w a r d s h i p C o u n c i l ( M S C ) c e r t i f i e d f i s h e r y i n I n d i a . T h e c l a m f i s h e r y s u p p o r t s a r o u n d 3 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , c l e a n i n g , p r o c e s s i n g a n d t r a d i n g o f c l a m s . A r o u n d 9 0 s p e c i e s o f f i s h a n d t e n s p e c i e s o f c l a m s a r e f o u n d i n t h e l a k e . K o l l a m F e s t i s K o l l a m ' s o w n a n n u a l f e s t i v a l , a t t r a c t i n g m o s t l y K e r a l i t e s b u t a l s o h u n d r e d s o f d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n t o u r i s t s t o K o l l a m . T h e m a i n v e n u e o f K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a n d g i g a n t i c A s h r a m a m M a i d a n . K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e s i g n a t u r e e v e n t o f K o l l a m . K o l l a m F e s t s e e k s t o s h o w c a s e K o l l a m ' s r i c h c u l t u r e a n d h e r i t a g e , t o u r i s m p o t e n t i a l a n d i n v e s t m e n t s i n n e w v e n t u r e s . K o l l a m P o o r a m , p a r t o f t h e A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e F e s t i v a l , i s u s u a l l y h e l d o n 1 5 A p r i l , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y o n 1 6 A p r i l . T h e p o o r a m i s h e l d a t t h e A s h r a m a m m a i d a n . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s T r o p h y B o a t R a c e ( P T B R ) i s a n a n n u a l r e g a t t a h e l d i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e i n K o l l a m . T h e e v e n t w a s i n a u g u r a t e d b y P r e s i d e n t P r a t h i b h a P a t i l i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . T h e e v e n t h a s b e e n r e s c h e d u l e d f r o m 2 0 1 2 . T h e c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m i s s e r v e d b y t h e T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t , w h i c h i s a b o u t 5 6 k i l o m e t e r s f r o m t h e c i t y v i a N H 6 6 . T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t i n a n o n - m e t r o c i t y i n I n d i a . i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n K e r a l a i n a r e a , a f t e r S h o r a n u r J u n c t i o n , w i t h a t o t a l o f 6 p l a t f o r m s . T h e s t a t i o n h a s 1 7 r a i l t r a c k s . K o l l a m j u n c t i o n h a s w o r l d ' s s e c o n d l o n g e s t r a i l w a y p l a t f o r m , m e a s u r i n g 1 1 8 0 . 5 m ( 3 8 7 3   f t ) . M a i n l i n e E l e c t r i c a l M u l t i p l e U n i t ( M E M U ) h a v e a m a i n t e n a n c e s h e d a t K o l l a m J u n c t i o n . T h e M E M U s e r v i c e s s t a r t e d f r o m K o l l a m t o E r n a k u l a m v i a A l a p p u z h a a n d K o t t a y a m i n t h e s e c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2 . B y 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , M E M U s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d N a g e r c o i l b e c a m e a r e a l i t y a n d l a t e r e x t e n d e d u p t o K a n y a k u m a r i . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i n a u g u r a t e d o n 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 3 f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k s o f M E M U r a k e s . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i s t h e l a r g e s t M E M U S h e d i n K e r a l a , w h i c h i s e q u i p p e d w i t h m o s t m o d e r n f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e i s a l o n g - s t a n d i n g d e m a n d f o r t h e K o l l a m T o w n R a i l w a y S t a t i o n i n t h e K o l l a m - P e r i n a d s t r e t c h a n d " S . N C o l l e g e R a i l w a y S t a t i o n " i n t h e K o l l a m - E r a v i p u r a m s t r e t c h . T h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s i n K o l l a m c i t y a r e K o l l a m J u n c t i o n r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , E r a v i p u r a m r a i l w a y s t a t i o n a n d K i l i k o l l u r r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . A n e w s u b u r b a n r a i l s y s t e m h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y t h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t a n d I n d i a n R a i l w a y s o n t h e r o u t e T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m - K o l l a m - H a r i p a d / C h e n g a n n u r f o r w h i c h M R V C i s t a s k e d t o c o n d u c t a s t u d y a n d s u b m i t a r e p o r t . T e n t r a i n s , e a c h w i t h s e v e n c o a c h e s , w i l l t r a n s p o r t p a s s e n g e r s b a c k a n d f o r t h a l o n g t h e T r i v a n d r u m - K o l l a m - C h e n g a n n u r - K o t t a r a k a r a - A d o o r s e c t i o n . T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s c o n n e c t e d t o a l m o s t a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d m a j o r t o w n s i n t h e s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g T r i v a n d r u m , A l a p p u z h a , K o c h i , P a l a k k a d , K o t t a y a m , K o t t a r a k k a r a , a n d P u n a l u r , a n d w i t h o t h e r I n d i a n c i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e N H 6 6 , N H 1 8 3 , N H 7 4 4 - a n d o t h e r s t a t e P W D R o a d s . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s p r o v i d e d b y s t a t e - o w n e d K e r a l a S t a t e R o a d T r a n s p o r t C o r p o r a t i o n ( K S R T C ) a n d p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t b u s o p e r a t o r s . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e f i v e K S R T C z o n e s i n K e r a l a . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s a l s o p r o v i d e d b y p r i v a t e t a x i s a n d a u t o r i c k s h a w s , a l s o c a l l e d a u t o s . T h e r e i s a c i t y p r i v a t e b u s s t a n d a t A n d a m u k k a m . T h e r e i s a K S R T C b u s s t a t i o n b e s i d e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . B u s e s t o v a r i o u s t o w n s i n K e r a l a a n d i n t e r s t a t e s e r v i c e s r u n f r o m t h i s s t a t i o n . T h e S t a t e W a t e r T r a n s p o r t D e p a r t m e n t o p e r a t e s b o a t s e r v i c e s t o W e s t K a l l a d a , M u n r o e I s l a n d , G u h a n a n d a p u r a m , D a l a v a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a f r o m K o l l a m K S W T D F e r r y T e r m i n a l s i t u a t e d o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . A s r a m a m L i n k R o a d i n t h e c i t y p a s s e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f e r r y t e r m i n a l . D o u b l e d e c k e r l u x u r y b o a t s r u n b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d A l l e p e y d a i l y . L u x u r y b o a t s , o p e r a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r i v a t e o w n e r s , o p e r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o a t j e t t y d u r i n g t h e t o u r i s t s e a s o n . T h e W e s t c o a s t c a n a l s y s t e m , w h i c h s t a r t s f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m i n t h e s o u t h a n d e n d s a t H o s d u r g i n t h e n o r t h , p a s s e s t h r o u g h P a r a v u r , t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m a n d K a r u n a g a p p a l l y t a l u k . K o l l a m P o r t i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p o r t i n K e r a l a , a f t e r C o c h i n P o r t T r u s t . I t i s o n e o f t w o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o r t s i n K e r a l a . C a r g o h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s b e g a n o p e r a t i o n i n 2 0 1 3 . F o r e i g n s h i p s a r r i v e i n t h e p o r t r e g u l a r l y w i t h t h e M V A l i n a , a v e s s e l r e g i s t e r e d i n A n t i g u a a n c h o r e d a t t h e p o r t o n 4 A p r i l 2 0 1 4 . O n c e t h e P o r t s t a r t s f u n c t i o n i n g i n f u l l - f l e d g e d , i t w i l l m a k e t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f K o l l a m - b a s e d c a s h e w c o m p a n i e s m o r e e a s y . S h r e y a s S h i p p i n g C o m p a n y i s n o w r u n n i n g a r e g u l a r c o n t a i n e r s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m P o r t a n d K o c h i P o r t . T h e r e a r e m a n y r e s p e c t e d c o l l e g e s , s c h o o l s a n d l e a r n i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o e d u c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t a n d l a t e s t k n o w l e d g e t o t h e s c h o l a r s . T h e T h a n g a l K u n j u M u s a l i a r C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e s c h o o l o f i t s k i n d i n t h e s t a t e , i s a t K i l i k o l l u r , a b o u t e a s t o f K o l l a m c i t y , a n d i s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e f o r a l l K o l l a m i t e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a s g r a n t e d a c a d e m i c a u t o n o m y t o F a t i m a M a t a N a t i o n a l C o l l e g e , a n o t h e r p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e c i t y . S r e e N a r a y a n a C o l l e g e , B i s h o p J e r o m e I n s t i t u t e ( a n i n t e g r a t e d c a m p u s p r o v i d i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e , E n g i n e e r i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s ) , a n d T r a v a n c o r e B u s i n e s s A c a d e m y a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e t w o l a w c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y , S r e e N a r a y a n a G u r u C o l l e g e o f L e g a l S t u d i e s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f S r e e N a r a y a n a T r u s t a n d N S S L a w C o l l e g e m a n a g e d b y t h e N . S . S . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e b e s t s c h o o l s i n K o l l a m i n c l u d i n g T r i n i t y L y c e u m S c h o o l , I n f a n t J e s u s S c h o o l , S t A l o y s i u s H . S . S , T h e o x f o r d s c h o o l , S r i S r i A c a d e m y e t c . K e r a l a S t a t e I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n ( K S I D ) , a d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e u n d e r D e p a r t m e n t o f l a b o u r a n d S k i l l s , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a , i s l o c a t e d a t C h a n d a n a t h o p e i n K o l l a m . I t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 2 0 0 8 a n d w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t s t a t e - o w n e d d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e s i n I n d i a . K S I D c u r r e n t l y c o n d u c t s P o s t G r a d u a t e D i p l o m a P r o g r a m s i n D e s i g n d e v e l o p e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n , A h m e d a b a d . I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f I n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n ( I I I C - K o l l a m ) i s a n i n s t i t u t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s s i t u a t e d a t C h a v a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o s u p p o r t t h e s k i l l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y , K o l l a m , K e r a l a i s a f a s h i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n s t i t u t e s i t u a t e d a t V e l l i m o n , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e c h n i c a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f T e x t i l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e t w o I M K ( I n s t i t u t e o f M a n a g e m e n t , K e r a l a ) E x t e n s i o n C e n t r e s a c t i v e i n t h e c i t y . K e r a l a M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e i s s i t u a t e d a t N e e n d a k a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o g i v e m a r i t i m e t r a i n i n g f o r t h e s t u d e n t s i n K e r a l a . M o r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d a t N e e n d a k a r a m a r i t i m e i n s t i t u t e u n d e r t h e B o a t C r e w t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e . A p a r t f r o m c o l l e g e s , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b a n k c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m i s k n o w n a s I n d i a ' s h u b f o r b a n k t e s t c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s w i t h a r o u n d 4 0 s u c h i n s t i t u t e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t . S t u d e n t s f r o m v a r i o u s I n d i a n s t a t e s s u c h a s T a m i l N a d u , K a r n a t a k a , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , B i h a r a n d M a d h y a P r a d e s h a l s o c o m e h e r e f o r c o a c h i n g . C r i c k e t i s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s p o r t , f o l l o w e d b y h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l . K o l l a m i s h o m e t o a n u m b e r o f l o c a l c r i c k e t , h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l t e a m s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n d i s t r i c t , s t a t e - l e v e l a n d z o n e m a t c h e s . A n I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o c k e y S t a d i u m w i t h a s t r o - t u r f f a c i l i t y i s t h e r e a t A s r a m a m i n t h e c i t y , b u i l t a t a c o s t o f R s . 1 3 c r o r e . T h e l a n d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t a d i u m w a s t a k e n o v e r f r o m t h e P o s t a l D e p a r t m e n t a t A s r a m a m , K o l l a m . T h e c i t y h a s a n o t h e r s t a d i u m n a m e d t h e L a l B a h a d u r S h a s t r i S t a d i u m , K o l l a m . I t i s a m u l t i p u r p o s e s t a d i u m a n d h a s r e p e a t e d l y h o s t e d s u c h s p o r t s e v e n t s a s t h e R a n j i T r o p h y , S a n t h o s h T r o p h y a n d N a t i o n a l G a m e s . T w o o p e n g r o u n d s i n t h e c i t y , t h e A s r a m a m M a i d a n a n d P e e r a n k i M a i d a n , a r e a l s o u s e d f o r s p o r t s e v e n t s , p r a c t i c e a n d w a r m - u p m a t c h e s . H i n d u s a n d t e m p l e s A n a n d a v a l l e e s h w a r a m S r i M a h a d e v a r T e m p l e i s a 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d a n c i e n t H i n d u t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y . T h e 4 0 0 - y e a r - o l d S a n c t u m s a n c t o r u m o f t h i s t e m p l e i s f i n i s h e d i n t e a k . A m m a c h i v e e d u M u h u r t h i t e m p l e i s a n o t h e r m a j o r t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d a r o u n d 6 0 0 y e a r s a g o b y t h e A m m a c h i V e e d u f a m i l y , a r i s t o c r a t s f r o m K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m p o o r a m , a m a j o r f e s t i v a l o f K o l l a m , i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a t e n - d a y f e s t i v a l , n o r m a l l y i n m i d A p r i l , o f A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e . K o t t a n k u l a n g a r a D e v i T e m p l e i s o n e o f t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s H i n d u t e m p l e s i n K e r a l a w e r e c r o s s - d r e s s i n g o f m e n f o r " C h a m a y a v i l a k k u " r i t u a l i s a p a r t o f t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v i t i e s . T h e m e n a l s o c a r r y l a r g e l a m p s . T h e f i r s t o f t h e t w o - d a y d r e s s i n g e v e n t d r e w t o a c l o s e e a r l y o n M o n d a y . M o r e o v e r , K o t t a r a k k a r a S r e e M a h a g a n a p a t h i K s h e t h r a m i n K o t t a r a k k a r a , P u t t i n g a l D e v i T e m p l e i n P a r a v u r , s o o r a n a d n o r t h a n a y a d i P a z h a y i d a m S r e e N a r a s i m h a S w a m i T e m p l e P o r u v a z h y P e r u v i r u t h y M a l a n a d a T e m p l e i n P o r u v a z h y , S a s t h a m c o t t a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a T e m p l e i n S a s t h a m k o t t a , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a t e m p l e , T h r i k k a d a v o o r S r e e M a h a d e v a T e m p l e i n K a d a v o o r a n d K a t t i l M e k k a t h i l D e v i T e m p l e i n P o n m a n a P a d a n a y a r k u l a n g a r a m a h a d e v a t e m p l e K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , A s h t a m u d i S r e e V e e r a b h a d r a S w a m y T e m p l e a r e t h e o t h e r f a m o u s H i n d u w o r s h i p c e n t r e s i n t h e K o l l a m M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c h u r c h e s T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l i n T a n g a s s e r i i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o r t u g u e s e d u r i n g 1 6 1 4 . I t i s n o w t h e p r o - c a t h e d r a l o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n – t h e a n c i e n t a n d f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e o f I n d i a . T h e c h u r c h r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f o l d Q u i l o n c i t y . S t . S e b a s t i a n ' s C h u r c h a t N e e n d a k a r a i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h i n t h e c i t y . T h e D u t c h C h u r c h i n M u n r o e I s l a n d i s b u i l t b y t h e D u t c h i n 1 8 7 8 . O u r L a d y o f V e l a n k a n n i S h r i n e i n C u t c h e r y i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p p l a c e i n K o l l a m c i t y . S a i n t C a s i m i r C h u r c h i n K a d a v o o r , H o l y F a m i l y C h u r c h i n K a v a n a d , S t . S t e p h e n ' s C h u r c h i n T h o p p u a n d S t . T h o m a s C h u r c h i n K a d a p p a k a d a a r e s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n K o l l a m . M u s l i m s a n d m o s q u e s K o t t u k a d u J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r J u m a - A - M a s j i d , V a l i y a p a l l i i n J o n a k a p p u r a m , C h i n n a k a d a J u m a M a s j i d , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n K o l l u r v i l a , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n T h a t t a m a l a a n d K o i v i l a J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a a r e t h e o t h e r m a j o r M o s q u e s i n K o l l a m . N o t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s b o r n i n K o l l a m i n c l u d e :

Civic administration

The civic administration of Kollam is led by the Mayor, who is elected from among the councillors. The Corporation Secretary heads the office of the corporation. The police administration falls under the Kollam City Police Commissionerate, headed by an IPS cadre officer. The city is divided into six zones with local zonal offices for each zone. The city has a population of 384,892 and is the fourth most populous city in Kerala.

literacy stood at 95.83%, and female at 91.95%. In Kollam, 11% of the population was under six years of age. In May 2015, Government of Kerala have decided to expand City Corporation of Kollam by merging Thrikkadavoor panchayath. So the area will become with a total city population of 384,892. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and official language of the city, while Tamil is understood by some sections in the city. There are also small communities of Anglo-Indians, Konkani Brahmins, Telugu Chetty and Bengali migrant labourers settled in the city. For ease of administration, Kollam Municipal Corporation is divided into six zones with local zonal offices for each one. In 2014, former Kollam Mayor Mrs. Prasanna Earnest was selected as the Best Lady Mayor of South region of The Pentecostal Mission for Kottarakkara, is in Kollam. Kollam City is a Municipal Corporation with elected Councillors from its 55 divisions. The Mayor, elected from among the councillors, generally represents the political party holding a majority. The Corporation Secretary heads the office of the corporation. The present Mayor of Kollam Corporation is Adv. V. Rajendrababu of CPI(M). The police administration of the city falls under the Kollam City Police Commissionerate which is headed by an IPS (Indian Police Service) cadre officer and he reports to the Inspector General of Police (IGP) Thiruvananthapuram Range. The police administration comes under the State Home Department of the Government of Kerala. Kollam City is divided into three subdivisions, Karunagappally, Kollam and Chathannoor, each under an Assistant Commissioner of Police. With a total urban population of 1,187,158 and 349,033 as city corporation's population, Kollam is the fourth most populous city in the state and 49th on the list of the most populous urban agglomerations in India. the city's urban growth rate of 154.59% was the second highest in the state. The Metropolitan area of Kollam includes Uliyakovil, Adichanalloor, Adinad, Ayanivelikulangara, Chavara, Elampalloor, Eravipuram (Part), Kallelibhagom, Karunagappally, Kollam, Kottamkara, Kulasekharapuram, Mayyanad, Meenad, Nedumpana, Neendakara, Oachira, Panayam, Panmana, Paravur, Perinad, Poothakkulam, Thazhuthala, Thodiyoor, Thrikkadavoor, Thrikkaruva, Thrikkovilvattom, and Vadakkumthala. The Kerala Government has decided to develop the City of Kollam as a "Port City of Kerala". Regeneration of the Maruthadi-Eravipuram area including construction of facilities for fishing, tourism and entertainment projects will be implemented as part of the project The city life in the economy of the district. Neendakara and Sakthikulangara villages in the suburbs of the city have fisheries. An estimated 134,973 persons are engaged in fishing and allied activities. Cheriazheekkal, Alappad, Pandarathuruthu, Puthenthura, Neendakara, Thangasseri, Eravipuram and Paravur are eight of the 26 important fishing villages. There are 24 inland fishing villages. The Government has initiated steps for establishing a fishing harbour at Neendakara. Average fish landing is estimated at 85,275 tonnes per year. One-third of the state's fish catch is from Kollam. Nearly 3000 mechanised boats are operating from the fishing harbour. FFDA and VFFDA promote fresh water fish culture and prawn farming respectively. A fishing village with 100 houses is being built at Eravipuram. A prawn farm is being built at Ayiramthengu, and several new hatcheries are planned to cater to the needs of the aquaculturists. Kerala's only turkey farm and a regional poultry farm are at Kureepuzha. There are two Central Government industrial operations in the city, the Indian Rare Earths, Chavara and Parvathi Mills Ltd., Kollam. Kerala Ceramics Ltd. in Kundara, Kerala Electrical and Allied Engineering Company in Kundara, Kerala Premo Pipe factory in Chavara, Kerala Minerals and Metals Limited in Chavara and United Electrical Industries in Kollam are Kerala Government-owned companies. Other major industries in the private/cooperative sector are Aluminium Industries Ltd. in Kundara, Thomas Stephen & Co. in Kollam, Floorco in Paravur and Cooperative Spinning Mill in Chathannoor. The beach sands of the district have concentrations of such heavy minerals as Ilmenite, Rutile, Monosite and Zircon, which offer scope for Punalur, and with other Indian cities through the NH 66, NH 183, NH 744 - and other state PWD Roads. Road transport is provided by state-owned Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) and private transport bus operators. Kollam is one among the five KSRTC zones in Kerala. Road transport is also provided by private taxis and autorickshaws, also called autos. There is a city private bus stand at Andamukkam. There is a KSRTC bus station beside Ashtamudi Lake. Buses to various towns in Kerala and interstate services run from this station. The State Water Transport Department operates boat services to West Kallada, Munroe Island, Guhanandapuram, Dalavapuram and Alappuzha from Kollam KSWTD Ferry Terminal situated on the banks of the Ashtamudi Lake. Asramam Link Road in the city passes of Kollam-based cashew companies more easy. Shreyas Shipping Company is now running a regular container service between Kollam Port and Kochi Port. There are many respected colleges, schools and learning centres in Kollam. The city and suburbs contribute greatly to education by providing the best and latest knowledge to the scholars. The Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineering, the first private school of its kind in the state, is at Kilikollur, about east of Kollam city, and is a source of pride for all Kollamites. The Government of Kerala has granted academic autonomy to Fatima Mata National College, another prestigious institution in the city. Sree Narayana College, Bishop Jerome Institute (an integrated campus providing Architecture, Engineering and Management courses), and Travancore Business Academy are other important colleges in the city. There are two law colleges in the city, Sree Narayana Guru College of Legal Studies under the control of Sree Narayana Trust and N S S Law College managed by the N.S.S. There are also some best schools in Kollam including Trinity Lyceum School, Infant Jesus School, St Aloysius H.S.S, The oxford school, Sri Sri Academy etc. Kerala State Institute of Design (KSID), a design institute under Department of labour and Skills, Government of Kerala, is located at Chandanathope in Kollam. It was established in 2008 and was one of the first state-owned design institutes in India. KSID currently conducts Post Graduate Diploma Programs in Design developed in association with National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad. Indian Institute of Infrastructure and Construction (IIIC-Kollam) is an institute of

Kollam

I n 8 2 5 C E , t h e M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r , o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " , w a s c r e a t e d i n K o l l a m a t m e e t i n g s h e l d i n t h e c i t y . T h e p r e s e n t M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r i s s a i d t o h a v e b e g u n w i t h t h e r e - f o u n d i n g o f t h e t o w n , w h i c h w a s r e b u i l t a f t e r i t s d e s t r u c t i o n b y f i r e . T h e n a m e K o l l a m i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d " K o l l a m " , m e a n i n g p e p p e r . A s t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Q u i l o n , K o l l a m w a s a f l o u r i s h i n g p o r t d u r i n g t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y ( c . 3 r d c e n t u r y B C – 1 2 t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d l a t e r b e c a m e t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e K i n g d o m o f Q u i l o n o n i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n c . 8 2 5 . K o l l a m w a s c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f o u r e a r l y e n t r e p o t s i n g l o b a l s e a t r a d e d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , a l o n g w i t h A l e x a n d r i a a n d C a i r o i n E g y p t , t h e C h i n e s e c i t y o f Q u a n z h o u , a n d M a l a c c a i n t h e M a l a y s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o . I t s e e m s t h a t t r a d e a t K o l l a m s e e m s t o h a v e f l o u r i s h e d r i g h t i n t o t h e M e d i e v a l p e r i o d a s i n 1 2 8 0 , t h e r e i s i n s t a n c e o f e n v o y s o f Y u a n C h i n a c o m i n g t o K o l l a m f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e l o c a l r u l e r a n d C h i n a T h e a n c i e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f K o l l a m w a s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f K e r a l a . T h e C h e r a d y n a s t y g o v e r n e d t h e a r e a o f M a l a b a r C o a s t b e t w e e n A l a p p u z h a i n t h e s o u t h t o K a s a r a g o d i n t h e n o r t h . T h i s i n c l u d e d P a l a k k a d G a p , C o i m b a t o r e , S a l e m , a n d K o l l i H i l l s . T h e r e g i o n a r o u n d C o i m b a t o r e w a s r u l e d b y t h e C h e r a s d u r i n g S a n g a m p e r i o d b e t w e e n c . f i r s t a n d t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s C E a n d i t s e r v e d a s t h e e a s t e r n e n t r a n c e t o t h e P a l a k k a d G a p , t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a d e r o u t e b e t w e e n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t a n d T a m i l N a d u . H o w e v e r t h e s o u t h e r n r e g i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y K e r a l a s t a t e ( T h e c o a s t a l b e l t b e t w e e n T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a ) w a s u n d e r A y d y n a s t y , w h o w a s m o r e r e l a t e d t o t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y o f M a d u r a i t h a n C h e r a s . A l o n g w i t h ( M u z i r i s a n d T y n d i s ) , Q u i l o n w a s a n a n c i e n t s e a p o r t o n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t o f I n d i a f r o m t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . K o l l a m s e r v e d a s a m a j o r p o r t c i t y f o r P a n d y a d y n a s t y o n t h e w e s t e r n c o a s t w h i l e K u l a s e k h a r a p a t n a m s e r v e d P a n d y a s o n t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t . T h e c i t y h a d a h i g h c o m m e r c i a l r e p u t a t i o n f r o m t h e d a y s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d A n c i e n t R o m a n s . P l i n y t h e E l d e r ( 2 3 – 7 9 A D ) m e n t i o n s G r e e k s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t M u z i r i s a n d N e l c y n d a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a l a n d r o u t e o v e r t h e W e s t e r n G h a t s . S p i c e s , p e a r l s , d i a m o n d s , a n d s i l k w e r e e x p o r t e d t o E g y p t a n d R o m e f r o m t h e s e p o r t s . P e a r l s a n d d i a m o n d s c a m e t o t h e C h e r a K i n g d o m f r o m C e y l o n a n d t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o a s t o f I n d i a , t h e n k n o w n a s t h e P a n d y a n K i n g d o m . C o s m a s I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , a G r e e k N e s t o r i a n s a i l o r , i n h i s b o o k t h e C h r i s t i a n T o p o g r a p h y w h o v i s i t e d t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t i n 5 5 0 , m e n t i o n s a n e n c l a v e o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s i n " M a l e " ( M a l a b a r C o a s t ) . H e w r i t e s , " I n t h e i s l a n d o f T a b r o p a n e ( C e y l o n ) , t h e r e i s a c h u r c h o f C h r i s t i a n s , a n d c l e r i c s a n d f a i t h f u l . L i k e w i s e a t M a l e , w h e r e t h e p e p p e r g r o w s , a n d i n t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y o f K a l l i a n a ( K a l l i a n k a l a t N i l l a c k a l ) t h e r e i s a l s o a b i s h o p c o n s e c r a t e d i n P e r s i a i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e N i c e a S u n n a h a d o s e o f 3 2 5 A D . " T h e N e s t o r i a n P a t r i a r c h J e s u j a b u s , w h o d i e d i n 6 6 0 A D , m e n t i o n s K o l l a m i n h i s l e t t e r t o S i m o n , M e t r o p o l i t a n o f P e r s i a . K o l l a m i s a l s o h o m e t o o n e o f t h e o l d e s t m o s q u e s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e g e n d o f C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l s , t h e f i r s t I n d i a n m o s q u e w a s b u i l t i n 6 2 4 A D a t K o d u n g a l l u r w i t h t h e m a n d a t e o f t h e l a s t t h e r u l e r ( t h e C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l ) o f C h e r a d y n a s t y , w h o l e f t f r o m D h a r m a d o m t o M e c c a a n d c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( c . 5 7 0 – 6 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o " Q i s s a t S h a k a r w a t i F a r m a d " , t h e " M a s j i d s " a t K o d u n g a l l u r , K o l l a m , M a d a y i , B a r k u r , M a n g a l o r e , K a s a r a g o d , K a n n u r , D h a r m a d a m , P a n t h a l a y i n i , a n d C h a l i y a m , w e r e b u i l t d u r i n g t h e e r a o f M a l i k D i n a r , a n d t h e y a r e a m o n g t h e o l d e s t " M a s j i d " s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a l i k D i n a r d i e d a t T h a l a n g a r a i n K a s a r a g o d t o w n . T h e p o r t a t K o l l a m , t h e n k n o w n a s Q u i l o n , w a s f o u n d e d i n 8 2 5 b y t h e N e s t o r i a n C h r i s t i a n s M a r S a b o r a n d M a r P r o t h w i t h s a n c t i o n f r o m A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l , t h e k i n g o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e S t a t e o f Q u i l o n , a f e u d a t o r y u n d e r t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a r S a p o r I s o a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e C h e r a k i n g c r e a t e a n e w s e a p o r t n e a r K o l l a m i n l i e u o f h i s r e q u e s t t h a t h e r e b u i l d t h e a l m o s t v a n i s h e d i n l a n d s e a p o r t a t K o l l a m ( k o r e - k e - n i ) n e a r B a c k a r e ( T h e v a l a k a r a ) , a l s o k n o w n a s N e l c y n d a a n d T y n d i s t o t h e R o m a n s a n d G r e e k s a n d a s T h o n d i t o t h e T a m i l s , w h i c h h a d b e e n w i t h o u t t r a d e f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e c a u s e t h e C h e r a s w e r e o v e r r u n b y t h e P a l l a v a s i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , e n d i n g t h e s p i c e t r a d e f r o m t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e N e s t o r i a n s t o s t a y i n t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a n d i n t r o d u c e t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r s u b - c a s t e s i n t h e S t . T h o m a s t r a d i t i o n , w i t h t h e S y r i a n l i t u r g y a s a b a s i s f o r t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , w i t h o u t r e p l a c i n g t h e S a n s k r i t a n d V e d i c p r a y e r s . T h e T h a r i s a p a l l i p l a t e s p r e s e n t e d t o M a r u v a n S a p o r I s o b y A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l g r a n t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o v e r s e e i n g f o r e i g n t r a d e i n t h e c i t y a s w e l l a s c o n t r o l o v e r i t s w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s i n a m o v e d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e Q u i l o n ' s t r a d e a n d w e a l t h . T h e t w o C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o u n d i n g C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s w i t h S y r i a n l i t u r g y a l o n g t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t , d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e a n c i e n t V e d i c A d v a i t a m p r o p o u n d e d b y A d i S h a n k a r a i n t h e e a r l y n i n t h c e n t u r y a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r S u b C a s t e s , a s M a l a y a l a m w a s n o t a c c e p t e d a s a l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . T h u s b e g a n t h e M a l a y a l a m E r a , k n o w n a s K o l l a V a r s h a m a f t e r t h e c i t y , i n d i c a t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f K o l l a m i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . T h e P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t S o l e y m a n o f S i r a f v i s i t e d M a l a b a r i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d f o u n d Q u i l o n t o b e t h e o n l y p o r t i n I n d i a u s e d b y t h e h u g e C h i n e s e s h i p s a s t h e i r t r a n s s h i p m e n t h u b f o r g o o d s o n t h e i r w a y f r o m C h i n a t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . T h e r u l e r s o f K o l l a m ( f o r m e r l y c a l l e d ' D e s i n g a n a d u ' ) h a d t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a a n d e x c h a n g e d e m b a s s i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e T a n g d y n a s t y ( 6 1 8 – 9 1 3 ) , Q u i l o n w a s t h e i r c h i e f p o r t o f c a l l b e f o r e t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e C h i n e s e t r a d e d e c r e a s e d a b o u t 6 0 0 a n d w a s a g a i n r e v i v e d i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . " M i r a b i l i a D e s c r i p t a " b y B i s h o p C a t a l a n i g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e i n K o l l a m , w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e C a t h o l i c b i s h o p - d e s i g n a t e t o K o l l a m , t h e o l d e s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . H e a l s o g i v e s t r u e a n d i m a g i n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l i f e i n ' I n d i a t h e M a j o r ' i n t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e M a r c o P o l o v i s i t e d t h e c i t y . S u l a i m a n a l - T a j i r , a P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t w h o v i s i t e d K e r a l a d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S t h a n u R a v i V a r m a ( 9 t h c e n t u r y C E ) , r e c o r d s t h a t t h e r e w a s e x t e n s i v e t r a d e b e t w e e n K e r a l a a n d C h i n a a t t h a t t i m e , b a s e d a t t h e p o r t o f K o l l a m . I n 1 3 t h c e n t u r y C E , M a r a v a r m a n K u l a s e k a r a P a n d y a n I , a P a n d y a r u l e r f o u g h t a w a r i n V e n a d a n d c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a p p e a r s o n t h e C a t a l a n A t l a s o f 1 3 7 5 C E a s C o l u m b o a n d C o l o b o . T h e m a p m a r k s t h i s c i t y a s a C h r i s t i a n c i t y , r u l e d b y a C h r i s t i a n r u l e r . T h e t e x t a b o v e t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e k i n g s a y s : " A ç í s e n y [ o ] r e j a l o r e y C o l o b o , c h r i s t i à . P r u v í n c i a d e C o l u m b o " ( H e r e r e i g n s t h e L o r d K i n g C o l o b o , C h r i s t i a n , P r o v i n c e o f C o l u m b o ) . T h e c i t y w a s m u c h f r e q u e n t e d b y t h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s C E , f o l l o w e d b y t h e D o m i n i c a n a n d F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s f r o m E u r o p e . T h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s c a l l e d t h e c i t y C o l õ b o / C o l o m b o . I n 1 3 2 9 C E P o p e J o h n X X I I e s t a b l i s h e d K o l l a m / C o l u m b o a s t h e f i r s t a n d o n l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c b i s h o p r i c o n t h e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t , a n d a p p o i n t e d J o r d a n o f C a t a l o n i a , a D o m i n i c a n f r i a r , a s t h e d i o c e s e ' s f i r s t b i s h o p o f t h e L a t i n s e c t . T h e P o p e ' s L a t i n s c r i b e s a s s i g n e d t h e n a m e " C o l u m b u m " t o C o l u m b o . A c c o r d i n g t o a b o o k a u t h o r e d b y I l a r i u s A u g u s t u s , p u b l i s h e d A p r i l , 2 0 2 1 ( " ' C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s : B u r i e d d e e p i n L a t i n t h e I n d i a n o r i g i n o f t h e g r e a t e x p l o r e r f r o m G e n o a " ' ) , t h e w o r d s C o l u m b u m , C o l u m b u s a n d C o l u m b o a p p e a r f o r t h e v e r y f i r s t t i m e i n a n o t a r i a l d e e d ( l e a s e c o n t r a c t ) o f a c e r t a i n M o u s s o i n G e n o a i n 1 3 2 9 C E . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r i n t h e f o r m o f a t o p o n y m . T h e a u t h o r t h e n s h o w s , t h r o u g h t h e L a t i n t e x t o f s e v e r a l o t h e r n o t a r i a l d e e d s a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s o n c h u r c h h i s t o r y , h o w C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s - a l s o c a r r y i n g t h e s a m e t o p o n y m . - w a s p a r t o f M o u s s o ' s f a m i l y , a n d h e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n l i n e a g e ( a l t h o u g h b o r n i n G e n o a ) . T h e p o r t a t K o z h i k o d e h e l d s u p e r i o r e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n m e d i e v a l K e r a l a c o a s t , w h i l e K a n n u r , K o l l a m , a n d K o c h i , w e r e c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y p o r t s , w h e r e t h e t r a d e r s f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w o u l d g a t h e r . T h e P o r t u g u e s e a r r i v e d a t K a p p a d K o z h i k o d e i n 1 4 9 8 d u r i n g t h e A g e o f D i s c o v e r y , t h u s o p e n i n g a d i r e c t s e a r o u t e f r o m E u r o p e t o I n d i a . T h e y w e r e t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a t r a d i n g c e n t e r i n T a n g a s s e r i , K o l l a m i n 1 5 0 2 , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r t r a d e i n p e p p e r . I n t h e w a r s w i t h t h e M o o r s / A r a b s t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e a n c i e n t c h u r c h ( t e m p l e ) o f S t T h o m a s T r a d i t i o n a t T h e v a l a k a r a w a s d e s t r o y e d . I n 1 5 1 7 , t h e P o r t u g u e s e b u i l t t h e S t . T h o m a s F o r t i n T h a n g a s s e r i , w h i c h w a s d e s t r o y e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t w a r s w i t h t h e D u t c h . I n 1 6 6 1 , t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c i t y . T h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e o l d P o r t u g u e s e F o r t , l a t e r r e n o v a t e d b y t h e D u t c h , c a n b e f o u n d a t T h a n g a s s e r i . I n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , T r a v a n c o r e c o n q u e r e d K o l l a m , f o l l o w e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n 1 7 9 5 . T h a n g a s s e r i r e m a i n s t o d a y a s a n A n g l o - I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h o u g h f e w A n g l o - I n d i a n s r e m a i n . T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C h u r c h i n T h a n g a s s e r i , a n o l d P o r t u g u e s e - b u i l t c h u r c h , r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f t h e a r e a . T h e B a t t l e o f Q u i l o n w a s f o u g h t i n 1 8 0 9 b e t w e e n a t r o o p o f t h e I n d i a n k i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e l e d b y t h e t h e n D a l a w a ( p r i m e m i n i s t e r ) o f T r a v a n c o r e , V e l u T h a m p i D a l a w a a n d t h e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y l e d b y C o l o n e l C h a l m e r s a t C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n i n Q u i l o n . T h e b a t t l e l a s t e d f o r o n l y s i x h o u r s a n d w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s i n v a s i o n o f Q u i l o n a n d t h e i r g a r r i s o n s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n . T h e c o m p a n y f o r c e s w o n t h e b a t t l e w h i l e a l l t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e w a r w e r e c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h a n g e d a t t h e m a i d a n . I n t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y C E , t h e T r a v a n c o r e r o y a l f a m i l y a d o p t e d s o m e m e m b e r s f r o m t h e r o y a l f a m i l y o f K o l a t h u n a d u b a s e d a t K a n n u r , a n d P a r a p p a n a d b a s e d i n p r e s e n t - d a y M a l a p p u r a m d i s t r i c t . L a t e r , V e n a d K i n g d o m w a s c o m p l e t e l y m e r g e d w i t h t h e K i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e d u r i n g t h e r e i n o f M a r t h a n d a V a r m a a n d K o l l a m r e m a i n e d a s t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e K i n g d o m . L a t e r o n , t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e w a s r e l o c a t e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m . T r a v a n c o r e b e c a m e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t s t a t e i n K e r a l a b y d e f e a t i n g t h e p o w e r f u l Z a m o r i n o f K o z h i k o d e i n t h e b a t t l e o f P u r a k k a d i n 1 7 5 5 . T h e G o v e r n m e n t S e c r e t a r i a t w a s a l s o s i t u a t e d i n K o l l a m t i l l t h e 1 8 3 0 s . I t w a s m o v e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S w a t h i T h i r u n a l . E x c a v a t i o n s a r e g o i n g o n a t K o l l a m P o r t p r e m i s e s s i n c e F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 a s t h e t e a m h a s u n c o v e r e d a r r a y s o f a n t i q u e a r t i f a c t s , i n c l u d i n g C h i n e s e p o r c e l a i n a n d c o i n s . A C h i n e s e t e a m w i t h t h e P a l a c e M u s e u m , a t e a m f r o m I n d i a w i t h K e r a l a C o u n c i l f o r H i s t o r i c a l R e s e a r c h ( K C H R ) d i s c o v e r e d C h i n e s e c o i n s a n d a r t i f a c t s t h a t s h o w t r a d e l i n k s b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d a n c i e n t C h i n a . K o l l a m c i t y i s b o r d e r e d b y t h e p a n c h a y a t s o f N e e n d a k a r a a n d T h r i k k a r u v a t o t h e n o r t h , M a y y a n a d t o t h e s o u t h , a n d T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m a n d K o t t a m k a r a t o t h e e a s t , a n d b y t h e L a c c a d i v e S e a t o t h e w e s t . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y . T h e c i t y i s a b o u t a w a y f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m , a w a y f r o m K o c h i a n d a w a y f r o m K o z h i k o d e . T h e N a t i o n a l W a t e r w a y 3 a n d I t h i k k a r a r i v e r a r e t w o i m p o r t a n t w a t e r w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y . T h e l o n g K o l l a m C a n a l i s c o n n e c t i n g P a r a v u r L a k e a n s A s h t a m u d i L a k e . T h e K a l l a d a r i v e r , a n o t h e r r i v e r t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y , e m p t i e s i n t o A s h t a m u d i L a k e , w h i l e t h e I t h i k k a r a r i v e r r u n s t o P a r a v u r K a y a l . K a t t a k a y a l , a f r e s h w a t e r l a k e i n t h e c i t y , c o n n e c t s a n o t h e r w a t e r - b o d y n a m e d V a t t a k k a y a l w i t h L a k e A s h t a m u d i . I n M a r c h 2 0 1 6 , " I n d i a T i m e s " s e l e c t e d K o l l a m a s o n e o f t h e n i n e l e a s t p o l l u t e d c i t i e s o n e a r t h t o w h i c h a n y b o d y c a n r e l o c a t e . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e t o p 1 0 m o s t w e l c o m i n g p l a c e s i n I n d i a f o r t h e y e a r 2 0 2 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o B o o k i n g . c o m ' s t r a v e l l e r r e v i e w a w a r d s . K o l l a m i s a n a n c i e n t t r a d i n g t o w n – t r a d i n g w i t h R o m a n s , C h i n e s e , A r a b s , a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s – m e n t i o n e d i n h i s t o r i c a l c i t a t i o n s d a t i n g b a c k t o B i b l i c a l t i m e s a n d t h e r e i g n o f S o l o m o n , c o n n e c t i n g w i t h R e d S e a p o r t s o f t h e A r a b i a n S e a ( s u p p o r t e d b y a f i n d o f a n c i e n t R o m a n c o i n s ) . T h e r e w a s a l s o i n t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e A r y a n k a v u P a s s i n S c h e n k o t t a h G a p c o n n e c t i n g t h e a n c i e n t t o w n t o T a m i l N a d u . T h e o v e r l a n d t r a d e i n p e p p e r b y b u l l o c k c a r t a n d t h e t r a d e o v e r t h e w a t e r w a y s c o n n e c t i n g A l l e p e y a n d C o c h i n e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d e l i n k a g e s t h a t e n a b l e d i t t o g r o w i n t o o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t I n d i a n i n d u s t r i a l t o w n s h i p s . T h e r a i l l i n k s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d t o T a m i l N a d u s u p p o r t e d s t i l l s t r o n g e r t r a d e l i n k s . T h e f a c t o r i e s p r o c e s s i n g m a r i n e e x p o r t s a n d t h e p r o c e s s i n g a n d p a c k a g i n g o f c a s h e w n u t s e x t e n d e d i t s t r a d e a c r o s s t h e g l o b e . I t i s k n o w n f o r c a s h e w p r o c e s s i n g a n d c o i r m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u t h e r n g a t e w a y t o t h e b a c k w a t e r s o f K e r a l a a n d i s a p r o m i n e n t t o u r i s t d e s t i n a t i o n a t K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m u r b a n a r e a i n c l u d e s s u b u r b a n t o w n s s u c h a s P a r a v u r i n t h e s o u t h , K u n d a r a i n t h e e a s t a n d K a r u n a g a p a l l y i n t h e n o r t h o f t h e c i t y . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o w n s i n t h e c i t y s u b u r b s a r e E r a v i p u r a m , K o t t i y a m , K a n n a n a l l u r , a n d C h a v a r a . K o l l a m e x p e r i e n c e s a t r o p i c a l m o n s o o n c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n " A m " ) w i t h l i t t l e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h i s t h e d r y s e a s o n w i t h l e s s t h a n o f r a i n i n e a c h o f t h o s e m o n t h s . A p r i l t o N o v e m b e r i s t h e w e t s e a s o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e r a i n t h a n d u r i n g D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y i n J u n e a n d J u l y a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e S o u t h w e s t M o n s o o n . I n d i a c e n s u s , K o l l a m c i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 5 , 4 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e . T h e s e x r a t i o ( t h e n u m b e r o f f e m a l e s p e r 1 , 0 0 0 m a l e s ) w a s 1 , 1 1 2 , t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e d i s t r i c t o f K o l l a m r a n k e d s e v e n t h i n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e w h i l e t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m r a n k e d f o u r t h . K o l l a m h a d a n a v e r a g e l i t e r a c y r a t e o f 9 3 . 7 7 % , h i g h e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e o f 7 4 . 0 4 % . M a l e l i t e r a c y s t o o d a t 9 5 . 8 3 % , a n d f e m a l e a t 9 1 . 9 5 % . I n K o l l a m , 1 1 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r s i x y e a r s o f a g e . I n M a y 2 0 1 5 , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a v e d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d C i t y C o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m b y m e r g i n g T h r i k k a d a v o o r p a n c h a y a t h . S o t h e a r e a w i l l b e c o m e w i t h a t o t a l c i t y p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 8 4 , 8 9 2 . M a l a y a l a m i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e c i t y , w h i l e T a m i l i s u n d e r s t o o d b y s o m e s e c t i o n s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s o f A n g l o - I n d i a n s , K o n k a n i B r a h m i n s , T e l u g u C h e t t y a n d B e n g a l i m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s s e t t l e d i n t h e c i t y . F o r e a s e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , K o l l a m M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x z o n e s w i t h l o c a l z o n a l o f f i c e s f o r e a c h o n e . I n 2 0 1 4 , f o r m e r K o l l a m M a y o r M r s . P r a s a n n a E a r n e s t w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e B e s t L a d y M a y o r o f S o u t h I n d i a b y t h e R o t a r y C l u b o f T r i v a n d r u m R o y a l T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s a m i c r o c o s m o f K e r a l a s t a t e w i t h i t s r e s i d e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o v a r i e d r e l i g i o u s , e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y a n c i e n t t e m p l e s , c e n t u r i e s - o l d c h u r c h e s a n d m o s q u e s i n t h e c i t y a n d i t s s u b u r b s . K o l l a m i s a H i n d u m a j o r i t y c i t y i n K e r a l a . 5 6 . 3 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n b e l o n g s t o H i n d u c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e K o l l a m E r a ( a l s o k n o w n a s " M a l a y a l a m E r a " o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " o r " M a l a y a l a m C a l e n d a r " o r " M a l a b a r E r a " ) , s o l a r a n d s i d e r e a l H i n d u c a l e n d a r u s e d i n K e r a l a , h a s b e e n o r i g i n a t e d o n 8 2 5 C E ( P o t h u V a r s h a m ) a t ( K o l l a m ) c i t y . M u s l i m s a c c o u n t f o r 2 2 . 0 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . A s p e r t h e C e n s u s 2 0 1 1 d a t a , 8 0 , 9 3 5 i s t h e t o t a l M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n K o l l a m . T h e K a r b a l a M a i d a n a n d t h e a d j a c e n t M a k a n i m o s q u e s e r v e s a s t h e E i d g a h f o r t h e c i t y . T h e 3 0 0 - y e a r - o l d J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i a t K a r u v a h o u s e s t h e m o r t a l r e m a i n s o f a S u f i s a i n t , S y e d A b d u r R a h m a n J i f r i . C h r i s t i a n s a c c o u n t f o r 2 1 . 1 7 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f K o l l a m c i t y . T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n ( K o l l a m ) i s t h e f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . T h e d i o c e s e w a s f i r s t e r e c t e d b y P o p e J o h n X X I I o n 9 A u g u s t 1 3 2 9 . I t w a s r e - e r e c t e d o n 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 6 . T h e d i o c e s e c o v e r s a n a r e a o f a n d c o n t a i n s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 , 8 7 9 , 5 5 3 , C a t h o l i c s n u m b e r i n g 2 3 5 , 9 2 2 ( 4 . 8 % ) . T h e f a m o u s I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l , 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d , l o c a t e d i n T h a n g a s s e r y , i s t h e c o - c a t h e d r a l o f t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n . C S I K o l l a m - K o t t a r a k a r a D i o c e s e i s o n e o f t h e t w e n t y - f o u r d i o c e s e s o f t h e C h u r c h o f S o u t h I n d i a . T h e H e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e K e r a l a r e g i o n o f T h e P e n t e c o s t a l M i s s i o n f o r K o t t a r a k k a r a , i s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m C i t y i s a M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n w i t h e l e c t e d C o u n c i l l o r s f r o m i t s 5 5 d i v i s i o n s . T h e M a y o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e c o u n c i l l o r s , g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y h o l d i n g a m a j o r i t y . T h e C o r p o r a t i o n S e c r e t a r y h e a d s t h e o f f i c e o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e p r e s e n t M a y o r o f K o l l a m C o r p o r a t i o n i s A d v . V . R a j e n d r a b a b u o f C P I ( M ) . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i t y f a l l s u n d e r t h e K o l l a m C i t y P o l i c e C o m m i s s i o n e r a t e w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y a n I P S ( I n d i a n P o l i c e S e r v i c e ) c a d r e o f f i c e r a n d h e r e p o r t s t o t h e I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l o f P o l i c e ( I G P ) T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m R a n g e . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m e s u n d e r t h e S t a t e H o m e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a . K o l l a m C i t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b d i v i s i o n s , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , e a c h u n d e r a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r o f P o l i c e . W i t h a t o t a l u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 , 1 8 7 , 1 5 8 a n d 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 a s c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n , K o l l a m i s t h e f o u r t h m o s t p o p u l o u s c i t y i n t h e s t a t e a n d 4 9 t h o n t h e l i s t o f t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s u r b a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s i n I n d i a . t h e c i t y ' s u r b a n g r o w t h r a t e o f 1 5 4 . 5 9 % w a s t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a o f K o l l a m i n c l u d e s U l i y a k o v i l , A d i c h a n a l l o o r , A d i n a d , A y a n i v e l i k u l a n g a r a , C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r , E r a v i p u r a m ( P a r t ) , K a l l e l i b h a g o m , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m , K o t t a m k a r a , K u l a s e k h a r a p u r a m , M a y y a n a d , M e e n a d , N e d u m p a n a , N e e n d a k a r a , O a c h i r a , P a n a y a m , P a n m a n a , P a r a v u r , P e r i n a d , P o o t h a k k u l a m , T h a z h u t h a l a , T h o d i y o o r , T h r i k k a d a v o o r , T h r i k k a r u v a , T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m , a n d V a d a k k u m t h a l a . T h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p t h e C i t y o f K o l l a m a s a " P o r t C i t y o f K e r a l a " . R e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e M a r u t h a d i - E r a v i p u r a m a r e a i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r f i s h i n g , t o u r i s m a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o j e c t s w i l l b e i m p l e m e n t e d a s p a r t o f t h e p r o j e c t T h e c i t y l i f e o f K o l l a m h a s c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e . I n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a n d p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , K o l l a m c i t y i s i n f i f t h p o s i t i o n f r o m I n d i a a n d t h i r d i n K e r a l a . K o l l a m i s f a m o u s a s a c i t y w i t h e x c e l l e n t e x p o r t b a c k g r o u n d . 5 s t a r , 4 s t a r a n d 3 s t a r h o t e l s , m u l t i - s t o r i e d s h o p p i n g m a l l s , b r a n d e d j e w e l l e r y , t e x t i l e s h o w r o o m s a n d c a r s h o w r o o m s h a v e s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s . K o l l a m w a s t h e t h i r d c i t y i n K e r a l a ( a f t e r K o z h i k o d e a n d K o c h i ) t o a d o p t t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l c u l t u r e . K o l l a m d i s t r i c t r a n k s f i r s t i n l i v e s t o c k w e a l t h i n t h e s t a t e . D o w n t o w n K o l l a m i s t h e m a i n C B D o f K o l l a m c i t y . D a i r y f a r m i n g i s f a i r l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A l s o t h e r e i s a c h i l l i n g p l a n t i n t h e c i t y . K o l l a m i s a n i m p o r t a n t m a r i t i m e a n d p o r t c i t y . F i s h i n g h a s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e d i s t r i c t . N e e n d a k a r a a n d S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a v i l l a g e s i n t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y h a v e f i s h e r i e s . A n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 4 , 9 7 3 p e r s o n s a r e e n g a g e d i n f i s h i n g a n d a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s . C h e r i a z h e e k k a l , A l a p p a d , P a n d a r a t h u r u t h u , P u t h e n t h u r a , N e e n d a k a r a , T h a n g a s s e r i , E r a v i p u r a m a n d P a r a v u r a r e e i g h t o f t h e 2 6 i m p o r t a n t f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a r e 2 4 i n l a n d f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s i n i t i a t e d s t e p s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i s h i n g h a r b o u r a t N e e n d a k a r a . A v e r a g e f i s h l a n d i n g i s e s t i m a t e d a t 8 5 , 2 7 5 t o n n e s p e r y e a r . O n e - t h i r d o f t h e s t a t e ' s f i s h c a t c h i s f r o m K o l l a m . N e a r l y 3 0 0 0 m e c h a n i s e d b o a t s a r e o p e r a t i n g f r o m t h e f i s h i n g h a r b o u r . F F D A a n d V F F D A p r o m o t e f r e s h w a t e r f i s h c u l t u r e a n d p r a w n f a r m i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f i s h i n g v i l l a g e w i t h 1 0 0 h o u s e s i s b e i n g b u i l t a t E r a v i p u r a m . A p r a w n f a r m i s b e i n g b u i l t a t A y i r a m t h e n g u , a n d s e v e r a l n e w h a t c h e r i e s a r e p l a n n e d t o c a t e r t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e a q u a c u l t u r i s t s . K e r a l a ' s o n l y t u r k e y f a r m a n d a r e g i o n a l p o u l t r y f a r m a r e a t K u r e e p u z h a . T h e r e a r e t w o C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n d u s t r i a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y , t h e I n d i a n R a r e E a r t h s , C h a v a r a a n d P a r v a t h i M i l l s L t d . , K o l l a m . K e r a l a C e r a m i c s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a E l e c t r i c a l a n d A l l i e d E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p a n y i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a P r e m o P i p e f a c t o r y i n C h a v a r a , K e r a l a M i n e r a l s a n d M e t a l s L i m i t e d i n C h a v a r a a n d U n i t e d E l e c t r i c a l I n d u s t r i e s i n K o l l a m a r e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . O t h e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e p r i v a t e / c o o p e r a t i v e s e c t o r a r e A l u m i n i u m I n d u s t r i e s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , T h o m a s S t e p h e n & C o . i n K o l l a m , F l o o r c o i n P a r a v u r a n d C o o p e r a t i v e S p i n n i n g M i l l i n C h a t h a n n o o r . T h e b e a c h s a n d s o f t h e d i s t r i c t h a v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u c h h e a v y m i n e r a l s a s I l m e n i t e , R u t i l e , M o n o s i t e a n d Z i r c o n , w h i c h o f f e r s c o p e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s . B e s i d e s l a r g e d e p o s i t s o f C h i n a c l a y i n K u n d a r a , M u l a v a n a a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , t h e r e a r e a l s o l i m e - s h e l l d e p o s i t s i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e a n d B a u x i t e d e p o s i t s i n A d i c h a n a l l u r . K n o w n a s t h e " C a s h e w C a p i t a l o f t h e W o r l d " , K o l l a m i s n o t e d f o r i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c a s h e w b u s i n e s s a n d i s h o m e t o m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 c a s h e w - p r o c e s s i n g u n i t s . E v e r y y e a r , a b o u t 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f r a w c a s h e w s a r e i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e c i t y f o r p r o c e s s i n g a n d a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f p r o c e s s e d c a s h e w s a r e e x p o r t e d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s w o r l d w i d e . T h e C a s h e w E x p o r t P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( C E P C I ) e x p e c t s a r i s e i n e x p o r t s t o 2 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s b y 2 0 2 0 , a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 2 0 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e c u r r e n t f i g u r e . T h e K e r a l a S t a t e C a s h e w D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n L i m i t e d ( K S C D C ) i s s i t u a t e d a t M u n d a k k a l i n K o l l a m c i t y . T h e c o m p a n y o w n s 3 0 c a s h e w f a c t o r i e s a l l a c r o s s K e r a l a . O f t h e s e , 2 4 a r e l o c a t e d i n K o l l a m d i s t r i c t . K o l l a m i s o n e o f m a n y s e a f o o d e x p o r t h u b s i n I n d i a w i t h n u m e r o u s c o m p a n i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e c t o r . M o s t o f t h e s e a r e b a s e d i n t h e M a r u t h a d i , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a , K a v a n a d , N e e n d a k a r a , A s r a m a m , K i l i k o l l u r , T h i r u m u l l a v a r a m a n d U l i y a k o v i l a r e a s o f t h e c i t y . C a p i t h a n s , K i n g s M a r i n e E x p o r t e r s , I n d i a F o o d E x p o r t s a n d O c e a n i c F i s h e r i e s a r e e x a m p l e s o f s e a f o o d e x p o r t e r s . K o l l a m ' s A s h t a m u d i L a k e c l a m f i s h e r y w a s t h e f i r s t M a r i n e S t e w a r d s h i p C o u n c i l ( M S C ) c e r t i f i e d f i s h e r y i n I n d i a . T h e c l a m f i s h e r y s u p p o r t s a r o u n d 3 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , c l e a n i n g , p r o c e s s i n g a n d t r a d i n g o f c l a m s . A r o u n d 9 0 s p e c i e s o f f i s h a n d t e n s p e c i e s o f c l a m s a r e f o u n d i n t h e l a k e . K o l l a m F e s t i s K o l l a m ' s o w n a n n u a l f e s t i v a l , a t t r a c t i n g m o s t l y K e r a l i t e s b u t a l s o h u n d r e d s o f d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n t o u r i s t s t o K o l l a m . T h e m a i n v e n u e o f K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a n d g i g a n t i c A s h r a m a m M a i d a n . K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e s i g n a t u r e e v e n t o f K o l l a m . K o l l a m F e s t s e e k s t o s h o w c a s e K o l l a m ' s r i c h c u l t u r e a n d h e r i t a g e , t o u r i s m p o t e n t i a l a n d i n v e s t m e n t s i n n e w v e n t u r e s . K o l l a m P o o r a m , p a r t o f t h e A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e F e s t i v a l , i s u s u a l l y h e l d o n 1 5 A p r i l , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y o n 1 6 A p r i l . T h e p o o r a m i s h e l d a t t h e A s h r a m a m m a i d a n . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s T r o p h y B o a t R a c e ( P T B R ) i s a n a n n u a l r e g a t t a h e l d i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e i n K o l l a m . T h e e v e n t w a s i n a u g u r a t e d b y P r e s i d e n t P r a t h i b h a P a t i l i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . T h e e v e n t h a s b e e n r e s c h e d u l e d f r o m 2 0 1 2 . T h e c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m i s s e r v e d b y t h e T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t , w h i c h i s a b o u t 5 6 k i l o m e t e r s f r o m t h e c i t y v i a N H 6 6 . T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t i n a n o n - m e t r o c i t y i n I n d i a . i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n K e r a l a i n a r e a , a f t e r S h o r a n u r J u n c t i o n , w i t h a t o t a l o f 6 p l a t f o r m s . T h e s t a t i o n h a s 1 7 r a i l t r a c k s . K o l l a m j u n c t i o n h a s w o r l d ' s s e c o n d l o n g e s t r a i l w a y p l a t f o r m , m e a s u r i n g 1 1 8 0 . 5 m ( 3 8 7 3   f t ) . M a i n l i n e E l e c t r i c a l M u l t i p l e U n i t ( M E M U ) h a v e a m a i n t e n a n c e s h e d a t K o l l a m J u n c t i o n . T h e M E M U s e r v i c e s s t a r t e d f r o m K o l l a m t o E r n a k u l a m v i a A l a p p u z h a a n d K o t t a y a m i n t h e s e c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2 . B y 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , M E M U s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d N a g e r c o i l b e c a m e a r e a l i t y a n d l a t e r e x t e n d e d u p t o K a n y a k u m a r i . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i n a u g u r a t e d o n 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 3 f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k s o f M E M U r a k e s . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i s t h e l a r g e s t M E M U S h e d i n K e r a l a , w h i c h i s e q u i p p e d w i t h m o s t m o d e r n f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e i s a l o n g - s t a n d i n g d e m a n d f o r t h e K o l l a m T o w n R a i l w a y S t a t i o n i n t h e K o l l a m - P e r i n a d s t r e t c h a n d " S . N C o l l e g e R a i l w a y S t a t i o n " i n t h e K o l l a m - E r a v i p u r a m s t r e t c h . T h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s i n K o l l a m c i t y a r e K o l l a m J u n c t i o n r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , E r a v i p u r a m r a i l w a y s t a t i o n a n d K i l i k o l l u r r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . A n e w s u b u r b a n r a i l s y s t e m h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y t h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t a n d I n d i a n R a i l w a y s o n t h e r o u t e T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m - K o l l a m - H a r i p a d / C h e n g a n n u r f o r w h i c h M R V C i s t a s k e d t o c o n d u c t a s t u d y a n d s u b m i t a r e p o r t . T e n t r a i n s , e a c h w i t h s e v e n c o a c h e s , w i l l t r a n s p o r t p a s s e n g e r s b a c k a n d f o r t h a l o n g t h e T r i v a n d r u m - K o l l a m - C h e n g a n n u r - K o t t a r a k a r a - A d o o r s e c t i o n . T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s c o n n e c t e d t o a l m o s t a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d m a j o r t o w n s i n t h e s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g T r i v a n d r u m , A l a p p u z h a , K o c h i , P a l a k k a d , K o t t a y a m , K o t t a r a k k a r a , a n d P u n a l u r , a n d w i t h o t h e r I n d i a n c i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e N H 6 6 , N H 1 8 3 , N H 7 4 4 - a n d o t h e r s t a t e P W D R o a d s . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s p r o v i d e d b y s t a t e - o w n e d K e r a l a S t a t e R o a d T r a n s p o r t C o r p o r a t i o n ( K S R T C ) a n d p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t b u s o p e r a t o r s . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e f i v e K S R T C z o n e s i n K e r a l a . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s a l s o p r o v i d e d b y p r i v a t e t a x i s a n d a u t o r i c k s h a w s , a l s o c a l l e d a u t o s . T h e r e i s a c i t y p r i v a t e b u s s t a n d a t A n d a m u k k a m . T h e r e i s a K S R T C b u s s t a t i o n b e s i d e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . B u s e s t o v a r i o u s t o w n s i n K e r a l a a n d i n t e r s t a t e s e r v i c e s r u n f r o m t h i s s t a t i o n . T h e S t a t e W a t e r T r a n s p o r t D e p a r t m e n t o p e r a t e s b o a t s e r v i c e s t o W e s t K a l l a d a , M u n r o e I s l a n d , G u h a n a n d a p u r a m , D a l a v a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a f r o m K o l l a m K S W T D F e r r y T e r m i n a l s i t u a t e d o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . A s r a m a m L i n k R o a d i n t h e c i t y p a s s e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f e r r y t e r m i n a l . D o u b l e d e c k e r l u x u r y b o a t s r u n b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d A l l e p e y d a i l y . L u x u r y b o a t s , o p e r a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r i v a t e o w n e r s , o p e r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o a t j e t t y d u r i n g t h e t o u r i s t s e a s o n . T h e W e s t c o a s t c a n a l s y s t e m , w h i c h s t a r t s f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m i n t h e s o u t h a n d e n d s a t H o s d u r g i n t h e n o r t h , p a s s e s t h r o u g h P a r a v u r , t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m a n d K a r u n a g a p p a l l y t a l u k . K o l l a m P o r t i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p o r t i n K e r a l a , a f t e r C o c h i n P o r t T r u s t . I t i s o n e o f t w o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o r t s i n K e r a l a . C a r g o h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s b e g a n o p e r a t i o n i n 2 0 1 3 . F o r e i g n s h i p s a r r i v e i n t h e p o r t r e g u l a r l y w i t h t h e M V A l i n a , a v e s s e l r e g i s t e r e d i n A n t i g u a a n c h o r e d a t t h e p o r t o n 4 A p r i l 2 0 1 4 . O n c e t h e P o r t s t a r t s f u n c t i o n i n g i n f u l l - f l e d g e d , i t w i l l m a k e t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f K o l l a m - b a s e d c a s h e w c o m p a n i e s m o r e e a s y . S h r e y a s S h i p p i n g C o m p a n y i s n o w r u n n i n g a r e g u l a r c o n t a i n e r s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m P o r t a n d K o c h i P o r t . T h e r e a r e m a n y r e s p e c t e d c o l l e g e s , s c h o o l s a n d l e a r n i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o e d u c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t a n d l a t e s t k n o w l e d g e t o t h e s c h o l a r s . T h e T h a n g a l K u n j u M u s a l i a r C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e s c h o o l o f i t s k i n d i n t h e s t a t e , i s a t K i l i k o l l u r , a b o u t e a s t o f K o l l a m c i t y , a n d i s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e f o r a l l K o l l a m i t e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a s g r a n t e d a c a d e m i c a u t o n o m y t o F a t i m a M a t a N a t i o n a l C o l l e g e , a n o t h e r p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e c i t y . S r e e N a r a y a n a C o l l e g e , B i s h o p J e r o m e I n s t i t u t e ( a n i n t e g r a t e d c a m p u s p r o v i d i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e , E n g i n e e r i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s ) , a n d T r a v a n c o r e B u s i n e s s A c a d e m y a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e t w o l a w c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y , S r e e N a r a y a n a G u r u C o l l e g e o f L e g a l S t u d i e s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f S r e e N a r a y a n a T r u s t a n d N S S L a w C o l l e g e m a n a g e d b y t h e N . S . S . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e b e s t s c h o o l s i n K o l l a m i n c l u d i n g T r i n i t y L y c e u m S c h o o l , I n f a n t J e s u s S c h o o l , S t A l o y s i u s H . S . S , T h e o x f o r d s c h o o l , S r i S r i A c a d e m y e t c . K e r a l a S t a t e I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n ( K S I D ) , a d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e u n d e r D e p a r t m e n t o f l a b o u r a n d S k i l l s , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a , i s l o c a t e d a t C h a n d a n a t h o p e i n K o l l a m . I t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 2 0 0 8 a n d w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t s t a t e - o w n e d d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e s i n I n d i a . K S I D c u r r e n t l y c o n d u c t s P o s t G r a d u a t e D i p l o m a P r o g r a m s i n D e s i g n d e v e l o p e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n , A h m e d a b a d . I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f I n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n ( I I I C - K o l l a m ) i s a n i n s t i t u t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s s i t u a t e d a t C h a v a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o s u p p o r t t h e s k i l l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y , K o l l a m , K e r a l a i s a f a s h i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n s t i t u t e s i t u a t e d a t V e l l i m o n , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e c h n i c a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f T e x t i l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e t w o I M K ( I n s t i t u t e o f M a n a g e m e n t , K e r a l a ) E x t e n s i o n C e n t r e s a c t i v e i n t h e c i t y . K e r a l a M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e i s s i t u a t e d a t N e e n d a k a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o g i v e m a r i t i m e t r a i n i n g f o r t h e s t u d e n t s i n K e r a l a . M o r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d a t N e e n d a k a r a m a r i t i m e i n s t i t u t e u n d e r t h e B o a t C r e w t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e . A p a r t f r o m c o l l e g e s , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b a n k c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m i s k n o w n a s I n d i a ' s h u b f o r b a n k t e s t c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s w i t h a r o u n d 4 0 s u c h i n s t i t u t e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t . S t u d e n t s f r o m v a r i o u s I n d i a n s t a t e s s u c h a s T a m i l N a d u , K a r n a t a k a , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , B i h a r a n d M a d h y a P r a d e s h a l s o c o m e h e r e f o r c o a c h i n g . C r i c k e t i s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s p o r t , f o l l o w e d b y h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l . K o l l a m i s h o m e t o a n u m b e r o f l o c a l c r i c k e t , h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l t e a m s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n d i s t r i c t , s t a t e - l e v e l a n d z o n e m a t c h e s . A n I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o c k e y S t a d i u m w i t h a s t r o - t u r f f a c i l i t y i s t h e r e a t A s r a m a m i n t h e c i t y , b u i l t a t a c o s t o f R s . 1 3 c r o r e . T h e l a n d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t a d i u m w a s t a k e n o v e r f r o m t h e P o s t a l D e p a r t m e n t a t A s r a m a m , K o l l a m . T h e c i t y h a s a n o t h e r s t a d i u m n a m e d t h e L a l B a h a d u r S h a s t r i S t a d i u m , K o l l a m . I t i s a m u l t i p u r p o s e s t a d i u m a n d h a s r e p e a t e d l y h o s t e d s u c h s p o r t s e v e n t s a s t h e R a n j i T r o p h y , S a n t h o s h T r o p h y a n d N a t i o n a l G a m e s . T w o o p e n g r o u n d s i n t h e c i t y , t h e A s r a m a m M a i d a n a n d P e e r a n k i M a i d a n , a r e a l s o u s e d f o r s p o r t s e v e n t s , p r a c t i c e a n d w a r m - u p m a t c h e s . H i n d u s a n d t e m p l e s A n a n d a v a l l e e s h w a r a m S r i M a h a d e v a r T e m p l e i s a 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d a n c i e n t H i n d u t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y . T h e 4 0 0 - y e a r - o l d S a n c t u m s a n c t o r u m o f t h i s t e m p l e i s f i n i s h e d i n t e a k . A m m a c h i v e e d u M u h u r t h i t e m p l e i s a n o t h e r m a j o r t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d a r o u n d 6 0 0 y e a r s a g o b y t h e A m m a c h i V e e d u f a m i l y , a r i s t o c r a t s f r o m K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m p o o r a m , a m a j o r f e s t i v a l o f K o l l a m , i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a t e n - d a y f e s t i v a l , n o r m a l l y i n m i d A p r i l , o f A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e . K o t t a n k u l a n g a r a D e v i T e m p l e i s o n e o f t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s H i n d u t e m p l e s i n K e r a l a w e r e c r o s s - d r e s s i n g o f m e n f o r " C h a m a y a v i l a k k u " r i t u a l i s a p a r t o f t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v i t i e s . T h e m e n a l s o c a r r y l a r g e l a m p s . T h e f i r s t o f t h e t w o - d a y d r e s s i n g e v e n t d r e w t o a c l o s e e a r l y o n M o n d a y . M o r e o v e r , K o t t a r a k k a r a S r e e M a h a g a n a p a t h i K s h e t h r a m i n K o t t a r a k k a r a , P u t t i n g a l D e v i T e m p l e i n P a r a v u r , s o o r a n a d n o r t h a n a y a d i P a z h a y i d a m S r e e N a r a s i m h a S w a m i T e m p l e P o r u v a z h y P e r u v i r u t h y M a l a n a d a T e m p l e i n P o r u v a z h y , S a s t h a m c o t t a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a T e m p l e i n S a s t h a m k o t t a , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a t e m p l e , T h r i k k a d a v o o r S r e e M a h a d e v a T e m p l e i n K a d a v o o r a n d K a t t i l M e k k a t h i l D e v i T e m p l e i n P o n m a n a P a d a n a y a r k u l a n g a r a m a h a d e v a t e m p l e K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , A s h t a m u d i S r e e V e e r a b h a d r a S w a m y T e m p l e a r e t h e o t h e r f a m o u s H i n d u w o r s h i p c e n t r e s i n t h e K o l l a m M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c h u r c h e s T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l i n T a n g a s s e r i i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o r t u g u e s e d u r i n g 1 6 1 4 . I t i s n o w t h e p r o - c a t h e d r a l o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n – t h e a n c i e n t a n d f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e o f I n d i a . T h e c h u r c h r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f o l d Q u i l o n c i t y . S t . S e b a s t i a n ' s C h u r c h a t N e e n d a k a r a i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h i n t h e c i t y . T h e D u t c h C h u r c h i n M u n r o e I s l a n d i s b u i l t b y t h e D u t c h i n 1 8 7 8 . O u r L a d y o f V e l a n k a n n i S h r i n e i n C u t c h e r y i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p p l a c e i n K o l l a m c i t y . S a i n t C a s i m i r C h u r c h i n K a d a v o o r , H o l y F a m i l y C h u r c h i n K a v a n a d , S t . S t e p h e n ' s C h u r c h i n T h o p p u a n d S t . T h o m a s C h u r c h i n K a d a p p a k a d a a r e s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n K o l l a m . M u s l i m s a n d m o s q u e s K o t t u k a d u J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r J u m a - A - M a s j i d , V a l i y a p a l l i i n J o n a k a p p u r a m , C h i n n a k a d a J u m a M a s j i d , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n K o l l u r v i l a , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n T h a t t a m a l a a n d K o i v i l a J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a a r e t h e o t h e r m a j o r M o s q u e s i n K o l l a m . N o t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s b o r n i n K o l l a m i n c l u d e :

Civic administration ; Urban structure

The civic administration of Kollam is led by the Mayor who is elected from among the councillors. The Corporation Secretary heads the office of the corporation. The police administration falls under the Kollam City Police Commissionerate. The city is divided into six zones with local zonal offices for each zone. The city has a strong industrial presence, particularly in cashew processing and coir manufacturing. The city's urban growth rate is high, making it the fourth most populous city in the state.

pepper by bullock cart and the trade over the waterways connecting Allepey and Cochin established trade linkages that enabled it to grow into one of the earliest Indian industrial townships. The rail links later established to Tamil Nadu supported still stronger trade links. The factories processing marine exports and the processing and packaging of cashewnuts extended its trade across the globe. It is known for cashew processing and coir manufacturing. Ashtamudi Lake is considered the southern gateway to the backwaters of Kerala and is a prominent tourist destination at Kollam. The Kollam urban area includes suburban towns such as Paravur in the south, Kundara in the east and Karunagapally in the north of the city. Other important towns in the city suburbs are Eravipuram, Kottiyam, Kannanallur, and Chavara. literacy stood at 95.83%, and female at 91.95%. In Kollam, 11% of the population was under six years of age. In May 2015, Government of Kerala have decided to expand City Corporation of Kollam by merging Thrikkadavoor panchayath. So the area will become with a total city population of 384,892. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and official language of the city, while Tamil is understood by some sections in the city. There are also small communities of Anglo-Indians, Konkani Brahmins, Telugu Chetty and Bengali migrant labourers settled in the city. For ease of administration, Kollam Municipal Corporation is divided into six zones with local zonal offices for each one. In 2014, former Kollam Mayor Mrs. Prasanna Earnest was selected as the Best Lady Mayor of South serves as the Eid gah for the city. The 300-year-old Juma-'Ath Palli at Karuva houses the mortal remains of a Sufi saint, Syed Abdur Rahman Jifri. Christians account for 21.17% of the total population of Kollam city. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon (Kollam) is the first Catholic diocese in India. The diocese was first erected by Pope John XXII on 9 August 1329. It was re-erected on 1 September 1886. The diocese covers an area of and contains a population of 4,879,553, Catholics numbering 235,922 (4.8%). The famous Infant Jesus Cathedral, 400 years old, located in Thangassery, is the co-cathedral of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Quilon. CSI Kollam-Kottarakara Diocese is one of the twenty-four dioceses of the Church of South India. The Headquarters of the Kerala region of The Pentecostal Mission for Kottarakkara, is in Kollam. Kollam City is a Municipal Corporation with elected Councillors from its 55 divisions. The Mayor, elected from among the councillors, generally represents the political party holding a majority. The Corporation Secretary heads the office of the corporation. The present Mayor of Kollam Corporation is Adv. V. Rajendrababu of CPI(M). The police administration of the city falls under the Kollam City Police Commissionerate which is headed by an IPS (Indian Police Service) cadre officer and he reports to the Inspector General of Police (IGP) Thiruvananthapuram Range. The police administration comes under the State Home Department of the Government of Kerala. Kollam City is divided into three subdivisions, Karunagappally, Kollam and Chathannoor, each under an Assistant Commissioner of Police. With a total urban population of 1,187,158 and 349,033 as city corporation's population, Kollam is the fourth most populous city in the state and 49th on the list of the most populous urban agglomerations in India. the city's urban growth rate of 154.59% was the second highest in the state. The Metropolitan area of Kollam includes Uliyakovil, Adichanalloor, Adinad, Ayanivelikulangara, Chavara, Elampalloor, Eravipuram (Part), Kallelibhagom, Karunagappally, Kollam, Kottamkara, Kulasekharapuram, Mayyanad, Meenad, Nedumpana, Neendakara, Oachira, Panayam, Panmana, Paravur, Perinad, Poothakkulam, Thazhuthala, Thodiyoor, Thrikkadavoor, Thrikkaruva, Thrikkovilvattom, and Vadakkumthala. The Kerala Government has decided to develop the City of Kollam as a "Port City of Kerala". Regeneration of the Maruthadi-Eravipuram area including construction of facilities for fishing, tourism and entertainment projects will be implemented as part of the project The city life of Kollam has changed in the last decade. In terms of economic performance and per capita income, Kollam city is in fifth position from India and third in Kerala. Kollam is famous as a city with excellent export background. 5 star, 4 star and 3 star hotels, multi-storied shopping malls, branded jewellery, textile showrooms and car showrooms have started operations in the city and suburbs. Kollam was the third city in Kerala (after Kozhikode and Kochi) to adopt the shopping mall culture. Kollam district ranks first in livestock wealth in the state. Downtown Kollam is the main CBD of Kollam city. Dairy farming is fairly well developed. Also there is a chilling plant in the city. Kollam is an important maritime and port city. Fishing has a place in the economy of the district. Neendakara and Sakthikulangara villages in the suburbs of the city have fisheries. An estimated 134,973 persons are engaged in fishing and allied activities. Cheriazheekkal, Alappad, Pandarathuruthu, Puthenthura, Neendakara, Thangasseri, Eravipuram and Paravur are eight of the 26 important fishing villages. There are 24 inland fishing villages. The Government has initiated steps for establishing a fishing harbour at Neendakara. Average fish landing is estimated at 85,275 tonnes per year. One-third of the state's fish catch is from Kollam. Nearly 3000 mechanised boats are operating from the fishing harbour. FFDA and VFFDA promote fresh water fish culture and prawn farming respectively. A fishing village with 100 houses is being built at Eravipuram. A prawn farm is being built at Ayiramthengu, and several new hatcheries the city. There are two law colleges in the city, Sree Narayana Guru College of Legal Studies under the control of Sree Narayana Trust and N S S Law College managed by the N.S.S. There are also some best schools in Kollam including Trinity Lyceum School, Infant Jesus School, St Aloysius H.S.S, The oxford school, Sri Sri Academy etc. Kerala State Institute of Design (KSID), a design institute under Department of labour and Skills, Government of Kerala, is located at Chandanathope in Kollam. It was established in 2008 and was one of the first state-owned design institutes in India. KSID currently conducts Post Graduate Diploma Programs in Design developed in association with National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad. Indian Institute of Infrastructure and Construction (IIIC-Kollam) is an institute of

Kollam

I n 8 2 5 C E , t h e M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r , o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " , w a s c r e a t e d i n K o l l a m a t m e e t i n g s h e l d i n t h e c i t y . T h e p r e s e n t M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r i s s a i d t o h a v e b e g u n w i t h t h e r e - f o u n d i n g o f t h e t o w n , w h i c h w a s r e b u i l t a f t e r i t s d e s t r u c t i o n b y f i r e . T h e n a m e K o l l a m i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d " K o l l a m " , m e a n i n g p e p p e r . A s t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Q u i l o n , K o l l a m w a s a f l o u r i s h i n g p o r t d u r i n g t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y ( c . 3 r d c e n t u r y B C – 1 2 t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d l a t e r b e c a m e t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e K i n g d o m o f Q u i l o n o n i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n c . 8 2 5 . K o l l a m w a s c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f o u r e a r l y e n t r e p o t s i n g l o b a l s e a t r a d e d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , a l o n g w i t h A l e x a n d r i a a n d C a i r o i n E g y p t , t h e C h i n e s e c i t y o f Q u a n z h o u , a n d M a l a c c a i n t h e M a l a y s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o . I t s e e m s t h a t t r a d e a t K o l l a m s e e m s t o h a v e f l o u r i s h e d r i g h t i n t o t h e M e d i e v a l p e r i o d a s i n 1 2 8 0 , t h e r e i s i n s t a n c e o f e n v o y s o f Y u a n C h i n a c o m i n g t o K o l l a m f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e l o c a l r u l e r a n d C h i n a T h e a n c i e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f K o l l a m w a s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f K e r a l a . T h e C h e r a d y n a s t y g o v e r n e d t h e a r e a o f M a l a b a r C o a s t b e t w e e n A l a p p u z h a i n t h e s o u t h t o K a s a r a g o d i n t h e n o r t h . T h i s i n c l u d e d P a l a k k a d G a p , C o i m b a t o r e , S a l e m , a n d K o l l i H i l l s . T h e r e g i o n a r o u n d C o i m b a t o r e w a s r u l e d b y t h e C h e r a s d u r i n g S a n g a m p e r i o d b e t w e e n c . f i r s t a n d t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s C E a n d i t s e r v e d a s t h e e a s t e r n e n t r a n c e t o t h e P a l a k k a d G a p , t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a d e r o u t e b e t w e e n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t a n d T a m i l N a d u . H o w e v e r t h e s o u t h e r n r e g i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y K e r a l a s t a t e ( T h e c o a s t a l b e l t b e t w e e n T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a ) w a s u n d e r A y d y n a s t y , w h o w a s m o r e r e l a t e d t o t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y o f M a d u r a i t h a n C h e r a s . A l o n g w i t h ( M u z i r i s a n d T y n d i s ) , Q u i l o n w a s a n a n c i e n t s e a p o r t o n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t o f I n d i a f r o m t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . K o l l a m s e r v e d a s a m a j o r p o r t c i t y f o r P a n d y a d y n a s t y o n t h e w e s t e r n c o a s t w h i l e K u l a s e k h a r a p a t n a m s e r v e d P a n d y a s o n t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t . T h e c i t y h a d a h i g h c o m m e r c i a l r e p u t a t i o n f r o m t h e d a y s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d A n c i e n t R o m a n s . P l i n y t h e E l d e r ( 2 3 – 7 9 A D ) m e n t i o n s G r e e k s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t M u z i r i s a n d N e l c y n d a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a l a n d r o u t e o v e r t h e W e s t e r n G h a t s . S p i c e s , p e a r l s , d i a m o n d s , a n d s i l k w e r e e x p o r t e d t o E g y p t a n d R o m e f r o m t h e s e p o r t s . P e a r l s a n d d i a m o n d s c a m e t o t h e C h e r a K i n g d o m f r o m C e y l o n a n d t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o a s t o f I n d i a , t h e n k n o w n a s t h e P a n d y a n K i n g d o m . C o s m a s I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , a G r e e k N e s t o r i a n s a i l o r , i n h i s b o o k t h e C h r i s t i a n T o p o g r a p h y w h o v i s i t e d t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t i n 5 5 0 , m e n t i o n s a n e n c l a v e o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s i n " M a l e " ( M a l a b a r C o a s t ) . H e w r i t e s , " I n t h e i s l a n d o f T a b r o p a n e ( C e y l o n ) , t h e r e i s a c h u r c h o f C h r i s t i a n s , a n d c l e r i c s a n d f a i t h f u l . L i k e w i s e a t M a l e , w h e r e t h e p e p p e r g r o w s , a n d i n t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y o f K a l l i a n a ( K a l l i a n k a l a t N i l l a c k a l ) t h e r e i s a l s o a b i s h o p c o n s e c r a t e d i n P e r s i a i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e N i c e a S u n n a h a d o s e o f 3 2 5 A D . " T h e N e s t o r i a n P a t r i a r c h J e s u j a b u s , w h o d i e d i n 6 6 0 A D , m e n t i o n s K o l l a m i n h i s l e t t e r t o S i m o n , M e t r o p o l i t a n o f P e r s i a . K o l l a m i s a l s o h o m e t o o n e o f t h e o l d e s t m o s q u e s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e g e n d o f C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l s , t h e f i r s t I n d i a n m o s q u e w a s b u i l t i n 6 2 4 A D a t K o d u n g a l l u r w i t h t h e m a n d a t e o f t h e l a s t t h e r u l e r ( t h e C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l ) o f C h e r a d y n a s t y , w h o l e f t f r o m D h a r m a d o m t o M e c c a a n d c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( c . 5 7 0 – 6 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o " Q i s s a t S h a k a r w a t i F a r m a d " , t h e " M a s j i d s " a t K o d u n g a l l u r , K o l l a m , M a d a y i , B a r k u r , M a n g a l o r e , K a s a r a g o d , K a n n u r , D h a r m a d a m , P a n t h a l a y i n i , a n d C h a l i y a m , w e r e b u i l t d u r i n g t h e e r a o f M a l i k D i n a r , a n d t h e y a r e a m o n g t h e o l d e s t " M a s j i d " s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a l i k D i n a r d i e d a t T h a l a n g a r a i n K a s a r a g o d t o w n . T h e p o r t a t K o l l a m , t h e n k n o w n a s Q u i l o n , w a s f o u n d e d i n 8 2 5 b y t h e N e s t o r i a n C h r i s t i a n s M a r S a b o r a n d M a r P r o t h w i t h s a n c t i o n f r o m A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l , t h e k i n g o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e S t a t e o f Q u i l o n , a f e u d a t o r y u n d e r t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a r S a p o r I s o a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e C h e r a k i n g c r e a t e a n e w s e a p o r t n e a r K o l l a m i n l i e u o f h i s r e q u e s t t h a t h e r e b u i l d t h e a l m o s t v a n i s h e d i n l a n d s e a p o r t a t K o l l a m ( k o r e - k e - n i ) n e a r B a c k a r e ( T h e v a l a k a r a ) , a l s o k n o w n a s N e l c y n d a a n d T y n d i s t o t h e R o m a n s a n d G r e e k s a n d a s T h o n d i t o t h e T a m i l s , w h i c h h a d b e e n w i t h o u t t r a d e f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e c a u s e t h e C h e r a s w e r e o v e r r u n b y t h e P a l l a v a s i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , e n d i n g t h e s p i c e t r a d e f r o m t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e N e s t o r i a n s t o s t a y i n t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a n d i n t r o d u c e t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r s u b - c a s t e s i n t h e S t . T h o m a s t r a d i t i o n , w i t h t h e S y r i a n l i t u r g y a s a b a s i s f o r t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , w i t h o u t r e p l a c i n g t h e S a n s k r i t a n d V e d i c p r a y e r s . T h e T h a r i s a p a l l i p l a t e s p r e s e n t e d t o M a r u v a n S a p o r I s o b y A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l g r a n t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o v e r s e e i n g f o r e i g n t r a d e i n t h e c i t y a s w e l l a s c o n t r o l o v e r i t s w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s i n a m o v e d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e Q u i l o n ' s t r a d e a n d w e a l t h . T h e t w o C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o u n d i n g C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s w i t h S y r i a n l i t u r g y a l o n g t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t , d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e a n c i e n t V e d i c A d v a i t a m p r o p o u n d e d b y A d i S h a n k a r a i n t h e e a r l y n i n t h c e n t u r y a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r S u b C a s t e s , a s M a l a y a l a m w a s n o t a c c e p t e d a s a l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . T h u s b e g a n t h e M a l a y a l a m E r a , k n o w n a s K o l l a V a r s h a m a f t e r t h e c i t y , i n d i c a t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f K o l l a m i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . T h e P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t S o l e y m a n o f S i r a f v i s i t e d M a l a b a r i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d f o u n d Q u i l o n t o b e t h e o n l y p o r t i n I n d i a u s e d b y t h e h u g e C h i n e s e s h i p s a s t h e i r t r a n s s h i p m e n t h u b f o r g o o d s o n t h e i r w a y f r o m C h i n a t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . T h e r u l e r s o f K o l l a m ( f o r m e r l y c a l l e d ' D e s i n g a n a d u ' ) h a d t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a a n d e x c h a n g e d e m b a s s i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e T a n g d y n a s t y ( 6 1 8 – 9 1 3 ) , Q u i l o n w a s t h e i r c h i e f p o r t o f c a l l b e f o r e t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e C h i n e s e t r a d e d e c r e a s e d a b o u t 6 0 0 a n d w a s a g a i n r e v i v e d i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . " M i r a b i l i a D e s c r i p t a " b y B i s h o p C a t a l a n i g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e i n K o l l a m , w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e C a t h o l i c b i s h o p - d e s i g n a t e t o K o l l a m , t h e o l d e s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . H e a l s o g i v e s t r u e a n d i m a g i n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l i f e i n ' I n d i a t h e M a j o r ' i n t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e M a r c o P o l o v i s i t e d t h e c i t y . S u l a i m a n a l - T a j i r , a P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t w h o v i s i t e d K e r a l a d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S t h a n u R a v i V a r m a ( 9 t h c e n t u r y C E ) , r e c o r d s t h a t t h e r e w a s e x t e n s i v e t r a d e b e t w e e n K e r a l a a n d C h i n a a t t h a t t i m e , b a s e d a t t h e p o r t o f K o l l a m . I n 1 3 t h c e n t u r y C E , M a r a v a r m a n K u l a s e k a r a P a n d y a n I , a P a n d y a r u l e r f o u g h t a w a r i n V e n a d a n d c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a p p e a r s o n t h e C a t a l a n A t l a s o f 1 3 7 5 C E a s C o l u m b o a n d C o l o b o . T h e m a p m a r k s t h i s c i t y a s a C h r i s t i a n c i t y , r u l e d b y a C h r i s t i a n r u l e r . T h e t e x t a b o v e t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e k i n g s a y s : " A ç í s e n y [ o ] r e j a l o r e y C o l o b o , c h r i s t i à . P r u v í n c i a d e C o l u m b o " ( H e r e r e i g n s t h e L o r d K i n g C o l o b o , C h r i s t i a n , P r o v i n c e o f C o l u m b o ) . T h e c i t y w a s m u c h f r e q u e n t e d b y t h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s C E , f o l l o w e d b y t h e D o m i n i c a n a n d F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s f r o m E u r o p e . T h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s c a l l e d t h e c i t y C o l õ b o / C o l o m b o . I n 1 3 2 9 C E P o p e J o h n X X I I e s t a b l i s h e d K o l l a m / C o l u m b o a s t h e f i r s t a n d o n l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c b i s h o p r i c o n t h e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t , a n d a p p o i n t e d J o r d a n o f C a t a l o n i a , a D o m i n i c a n f r i a r , a s t h e d i o c e s e ' s f i r s t b i s h o p o f t h e L a t i n s e c t . T h e P o p e ' s L a t i n s c r i b e s a s s i g n e d t h e n a m e " C o l u m b u m " t o C o l u m b o . A c c o r d i n g t o a b o o k a u t h o r e d b y I l a r i u s A u g u s t u s , p u b l i s h e d A p r i l , 2 0 2 1 ( " ' C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s : B u r i e d d e e p i n L a t i n t h e I n d i a n o r i g i n o f t h e g r e a t e x p l o r e r f r o m G e n o a " ' ) , t h e w o r d s C o l u m b u m , C o l u m b u s a n d C o l u m b o a p p e a r f o r t h e v e r y f i r s t t i m e i n a n o t a r i a l d e e d ( l e a s e c o n t r a c t ) o f a c e r t a i n M o u s s o i n G e n o a i n 1 3 2 9 C E . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r i n t h e f o r m o f a t o p o n y m . T h e a u t h o r t h e n s h o w s , t h r o u g h t h e L a t i n t e x t o f s e v e r a l o t h e r n o t a r i a l d e e d s a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s o n c h u r c h h i s t o r y , h o w C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s - a l s o c a r r y i n g t h e s a m e t o p o n y m . - w a s p a r t o f M o u s s o ' s f a m i l y , a n d h e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n l i n e a g e ( a l t h o u g h b o r n i n G e n o a ) . T h e p o r t a t K o z h i k o d e h e l d s u p e r i o r e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n m e d i e v a l K e r a l a c o a s t , w h i l e K a n n u r , K o l l a m , a n d K o c h i , w e r e c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y p o r t s , w h e r e t h e t r a d e r s f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w o u l d g a t h e r . T h e P o r t u g u e s e a r r i v e d a t K a p p a d K o z h i k o d e i n 1 4 9 8 d u r i n g t h e A g e o f D i s c o v e r y , t h u s o p e n i n g a d i r e c t s e a r o u t e f r o m E u r o p e t o I n d i a . T h e y w e r e t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a t r a d i n g c e n t e r i n T a n g a s s e r i , K o l l a m i n 1 5 0 2 , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r t r a d e i n p e p p e r . I n t h e w a r s w i t h t h e M o o r s / A r a b s t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e a n c i e n t c h u r c h ( t e m p l e ) o f S t T h o m a s T r a d i t i o n a t T h e v a l a k a r a w a s d e s t r o y e d . I n 1 5 1 7 , t h e P o r t u g u e s e b u i l t t h e S t . T h o m a s F o r t i n T h a n g a s s e r i , w h i c h w a s d e s t r o y e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t w a r s w i t h t h e D u t c h . I n 1 6 6 1 , t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c i t y . T h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e o l d P o r t u g u e s e F o r t , l a t e r r e n o v a t e d b y t h e D u t c h , c a n b e f o u n d a t T h a n g a s s e r i . I n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , T r a v a n c o r e c o n q u e r e d K o l l a m , f o l l o w e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n 1 7 9 5 . T h a n g a s s e r i r e m a i n s t o d a y a s a n A n g l o - I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h o u g h f e w A n g l o - I n d i a n s r e m a i n . T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C h u r c h i n T h a n g a s s e r i , a n o l d P o r t u g u e s e - b u i l t c h u r c h , r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f t h e a r e a . T h e B a t t l e o f Q u i l o n w a s f o u g h t i n 1 8 0 9 b e t w e e n a t r o o p o f t h e I n d i a n k i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e l e d b y t h e t h e n D a l a w a ( p r i m e m i n i s t e r ) o f T r a v a n c o r e , V e l u T h a m p i D a l a w a a n d t h e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y l e d b y C o l o n e l C h a l m e r s a t C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n i n Q u i l o n . T h e b a t t l e l a s t e d f o r o n l y s i x h o u r s a n d w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s i n v a s i o n o f Q u i l o n a n d t h e i r g a r r i s o n s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n . T h e c o m p a n y f o r c e s w o n t h e b a t t l e w h i l e a l l t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e w a r w e r e c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h a n g e d a t t h e m a i d a n . I n t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y C E , t h e T r a v a n c o r e r o y a l f a m i l y a d o p t e d s o m e m e m b e r s f r o m t h e r o y a l f a m i l y o f K o l a t h u n a d u b a s e d a t K a n n u r , a n d P a r a p p a n a d b a s e d i n p r e s e n t - d a y M a l a p p u r a m d i s t r i c t . L a t e r , V e n a d K i n g d o m w a s c o m p l e t e l y m e r g e d w i t h t h e K i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e d u r i n g t h e r e i n o f M a r t h a n d a V a r m a a n d K o l l a m r e m a i n e d a s t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e K i n g d o m . L a t e r o n , t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e w a s r e l o c a t e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m . T r a v a n c o r e b e c a m e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t s t a t e i n K e r a l a b y d e f e a t i n g t h e p o w e r f u l Z a m o r i n o f K o z h i k o d e i n t h e b a t t l e o f P u r a k k a d i n 1 7 5 5 . T h e G o v e r n m e n t S e c r e t a r i a t w a s a l s o s i t u a t e d i n K o l l a m t i l l t h e 1 8 3 0 s . I t w a s m o v e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S w a t h i T h i r u n a l . E x c a v a t i o n s a r e g o i n g o n a t K o l l a m P o r t p r e m i s e s s i n c e F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 a s t h e t e a m h a s u n c o v e r e d a r r a y s o f a n t i q u e a r t i f a c t s , i n c l u d i n g C h i n e s e p o r c e l a i n a n d c o i n s . A C h i n e s e t e a m w i t h t h e P a l a c e M u s e u m , a t e a m f r o m I n d i a w i t h K e r a l a C o u n c i l f o r H i s t o r i c a l R e s e a r c h ( K C H R ) d i s c o v e r e d C h i n e s e c o i n s a n d a r t i f a c t s t h a t s h o w t r a d e l i n k s b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d a n c i e n t C h i n a . K o l l a m c i t y i s b o r d e r e d b y t h e p a n c h a y a t s o f N e e n d a k a r a a n d T h r i k k a r u v a t o t h e n o r t h , M a y y a n a d t o t h e s o u t h , a n d T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m a n d K o t t a m k a r a t o t h e e a s t , a n d b y t h e L a c c a d i v e S e a t o t h e w e s t . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y . T h e c i t y i s a b o u t a w a y f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m , a w a y f r o m K o c h i a n d a w a y f r o m K o z h i k o d e . T h e N a t i o n a l W a t e r w a y 3 a n d I t h i k k a r a r i v e r a r e t w o i m p o r t a n t w a t e r w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y . T h e l o n g K o l l a m C a n a l i s c o n n e c t i n g P a r a v u r L a k e a n s A s h t a m u d i L a k e . T h e K a l l a d a r i v e r , a n o t h e r r i v e r t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y , e m p t i e s i n t o A s h t a m u d i L a k e , w h i l e t h e I t h i k k a r a r i v e r r u n s t o P a r a v u r K a y a l . K a t t a k a y a l , a f r e s h w a t e r l a k e i n t h e c i t y , c o n n e c t s a n o t h e r w a t e r - b o d y n a m e d V a t t a k k a y a l w i t h L a k e A s h t a m u d i . I n M a r c h 2 0 1 6 , " I n d i a T i m e s " s e l e c t e d K o l l a m a s o n e o f t h e n i n e l e a s t p o l l u t e d c i t i e s o n e a r t h t o w h i c h a n y b o d y c a n r e l o c a t e . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e t o p 1 0 m o s t w e l c o m i n g p l a c e s i n I n d i a f o r t h e y e a r 2 0 2 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o B o o k i n g . c o m ' s t r a v e l l e r r e v i e w a w a r d s . K o l l a m i s a n a n c i e n t t r a d i n g t o w n – t r a d i n g w i t h R o m a n s , C h i n e s e , A r a b s , a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s – m e n t i o n e d i n h i s t o r i c a l c i t a t i o n s d a t i n g b a c k t o B i b l i c a l t i m e s a n d t h e r e i g n o f S o l o m o n , c o n n e c t i n g w i t h R e d S e a p o r t s o f t h e A r a b i a n S e a ( s u p p o r t e d b y a f i n d o f a n c i e n t R o m a n c o i n s ) . T h e r e w a s a l s o i n t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e A r y a n k a v u P a s s i n S c h e n k o t t a h G a p c o n n e c t i n g t h e a n c i e n t t o w n t o T a m i l N a d u . T h e o v e r l a n d t r a d e i n p e p p e r b y b u l l o c k c a r t a n d t h e t r a d e o v e r t h e w a t e r w a y s c o n n e c t i n g A l l e p e y a n d C o c h i n e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d e l i n k a g e s t h a t e n a b l e d i t t o g r o w i n t o o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t I n d i a n i n d u s t r i a l t o w n s h i p s . T h e r a i l l i n k s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d t o T a m i l N a d u s u p p o r t e d s t i l l s t r o n g e r t r a d e l i n k s . T h e f a c t o r i e s p r o c e s s i n g m a r i n e e x p o r t s a n d t h e p r o c e s s i n g a n d p a c k a g i n g o f c a s h e w n u t s e x t e n d e d i t s t r a d e a c r o s s t h e g l o b e . I t i s k n o w n f o r c a s h e w p r o c e s s i n g a n d c o i r m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u t h e r n g a t e w a y t o t h e b a c k w a t e r s o f K e r a l a a n d i s a p r o m i n e n t t o u r i s t d e s t i n a t i o n a t K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m u r b a n a r e a i n c l u d e s s u b u r b a n t o w n s s u c h a s P a r a v u r i n t h e s o u t h , K u n d a r a i n t h e e a s t a n d K a r u n a g a p a l l y i n t h e n o r t h o f t h e c i t y . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o w n s i n t h e c i t y s u b u r b s a r e E r a v i p u r a m , K o t t i y a m , K a n n a n a l l u r , a n d C h a v a r a . K o l l a m e x p e r i e n c e s a t r o p i c a l m o n s o o n c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n " A m " ) w i t h l i t t l e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h i s t h e d r y s e a s o n w i t h l e s s t h a n o f r a i n i n e a c h o f t h o s e m o n t h s . A p r i l t o N o v e m b e r i s t h e w e t s e a s o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e r a i n t h a n d u r i n g D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y i n J u n e a n d J u l y a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e S o u t h w e s t M o n s o o n . I n d i a c e n s u s , K o l l a m c i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 5 , 4 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e . T h e s e x r a t i o ( t h e n u m b e r o f f e m a l e s p e r 1 , 0 0 0 m a l e s ) w a s 1 , 1 1 2 , t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e d i s t r i c t o f K o l l a m r a n k e d s e v e n t h i n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e w h i l e t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m r a n k e d f o u r t h . K o l l a m h a d a n a v e r a g e l i t e r a c y r a t e o f 9 3 . 7 7 % , h i g h e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e o f 7 4 . 0 4 % . M a l e l i t e r a c y s t o o d a t 9 5 . 8 3 % , a n d f e m a l e a t 9 1 . 9 5 % . I n K o l l a m , 1 1 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r s i x y e a r s o f a g e . I n M a y 2 0 1 5 , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a v e d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d C i t y C o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m b y m e r g i n g T h r i k k a d a v o o r p a n c h a y a t h . S o t h e a r e a w i l l b e c o m e w i t h a t o t a l c i t y p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 8 4 , 8 9 2 . M a l a y a l a m i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e c i t y , w h i l e T a m i l i s u n d e r s t o o d b y s o m e s e c t i o n s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s o f A n g l o - I n d i a n s , K o n k a n i B r a h m i n s , T e l u g u C h e t t y a n d B e n g a l i m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s s e t t l e d i n t h e c i t y . F o r e a s e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , K o l l a m M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x z o n e s w i t h l o c a l z o n a l o f f i c e s f o r e a c h o n e . I n 2 0 1 4 , f o r m e r K o l l a m M a y o r M r s . P r a s a n n a E a r n e s t w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e B e s t L a d y M a y o r o f S o u t h I n d i a b y t h e R o t a r y C l u b o f T r i v a n d r u m R o y a l T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s a m i c r o c o s m o f K e r a l a s t a t e w i t h i t s r e s i d e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o v a r i e d r e l i g i o u s , e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y a n c i e n t t e m p l e s , c e n t u r i e s - o l d c h u r c h e s a n d m o s q u e s i n t h e c i t y a n d i t s s u b u r b s . K o l l a m i s a H i n d u m a j o r i t y c i t y i n K e r a l a . 5 6 . 3 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n b e l o n g s t o H i n d u c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e K o l l a m E r a ( a l s o k n o w n a s " M a l a y a l a m E r a " o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " o r " M a l a y a l a m C a l e n d a r " o r " M a l a b a r E r a " ) , s o l a r a n d s i d e r e a l H i n d u c a l e n d a r u s e d i n K e r a l a , h a s b e e n o r i g i n a t e d o n 8 2 5 C E ( P o t h u V a r s h a m ) a t ( K o l l a m ) c i t y . M u s l i m s a c c o u n t f o r 2 2 . 0 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . A s p e r t h e C e n s u s 2 0 1 1 d a t a , 8 0 , 9 3 5 i s t h e t o t a l M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n K o l l a m . T h e K a r b a l a M a i d a n a n d t h e a d j a c e n t M a k a n i m o s q u e s e r v e s a s t h e E i d g a h f o r t h e c i t y . T h e 3 0 0 - y e a r - o l d J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i a t K a r u v a h o u s e s t h e m o r t a l r e m a i n s o f a S u f i s a i n t , S y e d A b d u r R a h m a n J i f r i . C h r i s t i a n s a c c o u n t f o r 2 1 . 1 7 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f K o l l a m c i t y . T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n ( K o l l a m ) i s t h e f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . T h e d i o c e s e w a s f i r s t e r e c t e d b y P o p e J o h n X X I I o n 9 A u g u s t 1 3 2 9 . I t w a s r e - e r e c t e d o n 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 6 . T h e d i o c e s e c o v e r s a n a r e a o f a n d c o n t a i n s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 , 8 7 9 , 5 5 3 , C a t h o l i c s n u m b e r i n g 2 3 5 , 9 2 2 ( 4 . 8 % ) . T h e f a m o u s I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l , 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d , l o c a t e d i n T h a n g a s s e r y , i s t h e c o - c a t h e d r a l o f t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n . C S I K o l l a m - K o t t a r a k a r a D i o c e s e i s o n e o f t h e t w e n t y - f o u r d i o c e s e s o f t h e C h u r c h o f S o u t h I n d i a . T h e H e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e K e r a l a r e g i o n o f T h e P e n t e c o s t a l M i s s i o n f o r K o t t a r a k k a r a , i s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m C i t y i s a M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n w i t h e l e c t e d C o u n c i l l o r s f r o m i t s 5 5 d i v i s i o n s . T h e M a y o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e c o u n c i l l o r s , g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y h o l d i n g a m a j o r i t y . T h e C o r p o r a t i o n S e c r e t a r y h e a d s t h e o f f i c e o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e p r e s e n t M a y o r o f K o l l a m C o r p o r a t i o n i s A d v . V . R a j e n d r a b a b u o f C P I ( M ) . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i t y f a l l s u n d e r t h e K o l l a m C i t y P o l i c e C o m m i s s i o n e r a t e w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y a n I P S ( I n d i a n P o l i c e S e r v i c e ) c a d r e o f f i c e r a n d h e r e p o r t s t o t h e I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l o f P o l i c e ( I G P ) T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m R a n g e . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m e s u n d e r t h e S t a t e H o m e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a . K o l l a m C i t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b d i v i s i o n s , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , e a c h u n d e r a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r o f P o l i c e . W i t h a t o t a l u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 , 1 8 7 , 1 5 8 a n d 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 a s c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n , K o l l a m i s t h e f o u r t h m o s t p o p u l o u s c i t y i n t h e s t a t e a n d 4 9 t h o n t h e l i s t o f t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s u r b a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s i n I n d i a . t h e c i t y ' s u r b a n g r o w t h r a t e o f 1 5 4 . 5 9 % w a s t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a o f K o l l a m i n c l u d e s U l i y a k o v i l , A d i c h a n a l l o o r , A d i n a d , A y a n i v e l i k u l a n g a r a , C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r , E r a v i p u r a m ( P a r t ) , K a l l e l i b h a g o m , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m , K o t t a m k a r a , K u l a s e k h a r a p u r a m , M a y y a n a d , M e e n a d , N e d u m p a n a , N e e n d a k a r a , O a c h i r a , P a n a y a m , P a n m a n a , P a r a v u r , P e r i n a d , P o o t h a k k u l a m , T h a z h u t h a l a , T h o d i y o o r , T h r i k k a d a v o o r , T h r i k k a r u v a , T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m , a n d V a d a k k u m t h a l a . T h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p t h e C i t y o f K o l l a m a s a " P o r t C i t y o f K e r a l a " . R e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e M a r u t h a d i - E r a v i p u r a m a r e a i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r f i s h i n g , t o u r i s m a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o j e c t s w i l l b e i m p l e m e n t e d a s p a r t o f t h e p r o j e c t T h e c i t y l i f e o f K o l l a m h a s c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e . I n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a n d p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , K o l l a m c i t y i s i n f i f t h p o s i t i o n f r o m I n d i a a n d t h i r d i n K e r a l a . K o l l a m i s f a m o u s a s a c i t y w i t h e x c e l l e n t e x p o r t b a c k g r o u n d . 5 s t a r , 4 s t a r a n d 3 s t a r h o t e l s , m u l t i - s t o r i e d s h o p p i n g m a l l s , b r a n d e d j e w e l l e r y , t e x t i l e s h o w r o o m s a n d c a r s h o w r o o m s h a v e s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s . K o l l a m w a s t h e t h i r d c i t y i n K e r a l a ( a f t e r K o z h i k o d e a n d K o c h i ) t o a d o p t t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l c u l t u r e . K o l l a m d i s t r i c t r a n k s f i r s t i n l i v e s t o c k w e a l t h i n t h e s t a t e . D o w n t o w n K o l l a m i s t h e m a i n C B D o f K o l l a m c i t y . D a i r y f a r m i n g i s f a i r l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A l s o t h e r e i s a c h i l l i n g p l a n t i n t h e c i t y . K o l l a m i s a n i m p o r t a n t m a r i t i m e a n d p o r t c i t y . F i s h i n g h a s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e d i s t r i c t . N e e n d a k a r a a n d S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a v i l l a g e s i n t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y h a v e f i s h e r i e s . A n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 4 , 9 7 3 p e r s o n s a r e e n g a g e d i n f i s h i n g a n d a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s . C h e r i a z h e e k k a l , A l a p p a d , P a n d a r a t h u r u t h u , P u t h e n t h u r a , N e e n d a k a r a , T h a n g a s s e r i , E r a v i p u r a m a n d P a r a v u r a r e e i g h t o f t h e 2 6 i m p o r t a n t f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a r e 2 4 i n l a n d f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s i n i t i a t e d s t e p s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i s h i n g h a r b o u r a t N e e n d a k a r a . A v e r a g e f i s h l a n d i n g i s e s t i m a t e d a t 8 5 , 2 7 5 t o n n e s p e r y e a r . O n e - t h i r d o f t h e s t a t e ' s f i s h c a t c h i s f r o m K o l l a m . N e a r l y 3 0 0 0 m e c h a n i s e d b o a t s a r e o p e r a t i n g f r o m t h e f i s h i n g h a r b o u r . F F D A a n d V F F D A p r o m o t e f r e s h w a t e r f i s h c u l t u r e a n d p r a w n f a r m i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f i s h i n g v i l l a g e w i t h 1 0 0 h o u s e s i s b e i n g b u i l t a t E r a v i p u r a m . A p r a w n f a r m i s b e i n g b u i l t a t A y i r a m t h e n g u , a n d s e v e r a l n e w h a t c h e r i e s a r e p l a n n e d t o c a t e r t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e a q u a c u l t u r i s t s . K e r a l a ' s o n l y t u r k e y f a r m a n d a r e g i o n a l p o u l t r y f a r m a r e a t K u r e e p u z h a . T h e r e a r e t w o C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n d u s t r i a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y , t h e I n d i a n R a r e E a r t h s , C h a v a r a a n d P a r v a t h i M i l l s L t d . , K o l l a m . K e r a l a C e r a m i c s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a E l e c t r i c a l a n d A l l i e d E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p a n y i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a P r e m o P i p e f a c t o r y i n C h a v a r a , K e r a l a M i n e r a l s a n d M e t a l s L i m i t e d i n C h a v a r a a n d U n i t e d E l e c t r i c a l I n d u s t r i e s i n K o l l a m a r e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . O t h e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e p r i v a t e / c o o p e r a t i v e s e c t o r a r e A l u m i n i u m I n d u s t r i e s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , T h o m a s S t e p h e n & C o . i n K o l l a m , F l o o r c o i n P a r a v u r a n d C o o p e r a t i v e S p i n n i n g M i l l i n C h a t h a n n o o r . T h e b e a c h s a n d s o f t h e d i s t r i c t h a v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u c h h e a v y m i n e r a l s a s I l m e n i t e , R u t i l e , M o n o s i t e a n d Z i r c o n , w h i c h o f f e r s c o p e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s . B e s i d e s l a r g e d e p o s i t s o f C h i n a c l a y i n K u n d a r a , M u l a v a n a a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , t h e r e a r e a l s o l i m e - s h e l l d e p o s i t s i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e a n d B a u x i t e d e p o s i t s i n A d i c h a n a l l u r . K n o w n a s t h e " C a s h e w C a p i t a l o f t h e W o r l d " , K o l l a m i s n o t e d f o r i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c a s h e w b u s i n e s s a n d i s h o m e t o m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 c a s h e w - p r o c e s s i n g u n i t s . E v e r y y e a r , a b o u t 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f r a w c a s h e w s a r e i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e c i t y f o r p r o c e s s i n g a n d a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f p r o c e s s e d c a s h e w s a r e e x p o r t e d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s w o r l d w i d e . T h e C a s h e w E x p o r t P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( C E P C I ) e x p e c t s a r i s e i n e x p o r t s t o 2 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s b y 2 0 2 0 , a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 2 0 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e c u r r e n t f i g u r e . T h e K e r a l a S t a t e C a s h e w D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n L i m i t e d ( K S C D C ) i s s i t u a t e d a t M u n d a k k a l i n K o l l a m c i t y . T h e c o m p a n y o w n s 3 0 c a s h e w f a c t o r i e s a l l a c r o s s K e r a l a . O f t h e s e , 2 4 a r e l o c a t e d i n K o l l a m d i s t r i c t . K o l l a m i s o n e o f m a n y s e a f o o d e x p o r t h u b s i n I n d i a w i t h n u m e r o u s c o m p a n i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e c t o r . M o s t o f t h e s e a r e b a s e d i n t h e M a r u t h a d i , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a , K a v a n a d , N e e n d a k a r a , A s r a m a m , K i l i k o l l u r , T h i r u m u l l a v a r a m a n d U l i y a k o v i l a r e a s o f t h e c i t y . C a p i t h a n s , K i n g s M a r i n e E x p o r t e r s , I n d i a F o o d E x p o r t s a n d O c e a n i c F i s h e r i e s a r e e x a m p l e s o f s e a f o o d e x p o r t e r s . K o l l a m ' s A s h t a m u d i L a k e c l a m f i s h e r y w a s t h e f i r s t M a r i n e S t e w a r d s h i p C o u n c i l ( M S C ) c e r t i f i e d f i s h e r y i n I n d i a . T h e c l a m f i s h e r y s u p p o r t s a r o u n d 3 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , c l e a n i n g , p r o c e s s i n g a n d t r a d i n g o f c l a m s . A r o u n d 9 0 s p e c i e s o f f i s h a n d t e n s p e c i e s o f c l a m s a r e f o u n d i n t h e l a k e . K o l l a m F e s t i s K o l l a m ' s o w n a n n u a l f e s t i v a l , a t t r a c t i n g m o s t l y K e r a l i t e s b u t a l s o h u n d r e d s o f d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n t o u r i s t s t o K o l l a m . T h e m a i n v e n u e o f K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a n d g i g a n t i c A s h r a m a m M a i d a n . K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e s i g n a t u r e e v e n t o f K o l l a m . K o l l a m F e s t s e e k s t o s h o w c a s e K o l l a m ' s r i c h c u l t u r e a n d h e r i t a g e , t o u r i s m p o t e n t i a l a n d i n v e s t m e n t s i n n e w v e n t u r e s . K o l l a m P o o r a m , p a r t o f t h e A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e F e s t i v a l , i s u s u a l l y h e l d o n 1 5 A p r i l , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y o n 1 6 A p r i l . T h e p o o r a m i s h e l d a t t h e A s h r a m a m m a i d a n . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s T r o p h y B o a t R a c e ( P T B R ) i s a n a n n u a l r e g a t t a h e l d i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e i n K o l l a m . T h e e v e n t w a s i n a u g u r a t e d b y P r e s i d e n t P r a t h i b h a P a t i l i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . T h e e v e n t h a s b e e n r e s c h e d u l e d f r o m 2 0 1 2 . T h e c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m i s s e r v e d b y t h e T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t , w h i c h i s a b o u t 5 6 k i l o m e t e r s f r o m t h e c i t y v i a N H 6 6 . T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t i n a n o n - m e t r o c i t y i n I n d i a . i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n K e r a l a i n a r e a , a f t e r S h o r a n u r J u n c t i o n , w i t h a t o t a l o f 6 p l a t f o r m s . T h e s t a t i o n h a s 1 7 r a i l t r a c k s . K o l l a m j u n c t i o n h a s w o r l d ' s s e c o n d l o n g e s t r a i l w a y p l a t f o r m , m e a s u r i n g 1 1 8 0 . 5 m ( 3 8 7 3   f t ) . M a i n l i n e E l e c t r i c a l M u l t i p l e U n i t ( M E M U ) h a v e a m a i n t e n a n c e s h e d a t K o l l a m J u n c t i o n . T h e M E M U s e r v i c e s s t a r t e d f r o m K o l l a m t o E r n a k u l a m v i a A l a p p u z h a a n d K o t t a y a m i n t h e s e c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2 . B y 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , M E M U s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d N a g e r c o i l b e c a m e a r e a l i t y a n d l a t e r e x t e n d e d u p t o K a n y a k u m a r i . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i n a u g u r a t e d o n 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 3 f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k s o f M E M U r a k e s . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i s t h e l a r g e s t M E M U S h e d i n K e r a l a , w h i c h i s e q u i p p e d w i t h m o s t m o d e r n f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e i s a l o n g - s t a n d i n g d e m a n d f o r t h e K o l l a m T o w n R a i l w a y S t a t i o n i n t h e K o l l a m - P e r i n a d s t r e t c h a n d " S . N C o l l e g e R a i l w a y S t a t i o n " i n t h e K o l l a m - E r a v i p u r a m s t r e t c h . T h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s i n K o l l a m c i t y a r e K o l l a m J u n c t i o n r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , E r a v i p u r a m r a i l w a y s t a t i o n a n d K i l i k o l l u r r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . A n e w s u b u r b a n r a i l s y s t e m h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y t h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t a n d I n d i a n R a i l w a y s o n t h e r o u t e T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m - K o l l a m - H a r i p a d / C h e n g a n n u r f o r w h i c h M R V C i s t a s k e d t o c o n d u c t a s t u d y a n d s u b m i t a r e p o r t . T e n t r a i n s , e a c h w i t h s e v e n c o a c h e s , w i l l t r a n s p o r t p a s s e n g e r s b a c k a n d f o r t h a l o n g t h e T r i v a n d r u m - K o l l a m - C h e n g a n n u r - K o t t a r a k a r a - A d o o r s e c t i o n . T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s c o n n e c t e d t o a l m o s t a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d m a j o r t o w n s i n t h e s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g T r i v a n d r u m , A l a p p u z h a , K o c h i , P a l a k k a d , K o t t a y a m , K o t t a r a k k a r a , a n d P u n a l u r , a n d w i t h o t h e r I n d i a n c i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e N H 6 6 , N H 1 8 3 , N H 7 4 4 - a n d o t h e r s t a t e P W D R o a d s . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s p r o v i d e d b y s t a t e - o w n e d K e r a l a S t a t e R o a d T r a n s p o r t C o r p o r a t i o n ( K S R T C ) a n d p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t b u s o p e r a t o r s . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e f i v e K S R T C z o n e s i n K e r a l a . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s a l s o p r o v i d e d b y p r i v a t e t a x i s a n d a u t o r i c k s h a w s , a l s o c a l l e d a u t o s . T h e r e i s a c i t y p r i v a t e b u s s t a n d a t A n d a m u k k a m . T h e r e i s a K S R T C b u s s t a t i o n b e s i d e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . B u s e s t o v a r i o u s t o w n s i n K e r a l a a n d i n t e r s t a t e s e r v i c e s r u n f r o m t h i s s t a t i o n . T h e S t a t e W a t e r T r a n s p o r t D e p a r t m e n t o p e r a t e s b o a t s e r v i c e s t o W e s t K a l l a d a , M u n r o e I s l a n d , G u h a n a n d a p u r a m , D a l a v a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a f r o m K o l l a m K S W T D F e r r y T e r m i n a l s i t u a t e d o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . A s r a m a m L i n k R o a d i n t h e c i t y p a s s e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f e r r y t e r m i n a l . D o u b l e d e c k e r l u x u r y b o a t s r u n b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d A l l e p e y d a i l y . L u x u r y b o a t s , o p e r a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r i v a t e o w n e r s , o p e r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o a t j e t t y d u r i n g t h e t o u r i s t s e a s o n . T h e W e s t c o a s t c a n a l s y s t e m , w h i c h s t a r t s f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m i n t h e s o u t h a n d e n d s a t H o s d u r g i n t h e n o r t h , p a s s e s t h r o u g h P a r a v u r , t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m a n d K a r u n a g a p p a l l y t a l u k . K o l l a m P o r t i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p o r t i n K e r a l a , a f t e r C o c h i n P o r t T r u s t . I t i s o n e o f t w o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o r t s i n K e r a l a . C a r g o h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s b e g a n o p e r a t i o n i n 2 0 1 3 . F o r e i g n s h i p s a r r i v e i n t h e p o r t r e g u l a r l y w i t h t h e M V A l i n a , a v e s s e l r e g i s t e r e d i n A n t i g u a a n c h o r e d a t t h e p o r t o n 4 A p r i l 2 0 1 4 . O n c e t h e P o r t s t a r t s f u n c t i o n i n g i n f u l l - f l e d g e d , i t w i l l m a k e t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f K o l l a m - b a s e d c a s h e w c o m p a n i e s m o r e e a s y . S h r e y a s S h i p p i n g C o m p a n y i s n o w r u n n i n g a r e g u l a r c o n t a i n e r s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m P o r t a n d K o c h i P o r t . T h e r e a r e m a n y r e s p e c t e d c o l l e g e s , s c h o o l s a n d l e a r n i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o e d u c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t a n d l a t e s t k n o w l e d g e t o t h e s c h o l a r s . T h e T h a n g a l K u n j u M u s a l i a r C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e s c h o o l o f i t s k i n d i n t h e s t a t e , i s a t K i l i k o l l u r , a b o u t e a s t o f K o l l a m c i t y , a n d i s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e f o r a l l K o l l a m i t e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a s g r a n t e d a c a d e m i c a u t o n o m y t o F a t i m a M a t a N a t i o n a l C o l l e g e , a n o t h e r p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e c i t y . S r e e N a r a y a n a C o l l e g e , B i s h o p J e r o m e I n s t i t u t e ( a n i n t e g r a t e d c a m p u s p r o v i d i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e , E n g i n e e r i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s ) , a n d T r a v a n c o r e B u s i n e s s A c a d e m y a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e t w o l a w c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y , S r e e N a r a y a n a G u r u C o l l e g e o f L e g a l S t u d i e s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f S r e e N a r a y a n a T r u s t a n d N S S L a w C o l l e g e m a n a g e d b y t h e N . S . S . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e b e s t s c h o o l s i n K o l l a m i n c l u d i n g T r i n i t y L y c e u m S c h o o l , I n f a n t J e s u s S c h o o l , S t A l o y s i u s H . S . S , T h e o x f o r d s c h o o l , S r i S r i A c a d e m y e t c . K e r a l a S t a t e I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n ( K S I D ) , a d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e u n d e r D e p a r t m e n t o f l a b o u r a n d S k i l l s , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a , i s l o c a t e d a t C h a n d a n a t h o p e i n K o l l a m . I t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 2 0 0 8 a n d w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t s t a t e - o w n e d d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e s i n I n d i a . K S I D c u r r e n t l y c o n d u c t s P o s t G r a d u a t e D i p l o m a P r o g r a m s i n D e s i g n d e v e l o p e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n , A h m e d a b a d . I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f I n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n ( I I I C - K o l l a m ) i s a n i n s t i t u t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s s i t u a t e d a t C h a v a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o s u p p o r t t h e s k i l l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y , K o l l a m , K e r a l a i s a f a s h i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n s t i t u t e s i t u a t e d a t V e l l i m o n , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e c h n i c a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f T e x t i l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e t w o I M K ( I n s t i t u t e o f M a n a g e m e n t , K e r a l a ) E x t e n s i o n C e n t r e s a c t i v e i n t h e c i t y . K e r a l a M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e i s s i t u a t e d a t N e e n d a k a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o g i v e m a r i t i m e t r a i n i n g f o r t h e s t u d e n t s i n K e r a l a . M o r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d a t N e e n d a k a r a m a r i t i m e i n s t i t u t e u n d e r t h e B o a t C r e w t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e . A p a r t f r o m c o l l e g e s , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b a n k c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m i s k n o w n a s I n d i a ' s h u b f o r b a n k t e s t c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s w i t h a r o u n d 4 0 s u c h i n s t i t u t e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t . S t u d e n t s f r o m v a r i o u s I n d i a n s t a t e s s u c h a s T a m i l N a d u , K a r n a t a k a , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , B i h a r a n d M a d h y a P r a d e s h a l s o c o m e h e r e f o r c o a c h i n g . C r i c k e t i s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s p o r t , f o l l o w e d b y h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l . K o l l a m i s h o m e t o a n u m b e r o f l o c a l c r i c k e t , h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l t e a m s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n d i s t r i c t , s t a t e - l e v e l a n d z o n e m a t c h e s . A n I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o c k e y S t a d i u m w i t h a s t r o - t u r f f a c i l i t y i s t h e r e a t A s r a m a m i n t h e c i t y , b u i l t a t a c o s t o f R s . 1 3 c r o r e . T h e l a n d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t a d i u m w a s t a k e n o v e r f r o m t h e P o s t a l D e p a r t m e n t a t A s r a m a m , K o l l a m . T h e c i t y h a s a n o t h e r s t a d i u m n a m e d t h e L a l B a h a d u r S h a s t r i S t a d i u m , K o l l a m . I t i s a m u l t i p u r p o s e s t a d i u m a n d h a s r e p e a t e d l y h o s t e d s u c h s p o r t s e v e n t s a s t h e R a n j i T r o p h y , S a n t h o s h T r o p h y a n d N a t i o n a l G a m e s . T w o o p e n g r o u n d s i n t h e c i t y , t h e A s r a m a m M a i d a n a n d P e e r a n k i M a i d a n , a r e a l s o u s e d f o r s p o r t s e v e n t s , p r a c t i c e a n d w a r m - u p m a t c h e s . H i n d u s a n d t e m p l e s A n a n d a v a l l e e s h w a r a m S r i M a h a d e v a r T e m p l e i s a 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d a n c i e n t H i n d u t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y . T h e 4 0 0 - y e a r - o l d S a n c t u m s a n c t o r u m o f t h i s t e m p l e i s f i n i s h e d i n t e a k . A m m a c h i v e e d u M u h u r t h i t e m p l e i s a n o t h e r m a j o r t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d a r o u n d 6 0 0 y e a r s a g o b y t h e A m m a c h i V e e d u f a m i l y , a r i s t o c r a t s f r o m K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m p o o r a m , a m a j o r f e s t i v a l o f K o l l a m , i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a t e n - d a y f e s t i v a l , n o r m a l l y i n m i d A p r i l , o f A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e . K o t t a n k u l a n g a r a D e v i T e m p l e i s o n e o f t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s H i n d u t e m p l e s i n K e r a l a w e r e c r o s s - d r e s s i n g o f m e n f o r " C h a m a y a v i l a k k u " r i t u a l i s a p a r t o f t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v i t i e s . T h e m e n a l s o c a r r y l a r g e l a m p s . T h e f i r s t o f t h e t w o - d a y d r e s s i n g e v e n t d r e w t o a c l o s e e a r l y o n M o n d a y . M o r e o v e r , K o t t a r a k k a r a S r e e M a h a g a n a p a t h i K s h e t h r a m i n K o t t a r a k k a r a , P u t t i n g a l D e v i T e m p l e i n P a r a v u r , s o o r a n a d n o r t h a n a y a d i P a z h a y i d a m S r e e N a r a s i m h a S w a m i T e m p l e P o r u v a z h y P e r u v i r u t h y M a l a n a d a T e m p l e i n P o r u v a z h y , S a s t h a m c o t t a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a T e m p l e i n S a s t h a m k o t t a , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a t e m p l e , T h r i k k a d a v o o r S r e e M a h a d e v a T e m p l e i n K a d a v o o r a n d K a t t i l M e k k a t h i l D e v i T e m p l e i n P o n m a n a P a d a n a y a r k u l a n g a r a m a h a d e v a t e m p l e K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , A s h t a m u d i S r e e V e e r a b h a d r a S w a m y T e m p l e a r e t h e o t h e r f a m o u s H i n d u w o r s h i p c e n t r e s i n t h e K o l l a m M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c h u r c h e s T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l i n T a n g a s s e r i i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o r t u g u e s e d u r i n g 1 6 1 4 . I t i s n o w t h e p r o - c a t h e d r a l o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n – t h e a n c i e n t a n d f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e o f I n d i a . T h e c h u r c h r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f o l d Q u i l o n c i t y . S t . S e b a s t i a n ' s C h u r c h a t N e e n d a k a r a i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h i n t h e c i t y . T h e D u t c h C h u r c h i n M u n r o e I s l a n d i s b u i l t b y t h e D u t c h i n 1 8 7 8 . O u r L a d y o f V e l a n k a n n i S h r i n e i n C u t c h e r y i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p p l a c e i n K o l l a m c i t y . S a i n t C a s i m i r C h u r c h i n K a d a v o o r , H o l y F a m i l y C h u r c h i n K a v a n a d , S t . S t e p h e n ' s C h u r c h i n T h o p p u a n d S t . T h o m a s C h u r c h i n K a d a p p a k a d a a r e s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n K o l l a m . M u s l i m s a n d m o s q u e s K o t t u k a d u J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r J u m a - A - M a s j i d , V a l i y a p a l l i i n J o n a k a p p u r a m , C h i n n a k a d a J u m a M a s j i d , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n K o l l u r v i l a , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n T h a t t a m a l a a n d K o i v i l a J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a a r e t h e o t h e r m a j o r M o s q u e s i n K o l l a m . N o t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s b o r n i n K o l l a m i n c l u d e :

Transport

Kollam, a significant industrial township, grew due to its strategic location facilitating trade via bullock carts and waterways connecting Allepey and Cochin. Later, rail links to Tamil Nadu strengthened trade connections. The city is known for cashew processing and coir manufacturing. Its economy relies heavily on fishing and allied activities, with an estimated 134,973 people engaged in these sectors. Tourism is also promoted through events like Kollam Fest and the President's Trophy Boat Race. The city is well-connected by air, rail, road, and water transport systems.

pepper by bullock cart and the trade over the waterways connecting Allepey and Cochin established trade linkages that enabled it to grow into one of the earliest Indian industrial townships. The rail links later established to Tamil Nadu supported still stronger trade links. The factories processing marine exports and the processing and packaging of cashewnuts extended its trade across the globe. It is known for cashew processing and coir manufacturing. Ashtamudi Lake is considered the southern gateway to the backwaters of Kerala and is a prominent tourist destination at Kollam. The Kollam urban area includes suburban towns such as Paravur in the south, Kundara in the east and Karunagapally in the north of the city. Other important towns in the city suburbs are Eravipuram, Kottiyam, Kannanallur, and Chavara. in the economy of the district. Neendakara and Sakthikulangara villages in the suburbs of the city have fisheries. An estimated 134,973 persons are engaged in fishing and allied activities. Cheriazheekkal, Alappad, Pandarathuruthu, Puthenthura, Neendakara, Thangasseri, Eravipuram and Paravur are eight of the 26 important fishing villages. There are 24 inland fishing villages. The Government has initiated steps for establishing a fishing harbour at Neendakara. Average fish landing is estimated at 85,275 tonnes per year. One-third of the state's fish catch is from Kollam. Nearly 3000 mechanised boats are operating from the fishing harbour. FFDA and VFFDA promote fresh water fish culture and prawn farming respectively. A fishing village with 100 houses is being built at Eravipuram. A prawn farm is being built at Ayiramthengu, and several new hatcheries of domestic and foreign tourists to Kollam. The main venue of Kollam Fest is the historic and gigantic Ashramam Maidan. Kollam Fest is the signature event of Kollam. Kollam Fest seeks to showcase Kollam's rich culture and heritage, tourism potential and investments in new ventures. Kollam Pooram, part of the Asramam Sree Krishna Swamy Temple Festival, is usually held on 15 April, but occasionally on 16 April. The pooram is held at the Ashramam maidan. The President's Trophy Boat Race (PTBR) is an annual regatta held in Ashtamudi Lake in Kollam. The event was inaugurated by President Prathibha Patil in September 2011. The event has been rescheduled from 2012. The city corporation of Kollam is served by the Trivandrum International Airport, which is about 56 kilometers from the city via NH66 . Trivandrum International Airport is the first international airport in a non-metro city in India. is the second largest railway station in Kerala in area, after Shoranur Junction, with a total of 6 platforms. The station has 17 rail tracks. Kollam junction has world's second longest railway platform, measuring 1180.5 m(3873 ft). Mainline Electrical Multiple Unit (MEMU) have a maintenance shed at Kollam Junction. The MEMU services started from Kollam to Ernakulam via Alappuzha and Kottayam in the second week of January 2012. By 1 December 2012, MEMU service between Kollam and Nagercoil became a reality and later extended up to Kanyakumari. Kollam MEMU Shed inaugurated on 1 December 2013 for the maintenance works of MEMU rakes. Kollam MEMU Shed is the largest MEMU Shed in Kerala, which is equipped with most modern facilities. There is a long-standing demand for the Kollam Town Railway Station in the Kollam-Perinad stretch and "S.N College Railway Station" in the Kollam-Eravipuram stretch. The railway stations in Kollam city are Kollam Junction railway station, Eravipuram railway station and Kilikollur railway station. A new suburban rail system has been proposed by the Kerala Government and Indian Railways on the route Thiruvananthapuram - Kollam - Haripad/Chengannur for which MRVC is tasked to conduct a study and submit a report. Ten trains, each with seven coaches, will transport passengers back and forth along the Trivandrum-Kollam-Chengannur-Kottarakara-Adoor section. The city of Kollam is connected to almost all the cities and major towns in the state, including Trivandrum, Alappuzha, Kochi, Palakkad, Kottayam, Kottarakkara, and Punalur, and with other Indian cities through the NH 66, NH 183, NH 744 - and other state PWD Roads. Road transport is provided by state-owned Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) and private transport bus operators. Kollam is one among the five KSRTC zones in Kerala. Road transport is also provided by private taxis and autorickshaws, also called autos. There is a city private bus stand at Andamukkam. There is a KSRTC bus station beside Ashtamudi Lake. Buses to various towns in Kerala and interstate services run from this station. The State Water Transport Department operates boat services to West Kallada, Munroe Island, Guhanandapuram, Dalavapuram and Alappuzha from Kollam KSWTD Ferry Terminal situated on the banks of the Ashtamudi Lake. Asramam Link Road in the city passes adjacent to the ferry terminal. Double decker luxury boats run between Kollam and Allepey daily. Luxury boats, operated by the government and private owners, operate from the main boat jetty during the tourist season. The West coast canal system, which starts from Thiruvananthapuram in the south and ends at Hosdurg in the north, passes through Paravur, the city of Kollam and Karunagappally taluk. Kollam Port is the second largest port in Kerala, after Cochin Port Trust. It is one of two international ports in Kerala. Cargo handling facilities began operation in 2013. Foreign ships arrive in the port regularly with the MV Alina, a vessel registered in Antigua anchored at the port on 4April 2014. Once the Port starts functioning in full-fledged, it will make the transportation activities of Kollam-based cashew companies more easy. Shreyas Shipping Company is now running a regular container service between Kollam Port and Kochi Port. There are many respected colleges, schools and learning centres in Kollam. The city and suburbs contribute greatly to education by providing the best and latest knowledge to the scholars. The Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineering, the first private school of its kind in the state, is at Kilikollur, about east of Kollam city, and is a source of pride for all Kollamites. The Government of Kerala has granted academic autonomy to Fatima Mata National College, another prestigious institution in the city. Sree Narayana College, Bishop Jerome Institute (an integrated campus providing Architecture, Engineering and Management courses), and Travancore Business Academy are other important colleges in

Kollam

I n 8 2 5 C E , t h e M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r , o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " , w a s c r e a t e d i n K o l l a m a t m e e t i n g s h e l d i n t h e c i t y . T h e p r e s e n t M a l a y a l a m c a l e n d a r i s s a i d t o h a v e b e g u n w i t h t h e r e - f o u n d i n g o f t h e t o w n , w h i c h w a s r e b u i l t a f t e r i t s d e s t r u c t i o n b y f i r e . T h e n a m e K o l l a m i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d " K o l l a m " , m e a n i n g p e p p e r . A s t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Q u i l o n , K o l l a m w a s a f l o u r i s h i n g p o r t d u r i n g t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y ( c . 3 r d c e n t u r y B C – 1 2 t h c e n t u r y ) , a n d l a t e r b e c a m e t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e K i n g d o m o f Q u i l o n o n i t s f o u n d a t i o n i n c . 8 2 5 . K o l l a m w a s c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e f o u r e a r l y e n t r e p o t s i n g l o b a l s e a t r a d e d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , a l o n g w i t h A l e x a n d r i a a n d C a i r o i n E g y p t , t h e C h i n e s e c i t y o f Q u a n z h o u , a n d M a l a c c a i n t h e M a l a y s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o . I t s e e m s t h a t t r a d e a t K o l l a m s e e m s t o h a v e f l o u r i s h e d r i g h t i n t o t h e M e d i e v a l p e r i o d a s i n 1 2 8 0 , t h e r e i s i n s t a n c e o f e n v o y s o f Y u a n C h i n a c o m i n g t o K o l l a m f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e l o c a l r u l e r a n d C h i n a T h e a n c i e n t p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f K o l l a m w a s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f K e r a l a . T h e C h e r a d y n a s t y g o v e r n e d t h e a r e a o f M a l a b a r C o a s t b e t w e e n A l a p p u z h a i n t h e s o u t h t o K a s a r a g o d i n t h e n o r t h . T h i s i n c l u d e d P a l a k k a d G a p , C o i m b a t o r e , S a l e m , a n d K o l l i H i l l s . T h e r e g i o n a r o u n d C o i m b a t o r e w a s r u l e d b y t h e C h e r a s d u r i n g S a n g a m p e r i o d b e t w e e n c . f i r s t a n d t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s C E a n d i t s e r v e d a s t h e e a s t e r n e n t r a n c e t o t h e P a l a k k a d G a p , t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a d e r o u t e b e t w e e n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t a n d T a m i l N a d u . H o w e v e r t h e s o u t h e r n r e g i o n o f p r e s e n t - d a y K e r a l a s t a t e ( T h e c o a s t a l b e l t b e t w e e n T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a ) w a s u n d e r A y d y n a s t y , w h o w a s m o r e r e l a t e d t o t h e P a n d y a d y n a s t y o f M a d u r a i t h a n C h e r a s . A l o n g w i t h ( M u z i r i s a n d T y n d i s ) , Q u i l o n w a s a n a n c i e n t s e a p o r t o n t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t o f I n d i a f r o m t h e e a r l y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a . K o l l a m s e r v e d a s a m a j o r p o r t c i t y f o r P a n d y a d y n a s t y o n t h e w e s t e r n c o a s t w h i l e K u l a s e k h a r a p a t n a m s e r v e d P a n d y a s o n t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t . T h e c i t y h a d a h i g h c o m m e r c i a l r e p u t a t i o n f r o m t h e d a y s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d A n c i e n t R o m a n s . P l i n y t h e E l d e r ( 2 3 – 7 9 A D ) m e n t i o n s G r e e k s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t M u z i r i s a n d N e l c y n d a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a l a n d r o u t e o v e r t h e W e s t e r n G h a t s . S p i c e s , p e a r l s , d i a m o n d s , a n d s i l k w e r e e x p o r t e d t o E g y p t a n d R o m e f r o m t h e s e p o r t s . P e a r l s a n d d i a m o n d s c a m e t o t h e C h e r a K i n g d o m f r o m C e y l o n a n d t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n c o a s t o f I n d i a , t h e n k n o w n a s t h e P a n d y a n K i n g d o m . C o s m a s I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , a G r e e k N e s t o r i a n s a i l o r , i n h i s b o o k t h e C h r i s t i a n T o p o g r a p h y w h o v i s i t e d t h e M a l a b a r C o a s t i n 5 5 0 , m e n t i o n s a n e n c l a v e o f C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s i n " M a l e " ( M a l a b a r C o a s t ) . H e w r i t e s , " I n t h e i s l a n d o f T a b r o p a n e ( C e y l o n ) , t h e r e i s a c h u r c h o f C h r i s t i a n s , a n d c l e r i c s a n d f a i t h f u l . L i k e w i s e a t M a l e , w h e r e t h e p e p p e r g r o w s , a n d i n t h e f a r m i n g c o m m u n i t y o f K a l l i a n a ( K a l l i a n k a l a t N i l l a c k a l ) t h e r e i s a l s o a b i s h o p c o n s e c r a t e d i n P e r s i a i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e N i c e a S u n n a h a d o s e o f 3 2 5 A D . " T h e N e s t o r i a n P a t r i a r c h J e s u j a b u s , w h o d i e d i n 6 6 0 A D , m e n t i o n s K o l l a m i n h i s l e t t e r t o S i m o n , M e t r o p o l i t a n o f P e r s i a . K o l l a m i s a l s o h o m e t o o n e o f t h e o l d e s t m o s q u e s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e L e g e n d o f C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l s , t h e f i r s t I n d i a n m o s q u e w a s b u i l t i n 6 2 4 A D a t K o d u n g a l l u r w i t h t h e m a n d a t e o f t h e l a s t t h e r u l e r ( t h e C h e r a m a n P e r u m a l ) o f C h e r a d y n a s t y , w h o l e f t f r o m D h a r m a d o m t o M e c c a a n d c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( c . 5 7 0 – 6 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o " Q i s s a t S h a k a r w a t i F a r m a d " , t h e " M a s j i d s " a t K o d u n g a l l u r , K o l l a m , M a d a y i , B a r k u r , M a n g a l o r e , K a s a r a g o d , K a n n u r , D h a r m a d a m , P a n t h a l a y i n i , a n d C h a l i y a m , w e r e b u i l t d u r i n g t h e e r a o f M a l i k D i n a r , a n d t h e y a r e a m o n g t h e o l d e s t " M a s j i d " s i n I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a l i k D i n a r d i e d a t T h a l a n g a r a i n K a s a r a g o d t o w n . T h e p o r t a t K o l l a m , t h e n k n o w n a s Q u i l o n , w a s f o u n d e d i n 8 2 5 b y t h e N e s t o r i a n C h r i s t i a n s M a r S a b o r a n d M a r P r o t h w i t h s a n c t i o n f r o m A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l , t h e k i n g o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t V e n a d o r t h e S t a t e o f Q u i l o n , a f e u d a t o r y u n d e r t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t M a r S a p o r I s o a l s o p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e C h e r a k i n g c r e a t e a n e w s e a p o r t n e a r K o l l a m i n l i e u o f h i s r e q u e s t t h a t h e r e b u i l d t h e a l m o s t v a n i s h e d i n l a n d s e a p o r t a t K o l l a m ( k o r e - k e - n i ) n e a r B a c k a r e ( T h e v a l a k a r a ) , a l s o k n o w n a s N e l c y n d a a n d T y n d i s t o t h e R o m a n s a n d G r e e k s a n d a s T h o n d i t o t h e T a m i l s , w h i c h h a d b e e n w i t h o u t t r a d e f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e c a u s e t h e C h e r a s w e r e o v e r r u n b y t h e P a l l a v a s i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , e n d i n g t h e s p i c e t r a d e f r o m t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e N e s t o r i a n s t o s t a y i n t h e C h e r a k i n g d o m f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a n d i n t r o d u c e t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r s u b - c a s t e s i n t h e S t . T h o m a s t r a d i t i o n , w i t h t h e S y r i a n l i t u r g y a s a b a s i s f o r t h e D o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y , w i t h o u t r e p l a c i n g t h e S a n s k r i t a n d V e d i c p r a y e r s . T h e T h a r i s a p a l l i p l a t e s p r e s e n t e d t o M a r u v a n S a p o r I s o b y A y y a n a d i k a l T h i r u v a d i k a l g r a n t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t h e p r i v i l e g e o f o v e r s e e i n g f o r e i g n t r a d e i n t h e c i t y a s w e l l a s c o n t r o l o v e r i t s w e i g h t s a n d m e a s u r e s i n a m o v e d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e Q u i l o n ' s t r a d e a n d w e a l t h . T h e t w o C h r i s t i a n s w e r e a l s o i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o u n d i n g C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s w i t h S y r i a n l i t u r g y a l o n g t h e M a l a b a r c o a s t , d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e a n c i e n t V e d i c A d v a i t a m p r o p o u n d e d b y A d i S h a n k a r a i n t h e e a r l y n i n t h c e n t u r y a m o n g t h e N a m p o o t h i r i V a i s h n a v i t e s a n d N a i r S u b C a s t e s , a s M a l a y a l a m w a s n o t a c c e p t e d a s a l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . T h u s b e g a n t h e M a l a y a l a m E r a , k n o w n a s K o l l a V a r s h a m a f t e r t h e c i t y , i n d i c a t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f K o l l a m i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y . T h e P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t S o l e y m a n o f S i r a f v i s i t e d M a l a b a r i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d f o u n d Q u i l o n t o b e t h e o n l y p o r t i n I n d i a u s e d b y t h e h u g e C h i n e s e s h i p s a s t h e i r t r a n s s h i p m e n t h u b f o r g o o d s o n t h e i r w a y f r o m C h i n a t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . T h e r u l e r s o f K o l l a m ( f o r m e r l y c a l l e d ' D e s i n g a n a d u ' ) h a d t r a d e r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a a n d e x c h a n g e d e m b a s s i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e T a n g d y n a s t y ( 6 1 8 – 9 1 3 ) , Q u i l o n w a s t h e i r c h i e f p o r t o f c a l l b e f o r e t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e C h i n e s e t r a d e d e c r e a s e d a b o u t 6 0 0 a n d w a s a g a i n r e v i v e d i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y . " M i r a b i l i a D e s c r i p t a " b y B i s h o p C a t a l a n i g i v e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f l i f e i n K o l l a m , w h i c h h e s a w a s t h e C a t h o l i c b i s h o p - d e s i g n a t e t o K o l l a m , t h e o l d e s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . H e a l s o g i v e s t r u e a n d i m a g i n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f l i f e i n ' I n d i a t h e M a j o r ' i n t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e M a r c o P o l o v i s i t e d t h e c i t y . S u l a i m a n a l - T a j i r , a P e r s i a n m e r c h a n t w h o v i s i t e d K e r a l a d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S t h a n u R a v i V a r m a ( 9 t h c e n t u r y C E ) , r e c o r d s t h a t t h e r e w a s e x t e n s i v e t r a d e b e t w e e n K e r a l a a n d C h i n a a t t h a t t i m e , b a s e d a t t h e p o r t o f K o l l a m . I n 1 3 t h c e n t u r y C E , M a r a v a r m a n K u l a s e k a r a P a n d y a n I , a P a n d y a r u l e r f o u g h t a w a r i n V e n a d a n d c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a p p e a r s o n t h e C a t a l a n A t l a s o f 1 3 7 5 C E a s C o l u m b o a n d C o l o b o . T h e m a p m a r k s t h i s c i t y a s a C h r i s t i a n c i t y , r u l e d b y a C h r i s t i a n r u l e r . T h e t e x t a b o v e t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e k i n g s a y s : " A ç í s e n y [ o ] r e j a l o r e y C o l o b o , c h r i s t i à . P r u v í n c i a d e C o l u m b o " ( H e r e r e i g n s t h e L o r d K i n g C o l o b o , C h r i s t i a n , P r o v i n c e o f C o l u m b o ) . T h e c i t y w a s m u c h f r e q u e n t e d b y t h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s C E , f o l l o w e d b y t h e D o m i n i c a n a n d F r a n c i s c a n f r i a r s f r o m E u r o p e . T h e G e n o e s e m e r c h a n t s c a l l e d t h e c i t y C o l õ b o / C o l o m b o . I n 1 3 2 9 C E P o p e J o h n X X I I e s t a b l i s h e d K o l l a m / C o l u m b o a s t h e f i r s t a n d o n l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c b i s h o p r i c o n t h e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t , a n d a p p o i n t e d J o r d a n o f C a t a l o n i a , a D o m i n i c a n f r i a r , a s t h e d i o c e s e ' s f i r s t b i s h o p o f t h e L a t i n s e c t . T h e P o p e ' s L a t i n s c r i b e s a s s i g n e d t h e n a m e " C o l u m b u m " t o C o l u m b o . A c c o r d i n g t o a b o o k a u t h o r e d b y I l a r i u s A u g u s t u s , p u b l i s h e d A p r i l , 2 0 2 1 ( " ' C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s : B u r i e d d e e p i n L a t i n t h e I n d i a n o r i g i n o f t h e g r e a t e x p l o r e r f r o m G e n o a " ' ) , t h e w o r d s C o l u m b u m , C o l u m b u s a n d C o l u m b o a p p e a r f o r t h e v e r y f i r s t t i m e i n a n o t a r i a l d e e d ( l e a s e c o n t r a c t ) o f a c e r t a i n M o u s s o i n G e n o a i n 1 3 2 9 C E . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r i n t h e f o r m o f a t o p o n y m . T h e a u t h o r t h e n s h o w s , t h r o u g h t h e L a t i n t e x t o f s e v e r a l o t h e r n o t a r i a l d e e d s a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s o n c h u r c h h i s t o r y , h o w C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s - a l s o c a r r y i n g t h e s a m e t o p o n y m . - w a s p a r t o f M o u s s o ' s f a m i l y , a n d h e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n l i n e a g e ( a l t h o u g h b o r n i n G e n o a ) . T h e p o r t a t K o z h i k o d e h e l d s u p e r i o r e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n m e d i e v a l K e r a l a c o a s t , w h i l e K a n n u r , K o l l a m , a n d K o c h i , w e r e c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y p o r t s , w h e r e t h e t r a d e r s f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w o u l d g a t h e r . T h e P o r t u g u e s e a r r i v e d a t K a p p a d K o z h i k o d e i n 1 4 9 8 d u r i n g t h e A g e o f D i s c o v e r y , t h u s o p e n i n g a d i r e c t s e a r o u t e f r o m E u r o p e t o I n d i a . T h e y w e r e t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a t r a d i n g c e n t e r i n T a n g a s s e r i , K o l l a m i n 1 5 0 2 , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i r t r a d e i n p e p p e r . I n t h e w a r s w i t h t h e M o o r s / A r a b s t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e a n c i e n t c h u r c h ( t e m p l e ) o f S t T h o m a s T r a d i t i o n a t T h e v a l a k a r a w a s d e s t r o y e d . I n 1 5 1 7 , t h e P o r t u g u e s e b u i l t t h e S t . T h o m a s F o r t i n T h a n g a s s e r i , w h i c h w a s d e s t r o y e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t w a r s w i t h t h e D u t c h . I n 1 6 6 1 , t h e D u t c h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c i t y . T h e r e m n a n t s o f t h e o l d P o r t u g u e s e F o r t , l a t e r r e n o v a t e d b y t h e D u t c h , c a n b e f o u n d a t T h a n g a s s e r i . I n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y , T r a v a n c o r e c o n q u e r e d K o l l a m , f o l l o w e d b y t h e B r i t i s h i n 1 7 9 5 . T h a n g a s s e r i r e m a i n s t o d a y a s a n A n g l o - I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h o u g h f e w A n g l o - I n d i a n s r e m a i n . T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C h u r c h i n T h a n g a s s e r i , a n o l d P o r t u g u e s e - b u i l t c h u r c h , r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f t h e a r e a . T h e B a t t l e o f Q u i l o n w a s f o u g h t i n 1 8 0 9 b e t w e e n a t r o o p o f t h e I n d i a n k i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e l e d b y t h e t h e n D a l a w a ( p r i m e m i n i s t e r ) o f T r a v a n c o r e , V e l u T h a m p i D a l a w a a n d t h e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y l e d b y C o l o n e l C h a l m e r s a t C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n i n Q u i l o n . T h e b a t t l e l a s t e d f o r o n l y s i x h o u r s a n d w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y ' s i n v a s i o n o f Q u i l o n a n d t h e i r g a r r i s o n s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e C a n t o n m e n t M a i d a n . T h e c o m p a n y f o r c e s w o n t h e b a t t l e w h i l e a l l t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e w a r w e r e c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h a n g e d a t t h e m a i d a n . I n t h e e a r l y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y C E , t h e T r a v a n c o r e r o y a l f a m i l y a d o p t e d s o m e m e m b e r s f r o m t h e r o y a l f a m i l y o f K o l a t h u n a d u b a s e d a t K a n n u r , a n d P a r a p p a n a d b a s e d i n p r e s e n t - d a y M a l a p p u r a m d i s t r i c t . L a t e r , V e n a d K i n g d o m w a s c o m p l e t e l y m e r g e d w i t h t h e K i n g d o m o f T r a v a n c o r e d u r i n g t h e r e i n o f M a r t h a n d a V a r m a a n d K o l l a m r e m a i n e d a s t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e K i n g d o m . L a t e r o n , t h e c a p i t a l o f T r a v a n c o r e w a s r e l o c a t e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m . T r a v a n c o r e b e c a m e t h e m o s t d o m i n a n t s t a t e i n K e r a l a b y d e f e a t i n g t h e p o w e r f u l Z a m o r i n o f K o z h i k o d e i n t h e b a t t l e o f P u r a k k a d i n 1 7 5 5 . T h e G o v e r n m e n t S e c r e t a r i a t w a s a l s o s i t u a t e d i n K o l l a m t i l l t h e 1 8 3 0 s . I t w a s m o v e d t o T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f S w a t h i T h i r u n a l . E x c a v a t i o n s a r e g o i n g o n a t K o l l a m P o r t p r e m i s e s s i n c e F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 a s t h e t e a m h a s u n c o v e r e d a r r a y s o f a n t i q u e a r t i f a c t s , i n c l u d i n g C h i n e s e p o r c e l a i n a n d c o i n s . A C h i n e s e t e a m w i t h t h e P a l a c e M u s e u m , a t e a m f r o m I n d i a w i t h K e r a l a C o u n c i l f o r H i s t o r i c a l R e s e a r c h ( K C H R ) d i s c o v e r e d C h i n e s e c o i n s a n d a r t i f a c t s t h a t s h o w t r a d e l i n k s b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d a n c i e n t C h i n a . K o l l a m c i t y i s b o r d e r e d b y t h e p a n c h a y a t s o f N e e n d a k a r a a n d T h r i k k a r u v a t o t h e n o r t h , M a y y a n a d t o t h e s o u t h , a n d T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m a n d K o t t a m k a r a t o t h e e a s t , a n d b y t h e L a c c a d i v e S e a t o t h e w e s t . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y . T h e c i t y i s a b o u t a w a y f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m , a w a y f r o m K o c h i a n d a w a y f r o m K o z h i k o d e . T h e N a t i o n a l W a t e r w a y 3 a n d I t h i k k a r a r i v e r a r e t w o i m p o r t a n t w a t e r w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c i t y . T h e l o n g K o l l a m C a n a l i s c o n n e c t i n g P a r a v u r L a k e a n s A s h t a m u d i L a k e . T h e K a l l a d a r i v e r , a n o t h e r r i v e r t h a t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y , e m p t i e s i n t o A s h t a m u d i L a k e , w h i l e t h e I t h i k k a r a r i v e r r u n s t o P a r a v u r K a y a l . K a t t a k a y a l , a f r e s h w a t e r l a k e i n t h e c i t y , c o n n e c t s a n o t h e r w a t e r - b o d y n a m e d V a t t a k k a y a l w i t h L a k e A s h t a m u d i . I n M a r c h 2 0 1 6 , " I n d i a T i m e s " s e l e c t e d K o l l a m a s o n e o f t h e n i n e l e a s t p o l l u t e d c i t i e s o n e a r t h t o w h i c h a n y b o d y c a n r e l o c a t e . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e t o p 1 0 m o s t w e l c o m i n g p l a c e s i n I n d i a f o r t h e y e a r 2 0 2 0 , a c c o r d i n g t o B o o k i n g . c o m ' s t r a v e l l e r r e v i e w a w a r d s . K o l l a m i s a n a n c i e n t t r a d i n g t o w n – t r a d i n g w i t h R o m a n s , C h i n e s e , A r a b s , a n d o t h e r O r i e n t a l s – m e n t i o n e d i n h i s t o r i c a l c i t a t i o n s d a t i n g b a c k t o B i b l i c a l t i m e s a n d t h e r e i g n o f S o l o m o n , c o n n e c t i n g w i t h R e d S e a p o r t s o f t h e A r a b i a n S e a ( s u p p o r t e d b y a f i n d o f a n c i e n t R o m a n c o i n s ) . T h e r e w a s a l s o i n t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e A r y a n k a v u P a s s i n S c h e n k o t t a h G a p c o n n e c t i n g t h e a n c i e n t t o w n t o T a m i l N a d u . T h e o v e r l a n d t r a d e i n p e p p e r b y b u l l o c k c a r t a n d t h e t r a d e o v e r t h e w a t e r w a y s c o n n e c t i n g A l l e p e y a n d C o c h i n e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d e l i n k a g e s t h a t e n a b l e d i t t o g r o w i n t o o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t I n d i a n i n d u s t r i a l t o w n s h i p s . T h e r a i l l i n k s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d t o T a m i l N a d u s u p p o r t e d s t i l l s t r o n g e r t r a d e l i n k s . T h e f a c t o r i e s p r o c e s s i n g m a r i n e e x p o r t s a n d t h e p r o c e s s i n g a n d p a c k a g i n g o f c a s h e w n u t s e x t e n d e d i t s t r a d e a c r o s s t h e g l o b e . I t i s k n o w n f o r c a s h e w p r o c e s s i n g a n d c o i r m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A s h t a m u d i L a k e i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u t h e r n g a t e w a y t o t h e b a c k w a t e r s o f K e r a l a a n d i s a p r o m i n e n t t o u r i s t d e s t i n a t i o n a t K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m u r b a n a r e a i n c l u d e s s u b u r b a n t o w n s s u c h a s P a r a v u r i n t h e s o u t h , K u n d a r a i n t h e e a s t a n d K a r u n a g a p a l l y i n t h e n o r t h o f t h e c i t y . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o w n s i n t h e c i t y s u b u r b s a r e E r a v i p u r a m , K o t t i y a m , K a n n a n a l l u r , a n d C h a v a r a . K o l l a m e x p e r i e n c e s a t r o p i c a l m o n s o o n c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n " A m " ) w i t h l i t t l e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n t e m p e r a t u r e s . D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h i s t h e d r y s e a s o n w i t h l e s s t h a n o f r a i n i n e a c h o f t h o s e m o n t h s . A p r i l t o N o v e m b e r i s t h e w e t s e a s o n , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e r a i n t h a n d u r i n g D e c e m b e r t o M a r c h , e s p e c i a l l y i n J u n e a n d J u l y a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e S o u t h w e s t M o n s o o n . I n d i a c e n s u s , K o l l a m c i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 w i t h a d e n s i t y o f 5 , 4 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e . T h e s e x r a t i o ( t h e n u m b e r o f f e m a l e s p e r 1 , 0 0 0 m a l e s ) w a s 1 , 1 1 2 , t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e d i s t r i c t o f K o l l a m r a n k e d s e v e n t h i n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e w h i l e t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m r a n k e d f o u r t h . K o l l a m h a d a n a v e r a g e l i t e r a c y r a t e o f 9 3 . 7 7 % , h i g h e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e o f 7 4 . 0 4 % . M a l e l i t e r a c y s t o o d a t 9 5 . 8 3 % , a n d f e m a l e a t 9 1 . 9 5 % . I n K o l l a m , 1 1 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r s i x y e a r s o f a g e . I n M a y 2 0 1 5 , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a v e d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d C i t y C o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m b y m e r g i n g T h r i k k a d a v o o r p a n c h a y a t h . S o t h e a r e a w i l l b e c o m e w i t h a t o t a l c i t y p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 8 4 , 8 9 2 . M a l a y a l a m i s t h e m o s t w i d e l y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e c i t y , w h i l e T a m i l i s u n d e r s t o o d b y s o m e s e c t i o n s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s o f A n g l o - I n d i a n s , K o n k a n i B r a h m i n s , T e l u g u C h e t t y a n d B e n g a l i m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r s s e t t l e d i n t h e c i t y . F o r e a s e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , K o l l a m M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o s i x z o n e s w i t h l o c a l z o n a l o f f i c e s f o r e a c h o n e . I n 2 0 1 4 , f o r m e r K o l l a m M a y o r M r s . P r a s a n n a E a r n e s t w a s s e l e c t e d a s t h e B e s t L a d y M a y o r o f S o u t h I n d i a b y t h e R o t a r y C l u b o f T r i v a n d r u m R o y a l T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s a m i c r o c o s m o f K e r a l a s t a t e w i t h i t s r e s i d e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o v a r i e d r e l i g i o u s , e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y a n c i e n t t e m p l e s , c e n t u r i e s - o l d c h u r c h e s a n d m o s q u e s i n t h e c i t y a n d i t s s u b u r b s . K o l l a m i s a H i n d u m a j o r i t y c i t y i n K e r a l a . 5 6 . 3 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n b e l o n g s t o H i n d u c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e K o l l a m E r a ( a l s o k n o w n a s " M a l a y a l a m E r a " o r " K o l l a v a r s h a m " o r " M a l a y a l a m C a l e n d a r " o r " M a l a b a r E r a " ) , s o l a r a n d s i d e r e a l H i n d u c a l e n d a r u s e d i n K e r a l a , h a s b e e n o r i g i n a t e d o n 8 2 5 C E ( P o t h u V a r s h a m ) a t ( K o l l a m ) c i t y . M u s l i m s a c c o u n t f o r 2 2 . 0 5 % o f K o l l a m ' s t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . A s p e r t h e C e n s u s 2 0 1 1 d a t a , 8 0 , 9 3 5 i s t h e t o t a l M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n K o l l a m . T h e K a r b a l a M a i d a n a n d t h e a d j a c e n t M a k a n i m o s q u e s e r v e s a s t h e E i d g a h f o r t h e c i t y . T h e 3 0 0 - y e a r - o l d J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i a t K a r u v a h o u s e s t h e m o r t a l r e m a i n s o f a S u f i s a i n t , S y e d A b d u r R a h m a n J i f r i . C h r i s t i a n s a c c o u n t f o r 2 1 . 1 7 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f K o l l a m c i t y . T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n ( K o l l a m ) i s t h e f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e i n I n d i a . T h e d i o c e s e w a s f i r s t e r e c t e d b y P o p e J o h n X X I I o n 9 A u g u s t 1 3 2 9 . I t w a s r e - e r e c t e d o n 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 8 6 . T h e d i o c e s e c o v e r s a n a r e a o f a n d c o n t a i n s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 4 , 8 7 9 , 5 5 3 , C a t h o l i c s n u m b e r i n g 2 3 5 , 9 2 2 ( 4 . 8 % ) . T h e f a m o u s I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l , 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d , l o c a t e d i n T h a n g a s s e r y , i s t h e c o - c a t h e d r a l o f t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n . C S I K o l l a m - K o t t a r a k a r a D i o c e s e i s o n e o f t h e t w e n t y - f o u r d i o c e s e s o f t h e C h u r c h o f S o u t h I n d i a . T h e H e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e K e r a l a r e g i o n o f T h e P e n t e c o s t a l M i s s i o n f o r K o t t a r a k k a r a , i s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m C i t y i s a M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n w i t h e l e c t e d C o u n c i l l o r s f r o m i t s 5 5 d i v i s i o n s . T h e M a y o r , e l e c t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e c o u n c i l l o r s , g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y h o l d i n g a m a j o r i t y . T h e C o r p o r a t i o n S e c r e t a r y h e a d s t h e o f f i c e o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e p r e s e n t M a y o r o f K o l l a m C o r p o r a t i o n i s A d v . V . R a j e n d r a b a b u o f C P I ( M ) . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c i t y f a l l s u n d e r t h e K o l l a m C i t y P o l i c e C o m m i s s i o n e r a t e w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y a n I P S ( I n d i a n P o l i c e S e r v i c e ) c a d r e o f f i c e r a n d h e r e p o r t s t o t h e I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l o f P o l i c e ( I G P ) T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m R a n g e . T h e p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m e s u n d e r t h e S t a t e H o m e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a . K o l l a m C i t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b d i v i s i o n s , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , e a c h u n d e r a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r o f P o l i c e . W i t h a t o t a l u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 , 1 8 7 , 1 5 8 a n d 3 4 9 , 0 3 3 a s c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n ' s p o p u l a t i o n , K o l l a m i s t h e f o u r t h m o s t p o p u l o u s c i t y i n t h e s t a t e a n d 4 9 t h o n t h e l i s t o f t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s u r b a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s i n I n d i a . t h e c i t y ' s u r b a n g r o w t h r a t e o f 1 5 4 . 5 9 % w a s t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n t h e s t a t e . T h e M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a o f K o l l a m i n c l u d e s U l i y a k o v i l , A d i c h a n a l l o o r , A d i n a d , A y a n i v e l i k u l a n g a r a , C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r , E r a v i p u r a m ( P a r t ) , K a l l e l i b h a g o m , K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , K o l l a m , K o t t a m k a r a , K u l a s e k h a r a p u r a m , M a y y a n a d , M e e n a d , N e d u m p a n a , N e e n d a k a r a , O a c h i r a , P a n a y a m , P a n m a n a , P a r a v u r , P e r i n a d , P o o t h a k k u l a m , T h a z h u t h a l a , T h o d i y o o r , T h r i k k a d a v o o r , T h r i k k a r u v a , T h r i k k o v i l v a t t o m , a n d V a d a k k u m t h a l a . T h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t h a s d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p t h e C i t y o f K o l l a m a s a " P o r t C i t y o f K e r a l a " . R e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e M a r u t h a d i - E r a v i p u r a m a r e a i n c l u d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r f i s h i n g , t o u r i s m a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o j e c t s w i l l b e i m p l e m e n t e d a s p a r t o f t h e p r o j e c t T h e c i t y l i f e o f K o l l a m h a s c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t d e c a d e . I n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a n d p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e , K o l l a m c i t y i s i n f i f t h p o s i t i o n f r o m I n d i a a n d t h i r d i n K e r a l a . K o l l a m i s f a m o u s a s a c i t y w i t h e x c e l l e n t e x p o r t b a c k g r o u n d . 5 s t a r , 4 s t a r a n d 3 s t a r h o t e l s , m u l t i - s t o r i e d s h o p p i n g m a l l s , b r a n d e d j e w e l l e r y , t e x t i l e s h o w r o o m s a n d c a r s h o w r o o m s h a v e s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s . K o l l a m w a s t h e t h i r d c i t y i n K e r a l a ( a f t e r K o z h i k o d e a n d K o c h i ) t o a d o p t t h e s h o p p i n g m a l l c u l t u r e . K o l l a m d i s t r i c t r a n k s f i r s t i n l i v e s t o c k w e a l t h i n t h e s t a t e . D o w n t o w n K o l l a m i s t h e m a i n C B D o f K o l l a m c i t y . D a i r y f a r m i n g i s f a i r l y w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A l s o t h e r e i s a c h i l l i n g p l a n t i n t h e c i t y . K o l l a m i s a n i m p o r t a n t m a r i t i m e a n d p o r t c i t y . F i s h i n g h a s a p l a c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e d i s t r i c t . N e e n d a k a r a a n d S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a v i l l a g e s i n t h e s u b u r b s o f t h e c i t y h a v e f i s h e r i e s . A n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 4 , 9 7 3 p e r s o n s a r e e n g a g e d i n f i s h i n g a n d a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s . C h e r i a z h e e k k a l , A l a p p a d , P a n d a r a t h u r u t h u , P u t h e n t h u r a , N e e n d a k a r a , T h a n g a s s e r i , E r a v i p u r a m a n d P a r a v u r a r e e i g h t o f t h e 2 6 i m p o r t a n t f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a r e 2 4 i n l a n d f i s h i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s i n i t i a t e d s t e p s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i s h i n g h a r b o u r a t N e e n d a k a r a . A v e r a g e f i s h l a n d i n g i s e s t i m a t e d a t 8 5 , 2 7 5 t o n n e s p e r y e a r . O n e - t h i r d o f t h e s t a t e ' s f i s h c a t c h i s f r o m K o l l a m . N e a r l y 3 0 0 0 m e c h a n i s e d b o a t s a r e o p e r a t i n g f r o m t h e f i s h i n g h a r b o u r . F F D A a n d V F F D A p r o m o t e f r e s h w a t e r f i s h c u l t u r e a n d p r a w n f a r m i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y . A f i s h i n g v i l l a g e w i t h 1 0 0 h o u s e s i s b e i n g b u i l t a t E r a v i p u r a m . A p r a w n f a r m i s b e i n g b u i l t a t A y i r a m t h e n g u , a n d s e v e r a l n e w h a t c h e r i e s a r e p l a n n e d t o c a t e r t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e a q u a c u l t u r i s t s . K e r a l a ' s o n l y t u r k e y f a r m a n d a r e g i o n a l p o u l t r y f a r m a r e a t K u r e e p u z h a . T h e r e a r e t w o C e n t r a l G o v e r n m e n t i n d u s t r i a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e c i t y , t h e I n d i a n R a r e E a r t h s , C h a v a r a a n d P a r v a t h i M i l l s L t d . , K o l l a m . K e r a l a C e r a m i c s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a E l e c t r i c a l a n d A l l i e d E n g i n e e r i n g C o m p a n y i n K u n d a r a , K e r a l a P r e m o P i p e f a c t o r y i n C h a v a r a , K e r a l a M i n e r a l s a n d M e t a l s L i m i t e d i n C h a v a r a a n d U n i t e d E l e c t r i c a l I n d u s t r i e s i n K o l l a m a r e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t - o w n e d c o m p a n i e s . O t h e r m a j o r i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e p r i v a t e / c o o p e r a t i v e s e c t o r a r e A l u m i n i u m I n d u s t r i e s L t d . i n K u n d a r a , T h o m a s S t e p h e n & C o . i n K o l l a m , F l o o r c o i n P a r a v u r a n d C o o p e r a t i v e S p i n n i n g M i l l i n C h a t h a n n o o r . T h e b e a c h s a n d s o f t h e d i s t r i c t h a v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u c h h e a v y m i n e r a l s a s I l m e n i t e , R u t i l e , M o n o s i t e a n d Z i r c o n , w h i c h o f f e r s c o p e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l p u r p o s e s . B e s i d e s l a r g e d e p o s i t s o f C h i n a c l a y i n K u n d a r a , M u l a v a n a a n d C h a t h a n n o o r , t h e r e a r e a l s o l i m e - s h e l l d e p o s i t s i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e a n d B a u x i t e d e p o s i t s i n A d i c h a n a l l u r . K n o w n a s t h e " C a s h e w C a p i t a l o f t h e W o r l d " , K o l l a m i s n o t e d f o r i t s t r a d i t i o n a l c a s h e w b u s i n e s s a n d i s h o m e t o m o r e t h a n 6 0 0 c a s h e w - p r o c e s s i n g u n i t s . E v e r y y e a r , a b o u t 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f r a w c a s h e w s a r e i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e c i t y f o r p r o c e s s i n g a n d a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f p r o c e s s e d c a s h e w s a r e e x p o r t e d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s w o r l d w i d e . T h e C a s h e w E x p o r t P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( C E P C I ) e x p e c t s a r i s e i n e x p o r t s t o 2 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s b y 2 0 2 0 , a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 2 0 p e r c e n t o v e r t h e c u r r e n t f i g u r e . T h e K e r a l a S t a t e C a s h e w D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n L i m i t e d ( K S C D C ) i s s i t u a t e d a t M u n d a k k a l i n K o l l a m c i t y . T h e c o m p a n y o w n s 3 0 c a s h e w f a c t o r i e s a l l a c r o s s K e r a l a . O f t h e s e , 2 4 a r e l o c a t e d i n K o l l a m d i s t r i c t . K o l l a m i s o n e o f m a n y s e a f o o d e x p o r t h u b s i n I n d i a w i t h n u m e r o u s c o m p a n i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e c t o r . M o s t o f t h e s e a r e b a s e d i n t h e M a r u t h a d i , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a , K a v a n a d , N e e n d a k a r a , A s r a m a m , K i l i k o l l u r , T h i r u m u l l a v a r a m a n d U l i y a k o v i l a r e a s o f t h e c i t y . C a p i t h a n s , K i n g s M a r i n e E x p o r t e r s , I n d i a F o o d E x p o r t s a n d O c e a n i c F i s h e r i e s a r e e x a m p l e s o f s e a f o o d e x p o r t e r s . K o l l a m ' s A s h t a m u d i L a k e c l a m f i s h e r y w a s t h e f i r s t M a r i n e S t e w a r d s h i p C o u n c i l ( M S C ) c e r t i f i e d f i s h e r y i n I n d i a . T h e c l a m f i s h e r y s u p p o r t s a r o u n d 3 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , c l e a n i n g , p r o c e s s i n g a n d t r a d i n g o f c l a m s . A r o u n d 9 0 s p e c i e s o f f i s h a n d t e n s p e c i e s o f c l a m s a r e f o u n d i n t h e l a k e . K o l l a m F e s t i s K o l l a m ' s o w n a n n u a l f e s t i v a l , a t t r a c t i n g m o s t l y K e r a l i t e s b u t a l s o h u n d r e d s o f d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n t o u r i s t s t o K o l l a m . T h e m a i n v e n u e o f K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e h i s t o r i c a n d g i g a n t i c A s h r a m a m M a i d a n . K o l l a m F e s t i s t h e s i g n a t u r e e v e n t o f K o l l a m . K o l l a m F e s t s e e k s t o s h o w c a s e K o l l a m ' s r i c h c u l t u r e a n d h e r i t a g e , t o u r i s m p o t e n t i a l a n d i n v e s t m e n t s i n n e w v e n t u r e s . K o l l a m P o o r a m , p a r t o f t h e A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e F e s t i v a l , i s u s u a l l y h e l d o n 1 5 A p r i l , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y o n 1 6 A p r i l . T h e p o o r a m i s h e l d a t t h e A s h r a m a m m a i d a n . T h e P r e s i d e n t ' s T r o p h y B o a t R a c e ( P T B R ) i s a n a n n u a l r e g a t t a h e l d i n A s h t a m u d i L a k e i n K o l l a m . T h e e v e n t w a s i n a u g u r a t e d b y P r e s i d e n t P r a t h i b h a P a t i l i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . T h e e v e n t h a s b e e n r e s c h e d u l e d f r o m 2 0 1 2 . T h e c i t y c o r p o r a t i o n o f K o l l a m i s s e r v e d b y t h e T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t , w h i c h i s a b o u t 5 6 k i l o m e t e r s f r o m t h e c i t y v i a N H 6 6 . T r i v a n d r u m I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t i n a n o n - m e t r o c i t y i n I n d i a . i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n K e r a l a i n a r e a , a f t e r S h o r a n u r J u n c t i o n , w i t h a t o t a l o f 6 p l a t f o r m s . T h e s t a t i o n h a s 1 7 r a i l t r a c k s . K o l l a m j u n c t i o n h a s w o r l d ' s s e c o n d l o n g e s t r a i l w a y p l a t f o r m , m e a s u r i n g 1 1 8 0 . 5 m ( 3 8 7 3   f t ) . M a i n l i n e E l e c t r i c a l M u l t i p l e U n i t ( M E M U ) h a v e a m a i n t e n a n c e s h e d a t K o l l a m J u n c t i o n . T h e M E M U s e r v i c e s s t a r t e d f r o m K o l l a m t o E r n a k u l a m v i a A l a p p u z h a a n d K o t t a y a m i n t h e s e c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a r y 2 0 1 2 . B y 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , M E M U s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d N a g e r c o i l b e c a m e a r e a l i t y a n d l a t e r e x t e n d e d u p t o K a n y a k u m a r i . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i n a u g u r a t e d o n 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 3 f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k s o f M E M U r a k e s . K o l l a m M E M U S h e d i s t h e l a r g e s t M E M U S h e d i n K e r a l a , w h i c h i s e q u i p p e d w i t h m o s t m o d e r n f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e i s a l o n g - s t a n d i n g d e m a n d f o r t h e K o l l a m T o w n R a i l w a y S t a t i o n i n t h e K o l l a m - P e r i n a d s t r e t c h a n d " S . N C o l l e g e R a i l w a y S t a t i o n " i n t h e K o l l a m - E r a v i p u r a m s t r e t c h . T h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s i n K o l l a m c i t y a r e K o l l a m J u n c t i o n r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , E r a v i p u r a m r a i l w a y s t a t i o n a n d K i l i k o l l u r r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . A n e w s u b u r b a n r a i l s y s t e m h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y t h e K e r a l a G o v e r n m e n t a n d I n d i a n R a i l w a y s o n t h e r o u t e T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m - K o l l a m - H a r i p a d / C h e n g a n n u r f o r w h i c h M R V C i s t a s k e d t o c o n d u c t a s t u d y a n d s u b m i t a r e p o r t . T e n t r a i n s , e a c h w i t h s e v e n c o a c h e s , w i l l t r a n s p o r t p a s s e n g e r s b a c k a n d f o r t h a l o n g t h e T r i v a n d r u m - K o l l a m - C h e n g a n n u r - K o t t a r a k a r a - A d o o r s e c t i o n . T h e c i t y o f K o l l a m i s c o n n e c t e d t o a l m o s t a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d m a j o r t o w n s i n t h e s t a t e , i n c l u d i n g T r i v a n d r u m , A l a p p u z h a , K o c h i , P a l a k k a d , K o t t a y a m , K o t t a r a k k a r a , a n d P u n a l u r , a n d w i t h o t h e r I n d i a n c i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e N H 6 6 , N H 1 8 3 , N H 7 4 4 - a n d o t h e r s t a t e P W D R o a d s . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s p r o v i d e d b y s t a t e - o w n e d K e r a l a S t a t e R o a d T r a n s p o r t C o r p o r a t i o n ( K S R T C ) a n d p r i v a t e t r a n s p o r t b u s o p e r a t o r s . K o l l a m i s o n e a m o n g t h e f i v e K S R T C z o n e s i n K e r a l a . R o a d t r a n s p o r t i s a l s o p r o v i d e d b y p r i v a t e t a x i s a n d a u t o r i c k s h a w s , a l s o c a l l e d a u t o s . T h e r e i s a c i t y p r i v a t e b u s s t a n d a t A n d a m u k k a m . T h e r e i s a K S R T C b u s s t a t i o n b e s i d e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . B u s e s t o v a r i o u s t o w n s i n K e r a l a a n d i n t e r s t a t e s e r v i c e s r u n f r o m t h i s s t a t i o n . T h e S t a t e W a t e r T r a n s p o r t D e p a r t m e n t o p e r a t e s b o a t s e r v i c e s t o W e s t K a l l a d a , M u n r o e I s l a n d , G u h a n a n d a p u r a m , D a l a v a p u r a m a n d A l a p p u z h a f r o m K o l l a m K S W T D F e r r y T e r m i n a l s i t u a t e d o n t h e b a n k s o f t h e A s h t a m u d i L a k e . A s r a m a m L i n k R o a d i n t h e c i t y p a s s e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f e r r y t e r m i n a l . D o u b l e d e c k e r l u x u r y b o a t s r u n b e t w e e n K o l l a m a n d A l l e p e y d a i l y . L u x u r y b o a t s , o p e r a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r i v a t e o w n e r s , o p e r a t e f r o m t h e m a i n b o a t j e t t y d u r i n g t h e t o u r i s t s e a s o n . T h e W e s t c o a s t c a n a l s y s t e m , w h i c h s t a r t s f r o m T h i r u v a n a n t h a p u r a m i n t h e s o u t h a n d e n d s a t H o s d u r g i n t h e n o r t h , p a s s e s t h r o u g h P a r a v u r , t h e c i t y o f K o l l a m a n d K a r u n a g a p p a l l y t a l u k . K o l l a m P o r t i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p o r t i n K e r a l a , a f t e r C o c h i n P o r t T r u s t . I t i s o n e o f t w o i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o r t s i n K e r a l a . C a r g o h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s b e g a n o p e r a t i o n i n 2 0 1 3 . F o r e i g n s h i p s a r r i v e i n t h e p o r t r e g u l a r l y w i t h t h e M V A l i n a , a v e s s e l r e g i s t e r e d i n A n t i g u a a n c h o r e d a t t h e p o r t o n 4 A p r i l 2 0 1 4 . O n c e t h e P o r t s t a r t s f u n c t i o n i n g i n f u l l - f l e d g e d , i t w i l l m a k e t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f K o l l a m - b a s e d c a s h e w c o m p a n i e s m o r e e a s y . S h r e y a s S h i p p i n g C o m p a n y i s n o w r u n n i n g a r e g u l a r c o n t a i n e r s e r v i c e b e t w e e n K o l l a m P o r t a n d K o c h i P o r t . T h e r e a r e m a n y r e s p e c t e d c o l l e g e s , s c h o o l s a n d l e a r n i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . T h e c i t y a n d s u b u r b s c o n t r i b u t e g r e a t l y t o e d u c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t a n d l a t e s t k n o w l e d g e t o t h e s c h o l a r s . T h e T h a n g a l K u n j u M u s a l i a r C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , t h e f i r s t p r i v a t e s c h o o l o f i t s k i n d i n t h e s t a t e , i s a t K i l i k o l l u r , a b o u t e a s t o f K o l l a m c i t y , a n d i s a s o u r c e o f p r i d e f o r a l l K o l l a m i t e s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a h a s g r a n t e d a c a d e m i c a u t o n o m y t o F a t i m a M a t a N a t i o n a l C o l l e g e , a n o t h e r p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e c i t y . S r e e N a r a y a n a C o l l e g e , B i s h o p J e r o m e I n s t i t u t e ( a n i n t e g r a t e d c a m p u s p r o v i d i n g A r c h i t e c t u r e , E n g i n e e r i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t c o u r s e s ) , a n d T r a v a n c o r e B u s i n e s s A c a d e m y a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y . T h e r e a r e t w o l a w c o l l e g e s i n t h e c i t y , S r e e N a r a y a n a G u r u C o l l e g e o f L e g a l S t u d i e s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f S r e e N a r a y a n a T r u s t a n d N S S L a w C o l l e g e m a n a g e d b y t h e N . S . S . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e b e s t s c h o o l s i n K o l l a m i n c l u d i n g T r i n i t y L y c e u m S c h o o l , I n f a n t J e s u s S c h o o l , S t A l o y s i u s H . S . S , T h e o x f o r d s c h o o l , S r i S r i A c a d e m y e t c . K e r a l a S t a t e I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n ( K S I D ) , a d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e u n d e r D e p a r t m e n t o f l a b o u r a n d S k i l l s , G o v e r n m e n t o f K e r a l a , i s l o c a t e d a t C h a n d a n a t h o p e i n K o l l a m . I t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 2 0 0 8 a n d w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t s t a t e - o w n e d d e s i g n i n s t i t u t e s i n I n d i a . K S I D c u r r e n t l y c o n d u c t s P o s t G r a d u a t e D i p l o m a P r o g r a m s i n D e s i g n d e v e l o p e d i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f D e s i g n , A h m e d a b a d . I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f I n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n ( I I I C - K o l l a m ) i s a n i n s t i t u t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s s i t u a t e d a t C h a v a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o s u p p o r t t h e s k i l l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n r e l a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . T h e I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y , K o l l a m , K e r a l a i s a f a s h i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n s t i t u t e s i t u a t e d a t V e l l i m o n , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e c h n i c a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f F a s h i o n T e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e M i n i s t r y o f T e x t i l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e t w o I M K ( I n s t i t u t e o f M a n a g e m e n t , K e r a l a ) E x t e n s i o n C e n t r e s a c t i v e i n t h e c i t y . K e r a l a M a r i t i m e I n s t i t u t e i s s i t u a t e d a t N e e n d a k a r a i n K o l l a m c i t y t o g i v e m a r i t i m e t r a i n i n g f o r t h e s t u d e n t s i n K e r a l a . M o r e t h a n 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s h a v e b e e n t r a i n e d a t N e e n d a k a r a m a r i t i m e i n s t i t u t e u n d e r t h e B o a t C r e w t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e . A p a r t f r o m c o l l e g e s , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b a n k c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s i n K o l l a m . K o l l a m i s k n o w n a s I n d i a ' s h u b f o r b a n k t e s t c o a c h i n g c e n t r e s w i t h a r o u n d 4 0 s u c h i n s t i t u t e s i n t h e d i s t r i c t . S t u d e n t s f r o m v a r i o u s I n d i a n s t a t e s s u c h a s T a m i l N a d u , K a r n a t a k a , A n d h r a P r a d e s h , B i h a r a n d M a d h y a P r a d e s h a l s o c o m e h e r e f o r c o a c h i n g . C r i c k e t i s t h e m o s t p o p u l a r s p o r t , f o l l o w e d b y h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l . K o l l a m i s h o m e t o a n u m b e r o f l o c a l c r i c k e t , h o c k e y a n d f o o t b a l l t e a m s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n d i s t r i c t , s t a t e - l e v e l a n d z o n e m a t c h e s . A n I n t e r n a t i o n a l H o c k e y S t a d i u m w i t h a s t r o - t u r f f a c i l i t y i s t h e r e a t A s r a m a m i n t h e c i t y , b u i l t a t a c o s t o f R s . 1 3 c r o r e . T h e l a n d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t a d i u m w a s t a k e n o v e r f r o m t h e P o s t a l D e p a r t m e n t a t A s r a m a m , K o l l a m . T h e c i t y h a s a n o t h e r s t a d i u m n a m e d t h e L a l B a h a d u r S h a s t r i S t a d i u m , K o l l a m . I t i s a m u l t i p u r p o s e s t a d i u m a n d h a s r e p e a t e d l y h o s t e d s u c h s p o r t s e v e n t s a s t h e R a n j i T r o p h y , S a n t h o s h T r o p h y a n d N a t i o n a l G a m e s . T w o o p e n g r o u n d s i n t h e c i t y , t h e A s r a m a m M a i d a n a n d P e e r a n k i M a i d a n , a r e a l s o u s e d f o r s p o r t s e v e n t s , p r a c t i c e a n d w a r m - u p m a t c h e s . H i n d u s a n d t e m p l e s A n a n d a v a l l e e s h w a r a m S r i M a h a d e v a r T e m p l e i s a 4 0 0 y e a r s o l d a n c i e n t H i n d u t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y . T h e 4 0 0 - y e a r - o l d S a n c t u m s a n c t o r u m o f t h i s t e m p l e i s f i n i s h e d i n t e a k . A m m a c h i v e e d u M u h u r t h i t e m p l e i s a n o t h e r m a j o r t e m p l e i n t h e c i t y t h a t h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d a r o u n d 6 0 0 y e a r s a g o b y t h e A m m a c h i V e e d u f a m i l y , a r i s t o c r a t s f r o m K o l l a m . T h e K o l l a m p o o r a m , a m a j o r f e s t i v a l o f K o l l a m , i s t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a t e n - d a y f e s t i v a l , n o r m a l l y i n m i d A p r i l , o f A s r a m a m S r e e K r i s h n a S w a m y T e m p l e . K o t t a n k u l a n g a r a D e v i T e m p l e i s o n e o f t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s H i n d u t e m p l e s i n K e r a l a w e r e c r o s s - d r e s s i n g o f m e n f o r " C h a m a y a v i l a k k u " r i t u a l i s a p a r t o f t r a d i t i o n a l f e s t i v i t i e s . T h e m e n a l s o c a r r y l a r g e l a m p s . T h e f i r s t o f t h e t w o - d a y d r e s s i n g e v e n t d r e w t o a c l o s e e a r l y o n M o n d a y . M o r e o v e r , K o t t a r a k k a r a S r e e M a h a g a n a p a t h i K s h e t h r a m i n K o t t a r a k k a r a , P u t t i n g a l D e v i T e m p l e i n P a r a v u r , s o o r a n a d n o r t h a n a y a d i P a z h a y i d a m S r e e N a r a s i m h a S w a m i T e m p l e P o r u v a z h y P e r u v i r u t h y M a l a n a d a T e m p l e i n P o r u v a z h y , S a s t h a m c o t t a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a T e m p l e i n S a s t h a m k o t t a , S a k t h i k u l a n g a r a S r e e D h a r m a S a s t h a t e m p l e , T h r i k k a d a v o o r S r e e M a h a d e v a T e m p l e i n K a d a v o o r a n d K a t t i l M e k k a t h i l D e v i T e m p l e i n P o n m a n a P a d a n a y a r k u l a n g a r a m a h a d e v a t e m p l e K a r u n a g a p p a l l y , A s h t a m u d i S r e e V e e r a b h a d r a S w a m y T e m p l e a r e t h e o t h e r f a m o u s H i n d u w o r s h i p c e n t r e s i n t h e K o l l a m M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c h u r c h e s T h e I n f a n t J e s u s C a t h e d r a l i n T a n g a s s e r i i s e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o r t u g u e s e d u r i n g 1 6 1 4 . I t i s n o w t h e p r o - c a t h e d r a l o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c D i o c e s e o f Q u i l o n – t h e a n c i e n t a n d f i r s t C a t h o l i c d i o c e s e o f I n d i a . T h e c h u r c h r e m a i n s a s a m e m e n t o o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e r u l e o f o l d Q u i l o n c i t y . S t . S e b a s t i a n ' s C h u r c h a t N e e n d a k a r a i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h i n t h e c i t y . T h e D u t c h C h u r c h i n M u n r o e I s l a n d i s b u i l t b y t h e D u t c h i n 1 8 7 8 . O u r L a d y o f V e l a n k a n n i S h r i n e i n C u t c h e r y i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p p l a c e i n K o l l a m c i t y . S a i n t C a s i m i r C h u r c h i n K a d a v o o r , H o l y F a m i l y C h u r c h i n K a v a n a d , S t . S t e p h e n ' s C h u r c h i n T h o p p u a n d S t . T h o m a s C h u r c h i n K a d a p p a k a d a a r e s o m e o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n K o l l a m . M u s l i m s a n d m o s q u e s K o t t u k a d u J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a , E l a m p a l l o o r J u m a - A - M a s j i d , V a l i y a p a l l i i n J o n a k a p p u r a m , C h i n n a k a d a J u m a M a s j i d , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n K o l l u r v i l a , J u m a - ' A t h P a l l i i n T h a t t a m a l a a n d K o i v i l a J u m a M a s j i d i n C h a v a r a a r e t h e o t h e r m a j o r M o s q u e s i n K o l l a m . N o t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l s b o r n i n K o l l a m i n c l u d e :

Transport ; Water

Kollam is a city located in Kerala, India, with a rich history of trade links with ancient China, Rome, and Arabia. The city is surrounded by water bodies like Ashtamudi Lake, Paravur Lake, and the Laccadive Sea. It is well-connected by road, rail, and waterways, making it an important hub for trade and commerce. The city is known for its cashew processing and coir manufacturing industries, and its fishing industry contributes significantly to the state's fish catch. Kollam has a well-developed transportation network, including a major port, railways, and roads, making it an attractive location for businesses and tourists alike.

with Kerala Council for Historical Research (KCHR) discovered Chinese coins and artifacts that show trade links between Kollam and ancient China. Kollam city is bordered by the panchayats of Neendakara and Thrikkaruva to the north, Mayyanad to the south, and Thrikkovilvattom and Kottamkara to the east, and by the Laccadive Sea to the west. Ashtamudi Lake is in the heart of the city. The city is about away from Thiruvananthapuram, away from Kochi and away from Kozhikode. The National Waterway 3 and Ithikkara river are two important waterways passing through the city. The long Kollam Canal is connecting Paravur Lake ans Ashtamudi Lake. The Kallada river, another river that flows through the suburbs of the city, empties into Ashtamudi Lake, while the Ithikkara river runs to Paravur Kayal. Kattakayal, a freshwater lake in the city, connects another water-body named Vattakkayal with Lake Ashtamudi. In March 2016, "IndiaTimes" selected Kollam as one of the nine least polluted cities on earth to which anybody can relocate. Kollam is one among the top 10 most welcoming places in India for the year 2020, according to Booking.com's traveller review awards. Kollam is an ancient trading town – trading with Romans, Chinese, Arabs, and other Orientals – mentioned in historical citations dating back to Biblical times and the reign of Solomon, connecting with Red Sea ports of the Arabian Sea (supported by a find of ancient Roman coins). There was also internal trade through the Aryankavu Pass in Schenkottah Gap connecting the ancient town to Tamil Nadu. The overland trade in pepper by bullock cart and the trade over the waterways connecting Allepey and Cochin established trade linkages that enabled it to grow into one of the earliest Indian industrial townships. The rail links later established to Tamil Nadu supported still stronger trade links. The factories processing marine exports and the processing and packaging of cashewnuts extended its trade across the globe. It is known for cashew processing and coir manufacturing. Ashtamudi Lake is considered the southern gateway to the backwaters of Kerala and is a prominent tourist destination at Kollam. The Kollam urban area includes suburban towns such as Paravur in the south, Kundara in the east and Karunagapally in the north of the city. Other important towns in the city suburbs are Eravipuram, Kottiyam, Kannanallur, and Chavara. in the economy of the district. Neendakara and Sakthikulangara villages in the suburbs of the city have fisheries. An estimated 134,973 persons are engaged in fishing and allied activities. Cheriazheekkal, Alappad, Pandarathuruthu, Puthenthura, Neendakara, Thangasseri, Eravipuram and Paravur are eight of the 26 important fishing villages. There are 24 inland fishing villages. The Government has initiated steps for establishing a fishing harbour at Neendakara. Average fish landing is estimated at 85,275 tonnes per year. One-third of the state's fish catch is from Kollam. Nearly 3000 mechanised boats are operating from the fishing harbour. FFDA and VFFDA promote fresh water fish culture and prawn farming respectively. A fishing village with 100 houses is being built at Eravipuram. A prawn farm is being built at Ayiramthengu, and several new hatcheries city via NH66 . Trivandrum International Airport is the first international airport in a non-metro city in India. is the second largest railway station in Kerala in area, after Shoranur Junction, with a total of 6 platforms. The station has 17 rail tracks. Kollam junction has world's second longest railway platform, measuring 1180.5 m(3873 ft). Mainline Electrical Multiple Unit (MEMU) have a maintenance shed at Kollam Junction. The MEMU services started from Kollam to Ernakulam via Alappuzha and Kottayam in the second week of January 2012. By 1 December 2012, MEMU service between Kollam and Nagercoil became a reality and later extended up to Kanyakumari. Kollam MEMU Shed inaugurated on 1 December 2013 for the maintenance works of MEMU rakes. Kollam MEMU Shed is the largest MEMU Shed Punalur, and with other Indian cities through the NH 66, NH 183, NH 744 - and other state PWD Roads. Road transport is provided by state-owned Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) and private transport bus operators. Kollam is one among the five KSRTC zones in Kerala. Road transport is also provided by private taxis and autorickshaws, also called autos. There is a city private bus stand at Andamukkam. There is a KSRTC bus station beside Ashtamudi Lake. Buses to various towns in Kerala and interstate services run from this station. The State Water Transport Department operates boat services to West Kallada, Munroe Island, Guhanandapuram, Dalavapuram and Alappuzha from Kollam KSWTD Ferry Terminal situated on the banks of the Ashtamudi Lake. Asramam Link Road in the city passes adjacent to the ferry terminal. Double decker luxury boats run between Kollam and Allepey daily. Luxury boats, operated by the government and private owners, operate from the main boat jetty during the tourist season. The West coast canal system, which starts from Thiruvananthapuram in the south and ends at Hosdurg in the north, passes through Paravur, the city of Kollam and Karunagappally taluk. Kollam Port is the second largest port in Kerala, after Cochin Port Trust. It is one of two international ports in Kerala. Cargo handling facilities began operation in 2013. Foreign ships arrive in the port regularly with the MV Alina, a vessel registered in Antigua anchored at the port on 4April 2014. Once the Port starts functioning in full-fledged, it will make the transportation activities of Kollam-based cashew companies more easy. Shreyas Shipping Company is now running a regular container service between Kollam Port and Kochi Port. There are many respected colleges, schools and learning centres in Kollam. The city and suburbs contribute greatly to education by providing the best and latest knowledge to the scholars. The Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineering, the first private school of its kind in the state, is at Kilikollur, about east of Kollam city, and is a source of pride for all Kollamites. The Government of Kerala has granted academic autonomy to Fatima Mata National College, another prestigious institution in the city. Sree Narayana College, Bishop Jerome Institute (an integrated campus providing Architecture, Engineering and Management courses), and Travancore Business Academy are other important colleges in

Soyuz 37

P h a m T u a n o f V i e t n a m a r r i v e d w i t h C o m m a n d e r V i k t o r G o r b a t k o a b o a r d S a l y u t 6 i n S o y u z 3 7 ; t h e y b o t h r e t u r n e d t o E a r t h i n t h e S o y u z 3 6 s p a c e c r a f t a p p r o x i m a t e l y e i g h t d a y s l a t e r . T u a n ' s 3 0 e x p e r i m e n t s i n v o l v e d o b s e r v i n g V i e t n a m f r o m s p a c e , l i f e s c i e n c e s ( i n c l u d i n g t e s t s o f g r o w t h o f V i e t n a m e s e a z o l l a w a t e r f e r n s , w i t h a p p l i c a t i o n t o f u t u r e c l o s e d - l o o p l i f e s u p p o r t s y s t e m s ) , a n d m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g . T h e l o n g - d u r a t i o n c r e w l a u n c h e d i n S o y u z 3 5 r e t u r n e d t o E a r t h i n t h e S o y u z 3 7 s p a c e c r a f t a t t h e e n d o f t h e i r 1 8 6 - d a y m i s s i o n .

Mission highlights

Pham Tuan of Vietnam spent 8 days on Salyut 6 conducting 30 experiments, including observing Vietnam from space, life sciences, and materials processing. He returned to Earth with Commander Viktor Gorbatko in Soyuz 36.

Pham Tuan of Vietnam arrived with Commander Viktor Gorbatko aboard Salyut 6 in Soyuz 37; they both returned to Earth in the Soyuz 36 spacecraft approximately eight days later. Tuan's 30 experiments involved observing Vietnam from space, life sciences (including tests of growth of Vietnamese azolla water ferns, with application to future closed-loop life support systems), and materials processing. The long-duration crew launched in Soyuz 35 returned to Earth in the Soyuz 37 spacecraft at the end of their 186-day mission.

Golf club

" W o o d s " a r e l o n g - d i s t a n c e c l u b s , m e a n t t o d r i v e t h e b a l l a g r e a t d i s t a n c e d o w n t h e f a i r w a y t o w a r d s t h e h o l e . T h e y g e n e r a l l y h a v e a l a r g e h e a d a n d a l o n g s h a f t f o r m a x i m u m c l u b s p e e d . H i s t o r i c a l l y , w o o d s w e r e m a d e f r o m p e r s i m m o n w o o d , a l t h o u g h s o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s — n o t a b l y P i n g — d e v e l o p e d l a m i n a t e d w o o d s . I n 1 9 7 9 , T a y l o r M a d e G o l f i n t r o d u c e d t h e f i r s t w o o d m a d e o f s t e e l . E v e n m o r e r e c e n t l y , m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a v e s t a r t e d u s i n g m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s c a r b o n f i b e r , t i t a n i u m , o r s c a n d i u m . E v e n t h o u g h m o s t ‘ w o o d s ’ a r e m a d e f r o m d i f f e r e n t m e t a l s , t h e y a r e s t i l l c a l l e d ‘ w o o d s ’ t o d e n o t e t h e g e n e r a l s h a p e a n d t h e i r i n t e n d e d u s e o n t h e g o l f c o u r s e . M o s t w o o d s m a d e t o d a y h a v e a g r a p h i t e s h a f t a n d a m o s t l y - h o l l o w t i t a n i u m , c o m p o s i t e , o r s t e e l h e a d , o f r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t w e i g h t a l l o w i n g f a s t e r c l u b - h e a d s p e e d s . W o o d s a r e t h e l o n g e s t c l u b s a n d t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l o f a l l t h e g o l f c l u b s . T h e r e a r e t y p i c a l l y t h r e e t o f o u r w o o d s i n a s e t w h i c h a r e u s e d f r o m t h e t e e b o x a n d , i f o n a l o n g h o l e , p o s s i b l y f o r t h e s e c o n d o r e v e n t h i r d s h o t . T h e b i g g e s t w o o d , k n o w n a s t h e " d r i v e r " o r " o n e w o o d " , i s o f t e n m a d e o f h o l l o w e d o u t t i t a n i u m w i t h f e a t h e r - l i g h t s h a f t s . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e w o o d s h a s b e e n i n c r e a s i n g i n r e c e n t d e c a d e s , a n d a t y p i c a l d r i v e r w i t h a g r a p h i t e s h a f t i s n o w l o n g . T h e w o o d s m a y a l s o h a v e v e r y l a r g e h e a d s , u p t o i n v o l u m e ( t h e m a x i m u m a l l o w e d b y t h e U S G A i n s a n c t i o n e d e v e n t s ; d r i v e r s w i t h e v e n l a r g e r c l u b - h e a d v o l u m e s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r l o n g - d r i v e c o m p e t i t i o n s a n d i n f o r m a l g a m e s ) . T h e s h a f t s r a n g e f r o m s e n i o r t o e x t r a - s t i f f d e p e n d i n g u p o n e a c h p l a y e r ’ s p r e f e r e n c e . " I r o n s " a r e c l u b s w i t h a s o l i d , a l l - m e t a l h e a d f e a t u r i n g a f l a t a n g l e d f a c e , a n d a s h o r t e r s h a f t a n d m o r e u p r i g h t l i e a n g l e t h a n a w o o d , f o r e a s e o f a c c e s s . I r o n s a r e d e s i g n e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f s h o t s f r o m a l l o v e r t h e c o u r s e , f r o m t h e t e e b o x o n s h o r t o r d o g - l e g g e d h o l e s , t o t h e f a i r w a y o r r o u g h o n a p p r o a c h t o t h e g r e e n , t o t r i c k y s i t u a t i o n s l i k e p u n c h i n g t h r o u g h o r l o b b i n g o v e r t r e e s , g e t t i n g o u t o f h a z a r d s , o r h i t t i n g f r o m t i g h t l i e s r e q u i r i n g a c o m p a c t s w i n g . M o s t o f t h e i r o n s h a v e a n u m b e r f r o m 1 t o 9 ( t h e n u m b e r s i n m o s t c o m m o n u s e a r e f r o m 3 t o 9 ) , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i r r e l a t i v e l o f t a n g l e w i t h i n a m a t c h e d s e t . I r o n s a r e t y p i c a l l y g r o u p e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r i n t e n d e d d i s t a n c e ( w h i c h a l s o r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e i r s h a f t l e n g t h a n d t h u s t h e i r d i f f i c u l t y t o h i t t h e b a l l ) ; i n t h e n u m b e r e d i r o n s , t h e r e a r e l o n g i r o n s ( 2 – 4 ) , m e d i u m i r o n s ( 5 – 7 ) , a n d s h o r t i r o n s ( 8 – 9 ) , w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e l y h i g h e r l o f t a n g l e s , s h o r t e r s h a f t s , a n d h e a v i e r c l u b h e a d s . A s w i t h w o o d s , ’ i r o n s ’ g e t t h e i r n a m e b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e o r i g i n a l l y m a d e f r o m f o r g e d i r o n . M o d e r n i r o n s a r e i n v e s t m e n t - c a s t o u t o f s t e e l a l l o y s , w h i c h a l l o w s f o r b e t t e r - e n g i n e e r e d ‘ c a v i t y - b a c k ’ d e s i g n s t h a t h a v e l o w e r c e n t e r s o f m a s s a n d h i g h e r m o m e n t s o f i n e r t i a , m a k i n g t h e c l u b e a s i e r t o h i t a n d g i v i n g b e t t e r d i s t a n c e t h a n o l d e r f o r g e d ’ m u s c l e - b a c k ’ d e s i g n s . F o r g e d i r o n s w i t h l e s s p e r i m e t e r w e i g h t i n g a r e s t i l l s e e n , e s p e c i a l l y i n s e t s t a r g e t i n g l o w - h a n d i c a p a n d s c r a t c h g o l f e r s , b e c a u s e t h i s l e s s f o r g i v i n g d e s i g n a l l o w s a s k i l l e d g o l f e r t o i n t e n t i o n a l l y h i t a c u r v e d s h o t ( a ’ f a d e ’ o r ’ d r a w ’ ) , t o f o l l o w t h e c o n t o u r o f t h e f a i r w a y o r ’ b e n d ’ a s h o t a r o u n d a n o b s t a c l e . " W e d g e s " a r e a s u b c l a s s o f i r o n s w i t h g r e a t e r l o f t t h a n t h e n u m b e r e d i r o n s ( g e n e r a l l y s t a r t i n g a t 4 7 ° – 4 8 ° o f l o f t , a b o v e t h e 9 - i r o n s o f 4 4 ° – 4 5 ° ) , a n d o t h e r f e a t u r e s s u c h a s h i g h - m a s s c l u b h e a d s a n d w i d e s o l e s t h a t a l l o w f o r e a s i e r u s e i n t r i c k y l i e s . W e d g e s a r e u s e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f s h o r t - d i s t a n c e , h i g h - a l t i t u d e , h i g h - a c c u r a c y ’ u t i l i t y ’ s h o t s , s u c h a s h i t t i n g t h e b a l l o n t o t h e g r e e n ( " a p p r o a c h " s h o t s ) , p l a c i n g t h e b a l l a c c u r a t e l y o n t h e f a i r w a y f o r a b e t t e r s h o t a t t h e g r e e n ( " l a y - u p " s h o t s ) , o r h i t t i n g t h e b a l l o u t o f h a z a r d s o r r o u g h o n t o t h e g r e e n ( c h i p p i n g ) . T h e r e a r e f i v e m a i n t y p e s o f w e d g e s , w i t h l o f t s r a n g i n g f r o m 4 5 ° t o 6 4 ° : p i t c h i n g w e d g e ( P W , 4 8 – 5 0 ° ) , g a p w e d g e ( G W , a l s o " a p p r o a c h " , " a t t a c k " , " u t i l i t y " , o r " d u a l " w e d g e , t y p i c a l l y 5 2 – 5 4 ° ) , s a n d w e d g e ( S W , 5 5 – 5 6 ° ) , l o b w e d g e ( L W , 5 8 ° – 6 0 ° ) , a n d u l t r a l o b w e d g e ( s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " f l o p w e d g e " o r F W , 6 4 ° – 6 8 ° ) . " H y b r i d s " a r e a c r o s s b e t w e e n a w o o d a n d a n i r o n , g i v i n g t h e s e c l u b s t h e w o o d ' s l o n g d i s t a n c e a n d h i g h e r l a u n c h , w i t h t h e i r o n ' s f a m i l i a r s w i n g . T h e c l u b h e a d o f a h y b r i d h a s a w o o d - i n s p i r e d , s l i g h t l y c o n v e x f a c e , a n d i s t y p i c a l l y h o l l o w l i k e m o d e r n m e t a l w o o d s t o a l l o w f o r h i g h i m p u l s e o n i m p a c t a n d f a s t e r s w i n g s p e e d s . T h e h e a d i s u s u a l l y s m a l l e r t h a n t r u e w o o d s , h o w e v e r , n o t e x t e n d i n g a s f a r b a c k f r o m t h e f a c e , a n d t h e l i e a n d s h a f t l e n g t h a r e s i m i l a r t o a n i r o n g i v i n g s i m i l a r s w i n g m e c h a n i c s . T h e s e c l u b s g e n e r a l l y r e p l a c e l o w - n u m b e r e d i r o n s i n a s t a n d a r d s e t ( b e t w e e n 2 a n d 5 , m o s t c o m m o n l y 3 – 4 ) , w h i c h a r e t y p i c a l l y t h e h a r d e s t c l u b s i n a p l a y e r ' s b a g t o h i t w e l l . B y d o i n g s o t h e y a l s o g e n e r a l l y m a k e h i g h e r - l o f t e d w o o d s r e d u n d a n t a s w e l l . H o w e v e r , s o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s p r o d u c e " i r o n r e p l a c e m e n t " s e t s t h a t u s e h y b r i d d e s i g n s t o r e p l a c e a n e n t i r e s e t o f t r a d i t i o n a l i r o n s , f r o m 3 t o p i t c h i n g w e d g e . S e t s d e s i g n e d f o r l e s s m u s c u l a r p l a y e r s c o m m o n l y f e a t u r e a c o m b i n a t i o n o f h i g h - l o f t e d w o o d s ( u p t o 7 - w o o d ) a n d h y b r i d s t o r e p l a c e t h e 5 , 6 a n d 7 - i r o n s , a l l o w i n g t h e s e p l a y e r s t o a c h i e v e g r e a t e r c a r r y d i s t a n c e s w i t h s l o w e r s w i n g s . " P u t t e r s " a r e a s p e c i a l c l a s s o f c l u b s w i t h a l o f t n o t e x c e e d i n g t e n d e g r e e s , d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o r o l l t h e b a l l a l o n g t h e g r a s s , g e n e r a l l y f r o m a p o i n t o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n t o w a r d t h e h o l e . C o n t r a r y t o p o p u l a r b e l i e f , p u t t e r s d o h a v e a l o f t ( o f t e n 5 ° f r o m t r u l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r a t i m p a c t ) t h a t h e l p s t o l i f t t h e b a l l f r o m a n y i n d e n t a t i o n i t h a s m a d e . N e w e r p u t t e r s a l s o i n c l u d e g r o o v e s o n t h e f a c e t o p r o m o t e r o l l r a t h e r t h a n a s k i d o f f t h e i m p a c t . T h i s i n c r e a s e s r o l l i n g d i s t a n c e a n d r e d u c e s b o u n c i n g o v e r t h e t u r f . P u t t e r s a r e t h e o n l y c l a s s o f c l u b a l l o w e d t o h a v e c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s , s u c h a s t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s , n o n - c i r c u l a r g r i p c r o s s - s e c t i o n s , b e n t s h a f t s o r h o s e l s , a n d a p p e n d a g e s d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o a i d p l a y e r s ' a i m . P r e s e n t i n s o m e g o l f e r s ' b a g s i s t h e " c h i p p e r " , a c l u b d e s i g n e d t o f e e l l i k e a p u t t e r b u t w i t h a m o r e l o f t e d f a c e , u s e d w i t h a p u t t i n g m o t i o n t o l i f t t h e b a l l o u t o f t h e h i g h e r g r a s s o f t h e r o u g h a n d f r i n g e a n d d r o p i t o n t h e g r e e n , w h e r e i t w i l l t h e n r o l l l i k e a p u t t . T h i s c l u b r e p l a c e s t h e u s e o f a h i g h - l o f t e d i r o n t o m a k e t h e s a m e s h o t , a n d a l l o w s t h e p l a y e r t o m a k e t h e s h o t f r o m a s t a n c e a n d w i t h a m o t i o n n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o a p u t t , w h i c h i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t w i t h a l o f t e d i r o n d u e t o a d i f f e r e n c e i n l i e a n g l e . M o s t c h i p p e r s h a v e a l o f t g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 d e g r e e s , w h i c h i s t h e m a x i m u m l o f t p e r m i t t e d b y t h e R u l e s o f G o l f f o r a c l u b t o b e c l a s s e d a s a p u t t e r , s o t h e s e c l u b s a r e a c t u a l l y c l a s s e d a s i r o n s . T o b e l e g a l f o r s a n c t i o n e d p l a y , a c h i p p e r c a n n o t h a v e a n y f e a t u r e t h a t i s d e f i n e d i n t h e r u l e s a s a l l o w a b l e o n l y o n p u t t e r s , e . g . t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s o r a f l a t - t o p p e d " p u t t e r g r i p " . T h i s d i s q u a l i f i e s m a n y c h i p p e r d e s i g n s , b u t t h e r e a r e s o m e U S G A - c o n f o r m i n g c h i p p e r s , a n d n o n - c o n f o r m i n g d e s i g n s c a n s t i l l b e u s e d f o r i n f o r m a l p l a y . T h e s h a f t s o f t h e w o o d s w e r e m a d e o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f w o o d b e f o r e b e i n g r e p l a c e d b y h i c k o r y i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . T h e v a r i e t i e s o f w o o d s i n c l u d e d a s h , p u r p l e h e a r t , o r a n g e w o o d , a n d b l u e - m a h o o . D e s p i t e t h e s t r e n g t h o f h i c k o r y , t h e l o n g - n o s e c l u b o f t h e m i d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s s t i l l p r o n e t o b r e a k i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e b a c k s w i n g . T h e c l u b h e a d s w e r e o f t e n m a d e f r o m w o o d s i n c l u d i n g a p p l e , p e a r , d o g w o o d , a n d b e e c h i n t h e e a r l y t i m e s u n t i l p e r s i m m o n b e c a m e t h e m a i n m a t e r i a l . G o l f c l u b s h a v e b e e n i m p r o v e d a n d t h e s h a f t s a r e n o w m a d e o f s t e e l , t i t a n i u m , o t h e r t y p e s o f m e t a l s o r c a r b o n f i b e r . T h e s h a f t i s a t a p e r e d s t e e l t u b e o r a s e r i e s o f s t e p p e d s t e e l t u b e s i n t e l e s c o p i c f a s h i o n . T h i s h a s i m p r o v e d t h e a c c u r a c y o f g o l f e r s . T h e g r i p s o f t h e c l u b s a r e m a d e f r o m l e a t h e r o r r u b b e r . T h e s h a f t i s a t a p e r e d t u b e m a d e o f m e t a l ( u s u a l l y s t e e l ) o r c a r b o n f i b e r c o m p o s i t e ( r e f e r r e d t o a s g r a p h i t e ) . T h e s h a f t i s r o u g h l y i n d i a m e t e r n e a r t h e g r i p a n d f r o m i n l e n g t h . S h a f t s w e i g h f r o m , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m a t e r i a l a n d l e n g t h . S h a f t s a r e q u a n t i f i e d i n a n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n i s t h e s h a f t f l e x . S i m p l y , t h e s h a f t f l e x i s t h e a m o u n t t h a t t h e s h a f t w i l l b e n d w h e n p l a c e d u n d e r a l o a d . A s t i f f e r s h a f t w i l l n o t f l e x a s m u c h , w h i c h r e q u i r e s m o r e p o w e r t o f l e x a n d " w h i p " t h r o u g h t h e b a l l p r o p e r l y ( w h i c h r e s u l t s i n h i g h e r c l u b s p e e d a t i m p a c t f o r m o r e d i s t a n c e ) , w h i l e a m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t w i l l w h i p w i t h l e s s p o w e r r e q u i r e d f o r b e t t e r d i s t a n c e o n s l o w e r s w i n g s , b u t m a y t o r q u e a n d o v e r - f l e x i f s w u n g w i t h t o o m u c h p o w e r c a u s i n g t h e h e a d n o t t o b e s q u a r e a t i m p a c t , r e s u l t i n g i n l o w e r a c c u r a c y . M o s t s h a f t m a k e r s o f f e r a v a r i e t y o f f l e x e s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n a r e : L / W ( L a d y / W o m e n ' s ) , A / I ( S o f t R e g u l a r , I n t e r m e d i a t e o r S e n i o r ) , R ( R e g u l a r ) , S ( S t i f f ) , a n d X ( T o u r S t i f f , E x t r a S t i f f o r S t r o n g ) . A r e g u l a r f l e x s h a f t i s g e n e r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h o s e w i t h a n a v e r a g e h e a d s p e e d ( ) , w h i l e a n A - F l e x ( o r s e n i o r s h a f t ) i s f o r p l a y e r s w i t h a s l o w e r s w i n g s p e e d ( ) , a n d t h e s t i f f e r s h a f t s , s u c h a s S - F l e x a n d X - F l e x ( S t i f f a n d E x t r a - S t i f f s h a f t s ) a r e r e s e r v e d o n l y f o r t h o s e p l a y e r s w i t h a n a b o v e a v e r a g e s w i n g i n g s p e e d , u s u a l l y a b o v e . S o m e c o m p a n i e s a l s o o f f e r a " s t i f f - r e g u l a r " o r " f i r m " f l e x f o r p l a y e r s w h o s e c l u b s p e e d f a l l s i n t h e u p p e r r a n g e o f a R e g u l a r s h a f t ( ) , a l l o w i n g g o l f e r s a n d c l u b m a k e r s t o f i n e - t u n e t h e f l e x f o r a s t r o n g e r a m a t e u r - l e v e l p l a y e r . A t i m p a c t , t h e c l u b h e a d c a n t w i s t a s a r e s u l t o f t o r q u e a p p l i e d t o t h e s h a f t , r e d u c i n g a c c u r a c y a s t h e f a c e o f t h e c l u b i s n o t s q u a r e t o t h e p l a y e r ' s s t a n c e . T h e a b i l i t y o f a s h a f t t o t w i s t a l o n g i t s l e n g t h d u e t o t h i s t o r q u e i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e f l e x o f t h e s h a f t i t s e l f ; a s t i f f e r s h a f t w i l l a l s o t o r q u e l e s s . T o c o u n t e r t o r q u e i n m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t s , c l u b m a k e r s d e s i g n t h e s h a f t s w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f t o r q u e t h r o u g h t h e i r l e n g t h , p a r t i c u l a r l y a l o n g t h e t h i n n e s t p a r t o f t h e s h a f t w h e r e i t j o i n s w i t h t h e c l u b h e a d . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e s h a f t i s m o s t f l e x i b l e , c a l l e d t h e " k i c k p o i n t " ; a b o v e t h a t p o i n t t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i a m e t e r o f t h e s h a f t m a k e s i t m o r e r i g i d , w h i l e b e l o w t h a t p o i n t t h e s h a f t i s r e i n f o r c e d i n t e r n a l l y t o r e d u c e t o r q u i n g o f t h e c l u b h e a d . S h a f t s h a v e t y p i c a l l y b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s h a v i n g a l o w , m e d i u m o r h i g h k i c k ; a l o w k i c k m e a n s t h e s h a f t w i l l s t o r e e n e r g y c l o s e r t o t h e c l u b h e a d , w h i c h m e a n s t h e c l u b h e a d c a n t w i s t m o r e b u t a l s o a l l o w s f o r h i g h e r c l u b h e a d s p e e d s . A h i g h k i c k s h a f t w i l l s t o r e e n e r g y c l o s e r t o t h e g r i p ; s u c h a s h a f t w i l l f e e l f i r m e r w h e n s w i n g i n g i t a n d w i l l g i v e b e t t e r c o n t r o l o v e r d i r e c t i o n , b u t t h e s a m e s t r e n g t h s w i n g w i l l f l e x t h e s h a f t l e s s , w h i c h w i l l r e d u c e c l u b - h e a d s p e e d . W i d e l y o v e r l o o k e d a s a p a r t o f t h e c l u b , t h e s h a f t i s c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y t o b e t h e e n g i n e o f t h e m o d e r n c l u b h e a d . S h a f t s r a n g e i n p r i c e f r o m a m e r e U S $ 4 t o o v e r U S $ 1 2 0 0 . C u r r e n t g r a p h i t e s h a f t s w e i g h c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n t h e i r s t e e l c o u n t e r p a r t s ( s o m e t i m e s w e i g h i n g l e s s t h a n f o r a d r i v e r s h a f t ) , a l l o w i n g f o r l i g h t e r c l u b s t h a t c a n b e s w u n g a t g r e a t e r s p e e d . B e g i n n i n g i n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , c u s t o m s h a f t s h a v e b e e n i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e c l u b - m a k i n g p r o c e s s . T h e s e s h a f t s w i l l , w i t h i n a g i v e n f l e x r a t i n g , a d d r e s s s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a , s u c h a s t o l a u n c h t h e b a l l h i g h e r o r l o w e r o r t o a d j u s t f o r t h e t i m i n g o f a p l a y e r ' s s w i n g t o l o a d a n d u n l o a d t h e s h a f t a t t h e c o r r e c t m o m e n t s o f t h e s w i n g f o r m a x i m u m p o w e r . W h e r e a s i n t h e p a s t e a c h c l u b c o u l d c o m e w i t h o n l y o n e s h a f t , t o d a y ' s c l u b h e a d s c a n b e f i t t e d w i t h d o z e n s o f d i f f e r e n t s h a f t s , e a c h w i t h s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n i n b e h a v i o r , c r e a t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a m u c h b e t t e r f i t f o r t h e a v e r a g e g o l f e r . T h e g r i p o f t h e c l u b i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e o p p o s i t e e n d o f t h e s h a f t f r o m t h e c l u b h e a d , a n d i s t h e p a r t o f t h e c l u b t h e p l a y e r h o l d s o n t o w h i l e s w i n g i n g . O r i g i n a l l y , t h e g r i p w a s c o m p o s e d o f o n e o r m o r e l e a t h e r s t r i p s w r a p p e d a r o u n d t h e s h a f t . T h e l e a t h e r o u t e r w r a p o n a g r i p i s s t i l l s e e n o n s o m e c l u b s , m o s t c o m m o n l y p u t t e r s , b u t m o s t m o d e r n g r i p s a r e a o n e - p i e c e " s l e e v e " m a d e o f r u b b e r , s y n t h e t i c o r c o m p o s i t e m a t e r i a l t h a t i s s l i d o v e r t h e s h a f t a n d s e c u r e d w i t h a n a d h e s i v e . T h e s e s l e e v e g r i p s a l l o w c l u b m a k e r s a n d g o l f e r s t o c u s t o m i z e t h e g r i p ' s d i a m e t e r , c o n s i s t e n c y ( s o f t n e s s / f i r m n e s s ) a n d t e x t u r i n g p a t t e r n t o b e s t f i t t h e p l a y e r . C l u b s w i t h a n o u t e r " w r a p " o f l e a t h e r o r l e a t h e r - l i k e s y n t h e t i c s t i l l t y p i c a l l y h a v e a " s l e e v e " f o r m u n d e r n e a t h t o a d d d i a m e t e r t o t h e g r i p a n d g i v e i t i t s b a s i c p r o f i l e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e s o f g o l f , a l l c l u b g r i p s m u s t h a v e t h e s a m e c r o s s - s e c t i o n s h a p e a l o n g t h e i r e n t i r e l e n g t h ( t h e d i a m e t e r c a n v a r y ) , a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p u t t e r , m u s t h a v e a c i r c u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n . T h e p u t t e r m a y h a v e a n y c r o s s s e c t i o n t h a t i s s y m m e t r i c a l a l o n g t h e l e n g t h o f t h e g r i p t h r o u g h a t l e a s t o n e p l a n e ; " s h i e l d " p r o f i l e s w i t h a f l a t t o p a n d c u r v e d u n d e r s i d e a r e c o m m o n . G r i p s m a y t a p e r f r o m t h i c k t o t h i n a l o n g t h e i r l e n g t h ( a n d v i r t u a l l y a l l d o ) , b u t t h e y a r e n o t a l l o w e d t o h a v e a n y " w a i s t i n g " ( a t h i n n e r s e c t i o n o f t h e g r i p s u r r o u n d e d b y t h i c k e r s e c t i o n s a b o v e a n d b e l o w i t ) o r " b u l g e s " ( t h i c k e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e g r i p s u r r o u n d e d b y t h i n n e r s e c t i o n s ) . M i n o r v a r i a t i o n s i n s u r f a c e t e x t u r e ( s u c h a s t h e n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n o f a " w r a p " - s t y l e g r i p ) a r e n o t c o u n t e d u n l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t . A d v a n c e s i n m a t e r i a l s h a v e r e s u l t e d i n m o r e d u r a b l e , l o n g e r - l a s t i n g s o f t g r i p s , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s g r i p s d o e v e n t u a l l y d r y o u t , h a r d e n , o r a r e o t h e r w i s e d a m a g e d a n d m u s t b e r e p l a c e d . R e p l a c e m e n t g r i p s s o l d a s d o - i t - y o u r s e l f k i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y i n e x p e n s i v e a n d o f h i g h q u a l i t y , a l t h o u g h c u s t o m g r i p s t h a t a r e l a r g e r , s o f t e r , o r t e x t u r e d d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m t h e e v e r y d a y " w r a p " - s t y l e g r i p a r e g e n e r a l l y b o u g h t a n d i n s t a l l e d b y a c l u b s m i t h . R e - g r i p p i n g u s e d t o r e q u i r e t o x i c , f l a m m a b l e s o l v e n t s t o s o f t e n a n d a c t i v a t e t h e a d h e s i v e , a n d a v i s e t o h o l d t h e c l u b s t e a d y w h i l e t h e g r i p w a s f o r c e d o n . T h e n e w e s t r e p l a c e m e n t k i t s , h o w e v e r , u s e d o u b l e - s i d e d t a p e w i t h a w a t e r - a c t i v a t e d a d h e s i v e t h a t i s s l i p p e r y w h e n f i r s t a c t i v a t e d , a l l o w i n g e a s i e r i n s t a l l a t i o n . O n c e t h e a d h e s i v e c u r e s , i t c r e a t e s a v e r y s t r o n g b o n d b e t w e e n g r i p a n d s h a f t a n d t h e g r i p i s u s u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o r e m o v e w i t h o u t c u t t i n g i t o f f . T h e h o s e l i s t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e c l u b h e a d t o w h i c h t h e s h a f t a t t a c h e s . T h o u g h l a r g e l y i g n o r e d b y p l a y e r s , h o s e l d e s i g n i s i n t e g r a l t o t h e b a l a n c e , f e e l a n d p o w e r o f a c l u b . M o d e r n h o s e l s a r e d e s i g n e d t o p l a c e a s l i t t l e m a s s a s p o s s i b l e o v e r t h e t o p o f t h e s t r i k i n g f a c e o f t h e c l u b , w h i c h l o w e r s t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y o f t h e c l u b f o r b e t t e r d i s t a n c e . E a c h h e a d h a s o n e f a c e w h i c h c o n t a c t s t h e b a l l d u r i n g t h e s t r o k e . P u t t e r s m a y h a v e t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s , a s l o n g a s t h e y a r e i d e n t i c a l a n d s y m m e t r i c a l . S o m e c h i p p e r s ( a c l u b s i m i l a r i n a p p e a r a n c e t o a d o u b l e - s i d e d p u t t e r b u t h a v i n g a l o f t o f 3 5 – 4 5 d e g r e e s ) h a v e t w o f a c e s , b u t a r e n o t l e g a l . P a g e 1 3 5 o f t h e 2 0 0 9 U S G A r u l e s o f g o l f s t a t e s : T h e c l u b h e a d m u s t h a v e o n l y o n e s t r i k i n g f a c e , e x c e p t t h a t a p u t t e r m a y h a v e t w o s u c h f a c e s i f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e t h e s a m e , a n d t h e y a r e o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r . P a g e 1 2 7 o f t h e U S G A r u l e s o f g o l f s t a t e s : A p u t t e r i s a c l u b w i t h a l o f t n o t e x c e e d i n g t e n d e g r e e s d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y f o r u s e o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n . T h e r e f o r e , a n y d o u b l e s i d e d c l u b w i t h a l o f t g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 d e g r e e s i s n o t l e g a l . T h e t r i m r i n g , u s u a l l y b l a c k ( I t m a y h a v e a d d i t i o n a l t r i m c o l o r s ) , t h a t i s f o u n d d i r e c t l y o n t o p o f t h e h o s e l o n m a n y w o o d s a n d i r o n s . T h e f e r r u l e i s m o s t l y d e c o r a t i v e , c r e a t i n g a c o n t i n u o u s l i n e b e t w e e n t h e s h a f t a n d t h e w i d e r h o s e l , b u t i n s o m e c a s e s i t c a n f o r m p a r t o f t h e s e c u r i n g m e c h a n i s m b e t w e e n h o s e l a n d s h a f t . F e r r u l e s o f d i f f e r i n g w e i g h t s c a n f i n e - t u n e t h e c e n t e r o f m a s s o f t h e o v e r a l l c l u b h e a d , b u t f o r t h e s e m i n u t e a d j u s t m e n t s , s c r e w - i n w e i g h t e d i n s e r t s a t s p e c i f i c p o i n t s o n t h e c l u b h e a d a r e u s u a l l y u s e d i n s t e a d . T h e r u l e s o f g o l f l i m i t e a c h p l a y e r t o a m a x i m u m o f 1 4 c l u b s i n t h e i r b a g . S t r i c t r u l e s p r o h i b i t s h a r i n g o f c l u b s b e t w e e n p l a y e r s t h a t e a c h h a v e t h e i r o w n s e t ( i f t w o p l a y e r s s h a r e c l u b s , t h e y m a y n o t h a v e m o r e t h a n 1 4 c l u b s c o m b i n e d ) , a n d w h i l e o c c a s i o n a l l e n d i n g o f a c l u b t o a p l a y e r i s g e n e r a l l y o v e r l o o k e d , h a b i t u a l b o r r o w i n g o f o t h e r p l a y e r s ' c l u b s o r t h e s h a r i n g o f a s i n g l e b a g o f c l u b s s l o w s p l a y c o n s i d e r a b l y w h e n b o t h p l a y e r s n e e d t h e s a m e c l u b . T h e m o s t c o m m o n s e t o f m e n ' s c l u b s i s : T h e a b o v e s e t i s o n l y 1 2 c l u b s ; t h e s e ( o r e q u i v a l e n t h y b r i d s u b s t i t u t e s ) a r e f o u n d i n v i r t u a l l y e v e r y g o l f b a g . T o t h i s , p l a y e r s t y p i c a l l y a d d t w o o f t h e f o l l o w i n g : W o m e n ' s c l u b s e t s a r e s i m i l a r i n o v e r a l l m a k e u p , b u t t y p i c a l l y h a v e h i g h e r l o f t s a n d s h o r t e r , m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t s i n r e t a i l s e t s t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e a v e r a g e f e m a l e p l a y e r ' s h e i g h t a n d s w i n g s p e e d . V a r i a t i o n s o n t h i s b a s i c s e t a b o u n d ; s e v e r a l c l u b o p t i o n s u s u a l l y e x i s t f o r a l m o s t a n y s h o t d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p l a y e r ' s s k i l l l e v e l a n d p l a y i n g s t y l e , a n d t h e o n l y c l u b u n i v e r s a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e i n d i s p e n s a b l e i s t h e p u t t e r . S o m e c o n s i d e r t h e m o d e r n d e e p - f a c e d d r i v e r t o b e e q u a l l y i r r e p l a c e a b l e ; t h i s i s c a u s e f o r s o m e d e b a t e , a s p r o f e s s i o n a l p l a y e r s i n c l u d i n g T i g e r W o o d s h a v e p l a y e d a n d w o n t o u r n a m e n t s w i t h o u t u s i n g a d r i v e r , i n s t e a d u s i n g a 3 - w o o d f o r t e e s h o t s a n d m a k i n g u p t h e d i f f e r e n c e o n t h e a p p r o a c h u s i n g a l o w e r - l o f t e d i r o n . T h e m o s t c o m m o n o m i s s i o n s a r e t h e " l o n g i r o n s " , n u m b e r e d f r o m 2 t o 5 , w h i c h a r e n o t o r i o u s l y d i f f i c u l t t o h i t w e l l . T h e p l a y e r c a n s u p p l e m e n t t h e g a p s i n d i s t a n c e w i t h e i t h e r h i g h e r - n u m b e r e d w o o d s s u c h a s t h e 5 a n d e v e n t h e 7 - w o o d , o r m a y r e p l a c e t h e l o n g i r o n s w i t h e q u i v a l e n t l y - n u m b e r e d h y b r i d c l u b s . I f h y b r i d s a r e u s e d , h i g h e r - l o f t e d w o o d s a r e o f t e n o m i t t e d a s r e d u n d a n t , b u t l a d i e s ' a n d s e n i o r s ' s e t s c o m m o n l y f e a t u r e b o t h h y b r i d s a n d h i g h - l o f t e d w o o d s , o m i t t i n g t h e l o n g i r o n s e n t i r e l y i n f a v o r o f t h e l o f t e d w o o d s , a n d r e p l a c i n g t h e m i d - i r o n s ( 5 – 7 ) w i t h h y b r i d s . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n a l l o w s f o r h i g h e r l a u n c h a n g l e s o n t h e l o n g - d i s t a n c e c l u b s , w h i c h g i v e s b e t t e r d i s t a n c e w i t h s l o w e r s w i n g s p e e d s . W h e r e a c l u b i s o m i t t e d a n d n o t r e p l a c e d w i t h a c l u b o f s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n , p l a y e r s m a y a d d a d d i t i o n a l c l u b s o f a d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s u c h a s a d d i t i o n a l w e d g e s . W h i l e 1 4 c l u b s i s a m a x i m u m , i t i s n o t a m i n i m u m ; p l a y e r s a r e f r e e t o u s e a n y l e s s e r n u m b e r o f c l u b s t h e y p r e f e r , s o s u b s t i t u t i o n s f o r t h e c o m m o n o m i s s i o n s a b o v e a r e n o t a l w a y s m a d e ; a p l a y e r m a y s i m p l y c h o o s e t o p l a y w i t h o u t a 5 - w o o d o r 2 – 4 i r o n s , i n s t e a d u s i n g a 4 - w o o d a n d m o v i n g d i r e c t l y t o t h e i r 5 - i r o n a s d e s i r e d d i s t a n c e d e c r e a s e s ( a 4 - w o o d i n a s k i l l e d g o l f e r ' s h a n d s a v e r a g e s 2 0 0 y a r d s ; a 5 - i r o n i n t h e s a m e p l a y e r ' s h a n d s w o u l d b e a b o u t 1 6 0 , w h i c h i s a l a r g e g a p b u t n o t u n p l a y a b l e ) . O t h e r c l u b s m a y b e o m i t t e d a s w e l l . O n c o u r s e s w h e r e b a g s m u s t b e c a r r i e d b y t h e p l a y e r , t h e p l a y e r m a y t a k e o n l y t h e o d d - n u m b e r e d i r o n s ; w i t h o u t t h e 4 , 6 o r 8 i r o n s ( t h e 3 i s s o m e t i m e s r e m o v e d i n s t e a d o f t h e 4 ) t h e b a g ' s w e i g h t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d . C a r r y i n g o n l y a d r i v e r , 3 - w o o d , 4 - h y b r i d , 5 - 7 - 9 i r o n s , p i t c h i n g a n d s a n d w e d g e s , a n d a p u t t e r r e d u c e s t h e n u m b e r o f c l u b s i n t h e b a g t o 9 ; t h i s i s a c o m m o n l o a d - o u t f o r a " S u n d a y b a g " t a k e n t o t h e d r i v i n g r a n g e o r t o a n i n f o r m a l g a m e . A s k i l l e d p l a y e r c a n u s u a l l y o v e r c o m e t h e l e s s e r s e l e c t i o n o f c l u b l o f t s b y r e d u c i n g t h e i r s w i n g s p e e d o n a l o w e r - l o f t i r o n a n d / o r p l a c i n g t h e b a l l f u r t h e r f o r w a r d i n t h e i r s t a n c e t o g e t t h e s a m e c a r r y d i s t a n c e a n d / o r l a u n c h a n g l e a s t h e n e x t h i g h e r l o f t n u m b e r . A n o t h e r i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m m o n i n f o r m a l f o r m a t i s a d e l i b e r a t e l y l o w u p p e r l i m i t s u c h a s f o u r c l u b s , o r t h r e e c l u b s p l u s p u t t e r , w i t h a t y p i c a l l o a d b e i n g a w o o d o r h y b r i d , m i d d l e i r o n , w e d g e a n d p u t t e r , a l t h o u g h o f t e n w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n p l a y e r s w i t h r e g a r d s t o w h i c h s p e c i f i c c l u b s a r e f a v o r e d i n e a c h r o l e . T h e r u l i n g a u t h o r i t i e s o f g o l f , T h e R & A ( f o r m e r l y p a r t o f T h e R o y a l a n d A n c i e n t G o l f C l u b o f S t A n d r e w s ) a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G o l f A s s o c i a t i o n ( U S G A ) , r e s e r v e t h e r i g h t t o d e f i n e w h a t s h a p e s a n d p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c l u b s a r e p e r m i s s i b l e i n t o u r n a m e n t p l a y . T h e c u r r e n t r u l e s f o r c l u b d e s i g n , i n c l u d i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f v a r i o u s r u l i n g s o n c l u b s i n t r o d u c e d f o r p l a y , a r e d e f i n e d i n A p p e n d i x I I o f t h e R u l e s o f G o l f . T h e o v e r a r c h i n g p r i n c i p l e o f c l u b d e s i g n u s e d b y b o t h a u t h o r i t i e s i s d e f i n e d i n A p p e n d i x I I - 1 a , w h i c h s t a t e s : " T h e c l u b m u s t n o t b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c u s t o m a r y f o r m a n d m a k e " . T h e c l u b m u s t b e c o m p o s e d o f a s h a f t a n d a h e a d a n d i t m a y a l s o h a v e m a t e r i a l a d d e d t o t h e s h a f t t o e n a b l e t h e p l a y e r t o o b t a i n a f i r m h o l d ( s e e 3 b e l o w ) . A l l p a r t s o f t h e c l u b m u s t b e f i x e d s o t h a t t h e c l u b i s o n e u n i t , a n d i t m u s t h a v e n o e x t e r n a l a t t a c h m e n t s . " I n a d d i t i o n , A p p e n d i x I I - 4 a s t a t e s , r e g a r d i n g c l u b h e a d s , t h a t " t h e c l u b h e a d m u s t b e g e n e r a l l y " p l a i n i n s h a p e " . A l l p a r t s m u s t b e r i g i d , s t r u c t u r a l i n n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n a l . T h e c l u b h e a d o r i t s p a r t s m u s t n o t b e d e s i g n e d t o r e s e m b l e a n y o t h e r o b j e c t . I t i s n o t p r a c t i c a b l e t o d e f i n e ' p l a i n i n s h a p e ' p r e c i s e l y a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y . " T h e s e t w o r u l e s a r e u s e d a s t h e b a s i s f o r m o s t o f t h e m o r e s p e c i f i c r u l e s o f A p p e n d i x I I , i n c l u d i n g t h a t n o c l u b m a y h a v e a c o n c a v e f a c e ( 1 9 3 1 ) a n d v a r i o u s r u l e s d e f i n i n g w h a t i s " t r a d i t i o n a l " a b o u t t h e s h a p e s o f s p e c i f i c c l u b s , w h i l e a l l o w i n g f o r t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f t e c h n o l o g y . T h e " t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c u s t o m a r y " r u l e w a s o r i g i n a l l y u s e d t o b a n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s t e e l c l u b s h a f t s ( p a t e n t e d i n 1 9 1 0 ) , a s t h a t m a t e r i a l w a s n o t t r a d i t i o n a l f o r s h a f t s ; t h a t s p e c i f i c b a n w a s r e s c i n d e d i n 1 9 2 4 b y t h e U S G A ( t h e R & A w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o b a n s t e e l s h a f t s u n t i l 1 9 2 9 ) , a n d s t e e l w o u l d b e c o m e u n i v e r s a l u n t i l t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f g r a p h i t e s h a f t s w h o s e i n t r o d u c t i o n w a s l e s s c o n t r o v e r s i a l . T h e " p l a i n i n s h a p e " r u l e w a s m o r e r e c e n t l y b e n t t o a l l o w f o r n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l d r i v e r c l u b h e a d s h a p e s , s u c h a s s q u a r e s , a s a c o m p r o m i s e t o c l u b - m a k e r s a f t e r i m p o s i n g a n d e n f o r c i n g a 4 6 0 c c v o l u m e l i m i t o n t h e s e s a m e c l u b h e a d s . M a n y r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d w o o d s h a v e a m a r k e d " t r a m p o l i n e e f f e c t " ( a l a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e f a c e u p o n i m p a c t f o l l o w e d b y a q u i c k r e s t o r a t i o n t o o r i g i n a l d i m e n s i o n s , a c t i n g l i k e a s l i n g s h o t ) , r e s u l t i n g i n v e r y h i g h b a l l s p e e d s a n d g r e a t l e n g t h s o f t e e s h o t s . A s o f 1 J a n u a r y 2 0 0 8 , t h e U S G A a n d R & A h a v e s e t t l e d o n a r e g u l a t i o n t h a t l i m i t s t h e a c c e p t a b l e " t r a m p o l i n e e f f e c t " t o a c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e s t i t u t i o n ( C O R ) — a m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e t r a n s f e r o f e n e r g y f r o m t h e c l u b h e a d t o t h e b a l l — o f . 8 3 0 . O t h e r l a r g e s c a l e U S G A r u l i n g s i n v o l v e a 1 9 9 0 l a w s u i t , a n d s u b s e q u e n t s e t t l e m e n t , a g a i n s t K a r s t e n M a n u f a c t u r i n g , m a k e r s o f t h e P I N G b r a n d , f o r t h e i r u s e o f s q u a r e , o r U - g r o o v e s i n t h e i r i m m e n s e l y p o p u l a r P i n g E y e 2 i r o n s . T h e U S G A a r g u e d t h a t p l a y e r s w h o u s e d t h e E y e 2 h a d a n u n f a i r a d v a n t a g e i n i m p a r t i n g s p i n o n t h e b a l l , w h i c h h e l p s t o s t o p t h e b a l l o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n s . T h e U S G A u t i l i z e d J o h n L . S a k s u n , f o u n d e r o f C a n a d i a n g o l f c o m p a n y A c c u f o r m G o l f , a s a c o n s u l t a n t t o s e t u p m e t h o d s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e u n i q u e g r o o v e s a n d d e t e r m i n i n g P I N G ' s c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e r u l i n g s . S a k s u n , b y p r o p o s i n g a c o s t - e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n t o h e l p P I N G c h a n g e t h e d e s i g n o f s u b s e q u e n t E y e 2 s , s a v e d P I N G h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s . P I N G s u b s e q u e n t l y w i t h d r e w t h e i r U S $ 1 0 0 m i l l i o n l a w s u i t a g a i n s t t h e U S G A . P i n g ’ s o l d e r c l u b s w e r e " g r a n d f a t h e r e d i n " a n d a l l o w e d t o r e m a i n i n p l a y a s p a r t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e U S G A h a s b e g u n p h a s i n g i n a b a n o n s q u a r e g r o o v e s i n g o l f . M a n u f a c t u r e r s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o d i s c o n t i n u e n o n c o m p l i a n t c l u b s b y J a n u a r y 1 , 2 0 1 1 . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e U S G A , a s J a n u a r y 1 , 2 0 1 0 , p r o f e s s i o n a l g o l f e r s o n o n e o f t h e t o p t o u r s , o r t h o s e a t t e m p t i n g t o q u a l i f y f o r o n e o f t h e t h r e e O p e n C h a m p i o n s h i p s ( s i n c e t h e n f o u r ) w i l l n e e d t o u s e n e w c o n f o r m i n g w e d g e s ( t h o s e w i t h o u t s q u a r e g r o o v e s ) . M o r e o v e r , t h o s e w h o p l a n t o q u a l i f y f o r a n y o t h e r U S G A c h a m p i o n s h i p ( A m a t e u r c h a m p i o n s h i p s — u n d e r 1 8 , A m a t e u r , o v e r 2 5 , a n d o v e r 5 0 i n b o t h s e x e s , a n d f o u r - b a l l , a l o n g w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e a m c h a m p i o n s h i p s ) , w i l l n e e d n e w c o n f o r m i n g w e d g e s b y 2 0 1 4 . I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s r e g u l a t i o n i n c l u d e s I G F a n d U S G A - s a n c t i o n e d r e g i o n a l a m a t e u r e v e n t s a s w e l l , a s a " c o n d i t i o n o f c o m p e t i t i o n " . W e d g e s t h a t c o n f o r m t o t h e n e w s t a n d a r d a r e o f t e n m a r k e t e d a s " C C " o r " C o n d i t i o n o f C o m p e t i t i o n " w e d g e s ; t h i s m o n i k e r i s l i k e l y t o f a l l i n t o d i s u s e a s p l a y e r s u p g r a d e c l u b s a n d t h e u s e o f n o n - c o n f o r m i n g i r o n s d i m i n i s h e s .

Club types

The article discusses the different types of golf clubs, including drivers, fairway woods, hybrids, irons, wedges, and putters. It explains how each type of club is designed for a specific purpose and has unique characteristics, such as loft, lie, and swing weight. The article also touches on the history of golf clubs, including the materials used to make them and the evolution of design over time. Additionally, it mentions the rules governing golf club design, including the requirement that clubs be "plain in shape" and not have external attachments.

a standard set (between 2 and 5, most commonly 3–4), which are typically the hardest clubs in a player's bag to hit well. By doing so they also generally make higher-lofted woods redundant as well. However, some manufacturers produce "iron replacement" sets that use hybrid designs to replace an entire set of traditional irons, from 3 to pitching wedge. Sets designed for less muscular players commonly feature a combination of high-lofted woods (up to 7-wood) and hybrids to replace the 5, 6 and 7-irons, allowing these players to achieve greater carry distances with slower swings. "Putters" are a special class of clubs with a loft not exceeding ten degrees, designed primarily to roll the ball along the grass, generally from a point on the putting green toward the faces or a flat-topped "putter grip". This disqualifies many chipper designs, but there are some USGA-conforming chippers, and non-conforming designs can still be used for informal play. The shafts of the woods were made of different types of wood before being replaced by hickory in the middle of the 19th century. The varieties of woods included ash, purpleheart, orangewood, and blue-mahoo. Despite the strength of hickory, the long-nose club of the mid nineteenth century was still prone to breaking at the top of the back swing. The club heads were often made from woods including apple, pear, dogwood, and beech in the early times until persimmon became the main material. Golf clubs have been improved and the shafts are now made of steel, titanium, other types of metals makers design the shafts with varying degrees of torque through their length, particularly along the thinnest part of the shaft where it joins with the club head. This results in a point at which the shaft is most flexible, called the "kick point"; above that point the increasing diameter of the shaft makes it more rigid, while below that point the shaft is reinforced internally to reduce torquing of the club head. Shafts have typically been classified as having a low, medium or high kick; a low kick means the shaft will store energy closer to the club head, which means the club head can twist more but also allows for higher club head speeds. A high kick shaft will store energy closer to the grip; such a adjust for the timing of a player's swing to load and unload the shaft at the correct moments of the swing for maximum power. Whereas in the past each club could come with only one shaft, today's club heads can be fitted with dozens of different shafts, each with slight variation in behavior, creating the potential for a much better fit for the average golfer. The grip of the club is attached to the opposite end of the shaft from the club head, and is the part of the club the player holds on to while swinging. Originally, the grip was composed of one or more leather strips wrapped around the shaft. The leather outer wrap on a grip is still seen on some clubs, most commonly putters, but most modern grips are a one-piece "sleeve" made of rubber, synthetic or composite material that is slid over the shaft and secured with an adhesive. These sleeve grips allow club makers and golfers to customize the grip's diameter, consistency (softness/firmness) and texturing pattern to best fit the player. Clubs with an outer "wrap" of leather or leather-like synthetic still typically have a "sleeve" form underneath to add diameter to the grip and give it its basic profile. According to the rules of golf, all club grips must have the same cross-section shape along their entire length (the diameter can vary), and with the exception of the putter, must have a circular cross-section. The putter may have any cross section that is symmetrical along the length of the golf states: A putter is a club with a loft not exceeding ten degrees designed primarily for use on the putting green. Therefore, any double sided club with a loft greater than 10 degrees is not legal. The trim ring, usually black (It may have additional trim colors), that is found directly on top of the hosel on many woods and irons. The ferrule is mostly decorative, creating a continuous line between the shaft and the wider hosel, but in some cases it can form part of the securing mechanism between hosel and shaft. Ferrules of differing weights can fine-tune the center of mass of the overall club head, but for these minute adjustments, screw-in weighted inserts at specific points on the club head are usually used instead. regards to which specific clubs are favored in each role. The ruling authorities of golf, The R&A (formerly part of The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews) and the United States Golf Association (USGA), reserve the right to define what shapes and physical characteristics of clubs are permissible in tournament play. The current rules for club design, including the results of various rulings on clubs introduced for play, are defined in Appendix II of the Rules of Golf. The overarching principle of club design used by both authorities is defined in Appendix II-1a, which states: "The club must not be substantially different from the "traditional and customary form and make". The club must be composed of a shaft and a head and it may also have material added to the shaft to enable the player to obtain a firm hold (see 3 below). All parts of the club must be fixed so that the club is one unit, and it must have no external attachments." In addition, Appendix II-4a states, regarding club heads, that "the club head must be generally "plain in shape". All parts must be rigid, structural in nature and functional. The club head or its parts must not be designed to resemble any other object. It is not practicable to define 'plain in shape' precisely and comprehensively. " These two rules are used as the basis for most of the more specific rules of Appendix II, including that no club may have a concave face (1931) and various rules defining what

Golf club

" W o o d s " a r e l o n g - d i s t a n c e c l u b s , m e a n t t o d r i v e t h e b a l l a g r e a t d i s t a n c e d o w n t h e f a i r w a y t o w a r d s t h e h o l e . T h e y g e n e r a l l y h a v e a l a r g e h e a d a n d a l o n g s h a f t f o r m a x i m u m c l u b s p e e d . H i s t o r i c a l l y , w o o d s w e r e m a d e f r o m p e r s i m m o n w o o d , a l t h o u g h s o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s — n o t a b l y P i n g — d e v e l o p e d l a m i n a t e d w o o d s . I n 1 9 7 9 , T a y l o r M a d e G o l f i n t r o d u c e d t h e f i r s t w o o d m a d e o f s t e e l . E v e n m o r e r e c e n t l y , m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a v e s t a r t e d u s i n g m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s c a r b o n f i b e r , t i t a n i u m , o r s c a n d i u m . E v e n t h o u g h m o s t ‘ w o o d s ’ a r e m a d e f r o m d i f f e r e n t m e t a l s , t h e y a r e s t i l l c a l l e d ‘ w o o d s ’ t o d e n o t e t h e g e n e r a l s h a p e a n d t h e i r i n t e n d e d u s e o n t h e g o l f c o u r s e . M o s t w o o d s m a d e t o d a y h a v e a g r a p h i t e s h a f t a n d a m o s t l y - h o l l o w t i t a n i u m , c o m p o s i t e , o r s t e e l h e a d , o f r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t w e i g h t a l l o w i n g f a s t e r c l u b - h e a d s p e e d s . W o o d s a r e t h e l o n g e s t c l u b s a n d t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l o f a l l t h e g o l f c l u b s . T h e r e a r e t y p i c a l l y t h r e e t o f o u r w o o d s i n a s e t w h i c h a r e u s e d f r o m t h e t e e b o x a n d , i f o n a l o n g h o l e , p o s s i b l y f o r t h e s e c o n d o r e v e n t h i r d s h o t . T h e b i g g e s t w o o d , k n o w n a s t h e " d r i v e r " o r " o n e w o o d " , i s o f t e n m a d e o f h o l l o w e d o u t t i t a n i u m w i t h f e a t h e r - l i g h t s h a f t s . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e w o o d s h a s b e e n i n c r e a s i n g i n r e c e n t d e c a d e s , a n d a t y p i c a l d r i v e r w i t h a g r a p h i t e s h a f t i s n o w l o n g . T h e w o o d s m a y a l s o h a v e v e r y l a r g e h e a d s , u p t o i n v o l u m e ( t h e m a x i m u m a l l o w e d b y t h e U S G A i n s a n c t i o n e d e v e n t s ; d r i v e r s w i t h e v e n l a r g e r c l u b - h e a d v o l u m e s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r l o n g - d r i v e c o m p e t i t i o n s a n d i n f o r m a l g a m e s ) . T h e s h a f t s r a n g e f r o m s e n i o r t o e x t r a - s t i f f d e p e n d i n g u p o n e a c h p l a y e r ’ s p r e f e r e n c e . " I r o n s " a r e c l u b s w i t h a s o l i d , a l l - m e t a l h e a d f e a t u r i n g a f l a t a n g l e d f a c e , a n d a s h o r t e r s h a f t a n d m o r e u p r i g h t l i e a n g l e t h a n a w o o d , f o r e a s e o f a c c e s s . I r o n s a r e d e s i g n e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f s h o t s f r o m a l l o v e r t h e c o u r s e , f r o m t h e t e e b o x o n s h o r t o r d o g - l e g g e d h o l e s , t o t h e f a i r w a y o r r o u g h o n a p p r o a c h t o t h e g r e e n , t o t r i c k y s i t u a t i o n s l i k e p u n c h i n g t h r o u g h o r l o b b i n g o v e r t r e e s , g e t t i n g o u t o f h a z a r d s , o r h i t t i n g f r o m t i g h t l i e s r e q u i r i n g a c o m p a c t s w i n g . M o s t o f t h e i r o n s h a v e a n u m b e r f r o m 1 t o 9 ( t h e n u m b e r s i n m o s t c o m m o n u s e a r e f r o m 3 t o 9 ) , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i r r e l a t i v e l o f t a n g l e w i t h i n a m a t c h e d s e t . I r o n s a r e t y p i c a l l y g r o u p e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r i n t e n d e d d i s t a n c e ( w h i c h a l s o r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e i r s h a f t l e n g t h a n d t h u s t h e i r d i f f i c u l t y t o h i t t h e b a l l ) ; i n t h e n u m b e r e d i r o n s , t h e r e a r e l o n g i r o n s ( 2 – 4 ) , m e d i u m i r o n s ( 5 – 7 ) , a n d s h o r t i r o n s ( 8 – 9 ) , w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e l y h i g h e r l o f t a n g l e s , s h o r t e r s h a f t s , a n d h e a v i e r c l u b h e a d s . A s w i t h w o o d s , ’ i r o n s ’ g e t t h e i r n a m e b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e o r i g i n a l l y m a d e f r o m f o r g e d i r o n . M o d e r n i r o n s a r e i n v e s t m e n t - c a s t o u t o f s t e e l a l l o y s , w h i c h a l l o w s f o r b e t t e r - e n g i n e e r e d ‘ c a v i t y - b a c k ’ d e s i g n s t h a t h a v e l o w e r c e n t e r s o f m a s s a n d h i g h e r m o m e n t s o f i n e r t i a , m a k i n g t h e c l u b e a s i e r t o h i t a n d g i v i n g b e t t e r d i s t a n c e t h a n o l d e r f o r g e d ’ m u s c l e - b a c k ’ d e s i g n s . F o r g e d i r o n s w i t h l e s s p e r i m e t e r w e i g h t i n g a r e s t i l l s e e n , e s p e c i a l l y i n s e t s t a r g e t i n g l o w - h a n d i c a p a n d s c r a t c h g o l f e r s , b e c a u s e t h i s l e s s f o r g i v i n g d e s i g n a l l o w s a s k i l l e d g o l f e r t o i n t e n t i o n a l l y h i t a c u r v e d s h o t ( a ’ f a d e ’ o r ’ d r a w ’ ) , t o f o l l o w t h e c o n t o u r o f t h e f a i r w a y o r ’ b e n d ’ a s h o t a r o u n d a n o b s t a c l e . " W e d g e s " a r e a s u b c l a s s o f i r o n s w i t h g r e a t e r l o f t t h a n t h e n u m b e r e d i r o n s ( g e n e r a l l y s t a r t i n g a t 4 7 ° – 4 8 ° o f l o f t , a b o v e t h e 9 - i r o n s o f 4 4 ° – 4 5 ° ) , a n d o t h e r f e a t u r e s s u c h a s h i g h - m a s s c l u b h e a d s a n d w i d e s o l e s t h a t a l l o w f o r e a s i e r u s e i n t r i c k y l i e s . W e d g e s a r e u s e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f s h o r t - d i s t a n c e , h i g h - a l t i t u d e , h i g h - a c c u r a c y ’ u t i l i t y ’ s h o t s , s u c h a s h i t t i n g t h e b a l l o n t o t h e g r e e n ( " a p p r o a c h " s h o t s ) , p l a c i n g t h e b a l l a c c u r a t e l y o n t h e f a i r w a y f o r a b e t t e r s h o t a t t h e g r e e n ( " l a y - u p " s h o t s ) , o r h i t t i n g t h e b a l l o u t o f h a z a r d s o r r o u g h o n t o t h e g r e e n ( c h i p p i n g ) . T h e r e a r e f i v e m a i n t y p e s o f w e d g e s , w i t h l o f t s r a n g i n g f r o m 4 5 ° t o 6 4 ° : p i t c h i n g w e d g e ( P W , 4 8 – 5 0 ° ) , g a p w e d g e ( G W , a l s o " a p p r o a c h " , " a t t a c k " , " u t i l i t y " , o r " d u a l " w e d g e , t y p i c a l l y 5 2 – 5 4 ° ) , s a n d w e d g e ( S W , 5 5 – 5 6 ° ) , l o b w e d g e ( L W , 5 8 ° – 6 0 ° ) , a n d u l t r a l o b w e d g e ( s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " f l o p w e d g e " o r F W , 6 4 ° – 6 8 ° ) . " H y b r i d s " a r e a c r o s s b e t w e e n a w o o d a n d a n i r o n , g i v i n g t h e s e c l u b s t h e w o o d ' s l o n g d i s t a n c e a n d h i g h e r l a u n c h , w i t h t h e i r o n ' s f a m i l i a r s w i n g . T h e c l u b h e a d o f a h y b r i d h a s a w o o d - i n s p i r e d , s l i g h t l y c o n v e x f a c e , a n d i s t y p i c a l l y h o l l o w l i k e m o d e r n m e t a l w o o d s t o a l l o w f o r h i g h i m p u l s e o n i m p a c t a n d f a s t e r s w i n g s p e e d s . T h e h e a d i s u s u a l l y s m a l l e r t h a n t r u e w o o d s , h o w e v e r , n o t e x t e n d i n g a s f a r b a c k f r o m t h e f a c e , a n d t h e l i e a n d s h a f t l e n g t h a r e s i m i l a r t o a n i r o n g i v i n g s i m i l a r s w i n g m e c h a n i c s . T h e s e c l u b s g e n e r a l l y r e p l a c e l o w - n u m b e r e d i r o n s i n a s t a n d a r d s e t ( b e t w e e n 2 a n d 5 , m o s t c o m m o n l y 3 – 4 ) , w h i c h a r e t y p i c a l l y t h e h a r d e s t c l u b s i n a p l a y e r ' s b a g t o h i t w e l l . B y d o i n g s o t h e y a l s o g e n e r a l l y m a k e h i g h e r - l o f t e d w o o d s r e d u n d a n t a s w e l l . H o w e v e r , s o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s p r o d u c e " i r o n r e p l a c e m e n t " s e t s t h a t u s e h y b r i d d e s i g n s t o r e p l a c e a n e n t i r e s e t o f t r a d i t i o n a l i r o n s , f r o m 3 t o p i t c h i n g w e d g e . S e t s d e s i g n e d f o r l e s s m u s c u l a r p l a y e r s c o m m o n l y f e a t u r e a c o m b i n a t i o n o f h i g h - l o f t e d w o o d s ( u p t o 7 - w o o d ) a n d h y b r i d s t o r e p l a c e t h e 5 , 6 a n d 7 - i r o n s , a l l o w i n g t h e s e p l a y e r s t o a c h i e v e g r e a t e r c a r r y d i s t a n c e s w i t h s l o w e r s w i n g s . " P u t t e r s " a r e a s p e c i a l c l a s s o f c l u b s w i t h a l o f t n o t e x c e e d i n g t e n d e g r e e s , d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o r o l l t h e b a l l a l o n g t h e g r a s s , g e n e r a l l y f r o m a p o i n t o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n t o w a r d t h e h o l e . C o n t r a r y t o p o p u l a r b e l i e f , p u t t e r s d o h a v e a l o f t ( o f t e n 5 ° f r o m t r u l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r a t i m p a c t ) t h a t h e l p s t o l i f t t h e b a l l f r o m a n y i n d e n t a t i o n i t h a s m a d e . N e w e r p u t t e r s a l s o i n c l u d e g r o o v e s o n t h e f a c e t o p r o m o t e r o l l r a t h e r t h a n a s k i d o f f t h e i m p a c t . T h i s i n c r e a s e s r o l l i n g d i s t a n c e a n d r e d u c e s b o u n c i n g o v e r t h e t u r f . P u t t e r s a r e t h e o n l y c l a s s o f c l u b a l l o w e d t o h a v e c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s , s u c h a s t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s , n o n - c i r c u l a r g r i p c r o s s - s e c t i o n s , b e n t s h a f t s o r h o s e l s , a n d a p p e n d a g e s d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o a i d p l a y e r s ' a i m . P r e s e n t i n s o m e g o l f e r s ' b a g s i s t h e " c h i p p e r " , a c l u b d e s i g n e d t o f e e l l i k e a p u t t e r b u t w i t h a m o r e l o f t e d f a c e , u s e d w i t h a p u t t i n g m o t i o n t o l i f t t h e b a l l o u t o f t h e h i g h e r g r a s s o f t h e r o u g h a n d f r i n g e a n d d r o p i t o n t h e g r e e n , w h e r e i t w i l l t h e n r o l l l i k e a p u t t . T h i s c l u b r e p l a c e s t h e u s e o f a h i g h - l o f t e d i r o n t o m a k e t h e s a m e s h o t , a n d a l l o w s t h e p l a y e r t o m a k e t h e s h o t f r o m a s t a n c e a n d w i t h a m o t i o n n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o a p u t t , w h i c h i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t w i t h a l o f t e d i r o n d u e t o a d i f f e r e n c e i n l i e a n g l e . M o s t c h i p p e r s h a v e a l o f t g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 d e g r e e s , w h i c h i s t h e m a x i m u m l o f t p e r m i t t e d b y t h e R u l e s o f G o l f f o r a c l u b t o b e c l a s s e d a s a p u t t e r , s o t h e s e c l u b s a r e a c t u a l l y c l a s s e d a s i r o n s . T o b e l e g a l f o r s a n c t i o n e d p l a y , a c h i p p e r c a n n o t h a v e a n y f e a t u r e t h a t i s d e f i n e d i n t h e r u l e s a s a l l o w a b l e o n l y o n p u t t e r s , e . g . t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s o r a f l a t - t o p p e d " p u t t e r g r i p " . T h i s d i s q u a l i f i e s m a n y c h i p p e r d e s i g n s , b u t t h e r e a r e s o m e U S G A - c o n f o r m i n g c h i p p e r s , a n d n o n - c o n f o r m i n g d e s i g n s c a n s t i l l b e u s e d f o r i n f o r m a l p l a y . T h e s h a f t s o f t h e w o o d s w e r e m a d e o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f w o o d b e f o r e b e i n g r e p l a c e d b y h i c k o r y i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . T h e v a r i e t i e s o f w o o d s i n c l u d e d a s h , p u r p l e h e a r t , o r a n g e w o o d , a n d b l u e - m a h o o . D e s p i t e t h e s t r e n g t h o f h i c k o r y , t h e l o n g - n o s e c l u b o f t h e m i d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s s t i l l p r o n e t o b r e a k i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e b a c k s w i n g . T h e c l u b h e a d s w e r e o f t e n m a d e f r o m w o o d s i n c l u d i n g a p p l e , p e a r , d o g w o o d , a n d b e e c h i n t h e e a r l y t i m e s u n t i l p e r s i m m o n b e c a m e t h e m a i n m a t e r i a l . G o l f c l u b s h a v e b e e n i m p r o v e d a n d t h e s h a f t s a r e n o w m a d e o f s t e e l , t i t a n i u m , o t h e r t y p e s o f m e t a l s o r c a r b o n f i b e r . T h e s h a f t i s a t a p e r e d s t e e l t u b e o r a s e r i e s o f s t e p p e d s t e e l t u b e s i n t e l e s c o p i c f a s h i o n . T h i s h a s i m p r o v e d t h e a c c u r a c y o f g o l f e r s . T h e g r i p s o f t h e c l u b s a r e m a d e f r o m l e a t h e r o r r u b b e r . T h e s h a f t i s a t a p e r e d t u b e m a d e o f m e t a l ( u s u a l l y s t e e l ) o r c a r b o n f i b e r c o m p o s i t e ( r e f e r r e d t o a s g r a p h i t e ) . T h e s h a f t i s r o u g h l y i n d i a m e t e r n e a r t h e g r i p a n d f r o m i n l e n g t h . S h a f t s w e i g h f r o m , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m a t e r i a l a n d l e n g t h . S h a f t s a r e q u a n t i f i e d i n a n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n i s t h e s h a f t f l e x . S i m p l y , t h e s h a f t f l e x i s t h e a m o u n t t h a t t h e s h a f t w i l l b e n d w h e n p l a c e d u n d e r a l o a d . A s t i f f e r s h a f t w i l l n o t f l e x a s m u c h , w h i c h r e q u i r e s m o r e p o w e r t o f l e x a n d " w h i p " t h r o u g h t h e b a l l p r o p e r l y ( w h i c h r e s u l t s i n h i g h e r c l u b s p e e d a t i m p a c t f o r m o r e d i s t a n c e ) , w h i l e a m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t w i l l w h i p w i t h l e s s p o w e r r e q u i r e d f o r b e t t e r d i s t a n c e o n s l o w e r s w i n g s , b u t m a y t o r q u e a n d o v e r - f l e x i f s w u n g w i t h t o o m u c h p o w e r c a u s i n g t h e h e a d n o t t o b e s q u a r e a t i m p a c t , r e s u l t i n g i n l o w e r a c c u r a c y . M o s t s h a f t m a k e r s o f f e r a v a r i e t y o f f l e x e s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n a r e : L / W ( L a d y / W o m e n ' s ) , A / I ( S o f t R e g u l a r , I n t e r m e d i a t e o r S e n i o r ) , R ( R e g u l a r ) , S ( S t i f f ) , a n d X ( T o u r S t i f f , E x t r a S t i f f o r S t r o n g ) . A r e g u l a r f l e x s h a f t i s g e n e r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h o s e w i t h a n a v e r a g e h e a d s p e e d ( ) , w h i l e a n A - F l e x ( o r s e n i o r s h a f t ) i s f o r p l a y e r s w i t h a s l o w e r s w i n g s p e e d ( ) , a n d t h e s t i f f e r s h a f t s , s u c h a s S - F l e x a n d X - F l e x ( S t i f f a n d E x t r a - S t i f f s h a f t s ) a r e r e s e r v e d o n l y f o r t h o s e p l a y e r s w i t h a n a b o v e a v e r a g e s w i n g i n g s p e e d , u s u a l l y a b o v e . S o m e c o m p a n i e s a l s o o f f e r a " s t i f f - r e g u l a r " o r " f i r m " f l e x f o r p l a y e r s w h o s e c l u b s p e e d f a l l s i n t h e u p p e r r a n g e o f a R e g u l a r s h a f t ( ) , a l l o w i n g g o l f e r s a n d c l u b m a k e r s t o f i n e - t u n e t h e f l e x f o r a s t r o n g e r a m a t e u r - l e v e l p l a y e r . A t i m p a c t , t h e c l u b h e a d c a n t w i s t a s a r e s u l t o f t o r q u e a p p l i e d t o t h e s h a f t , r e d u c i n g a c c u r a c y a s t h e f a c e o f t h e c l u b i s n o t s q u a r e t o t h e p l a y e r ' s s t a n c e . T h e a b i l i t y o f a s h a f t t o t w i s t a l o n g i t s l e n g t h d u e t o t h i s t o r q u e i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e f l e x o f t h e s h a f t i t s e l f ; a s t i f f e r s h a f t w i l l a l s o t o r q u e l e s s . T o c o u n t e r t o r q u e i n m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t s , c l u b m a k e r s d e s i g n t h e s h a f t s w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f t o r q u e t h r o u g h t h e i r l e n g t h , p a r t i c u l a r l y a l o n g t h e t h i n n e s t p a r t o f t h e s h a f t w h e r e i t j o i n s w i t h t h e c l u b h e a d . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e s h a f t i s m o s t f l e x i b l e , c a l l e d t h e " k i c k p o i n t " ; a b o v e t h a t p o i n t t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i a m e t e r o f t h e s h a f t m a k e s i t m o r e r i g i d , w h i l e b e l o w t h a t p o i n t t h e s h a f t i s r e i n f o r c e d i n t e r n a l l y t o r e d u c e t o r q u i n g o f t h e c l u b h e a d . S h a f t s h a v e t y p i c a l l y b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s h a v i n g a l o w , m e d i u m o r h i g h k i c k ; a l o w k i c k m e a n s t h e s h a f t w i l l s t o r e e n e r g y c l o s e r t o t h e c l u b h e a d , w h i c h m e a n s t h e c l u b h e a d c a n t w i s t m o r e b u t a l s o a l l o w s f o r h i g h e r c l u b h e a d s p e e d s . A h i g h k i c k s h a f t w i l l s t o r e e n e r g y c l o s e r t o t h e g r i p ; s u c h a s h a f t w i l l f e e l f i r m e r w h e n s w i n g i n g i t a n d w i l l g i v e b e t t e r c o n t r o l o v e r d i r e c t i o n , b u t t h e s a m e s t r e n g t h s w i n g w i l l f l e x t h e s h a f t l e s s , w h i c h w i l l r e d u c e c l u b - h e a d s p e e d . W i d e l y o v e r l o o k e d a s a p a r t o f t h e c l u b , t h e s h a f t i s c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y t o b e t h e e n g i n e o f t h e m o d e r n c l u b h e a d . S h a f t s r a n g e i n p r i c e f r o m a m e r e U S $ 4 t o o v e r U S $ 1 2 0 0 . C u r r e n t g r a p h i t e s h a f t s w e i g h c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n t h e i r s t e e l c o u n t e r p a r t s ( s o m e t i m e s w e i g h i n g l e s s t h a n f o r a d r i v e r s h a f t ) , a l l o w i n g f o r l i g h t e r c l u b s t h a t c a n b e s w u n g a t g r e a t e r s p e e d . B e g i n n i n g i n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , c u s t o m s h a f t s h a v e b e e n i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e c l u b - m a k i n g p r o c e s s . T h e s e s h a f t s w i l l , w i t h i n a g i v e n f l e x r a t i n g , a d d r e s s s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a , s u c h a s t o l a u n c h t h e b a l l h i g h e r o r l o w e r o r t o a d j u s t f o r t h e t i m i n g o f a p l a y e r ' s s w i n g t o l o a d a n d u n l o a d t h e s h a f t a t t h e c o r r e c t m o m e n t s o f t h e s w i n g f o r m a x i m u m p o w e r . W h e r e a s i n t h e p a s t e a c h c l u b c o u l d c o m e w i t h o n l y o n e s h a f t , t o d a y ' s c l u b h e a d s c a n b e f i t t e d w i t h d o z e n s o f d i f f e r e n t s h a f t s , e a c h w i t h s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n i n b e h a v i o r , c r e a t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a m u c h b e t t e r f i t f o r t h e a v e r a g e g o l f e r . T h e g r i p o f t h e c l u b i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e o p p o s i t e e n d o f t h e s h a f t f r o m t h e c l u b h e a d , a n d i s t h e p a r t o f t h e c l u b t h e p l a y e r h o l d s o n t o w h i l e s w i n g i n g . O r i g i n a l l y , t h e g r i p w a s c o m p o s e d o f o n e o r m o r e l e a t h e r s t r i p s w r a p p e d a r o u n d t h e s h a f t . T h e l e a t h e r o u t e r w r a p o n a g r i p i s s t i l l s e e n o n s o m e c l u b s , m o s t c o m m o n l y p u t t e r s , b u t m o s t m o d e r n g r i p s a r e a o n e - p i e c e " s l e e v e " m a d e o f r u b b e r , s y n t h e t i c o r c o m p o s i t e m a t e r i a l t h a t i s s l i d o v e r t h e s h a f t a n d s e c u r e d w i t h a n a d h e s i v e . T h e s e s l e e v e g r i p s a l l o w c l u b m a k e r s a n d g o l f e r s t o c u s t o m i z e t h e g r i p ' s d i a m e t e r , c o n s i s t e n c y ( s o f t n e s s / f i r m n e s s ) a n d t e x t u r i n g p a t t e r n t o b e s t f i t t h e p l a y e r . C l u b s w i t h a n o u t e r " w r a p " o f l e a t h e r o r l e a t h e r - l i k e s y n t h e t i c s t i l l t y p i c a l l y h a v e a " s l e e v e " f o r m u n d e r n e a t h t o a d d d i a m e t e r t o t h e g r i p a n d g i v e i t i t s b a s i c p r o f i l e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e s o f g o l f , a l l c l u b g r i p s m u s t h a v e t h e s a m e c r o s s - s e c t i o n s h a p e a l o n g t h e i r e n t i r e l e n g t h ( t h e d i a m e t e r c a n v a r y ) , a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p u t t e r , m u s t h a v e a c i r c u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n . T h e p u t t e r m a y h a v e a n y c r o s s s e c t i o n t h a t i s s y m m e t r i c a l a l o n g t h e l e n g t h o f t h e g r i p t h r o u g h a t l e a s t o n e p l a n e ; " s h i e l d " p r o f i l e s w i t h a f l a t t o p a n d c u r v e d u n d e r s i d e a r e c o m m o n . G r i p s m a y t a p e r f r o m t h i c k t o t h i n a l o n g t h e i r l e n g t h ( a n d v i r t u a l l y a l l d o ) , b u t t h e y a r e n o t a l l o w e d t o h a v e a n y " w a i s t i n g " ( a t h i n n e r s e c t i o n o f t h e g r i p s u r r o u n d e d b y t h i c k e r s e c t i o n s a b o v e a n d b e l o w i t ) o r " b u l g e s " ( t h i c k e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e g r i p s u r r o u n d e d b y t h i n n e r s e c t i o n s ) . M i n o r v a r i a t i o n s i n s u r f a c e t e x t u r e ( s u c h a s t h e n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n o f a " w r a p " - s t y l e g r i p ) a r e n o t c o u n t e d u n l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t . A d v a n c e s i n m a t e r i a l s h a v e r e s u l t e d i n m o r e d u r a b l e , l o n g e r - l a s t i n g s o f t g r i p s , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s g r i p s d o e v e n t u a l l y d r y o u t , h a r d e n , o r a r e o t h e r w i s e d a m a g e d a n d m u s t b e r e p l a c e d . R e p l a c e m e n t g r i p s s o l d a s d o - i t - y o u r s e l f k i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y i n e x p e n s i v e a n d o f h i g h q u a l i t y , a l t h o u g h c u s t o m g r i p s t h a t a r e l a r g e r , s o f t e r , o r t e x t u r e d d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m t h e e v e r y d a y " w r a p " - s t y l e g r i p a r e g e n e r a l l y b o u g h t a n d i n s t a l l e d b y a c l u b s m i t h . R e - g r i p p i n g u s e d t o r e q u i r e t o x i c , f l a m m a b l e s o l v e n t s t o s o f t e n a n d a c t i v a t e t h e a d h e s i v e , a n d a v i s e t o h o l d t h e c l u b s t e a d y w h i l e t h e g r i p w a s f o r c e d o n . T h e n e w e s t r e p l a c e m e n t k i t s , h o w e v e r , u s e d o u b l e - s i d e d t a p e w i t h a w a t e r - a c t i v a t e d a d h e s i v e t h a t i s s l i p p e r y w h e n f i r s t a c t i v a t e d , a l l o w i n g e a s i e r i n s t a l l a t i o n . O n c e t h e a d h e s i v e c u r e s , i t c r e a t e s a v e r y s t r o n g b o n d b e t w e e n g r i p a n d s h a f t a n d t h e g r i p i s u s u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o r e m o v e w i t h o u t c u t t i n g i t o f f . T h e h o s e l i s t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e c l u b h e a d t o w h i c h t h e s h a f t a t t a c h e s . T h o u g h l a r g e l y i g n o r e d b y p l a y e r s , h o s e l d e s i g n i s i n t e g r a l t o t h e b a l a n c e , f e e l a n d p o w e r o f a c l u b . M o d e r n h o s e l s a r e d e s i g n e d t o p l a c e a s l i t t l e m a s s a s p o s s i b l e o v e r t h e t o p o f t h e s t r i k i n g f a c e o f t h e c l u b , w h i c h l o w e r s t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y o f t h e c l u b f o r b e t t e r d i s t a n c e . E a c h h e a d h a s o n e f a c e w h i c h c o n t a c t s t h e b a l l d u r i n g t h e s t r o k e . P u t t e r s m a y h a v e t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s , a s l o n g a s t h e y a r e i d e n t i c a l a n d s y m m e t r i c a l . S o m e c h i p p e r s ( a c l u b s i m i l a r i n a p p e a r a n c e t o a d o u b l e - s i d e d p u t t e r b u t h a v i n g a l o f t o f 3 5 – 4 5 d e g r e e s ) h a v e t w o f a c e s , b u t a r e n o t l e g a l . P a g e 1 3 5 o f t h e 2 0 0 9 U S G A r u l e s o f g o l f s t a t e s : T h e c l u b h e a d m u s t h a v e o n l y o n e s t r i k i n g f a c e , e x c e p t t h a t a p u t t e r m a y h a v e t w o s u c h f a c e s i f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e t h e s a m e , a n d t h e y a r e o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r . P a g e 1 2 7 o f t h e U S G A r u l e s o f g o l f s t a t e s : A p u t t e r i s a c l u b w i t h a l o f t n o t e x c e e d i n g t e n d e g r e e s d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y f o r u s e o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n . T h e r e f o r e , a n y d o u b l e s i d e d c l u b w i t h a l o f t g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 d e g r e e s i s n o t l e g a l . T h e t r i m r i n g , u s u a l l y b l a c k ( I t m a y h a v e a d d i t i o n a l t r i m c o l o r s ) , t h a t i s f o u n d d i r e c t l y o n t o p o f t h e h o s e l o n m a n y w o o d s a n d i r o n s . T h e f e r r u l e i s m o s t l y d e c o r a t i v e , c r e a t i n g a c o n t i n u o u s l i n e b e t w e e n t h e s h a f t a n d t h e w i d e r h o s e l , b u t i n s o m e c a s e s i t c a n f o r m p a r t o f t h e s e c u r i n g m e c h a n i s m b e t w e e n h o s e l a n d s h a f t . F e r r u l e s o f d i f f e r i n g w e i g h t s c a n f i n e - t u n e t h e c e n t e r o f m a s s o f t h e o v e r a l l c l u b h e a d , b u t f o r t h e s e m i n u t e a d j u s t m e n t s , s c r e w - i n w e i g h t e d i n s e r t s a t s p e c i f i c p o i n t s o n t h e c l u b h e a d a r e u s u a l l y u s e d i n s t e a d . T h e r u l e s o f g o l f l i m i t e a c h p l a y e r t o a m a x i m u m o f 1 4 c l u b s i n t h e i r b a g . S t r i c t r u l e s p r o h i b i t s h a r i n g o f c l u b s b e t w e e n p l a y e r s t h a t e a c h h a v e t h e i r o w n s e t ( i f t w o p l a y e r s s h a r e c l u b s , t h e y m a y n o t h a v e m o r e t h a n 1 4 c l u b s c o m b i n e d ) , a n d w h i l e o c c a s i o n a l l e n d i n g o f a c l u b t o a p l a y e r i s g e n e r a l l y o v e r l o o k e d , h a b i t u a l b o r r o w i n g o f o t h e r p l a y e r s ' c l u b s o r t h e s h a r i n g o f a s i n g l e b a g o f c l u b s s l o w s p l a y c o n s i d e r a b l y w h e n b o t h p l a y e r s n e e d t h e s a m e c l u b . T h e m o s t c o m m o n s e t o f m e n ' s c l u b s i s : T h e a b o v e s e t i s o n l y 1 2 c l u b s ; t h e s e ( o r e q u i v a l e n t h y b r i d s u b s t i t u t e s ) a r e f o u n d i n v i r t u a l l y e v e r y g o l f b a g . T o t h i s , p l a y e r s t y p i c a l l y a d d t w o o f t h e f o l l o w i n g : W o m e n ' s c l u b s e t s a r e s i m i l a r i n o v e r a l l m a k e u p , b u t t y p i c a l l y h a v e h i g h e r l o f t s a n d s h o r t e r , m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t s i n r e t a i l s e t s t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e a v e r a g e f e m a l e p l a y e r ' s h e i g h t a n d s w i n g s p e e d . V a r i a t i o n s o n t h i s b a s i c s e t a b o u n d ; s e v e r a l c l u b o p t i o n s u s u a l l y e x i s t f o r a l m o s t a n y s h o t d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p l a y e r ' s s k i l l l e v e l a n d p l a y i n g s t y l e , a n d t h e o n l y c l u b u n i v e r s a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e i n d i s p e n s a b l e i s t h e p u t t e r . S o m e c o n s i d e r t h e m o d e r n d e e p - f a c e d d r i v e r t o b e e q u a l l y i r r e p l a c e a b l e ; t h i s i s c a u s e f o r s o m e d e b a t e , a s p r o f e s s i o n a l p l a y e r s i n c l u d i n g T i g e r W o o d s h a v e p l a y e d a n d w o n t o u r n a m e n t s w i t h o u t u s i n g a d r i v e r , i n s t e a d u s i n g a 3 - w o o d f o r t e e s h o t s a n d m a k i n g u p t h e d i f f e r e n c e o n t h e a p p r o a c h u s i n g a l o w e r - l o f t e d i r o n . T h e m o s t c o m m o n o m i s s i o n s a r e t h e " l o n g i r o n s " , n u m b e r e d f r o m 2 t o 5 , w h i c h a r e n o t o r i o u s l y d i f f i c u l t t o h i t w e l l . T h e p l a y e r c a n s u p p l e m e n t t h e g a p s i n d i s t a n c e w i t h e i t h e r h i g h e r - n u m b e r e d w o o d s s u c h a s t h e 5 a n d e v e n t h e 7 - w o o d , o r m a y r e p l a c e t h e l o n g i r o n s w i t h e q u i v a l e n t l y - n u m b e r e d h y b r i d c l u b s . I f h y b r i d s a r e u s e d , h i g h e r - l o f t e d w o o d s a r e o f t e n o m i t t e d a s r e d u n d a n t , b u t l a d i e s ' a n d s e n i o r s ' s e t s c o m m o n l y f e a t u r e b o t h h y b r i d s a n d h i g h - l o f t e d w o o d s , o m i t t i n g t h e l o n g i r o n s e n t i r e l y i n f a v o r o f t h e l o f t e d w o o d s , a n d r e p l a c i n g t h e m i d - i r o n s ( 5 – 7 ) w i t h h y b r i d s . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n a l l o w s f o r h i g h e r l a u n c h a n g l e s o n t h e l o n g - d i s t a n c e c l u b s , w h i c h g i v e s b e t t e r d i s t a n c e w i t h s l o w e r s w i n g s p e e d s . W h e r e a c l u b i s o m i t t e d a n d n o t r e p l a c e d w i t h a c l u b o f s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n , p l a y e r s m a y a d d a d d i t i o n a l c l u b s o f a d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s u c h a s a d d i t i o n a l w e d g e s . W h i l e 1 4 c l u b s i s a m a x i m u m , i t i s n o t a m i n i m u m ; p l a y e r s a r e f r e e t o u s e a n y l e s s e r n u m b e r o f c l u b s t h e y p r e f e r , s o s u b s t i t u t i o n s f o r t h e c o m m o n o m i s s i o n s a b o v e a r e n o t a l w a y s m a d e ; a p l a y e r m a y s i m p l y c h o o s e t o p l a y w i t h o u t a 5 - w o o d o r 2 – 4 i r o n s , i n s t e a d u s i n g a 4 - w o o d a n d m o v i n g d i r e c t l y t o t h e i r 5 - i r o n a s d e s i r e d d i s t a n c e d e c r e a s e s ( a 4 - w o o d i n a s k i l l e d g o l f e r ' s h a n d s a v e r a g e s 2 0 0 y a r d s ; a 5 - i r o n i n t h e s a m e p l a y e r ' s h a n d s w o u l d b e a b o u t 1 6 0 , w h i c h i s a l a r g e g a p b u t n o t u n p l a y a b l e ) . O t h e r c l u b s m a y b e o m i t t e d a s w e l l . O n c o u r s e s w h e r e b a g s m u s t b e c a r r i e d b y t h e p l a y e r , t h e p l a y e r m a y t a k e o n l y t h e o d d - n u m b e r e d i r o n s ; w i t h o u t t h e 4 , 6 o r 8 i r o n s ( t h e 3 i s s o m e t i m e s r e m o v e d i n s t e a d o f t h e 4 ) t h e b a g ' s w e i g h t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d . C a r r y i n g o n l y a d r i v e r , 3 - w o o d , 4 - h y b r i d , 5 - 7 - 9 i r o n s , p i t c h i n g a n d s a n d w e d g e s , a n d a p u t t e r r e d u c e s t h e n u m b e r o f c l u b s i n t h e b a g t o 9 ; t h i s i s a c o m m o n l o a d - o u t f o r a " S u n d a y b a g " t a k e n t o t h e d r i v i n g r a n g e o r t o a n i n f o r m a l g a m e . A s k i l l e d p l a y e r c a n u s u a l l y o v e r c o m e t h e l e s s e r s e l e c t i o n o f c l u b l o f t s b y r e d u c i n g t h e i r s w i n g s p e e d o n a l o w e r - l o f t i r o n a n d / o r p l a c i n g t h e b a l l f u r t h e r f o r w a r d i n t h e i r s t a n c e t o g e t t h e s a m e c a r r y d i s t a n c e a n d / o r l a u n c h a n g l e a s t h e n e x t h i g h e r l o f t n u m b e r . A n o t h e r i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m m o n i n f o r m a l f o r m a t i s a d e l i b e r a t e l y l o w u p p e r l i m i t s u c h a s f o u r c l u b s , o r t h r e e c l u b s p l u s p u t t e r , w i t h a t y p i c a l l o a d b e i n g a w o o d o r h y b r i d , m i d d l e i r o n , w e d g e a n d p u t t e r , a l t h o u g h o f t e n w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n p l a y e r s w i t h r e g a r d s t o w h i c h s p e c i f i c c l u b s a r e f a v o r e d i n e a c h r o l e . T h e r u l i n g a u t h o r i t i e s o f g o l f , T h e R & A ( f o r m e r l y p a r t o f T h e R o y a l a n d A n c i e n t G o l f C l u b o f S t A n d r e w s ) a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G o l f A s s o c i a t i o n ( U S G A ) , r e s e r v e t h e r i g h t t o d e f i n e w h a t s h a p e s a n d p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c l u b s a r e p e r m i s s i b l e i n t o u r n a m e n t p l a y . T h e c u r r e n t r u l e s f o r c l u b d e s i g n , i n c l u d i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f v a r i o u s r u l i n g s o n c l u b s i n t r o d u c e d f o r p l a y , a r e d e f i n e d i n A p p e n d i x I I o f t h e R u l e s o f G o l f . T h e o v e r a r c h i n g p r i n c i p l e o f c l u b d e s i g n u s e d b y b o t h a u t h o r i t i e s i s d e f i n e d i n A p p e n d i x I I - 1 a , w h i c h s t a t e s : " T h e c l u b m u s t n o t b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c u s t o m a r y f o r m a n d m a k e " . T h e c l u b m u s t b e c o m p o s e d o f a s h a f t a n d a h e a d a n d i t m a y a l s o h a v e m a t e r i a l a d d e d t o t h e s h a f t t o e n a b l e t h e p l a y e r t o o b t a i n a f i r m h o l d ( s e e 3 b e l o w ) . A l l p a r t s o f t h e c l u b m u s t b e f i x e d s o t h a t t h e c l u b i s o n e u n i t , a n d i t m u s t h a v e n o e x t e r n a l a t t a c h m e n t s . " I n a d d i t i o n , A p p e n d i x I I - 4 a s t a t e s , r e g a r d i n g c l u b h e a d s , t h a t " t h e c l u b h e a d m u s t b e g e n e r a l l y " p l a i n i n s h a p e " . A l l p a r t s m u s t b e r i g i d , s t r u c t u r a l i n n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n a l . T h e c l u b h e a d o r i t s p a r t s m u s t n o t b e d e s i g n e d t o r e s e m b l e a n y o t h e r o b j e c t . I t i s n o t p r a c t i c a b l e t o d e f i n e ' p l a i n i n s h a p e ' p r e c i s e l y a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y . " T h e s e t w o r u l e s a r e u s e d a s t h e b a s i s f o r m o s t o f t h e m o r e s p e c i f i c r u l e s o f A p p e n d i x I I , i n c l u d i n g t h a t n o c l u b m a y h a v e a c o n c a v e f a c e ( 1 9 3 1 ) a n d v a r i o u s r u l e s d e f i n i n g w h a t i s " t r a d i t i o n a l " a b o u t t h e s h a p e s o f s p e c i f i c c l u b s , w h i l e a l l o w i n g f o r t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f t e c h n o l o g y . T h e " t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c u s t o m a r y " r u l e w a s o r i g i n a l l y u s e d t o b a n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s t e e l c l u b s h a f t s ( p a t e n t e d i n 1 9 1 0 ) , a s t h a t m a t e r i a l w a s n o t t r a d i t i o n a l f o r s h a f t s ; t h a t s p e c i f i c b a n w a s r e s c i n d e d i n 1 9 2 4 b y t h e U S G A ( t h e R & A w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o b a n s t e e l s h a f t s u n t i l 1 9 2 9 ) , a n d s t e e l w o u l d b e c o m e u n i v e r s a l u n t i l t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f g r a p h i t e s h a f t s w h o s e i n t r o d u c t i o n w a s l e s s c o n t r o v e r s i a l . T h e " p l a i n i n s h a p e " r u l e w a s m o r e r e c e n t l y b e n t t o a l l o w f o r n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l d r i v e r c l u b h e a d s h a p e s , s u c h a s s q u a r e s , a s a c o m p r o m i s e t o c l u b - m a k e r s a f t e r i m p o s i n g a n d e n f o r c i n g a 4 6 0 c c v o l u m e l i m i t o n t h e s e s a m e c l u b h e a d s . M a n y r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d w o o d s h a v e a m a r k e d " t r a m p o l i n e e f f e c t " ( a l a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e f a c e u p o n i m p a c t f o l l o w e d b y a q u i c k r e s t o r a t i o n t o o r i g i n a l d i m e n s i o n s , a c t i n g l i k e a s l i n g s h o t ) , r e s u l t i n g i n v e r y h i g h b a l l s p e e d s a n d g r e a t l e n g t h s o f t e e s h o t s . A s o f 1 J a n u a r y 2 0 0 8 , t h e U S G A a n d R & A h a v e s e t t l e d o n a r e g u l a t i o n t h a t l i m i t s t h e a c c e p t a b l e " t r a m p o l i n e e f f e c t " t o a c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e s t i t u t i o n ( C O R ) — a m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e t r a n s f e r o f e n e r g y f r o m t h e c l u b h e a d t o t h e b a l l — o f . 8 3 0 . O t h e r l a r g e s c a l e U S G A r u l i n g s i n v o l v e a 1 9 9 0 l a w s u i t , a n d s u b s e q u e n t s e t t l e m e n t , a g a i n s t K a r s t e n M a n u f a c t u r i n g , m a k e r s o f t h e P I N G b r a n d , f o r t h e i r u s e o f s q u a r e , o r U - g r o o v e s i n t h e i r i m m e n s e l y p o p u l a r P i n g E y e 2 i r o n s . T h e U S G A a r g u e d t h a t p l a y e r s w h o u s e d t h e E y e 2 h a d a n u n f a i r a d v a n t a g e i n i m p a r t i n g s p i n o n t h e b a l l , w h i c h h e l p s t o s t o p t h e b a l l o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n s . T h e U S G A u t i l i z e d J o h n L . S a k s u n , f o u n d e r o f C a n a d i a n g o l f c o m p a n y A c c u f o r m G o l f , a s a c o n s u l t a n t t o s e t u p m e t h o d s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e u n i q u e g r o o v e s a n d d e t e r m i n i n g P I N G ' s c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e r u l i n g s . S a k s u n , b y p r o p o s i n g a c o s t - e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n t o h e l p P I N G c h a n g e t h e d e s i g n o f s u b s e q u e n t E y e 2 s , s a v e d P I N G h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s . P I N G s u b s e q u e n t l y w i t h d r e w t h e i r U S $ 1 0 0 m i l l i o n l a w s u i t a g a i n s t t h e U S G A . P i n g ’ s o l d e r c l u b s w e r e " g r a n d f a t h e r e d i n " a n d a l l o w e d t o r e m a i n i n p l a y a s p a r t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e U S G A h a s b e g u n p h a s i n g i n a b a n o n s q u a r e g r o o v e s i n g o l f . M a n u f a c t u r e r s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o d i s c o n t i n u e n o n c o m p l i a n t c l u b s b y J a n u a r y 1 , 2 0 1 1 . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e U S G A , a s J a n u a r y 1 , 2 0 1 0 , p r o f e s s i o n a l g o l f e r s o n o n e o f t h e t o p t o u r s , o r t h o s e a t t e m p t i n g t o q u a l i f y f o r o n e o f t h e t h r e e O p e n C h a m p i o n s h i p s ( s i n c e t h e n f o u r ) w i l l n e e d t o u s e n e w c o n f o r m i n g w e d g e s ( t h o s e w i t h o u t s q u a r e g r o o v e s ) . M o r e o v e r , t h o s e w h o p l a n t o q u a l i f y f o r a n y o t h e r U S G A c h a m p i o n s h i p ( A m a t e u r c h a m p i o n s h i p s — u n d e r 1 8 , A m a t e u r , o v e r 2 5 , a n d o v e r 5 0 i n b o t h s e x e s , a n d f o u r - b a l l , a l o n g w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e a m c h a m p i o n s h i p s ) , w i l l n e e d n e w c o n f o r m i n g w e d g e s b y 2 0 1 4 . I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s r e g u l a t i o n i n c l u d e s I G F a n d U S G A - s a n c t i o n e d r e g i o n a l a m a t e u r e v e n t s a s w e l l , a s a " c o n d i t i o n o f c o m p e t i t i o n " . W e d g e s t h a t c o n f o r m t o t h e n e w s t a n d a r d a r e o f t e n m a r k e t e d a s " C C " o r " C o n d i t i o n o f C o m p e t i t i o n " w e d g e s ; t h i s m o n i k e r i s l i k e l y t o f a l l i n t o d i s u s e a s p l a y e r s u p g r a d e c l u b s a n d t h e u s e o f n o n - c o n f o r m i n g i r o n s d i m i n i s h e s .

Construction

The construction of golf clubs involves the use of various materials such as titanium, steel, and graphite for the shafts, and persimmon, apple, and beech for the club heads. The grips are made of rubber, synthetic, or composite materials and come in different diameters, consistencies, and textures. The hosel is the part where the shaft attaches to the club head, and the ferrule is a decorative ring that adds weight to the club head. The rules of golf dictate that all clubs must have a fixed structure, a plain shape, and no external attachments.

the most powerful of all the golf clubs. There are typically three to four woods in a set which are used from the tee box and, if on a long hole, possibly for the second or even third shot. The biggest wood, known as the "driver" or "one wood", is often made of hollowed out titanium with feather-light shafts. The length of the woods has been increasing in recent decades, and a typical driver with a graphite shaft is now long. The woods may also have very large heads, up to in volume (the maximum allowed by the USGA in sanctioned events; drivers with even larger club-head volumes are available for long-drive competitions and informal games). The shafts range from senior to extra-stiff depending upon each player’s preference. faces or a flat-topped "putter grip". This disqualifies many chipper designs, but there are some USGA-conforming chippers, and non-conforming designs can still be used for informal play. The shafts of the woods were made of different types of wood before being replaced by hickory in the middle of the 19th century. The varieties of woods included ash, purpleheart, orangewood, and blue-mahoo. Despite the strength of hickory, the long-nose club of the mid nineteenth century was still prone to breaking at the top of the back swing. The club heads were often made from woods including apple, pear, dogwood, and beech in the early times until persimmon became the main material. Golf clubs have been improved and the shafts are now made of steel, titanium, other types of metals but most modern grips are a one-piece "sleeve" made of rubber, synthetic or composite material that is slid over the shaft and secured with an adhesive. These sleeve grips allow club makers and golfers to customize the grip's diameter, consistency (softness/firmness) and texturing pattern to best fit the player. Clubs with an outer "wrap" of leather or leather-like synthetic still typically have a "sleeve" form underneath to add diameter to the grip and give it its basic profile. According to the rules of golf, all club grips must have the same cross-section shape along their entire length (the diameter can vary), and with the exception of the putter, must have a circular cross-section. The putter may have any cross section that is symmetrical along the length of the grip through at least one plane; "shield" profiles with a flat top and curved underside are common. Grips may taper from thick to thin along their length (and virtually all do), but they are not allowed to have any "waisting" (a thinner section of the grip surrounded by thicker sections above and below it) or "bulges" (thicker sections of the grip surrounded by thinner sections). Minor variations in surface texture (such as the natural variation of a "wrap"-style grip) are not counted unless significant. Advances in materials have resulted in more durable, longer-lasting soft grips, but nevertheless grips do eventually dry out, harden, or are otherwise damaged and must be replaced. Replacement grips sold as do-it-yourself kits are generally inexpensive and of high quality, although custom grips that are larger, softer, or textured differently from the everyday "wrap"-style grip are generally bought and installed by a clubsmith. Re-gripping used to require toxic, flammable solvents to soften and activate the adhesive, and a vise to hold the club steady while the grip was forced on. The newest replacement kits, however, use double-sided tape with a water-activated adhesive that is slippery when first activated, allowing easier installation. Once the adhesive cures, it creates a very strong bond between grip and shaft and the grip is usually impossible to remove without cutting it off. The hosel is the portion of the club head to which the shaft attaches. Though largely ignored by players, hosel design is integral to the balance, feel and power of a club. Modern hosels are golf states: A putter is a club with a loft not exceeding ten degrees designed primarily for use on the putting green. Therefore, any double sided club with a loft greater than 10 degrees is not legal. The trim ring, usually black (It may have additional trim colors), that is found directly on top of the hosel on many woods and irons. The ferrule is mostly decorative, creating a continuous line between the shaft and the wider hosel, but in some cases it can form part of the securing mechanism between hosel and shaft. Ferrules of differing weights can fine-tune the center of mass of the overall club head, but for these minute adjustments, screw-in weighted inserts at specific points on the club head are usually used instead. material added to the shaft to enable the player to obtain a firm hold (see 3 below). All parts of the club must be fixed so that the club is one unit, and it must have no external attachments." In addition, Appendix II-4a states, regarding club heads, that "the club head must be generally "plain in shape". All parts must be rigid, structural in nature and functional. The club head or its parts must not be designed to resemble any other object. It is not practicable to define 'plain in shape' precisely and comprehensively. " These two rules are used as the basis for most of the more specific rules of Appendix II, including that no club may have a concave face (1931) and various rules defining what stop the ball on the putting greens. The USGA utilized John L. Saksun, founder of Canadian golf company Accuform Golf, as a consultant to set up methods of measuring the unique grooves and determining PING's compliance with the rulings. Saksun, by proposing a cost-effective solution to help PING change the design of subsequent Eye2s, saved PING hundreds of millions. PING subsequently withdrew their US$100 million lawsuit against the USGA. Ping’s older clubs were "grandfathered in" and allowed to remain in play as part of the settlement. However, the USGA has begun phasing in a ban on square grooves in golf. Manufacturers were required to discontinue noncompliant clubs by January 1, 2011. According to the USGA, as January 1, 2010, professional golfers on one of the top tours, or

Golf club

" W o o d s " a r e l o n g - d i s t a n c e c l u b s , m e a n t t o d r i v e t h e b a l l a g r e a t d i s t a n c e d o w n t h e f a i r w a y t o w a r d s t h e h o l e . T h e y g e n e r a l l y h a v e a l a r g e h e a d a n d a l o n g s h a f t f o r m a x i m u m c l u b s p e e d . H i s t o r i c a l l y , w o o d s w e r e m a d e f r o m p e r s i m m o n w o o d , a l t h o u g h s o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s — n o t a b l y P i n g — d e v e l o p e d l a m i n a t e d w o o d s . I n 1 9 7 9 , T a y l o r M a d e G o l f i n t r o d u c e d t h e f i r s t w o o d m a d e o f s t e e l . E v e n m o r e r e c e n t l y , m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a v e s t a r t e d u s i n g m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s c a r b o n f i b e r , t i t a n i u m , o r s c a n d i u m . E v e n t h o u g h m o s t ‘ w o o d s ’ a r e m a d e f r o m d i f f e r e n t m e t a l s , t h e y a r e s t i l l c a l l e d ‘ w o o d s ’ t o d e n o t e t h e g e n e r a l s h a p e a n d t h e i r i n t e n d e d u s e o n t h e g o l f c o u r s e . M o s t w o o d s m a d e t o d a y h a v e a g r a p h i t e s h a f t a n d a m o s t l y - h o l l o w t i t a n i u m , c o m p o s i t e , o r s t e e l h e a d , o f r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t w e i g h t a l l o w i n g f a s t e r c l u b - h e a d s p e e d s . W o o d s a r e t h e l o n g e s t c l u b s a n d t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l o f a l l t h e g o l f c l u b s . T h e r e a r e t y p i c a l l y t h r e e t o f o u r w o o d s i n a s e t w h i c h a r e u s e d f r o m t h e t e e b o x a n d , i f o n a l o n g h o l e , p o s s i b l y f o r t h e s e c o n d o r e v e n t h i r d s h o t . T h e b i g g e s t w o o d , k n o w n a s t h e " d r i v e r " o r " o n e w o o d " , i s o f t e n m a d e o f h o l l o w e d o u t t i t a n i u m w i t h f e a t h e r - l i g h t s h a f t s . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e w o o d s h a s b e e n i n c r e a s i n g i n r e c e n t d e c a d e s , a n d a t y p i c a l d r i v e r w i t h a g r a p h i t e s h a f t i s n o w l o n g . T h e w o o d s m a y a l s o h a v e v e r y l a r g e h e a d s , u p t o i n v o l u m e ( t h e m a x i m u m a l l o w e d b y t h e U S G A i n s a n c t i o n e d e v e n t s ; d r i v e r s w i t h e v e n l a r g e r c l u b - h e a d v o l u m e s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r l o n g - d r i v e c o m p e t i t i o n s a n d i n f o r m a l g a m e s ) . T h e s h a f t s r a n g e f r o m s e n i o r t o e x t r a - s t i f f d e p e n d i n g u p o n e a c h p l a y e r ’ s p r e f e r e n c e . " I r o n s " a r e c l u b s w i t h a s o l i d , a l l - m e t a l h e a d f e a t u r i n g a f l a t a n g l e d f a c e , a n d a s h o r t e r s h a f t a n d m o r e u p r i g h t l i e a n g l e t h a n a w o o d , f o r e a s e o f a c c e s s . I r o n s a r e d e s i g n e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f s h o t s f r o m a l l o v e r t h e c o u r s e , f r o m t h e t e e b o x o n s h o r t o r d o g - l e g g e d h o l e s , t o t h e f a i r w a y o r r o u g h o n a p p r o a c h t o t h e g r e e n , t o t r i c k y s i t u a t i o n s l i k e p u n c h i n g t h r o u g h o r l o b b i n g o v e r t r e e s , g e t t i n g o u t o f h a z a r d s , o r h i t t i n g f r o m t i g h t l i e s r e q u i r i n g a c o m p a c t s w i n g . M o s t o f t h e i r o n s h a v e a n u m b e r f r o m 1 t o 9 ( t h e n u m b e r s i n m o s t c o m m o n u s e a r e f r o m 3 t o 9 ) , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i r r e l a t i v e l o f t a n g l e w i t h i n a m a t c h e d s e t . I r o n s a r e t y p i c a l l y g r o u p e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r i n t e n d e d d i s t a n c e ( w h i c h a l s o r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e i r s h a f t l e n g t h a n d t h u s t h e i r d i f f i c u l t y t o h i t t h e b a l l ) ; i n t h e n u m b e r e d i r o n s , t h e r e a r e l o n g i r o n s ( 2 – 4 ) , m e d i u m i r o n s ( 5 – 7 ) , a n d s h o r t i r o n s ( 8 – 9 ) , w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e l y h i g h e r l o f t a n g l e s , s h o r t e r s h a f t s , a n d h e a v i e r c l u b h e a d s . A s w i t h w o o d s , ’ i r o n s ’ g e t t h e i r n a m e b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e o r i g i n a l l y m a d e f r o m f o r g e d i r o n . M o d e r n i r o n s a r e i n v e s t m e n t - c a s t o u t o f s t e e l a l l o y s , w h i c h a l l o w s f o r b e t t e r - e n g i n e e r e d ‘ c a v i t y - b a c k ’ d e s i g n s t h a t h a v e l o w e r c e n t e r s o f m a s s a n d h i g h e r m o m e n t s o f i n e r t i a , m a k i n g t h e c l u b e a s i e r t o h i t a n d g i v i n g b e t t e r d i s t a n c e t h a n o l d e r f o r g e d ’ m u s c l e - b a c k ’ d e s i g n s . F o r g e d i r o n s w i t h l e s s p e r i m e t e r w e i g h t i n g a r e s t i l l s e e n , e s p e c i a l l y i n s e t s t a r g e t i n g l o w - h a n d i c a p a n d s c r a t c h g o l f e r s , b e c a u s e t h i s l e s s f o r g i v i n g d e s i g n a l l o w s a s k i l l e d g o l f e r t o i n t e n t i o n a l l y h i t a c u r v e d s h o t ( a ’ f a d e ’ o r ’ d r a w ’ ) , t o f o l l o w t h e c o n t o u r o f t h e f a i r w a y o r ’ b e n d ’ a s h o t a r o u n d a n o b s t a c l e . " W e d g e s " a r e a s u b c l a s s o f i r o n s w i t h g r e a t e r l o f t t h a n t h e n u m b e r e d i r o n s ( g e n e r a l l y s t a r t i n g a t 4 7 ° – 4 8 ° o f l o f t , a b o v e t h e 9 - i r o n s o f 4 4 ° – 4 5 ° ) , a n d o t h e r f e a t u r e s s u c h a s h i g h - m a s s c l u b h e a d s a n d w i d e s o l e s t h a t a l l o w f o r e a s i e r u s e i n t r i c k y l i e s . W e d g e s a r e u s e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f s h o r t - d i s t a n c e , h i g h - a l t i t u d e , h i g h - a c c u r a c y ’ u t i l i t y ’ s h o t s , s u c h a s h i t t i n g t h e b a l l o n t o t h e g r e e n ( " a p p r o a c h " s h o t s ) , p l a c i n g t h e b a l l a c c u r a t e l y o n t h e f a i r w a y f o r a b e t t e r s h o t a t t h e g r e e n ( " l a y - u p " s h o t s ) , o r h i t t i n g t h e b a l l o u t o f h a z a r d s o r r o u g h o n t o t h e g r e e n ( c h i p p i n g ) . T h e r e a r e f i v e m a i n t y p e s o f w e d g e s , w i t h l o f t s r a n g i n g f r o m 4 5 ° t o 6 4 ° : p i t c h i n g w e d g e ( P W , 4 8 – 5 0 ° ) , g a p w e d g e ( G W , a l s o " a p p r o a c h " , " a t t a c k " , " u t i l i t y " , o r " d u a l " w e d g e , t y p i c a l l y 5 2 – 5 4 ° ) , s a n d w e d g e ( S W , 5 5 – 5 6 ° ) , l o b w e d g e ( L W , 5 8 ° – 6 0 ° ) , a n d u l t r a l o b w e d g e ( s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " f l o p w e d g e " o r F W , 6 4 ° – 6 8 ° ) . " H y b r i d s " a r e a c r o s s b e t w e e n a w o o d a n d a n i r o n , g i v i n g t h e s e c l u b s t h e w o o d ' s l o n g d i s t a n c e a n d h i g h e r l a u n c h , w i t h t h e i r o n ' s f a m i l i a r s w i n g . T h e c l u b h e a d o f a h y b r i d h a s a w o o d - i n s p i r e d , s l i g h t l y c o n v e x f a c e , a n d i s t y p i c a l l y h o l l o w l i k e m o d e r n m e t a l w o o d s t o a l l o w f o r h i g h i m p u l s e o n i m p a c t a n d f a s t e r s w i n g s p e e d s . T h e h e a d i s u s u a l l y s m a l l e r t h a n t r u e w o o d s , h o w e v e r , n o t e x t e n d i n g a s f a r b a c k f r o m t h e f a c e , a n d t h e l i e a n d s h a f t l e n g t h a r e s i m i l a r t o a n i r o n g i v i n g s i m i l a r s w i n g m e c h a n i c s . T h e s e c l u b s g e n e r a l l y r e p l a c e l o w - n u m b e r e d i r o n s i n a s t a n d a r d s e t ( b e t w e e n 2 a n d 5 , m o s t c o m m o n l y 3 – 4 ) , w h i c h a r e t y p i c a l l y t h e h a r d e s t c l u b s i n a p l a y e r ' s b a g t o h i t w e l l . B y d o i n g s o t h e y a l s o g e n e r a l l y m a k e h i g h e r - l o f t e d w o o d s r e d u n d a n t a s w e l l . H o w e v e r , s o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s p r o d u c e " i r o n r e p l a c e m e n t " s e t s t h a t u s e h y b r i d d e s i g n s t o r e p l a c e a n e n t i r e s e t o f t r a d i t i o n a l i r o n s , f r o m 3 t o p i t c h i n g w e d g e . S e t s d e s i g n e d f o r l e s s m u s c u l a r p l a y e r s c o m m o n l y f e a t u r e a c o m b i n a t i o n o f h i g h - l o f t e d w o o d s ( u p t o 7 - w o o d ) a n d h y b r i d s t o r e p l a c e t h e 5 , 6 a n d 7 - i r o n s , a l l o w i n g t h e s e p l a y e r s t o a c h i e v e g r e a t e r c a r r y d i s t a n c e s w i t h s l o w e r s w i n g s . " P u t t e r s " a r e a s p e c i a l c l a s s o f c l u b s w i t h a l o f t n o t e x c e e d i n g t e n d e g r e e s , d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o r o l l t h e b a l l a l o n g t h e g r a s s , g e n e r a l l y f r o m a p o i n t o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n t o w a r d t h e h o l e . C o n t r a r y t o p o p u l a r b e l i e f , p u t t e r s d o h a v e a l o f t ( o f t e n 5 ° f r o m t r u l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r a t i m p a c t ) t h a t h e l p s t o l i f t t h e b a l l f r o m a n y i n d e n t a t i o n i t h a s m a d e . N e w e r p u t t e r s a l s o i n c l u d e g r o o v e s o n t h e f a c e t o p r o m o t e r o l l r a t h e r t h a n a s k i d o f f t h e i m p a c t . T h i s i n c r e a s e s r o l l i n g d i s t a n c e a n d r e d u c e s b o u n c i n g o v e r t h e t u r f . P u t t e r s a r e t h e o n l y c l a s s o f c l u b a l l o w e d t o h a v e c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s , s u c h a s t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s , n o n - c i r c u l a r g r i p c r o s s - s e c t i o n s , b e n t s h a f t s o r h o s e l s , a n d a p p e n d a g e s d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o a i d p l a y e r s ' a i m . P r e s e n t i n s o m e g o l f e r s ' b a g s i s t h e " c h i p p e r " , a c l u b d e s i g n e d t o f e e l l i k e a p u t t e r b u t w i t h a m o r e l o f t e d f a c e , u s e d w i t h a p u t t i n g m o t i o n t o l i f t t h e b a l l o u t o f t h e h i g h e r g r a s s o f t h e r o u g h a n d f r i n g e a n d d r o p i t o n t h e g r e e n , w h e r e i t w i l l t h e n r o l l l i k e a p u t t . T h i s c l u b r e p l a c e s t h e u s e o f a h i g h - l o f t e d i r o n t o m a k e t h e s a m e s h o t , a n d a l l o w s t h e p l a y e r t o m a k e t h e s h o t f r o m a s t a n c e a n d w i t h a m o t i o n n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o a p u t t , w h i c h i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t w i t h a l o f t e d i r o n d u e t o a d i f f e r e n c e i n l i e a n g l e . M o s t c h i p p e r s h a v e a l o f t g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 d e g r e e s , w h i c h i s t h e m a x i m u m l o f t p e r m i t t e d b y t h e R u l e s o f G o l f f o r a c l u b t o b e c l a s s e d a s a p u t t e r , s o t h e s e c l u b s a r e a c t u a l l y c l a s s e d a s i r o n s . T o b e l e g a l f o r s a n c t i o n e d p l a y , a c h i p p e r c a n n o t h a v e a n y f e a t u r e t h a t i s d e f i n e d i n t h e r u l e s a s a l l o w a b l e o n l y o n p u t t e r s , e . g . t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s o r a f l a t - t o p p e d " p u t t e r g r i p " . T h i s d i s q u a l i f i e s m a n y c h i p p e r d e s i g n s , b u t t h e r e a r e s o m e U S G A - c o n f o r m i n g c h i p p e r s , a n d n o n - c o n f o r m i n g d e s i g n s c a n s t i l l b e u s e d f o r i n f o r m a l p l a y . T h e s h a f t s o f t h e w o o d s w e r e m a d e o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f w o o d b e f o r e b e i n g r e p l a c e d b y h i c k o r y i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . T h e v a r i e t i e s o f w o o d s i n c l u d e d a s h , p u r p l e h e a r t , o r a n g e w o o d , a n d b l u e - m a h o o . D e s p i t e t h e s t r e n g t h o f h i c k o r y , t h e l o n g - n o s e c l u b o f t h e m i d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s s t i l l p r o n e t o b r e a k i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e b a c k s w i n g . T h e c l u b h e a d s w e r e o f t e n m a d e f r o m w o o d s i n c l u d i n g a p p l e , p e a r , d o g w o o d , a n d b e e c h i n t h e e a r l y t i m e s u n t i l p e r s i m m o n b e c a m e t h e m a i n m a t e r i a l . G o l f c l u b s h a v e b e e n i m p r o v e d a n d t h e s h a f t s a r e n o w m a d e o f s t e e l , t i t a n i u m , o t h e r t y p e s o f m e t a l s o r c a r b o n f i b e r . T h e s h a f t i s a t a p e r e d s t e e l t u b e o r a s e r i e s o f s t e p p e d s t e e l t u b e s i n t e l e s c o p i c f a s h i o n . T h i s h a s i m p r o v e d t h e a c c u r a c y o f g o l f e r s . T h e g r i p s o f t h e c l u b s a r e m a d e f r o m l e a t h e r o r r u b b e r . T h e s h a f t i s a t a p e r e d t u b e m a d e o f m e t a l ( u s u a l l y s t e e l ) o r c a r b o n f i b e r c o m p o s i t e ( r e f e r r e d t o a s g r a p h i t e ) . T h e s h a f t i s r o u g h l y i n d i a m e t e r n e a r t h e g r i p a n d f r o m i n l e n g t h . S h a f t s w e i g h f r o m , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m a t e r i a l a n d l e n g t h . S h a f t s a r e q u a n t i f i e d i n a n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n i s t h e s h a f t f l e x . S i m p l y , t h e s h a f t f l e x i s t h e a m o u n t t h a t t h e s h a f t w i l l b e n d w h e n p l a c e d u n d e r a l o a d . A s t i f f e r s h a f t w i l l n o t f l e x a s m u c h , w h i c h r e q u i r e s m o r e p o w e r t o f l e x a n d " w h i p " t h r o u g h t h e b a l l p r o p e r l y ( w h i c h r e s u l t s i n h i g h e r c l u b s p e e d a t i m p a c t f o r m o r e d i s t a n c e ) , w h i l e a m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t w i l l w h i p w i t h l e s s p o w e r r e q u i r e d f o r b e t t e r d i s t a n c e o n s l o w e r s w i n g s , b u t m a y t o r q u e a n d o v e r - f l e x i f s w u n g w i t h t o o m u c h p o w e r c a u s i n g t h e h e a d n o t t o b e s q u a r e a t i m p a c t , r e s u l t i n g i n l o w e r a c c u r a c y . M o s t s h a f t m a k e r s o f f e r a v a r i e t y o f f l e x e s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n a r e : L / W ( L a d y / W o m e n ' s ) , A / I ( S o f t R e g u l a r , I n t e r m e d i a t e o r S e n i o r ) , R ( R e g u l a r ) , S ( S t i f f ) , a n d X ( T o u r S t i f f , E x t r a S t i f f o r S t r o n g ) . A r e g u l a r f l e x s h a f t i s g e n e r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h o s e w i t h a n a v e r a g e h e a d s p e e d ( ) , w h i l e a n A - F l e x ( o r s e n i o r s h a f t ) i s f o r p l a y e r s w i t h a s l o w e r s w i n g s p e e d ( ) , a n d t h e s t i f f e r s h a f t s , s u c h a s S - F l e x a n d X - F l e x ( S t i f f a n d E x t r a - S t i f f s h a f t s ) a r e r e s e r v e d o n l y f o r t h o s e p l a y e r s w i t h a n a b o v e a v e r a g e s w i n g i n g s p e e d , u s u a l l y a b o v e . S o m e c o m p a n i e s a l s o o f f e r a " s t i f f - r e g u l a r " o r " f i r m " f l e x f o r p l a y e r s w h o s e c l u b s p e e d f a l l s i n t h e u p p e r r a n g e o f a R e g u l a r s h a f t ( ) , a l l o w i n g g o l f e r s a n d c l u b m a k e r s t o f i n e - t u n e t h e f l e x f o r a s t r o n g e r a m a t e u r - l e v e l p l a y e r . A t i m p a c t , t h e c l u b h e a d c a n t w i s t a s a r e s u l t o f t o r q u e a p p l i e d t o t h e s h a f t , r e d u c i n g a c c u r a c y a s t h e f a c e o f t h e c l u b i s n o t s q u a r e t o t h e p l a y e r ' s s t a n c e . T h e a b i l i t y o f a s h a f t t o t w i s t a l o n g i t s l e n g t h d u e t o t h i s t o r q u e i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e f l e x o f t h e s h a f t i t s e l f ; a s t i f f e r s h a f t w i l l a l s o t o r q u e l e s s . T o c o u n t e r t o r q u e i n m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t s , c l u b m a k e r s d e s i g n t h e s h a f t s w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f t o r q u e t h r o u g h t h e i r l e n g t h , p a r t i c u l a r l y a l o n g t h e t h i n n e s t p a r t o f t h e s h a f t w h e r e i t j o i n s w i t h t h e c l u b h e a d . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e s h a f t i s m o s t f l e x i b l e , c a l l e d t h e " k i c k p o i n t " ; a b o v e t h a t p o i n t t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i a m e t e r o f t h e s h a f t m a k e s i t m o r e r i g i d , w h i l e b e l o w t h a t p o i n t t h e s h a f t i s r e i n f o r c e d i n t e r n a l l y t o r e d u c e t o r q u i n g o f t h e c l u b h e a d . S h a f t s h a v e t y p i c a l l y b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s h a v i n g a l o w , m e d i u m o r h i g h k i c k ; a l o w k i c k m e a n s t h e s h a f t w i l l s t o r e e n e r g y c l o s e r t o t h e c l u b h e a d , w h i c h m e a n s t h e c l u b h e a d c a n t w i s t m o r e b u t a l s o a l l o w s f o r h i g h e r c l u b h e a d s p e e d s . A h i g h k i c k s h a f t w i l l s t o r e e n e r g y c l o s e r t o t h e g r i p ; s u c h a s h a f t w i l l f e e l f i r m e r w h e n s w i n g i n g i t a n d w i l l g i v e b e t t e r c o n t r o l o v e r d i r e c t i o n , b u t t h e s a m e s t r e n g t h s w i n g w i l l f l e x t h e s h a f t l e s s , w h i c h w i l l r e d u c e c l u b - h e a d s p e e d . W i d e l y o v e r l o o k e d a s a p a r t o f t h e c l u b , t h e s h a f t i s c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y t o b e t h e e n g i n e o f t h e m o d e r n c l u b h e a d . S h a f t s r a n g e i n p r i c e f r o m a m e r e U S $ 4 t o o v e r U S $ 1 2 0 0 . C u r r e n t g r a p h i t e s h a f t s w e i g h c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n t h e i r s t e e l c o u n t e r p a r t s ( s o m e t i m e s w e i g h i n g l e s s t h a n f o r a d r i v e r s h a f t ) , a l l o w i n g f o r l i g h t e r c l u b s t h a t c a n b e s w u n g a t g r e a t e r s p e e d . B e g i n n i n g i n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , c u s t o m s h a f t s h a v e b e e n i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e c l u b - m a k i n g p r o c e s s . T h e s e s h a f t s w i l l , w i t h i n a g i v e n f l e x r a t i n g , a d d r e s s s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a , s u c h a s t o l a u n c h t h e b a l l h i g h e r o r l o w e r o r t o a d j u s t f o r t h e t i m i n g o f a p l a y e r ' s s w i n g t o l o a d a n d u n l o a d t h e s h a f t a t t h e c o r r e c t m o m e n t s o f t h e s w i n g f o r m a x i m u m p o w e r . W h e r e a s i n t h e p a s t e a c h c l u b c o u l d c o m e w i t h o n l y o n e s h a f t , t o d a y ' s c l u b h e a d s c a n b e f i t t e d w i t h d o z e n s o f d i f f e r e n t s h a f t s , e a c h w i t h s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n i n b e h a v i o r , c r e a t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a m u c h b e t t e r f i t f o r t h e a v e r a g e g o l f e r . T h e g r i p o f t h e c l u b i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e o p p o s i t e e n d o f t h e s h a f t f r o m t h e c l u b h e a d , a n d i s t h e p a r t o f t h e c l u b t h e p l a y e r h o l d s o n t o w h i l e s w i n g i n g . O r i g i n a l l y , t h e g r i p w a s c o m p o s e d o f o n e o r m o r e l e a t h e r s t r i p s w r a p p e d a r o u n d t h e s h a f t . T h e l e a t h e r o u t e r w r a p o n a g r i p i s s t i l l s e e n o n s o m e c l u b s , m o s t c o m m o n l y p u t t e r s , b u t m o s t m o d e r n g r i p s a r e a o n e - p i e c e " s l e e v e " m a d e o f r u b b e r , s y n t h e t i c o r c o m p o s i t e m a t e r i a l t h a t i s s l i d o v e r t h e s h a f t a n d s e c u r e d w i t h a n a d h e s i v e . T h e s e s l e e v e g r i p s a l l o w c l u b m a k e r s a n d g o l f e r s t o c u s t o m i z e t h e g r i p ' s d i a m e t e r , c o n s i s t e n c y ( s o f t n e s s / f i r m n e s s ) a n d t e x t u r i n g p a t t e r n t o b e s t f i t t h e p l a y e r . C l u b s w i t h a n o u t e r " w r a p " o f l e a t h e r o r l e a t h e r - l i k e s y n t h e t i c s t i l l t y p i c a l l y h a v e a " s l e e v e " f o r m u n d e r n e a t h t o a d d d i a m e t e r t o t h e g r i p a n d g i v e i t i t s b a s i c p r o f i l e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e s o f g o l f , a l l c l u b g r i p s m u s t h a v e t h e s a m e c r o s s - s e c t i o n s h a p e a l o n g t h e i r e n t i r e l e n g t h ( t h e d i a m e t e r c a n v a r y ) , a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p u t t e r , m u s t h a v e a c i r c u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n . T h e p u t t e r m a y h a v e a n y c r o s s s e c t i o n t h a t i s s y m m e t r i c a l a l o n g t h e l e n g t h o f t h e g r i p t h r o u g h a t l e a s t o n e p l a n e ; " s h i e l d " p r o f i l e s w i t h a f l a t t o p a n d c u r v e d u n d e r s i d e a r e c o m m o n . G r i p s m a y t a p e r f r o m t h i c k t o t h i n a l o n g t h e i r l e n g t h ( a n d v i r t u a l l y a l l d o ) , b u t t h e y a r e n o t a l l o w e d t o h a v e a n y " w a i s t i n g " ( a t h i n n e r s e c t i o n o f t h e g r i p s u r r o u n d e d b y t h i c k e r s e c t i o n s a b o v e a n d b e l o w i t ) o r " b u l g e s " ( t h i c k e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e g r i p s u r r o u n d e d b y t h i n n e r s e c t i o n s ) . M i n o r v a r i a t i o n s i n s u r f a c e t e x t u r e ( s u c h a s t h e n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n o f a " w r a p " - s t y l e g r i p ) a r e n o t c o u n t e d u n l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t . A d v a n c e s i n m a t e r i a l s h a v e r e s u l t e d i n m o r e d u r a b l e , l o n g e r - l a s t i n g s o f t g r i p s , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s g r i p s d o e v e n t u a l l y d r y o u t , h a r d e n , o r a r e o t h e r w i s e d a m a g e d a n d m u s t b e r e p l a c e d . R e p l a c e m e n t g r i p s s o l d a s d o - i t - y o u r s e l f k i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y i n e x p e n s i v e a n d o f h i g h q u a l i t y , a l t h o u g h c u s t o m g r i p s t h a t a r e l a r g e r , s o f t e r , o r t e x t u r e d d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m t h e e v e r y d a y " w r a p " - s t y l e g r i p a r e g e n e r a l l y b o u g h t a n d i n s t a l l e d b y a c l u b s m i t h . R e - g r i p p i n g u s e d t o r e q u i r e t o x i c , f l a m m a b l e s o l v e n t s t o s o f t e n a n d a c t i v a t e t h e a d h e s i v e , a n d a v i s e t o h o l d t h e c l u b s t e a d y w h i l e t h e g r i p w a s f o r c e d o n . T h e n e w e s t r e p l a c e m e n t k i t s , h o w e v e r , u s e d o u b l e - s i d e d t a p e w i t h a w a t e r - a c t i v a t e d a d h e s i v e t h a t i s s l i p p e r y w h e n f i r s t a c t i v a t e d , a l l o w i n g e a s i e r i n s t a l l a t i o n . O n c e t h e a d h e s i v e c u r e s , i t c r e a t e s a v e r y s t r o n g b o n d b e t w e e n g r i p a n d s h a f t a n d t h e g r i p i s u s u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o r e m o v e w i t h o u t c u t t i n g i t o f f . T h e h o s e l i s t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e c l u b h e a d t o w h i c h t h e s h a f t a t t a c h e s . T h o u g h l a r g e l y i g n o r e d b y p l a y e r s , h o s e l d e s i g n i s i n t e g r a l t o t h e b a l a n c e , f e e l a n d p o w e r o f a c l u b . M o d e r n h o s e l s a r e d e s i g n e d t o p l a c e a s l i t t l e m a s s a s p o s s i b l e o v e r t h e t o p o f t h e s t r i k i n g f a c e o f t h e c l u b , w h i c h l o w e r s t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y o f t h e c l u b f o r b e t t e r d i s t a n c e . E a c h h e a d h a s o n e f a c e w h i c h c o n t a c t s t h e b a l l d u r i n g t h e s t r o k e . P u t t e r s m a y h a v e t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s , a s l o n g a s t h e y a r e i d e n t i c a l a n d s y m m e t r i c a l . S o m e c h i p p e r s ( a c l u b s i m i l a r i n a p p e a r a n c e t o a d o u b l e - s i d e d p u t t e r b u t h a v i n g a l o f t o f 3 5 – 4 5 d e g r e e s ) h a v e t w o f a c e s , b u t a r e n o t l e g a l . P a g e 1 3 5 o f t h e 2 0 0 9 U S G A r u l e s o f g o l f s t a t e s : T h e c l u b h e a d m u s t h a v e o n l y o n e s t r i k i n g f a c e , e x c e p t t h a t a p u t t e r m a y h a v e t w o s u c h f a c e s i f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e t h e s a m e , a n d t h e y a r e o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r . P a g e 1 2 7 o f t h e U S G A r u l e s o f g o l f s t a t e s : A p u t t e r i s a c l u b w i t h a l o f t n o t e x c e e d i n g t e n d e g r e e s d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y f o r u s e o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n . T h e r e f o r e , a n y d o u b l e s i d e d c l u b w i t h a l o f t g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 d e g r e e s i s n o t l e g a l . T h e t r i m r i n g , u s u a l l y b l a c k ( I t m a y h a v e a d d i t i o n a l t r i m c o l o r s ) , t h a t i s f o u n d d i r e c t l y o n t o p o f t h e h o s e l o n m a n y w o o d s a n d i r o n s . T h e f e r r u l e i s m o s t l y d e c o r a t i v e , c r e a t i n g a c o n t i n u o u s l i n e b e t w e e n t h e s h a f t a n d t h e w i d e r h o s e l , b u t i n s o m e c a s e s i t c a n f o r m p a r t o f t h e s e c u r i n g m e c h a n i s m b e t w e e n h o s e l a n d s h a f t . F e r r u l e s o f d i f f e r i n g w e i g h t s c a n f i n e - t u n e t h e c e n t e r o f m a s s o f t h e o v e r a l l c l u b h e a d , b u t f o r t h e s e m i n u t e a d j u s t m e n t s , s c r e w - i n w e i g h t e d i n s e r t s a t s p e c i f i c p o i n t s o n t h e c l u b h e a d a r e u s u a l l y u s e d i n s t e a d . T h e r u l e s o f g o l f l i m i t e a c h p l a y e r t o a m a x i m u m o f 1 4 c l u b s i n t h e i r b a g . S t r i c t r u l e s p r o h i b i t s h a r i n g o f c l u b s b e t w e e n p l a y e r s t h a t e a c h h a v e t h e i r o w n s e t ( i f t w o p l a y e r s s h a r e c l u b s , t h e y m a y n o t h a v e m o r e t h a n 1 4 c l u b s c o m b i n e d ) , a n d w h i l e o c c a s i o n a l l e n d i n g o f a c l u b t o a p l a y e r i s g e n e r a l l y o v e r l o o k e d , h a b i t u a l b o r r o w i n g o f o t h e r p l a y e r s ' c l u b s o r t h e s h a r i n g o f a s i n g l e b a g o f c l u b s s l o w s p l a y c o n s i d e r a b l y w h e n b o t h p l a y e r s n e e d t h e s a m e c l u b . T h e m o s t c o m m o n s e t o f m e n ' s c l u b s i s : T h e a b o v e s e t i s o n l y 1 2 c l u b s ; t h e s e ( o r e q u i v a l e n t h y b r i d s u b s t i t u t e s ) a r e f o u n d i n v i r t u a l l y e v e r y g o l f b a g . T o t h i s , p l a y e r s t y p i c a l l y a d d t w o o f t h e f o l l o w i n g : W o m e n ' s c l u b s e t s a r e s i m i l a r i n o v e r a l l m a k e u p , b u t t y p i c a l l y h a v e h i g h e r l o f t s a n d s h o r t e r , m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t s i n r e t a i l s e t s t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e a v e r a g e f e m a l e p l a y e r ' s h e i g h t a n d s w i n g s p e e d . V a r i a t i o n s o n t h i s b a s i c s e t a b o u n d ; s e v e r a l c l u b o p t i o n s u s u a l l y e x i s t f o r a l m o s t a n y s h o t d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p l a y e r ' s s k i l l l e v e l a n d p l a y i n g s t y l e , a n d t h e o n l y c l u b u n i v e r s a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e i n d i s p e n s a b l e i s t h e p u t t e r . S o m e c o n s i d e r t h e m o d e r n d e e p - f a c e d d r i v e r t o b e e q u a l l y i r r e p l a c e a b l e ; t h i s i s c a u s e f o r s o m e d e b a t e , a s p r o f e s s i o n a l p l a y e r s i n c l u d i n g T i g e r W o o d s h a v e p l a y e d a n d w o n t o u r n a m e n t s w i t h o u t u s i n g a d r i v e r , i n s t e a d u s i n g a 3 - w o o d f o r t e e s h o t s a n d m a k i n g u p t h e d i f f e r e n c e o n t h e a p p r o a c h u s i n g a l o w e r - l o f t e d i r o n . T h e m o s t c o m m o n o m i s s i o n s a r e t h e " l o n g i r o n s " , n u m b e r e d f r o m 2 t o 5 , w h i c h a r e n o t o r i o u s l y d i f f i c u l t t o h i t w e l l . T h e p l a y e r c a n s u p p l e m e n t t h e g a p s i n d i s t a n c e w i t h e i t h e r h i g h e r - n u m b e r e d w o o d s s u c h a s t h e 5 a n d e v e n t h e 7 - w o o d , o r m a y r e p l a c e t h e l o n g i r o n s w i t h e q u i v a l e n t l y - n u m b e r e d h y b r i d c l u b s . I f h y b r i d s a r e u s e d , h i g h e r - l o f t e d w o o d s a r e o f t e n o m i t t e d a s r e d u n d a n t , b u t l a d i e s ' a n d s e n i o r s ' s e t s c o m m o n l y f e a t u r e b o t h h y b r i d s a n d h i g h - l o f t e d w o o d s , o m i t t i n g t h e l o n g i r o n s e n t i r e l y i n f a v o r o f t h e l o f t e d w o o d s , a n d r e p l a c i n g t h e m i d - i r o n s ( 5 – 7 ) w i t h h y b r i d s . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n a l l o w s f o r h i g h e r l a u n c h a n g l e s o n t h e l o n g - d i s t a n c e c l u b s , w h i c h g i v e s b e t t e r d i s t a n c e w i t h s l o w e r s w i n g s p e e d s . W h e r e a c l u b i s o m i t t e d a n d n o t r e p l a c e d w i t h a c l u b o f s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n , p l a y e r s m a y a d d a d d i t i o n a l c l u b s o f a d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s u c h a s a d d i t i o n a l w e d g e s . W h i l e 1 4 c l u b s i s a m a x i m u m , i t i s n o t a m i n i m u m ; p l a y e r s a r e f r e e t o u s e a n y l e s s e r n u m b e r o f c l u b s t h e y p r e f e r , s o s u b s t i t u t i o n s f o r t h e c o m m o n o m i s s i o n s a b o v e a r e n o t a l w a y s m a d e ; a p l a y e r m a y s i m p l y c h o o s e t o p l a y w i t h o u t a 5 - w o o d o r 2 – 4 i r o n s , i n s t e a d u s i n g a 4 - w o o d a n d m o v i n g d i r e c t l y t o t h e i r 5 - i r o n a s d e s i r e d d i s t a n c e d e c r e a s e s ( a 4 - w o o d i n a s k i l l e d g o l f e r ' s h a n d s a v e r a g e s 2 0 0 y a r d s ; a 5 - i r o n i n t h e s a m e p l a y e r ' s h a n d s w o u l d b e a b o u t 1 6 0 , w h i c h i s a l a r g e g a p b u t n o t u n p l a y a b l e ) . O t h e r c l u b s m a y b e o m i t t e d a s w e l l . O n c o u r s e s w h e r e b a g s m u s t b e c a r r i e d b y t h e p l a y e r , t h e p l a y e r m a y t a k e o n l y t h e o d d - n u m b e r e d i r o n s ; w i t h o u t t h e 4 , 6 o r 8 i r o n s ( t h e 3 i s s o m e t i m e s r e m o v e d i n s t e a d o f t h e 4 ) t h e b a g ' s w e i g h t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d . C a r r y i n g o n l y a d r i v e r , 3 - w o o d , 4 - h y b r i d , 5 - 7 - 9 i r o n s , p i t c h i n g a n d s a n d w e d g e s , a n d a p u t t e r r e d u c e s t h e n u m b e r o f c l u b s i n t h e b a g t o 9 ; t h i s i s a c o m m o n l o a d - o u t f o r a " S u n d a y b a g " t a k e n t o t h e d r i v i n g r a n g e o r t o a n i n f o r m a l g a m e . A s k i l l e d p l a y e r c a n u s u a l l y o v e r c o m e t h e l e s s e r s e l e c t i o n o f c l u b l o f t s b y r e d u c i n g t h e i r s w i n g s p e e d o n a l o w e r - l o f t i r o n a n d / o r p l a c i n g t h e b a l l f u r t h e r f o r w a r d i n t h e i r s t a n c e t o g e t t h e s a m e c a r r y d i s t a n c e a n d / o r l a u n c h a n g l e a s t h e n e x t h i g h e r l o f t n u m b e r . A n o t h e r i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m m o n i n f o r m a l f o r m a t i s a d e l i b e r a t e l y l o w u p p e r l i m i t s u c h a s f o u r c l u b s , o r t h r e e c l u b s p l u s p u t t e r , w i t h a t y p i c a l l o a d b e i n g a w o o d o r h y b r i d , m i d d l e i r o n , w e d g e a n d p u t t e r , a l t h o u g h o f t e n w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n p l a y e r s w i t h r e g a r d s t o w h i c h s p e c i f i c c l u b s a r e f a v o r e d i n e a c h r o l e . T h e r u l i n g a u t h o r i t i e s o f g o l f , T h e R & A ( f o r m e r l y p a r t o f T h e R o y a l a n d A n c i e n t G o l f C l u b o f S t A n d r e w s ) a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G o l f A s s o c i a t i o n ( U S G A ) , r e s e r v e t h e r i g h t t o d e f i n e w h a t s h a p e s a n d p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c l u b s a r e p e r m i s s i b l e i n t o u r n a m e n t p l a y . T h e c u r r e n t r u l e s f o r c l u b d e s i g n , i n c l u d i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f v a r i o u s r u l i n g s o n c l u b s i n t r o d u c e d f o r p l a y , a r e d e f i n e d i n A p p e n d i x I I o f t h e R u l e s o f G o l f . T h e o v e r a r c h i n g p r i n c i p l e o f c l u b d e s i g n u s e d b y b o t h a u t h o r i t i e s i s d e f i n e d i n A p p e n d i x I I - 1 a , w h i c h s t a t e s : " T h e c l u b m u s t n o t b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c u s t o m a r y f o r m a n d m a k e " . T h e c l u b m u s t b e c o m p o s e d o f a s h a f t a n d a h e a d a n d i t m a y a l s o h a v e m a t e r i a l a d d e d t o t h e s h a f t t o e n a b l e t h e p l a y e r t o o b t a i n a f i r m h o l d ( s e e 3 b e l o w ) . A l l p a r t s o f t h e c l u b m u s t b e f i x e d s o t h a t t h e c l u b i s o n e u n i t , a n d i t m u s t h a v e n o e x t e r n a l a t t a c h m e n t s . " I n a d d i t i o n , A p p e n d i x I I - 4 a s t a t e s , r e g a r d i n g c l u b h e a d s , t h a t " t h e c l u b h e a d m u s t b e g e n e r a l l y " p l a i n i n s h a p e " . A l l p a r t s m u s t b e r i g i d , s t r u c t u r a l i n n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n a l . T h e c l u b h e a d o r i t s p a r t s m u s t n o t b e d e s i g n e d t o r e s e m b l e a n y o t h e r o b j e c t . I t i s n o t p r a c t i c a b l e t o d e f i n e ' p l a i n i n s h a p e ' p r e c i s e l y a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y . " T h e s e t w o r u l e s a r e u s e d a s t h e b a s i s f o r m o s t o f t h e m o r e s p e c i f i c r u l e s o f A p p e n d i x I I , i n c l u d i n g t h a t n o c l u b m a y h a v e a c o n c a v e f a c e ( 1 9 3 1 ) a n d v a r i o u s r u l e s d e f i n i n g w h a t i s " t r a d i t i o n a l " a b o u t t h e s h a p e s o f s p e c i f i c c l u b s , w h i l e a l l o w i n g f o r t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f t e c h n o l o g y . T h e " t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c u s t o m a r y " r u l e w a s o r i g i n a l l y u s e d t o b a n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s t e e l c l u b s h a f t s ( p a t e n t e d i n 1 9 1 0 ) , a s t h a t m a t e r i a l w a s n o t t r a d i t i o n a l f o r s h a f t s ; t h a t s p e c i f i c b a n w a s r e s c i n d e d i n 1 9 2 4 b y t h e U S G A ( t h e R & A w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o b a n s t e e l s h a f t s u n t i l 1 9 2 9 ) , a n d s t e e l w o u l d b e c o m e u n i v e r s a l u n t i l t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f g r a p h i t e s h a f t s w h o s e i n t r o d u c t i o n w a s l e s s c o n t r o v e r s i a l . T h e " p l a i n i n s h a p e " r u l e w a s m o r e r e c e n t l y b e n t t o a l l o w f o r n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l d r i v e r c l u b h e a d s h a p e s , s u c h a s s q u a r e s , a s a c o m p r o m i s e t o c l u b - m a k e r s a f t e r i m p o s i n g a n d e n f o r c i n g a 4 6 0 c c v o l u m e l i m i t o n t h e s e s a m e c l u b h e a d s . M a n y r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d w o o d s h a v e a m a r k e d " t r a m p o l i n e e f f e c t " ( a l a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e f a c e u p o n i m p a c t f o l l o w e d b y a q u i c k r e s t o r a t i o n t o o r i g i n a l d i m e n s i o n s , a c t i n g l i k e a s l i n g s h o t ) , r e s u l t i n g i n v e r y h i g h b a l l s p e e d s a n d g r e a t l e n g t h s o f t e e s h o t s . A s o f 1 J a n u a r y 2 0 0 8 , t h e U S G A a n d R & A h a v e s e t t l e d o n a r e g u l a t i o n t h a t l i m i t s t h e a c c e p t a b l e " t r a m p o l i n e e f f e c t " t o a c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e s t i t u t i o n ( C O R ) — a m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e t r a n s f e r o f e n e r g y f r o m t h e c l u b h e a d t o t h e b a l l — o f . 8 3 0 . O t h e r l a r g e s c a l e U S G A r u l i n g s i n v o l v e a 1 9 9 0 l a w s u i t , a n d s u b s e q u e n t s e t t l e m e n t , a g a i n s t K a r s t e n M a n u f a c t u r i n g , m a k e r s o f t h e P I N G b r a n d , f o r t h e i r u s e o f s q u a r e , o r U - g r o o v e s i n t h e i r i m m e n s e l y p o p u l a r P i n g E y e 2 i r o n s . T h e U S G A a r g u e d t h a t p l a y e r s w h o u s e d t h e E y e 2 h a d a n u n f a i r a d v a n t a g e i n i m p a r t i n g s p i n o n t h e b a l l , w h i c h h e l p s t o s t o p t h e b a l l o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n s . T h e U S G A u t i l i z e d J o h n L . S a k s u n , f o u n d e r o f C a n a d i a n g o l f c o m p a n y A c c u f o r m G o l f , a s a c o n s u l t a n t t o s e t u p m e t h o d s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e u n i q u e g r o o v e s a n d d e t e r m i n i n g P I N G ' s c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e r u l i n g s . S a k s u n , b y p r o p o s i n g a c o s t - e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n t o h e l p P I N G c h a n g e t h e d e s i g n o f s u b s e q u e n t E y e 2 s , s a v e d P I N G h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s . P I N G s u b s e q u e n t l y w i t h d r e w t h e i r U S $ 1 0 0 m i l l i o n l a w s u i t a g a i n s t t h e U S G A . P i n g ’ s o l d e r c l u b s w e r e " g r a n d f a t h e r e d i n " a n d a l l o w e d t o r e m a i n i n p l a y a s p a r t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e U S G A h a s b e g u n p h a s i n g i n a b a n o n s q u a r e g r o o v e s i n g o l f . M a n u f a c t u r e r s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o d i s c o n t i n u e n o n c o m p l i a n t c l u b s b y J a n u a r y 1 , 2 0 1 1 . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e U S G A , a s J a n u a r y 1 , 2 0 1 0 , p r o f e s s i o n a l g o l f e r s o n o n e o f t h e t o p t o u r s , o r t h o s e a t t e m p t i n g t o q u a l i f y f o r o n e o f t h e t h r e e O p e n C h a m p i o n s h i p s ( s i n c e t h e n f o u r ) w i l l n e e d t o u s e n e w c o n f o r m i n g w e d g e s ( t h o s e w i t h o u t s q u a r e g r o o v e s ) . M o r e o v e r , t h o s e w h o p l a n t o q u a l i f y f o r a n y o t h e r U S G A c h a m p i o n s h i p ( A m a t e u r c h a m p i o n s h i p s — u n d e r 1 8 , A m a t e u r , o v e r 2 5 , a n d o v e r 5 0 i n b o t h s e x e s , a n d f o u r - b a l l , a l o n g w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e a m c h a m p i o n s h i p s ) , w i l l n e e d n e w c o n f o r m i n g w e d g e s b y 2 0 1 4 . I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s r e g u l a t i o n i n c l u d e s I G F a n d U S G A - s a n c t i o n e d r e g i o n a l a m a t e u r e v e n t s a s w e l l , a s a " c o n d i t i o n o f c o m p e t i t i o n " . W e d g e s t h a t c o n f o r m t o t h e n e w s t a n d a r d a r e o f t e n m a r k e t e d a s " C C " o r " C o n d i t i o n o f C o m p e t i t i o n " w e d g e s ; t h i s m o n i k e r i s l i k e l y t o f a l l i n t o d i s u s e a s p l a y e r s u p g r a d e c l u b s a n d t h e u s e o f n o n - c o n f o r m i n g i r o n s d i m i n i s h e s .

Construction ; Grip

The construction of golf clubs involves the selection of materials for the shaft, grip, and club head. Historically, shafts were made of wood, then hickory, and now are typically made of steel, titanium, or carbon fiber. Club heads were originally made of wood, later persimmon, and now are often made of metal alloys. Grips were initially leather wraps, but now are often one-piece sleeves made of rubber or synthetic materials. The rules of golf dictate certain specifications for club construction, including restrictions on shaft flex, grip shape, and club head design.

faces or a flat-topped "putter grip". This disqualifies many chipper designs, but there are some USGA-conforming chippers, and non-conforming designs can still be used for informal play. The shafts of the woods were made of different types of wood before being replaced by hickory in the middle of the 19th century. The varieties of woods included ash, purpleheart, orangewood, and blue-mahoo. Despite the strength of hickory, the long-nose club of the mid nineteenth century was still prone to breaking at the top of the back swing. The club heads were often made from woods including apple, pear, dogwood, and beech in the early times until persimmon became the main material. Golf clubs have been improved and the shafts are now made of steel, titanium, other types of metals or carbon fiber. The shaft is a tapered steel tube or a series of stepped steel tubes in telescopic fashion. This has improved the accuracy of golfers. The grips of the clubs are made from leather or rubber. The shaft is a tapered tube made of metal (usually steel) or carbon fiber composite (referred to as graphite). The shaft is roughly in diameter near the grip and from in length. Shafts weigh from , depending on the material and length. Shafts are quantified in a number of different ways. The most common is the shaft flex. Simply, the shaft flex is the amount that the shaft will bend when placed under a load. A stiffer shaft will not flex as much, which requires more power to flex and adjust for the timing of a player's swing to load and unload the shaft at the correct moments of the swing for maximum power. Whereas in the past each club could come with only one shaft, today's club heads can be fitted with dozens of different shafts, each with slight variation in behavior, creating the potential for a much better fit for the average golfer. The grip of the club is attached to the opposite end of the shaft from the club head, and is the part of the club the player holds on to while swinging. Originally, the grip was composed of one or more leather strips wrapped around the shaft. The leather outer wrap on a grip is still seen on some clubs, most commonly putters, but most modern grips are a one-piece "sleeve" made of rubber, synthetic or composite material that is slid over the shaft and secured with an adhesive. These sleeve grips allow club makers and golfers to customize the grip's diameter, consistency (softness/firmness) and texturing pattern to best fit the player. Clubs with an outer "wrap" of leather or leather-like synthetic still typically have a "sleeve" form underneath to add diameter to the grip and give it its basic profile. According to the rules of golf, all club grips must have the same cross-section shape along their entire length (the diameter can vary), and with the exception of the putter, must have a circular cross-section. The putter may have any cross section that is symmetrical along the length of the grip through at least one plane; "shield" profiles with a flat top and curved underside are common. Grips may taper from thick to thin along their length (and virtually all do), but they are not allowed to have any "waisting" (a thinner section of the grip surrounded by thicker sections above and below it) or "bulges" (thicker sections of the grip surrounded by thinner sections). Minor variations in surface texture (such as the natural variation of a "wrap"-style grip) are not counted unless significant. Advances in materials have resulted in more durable, longer-lasting soft grips, but nevertheless grips do eventually dry out, harden, or are otherwise damaged and must be replaced. Replacement grips sold as do-it-yourself kits are generally inexpensive and of high quality, although custom grips that are larger, softer, or textured differently from the everyday "wrap"-style grip are generally bought and installed by a clubsmith. Re-gripping used to require toxic, flammable solvents to soften and activate the adhesive, and a vise to hold the club steady while the grip was forced on. The newest replacement kits, however, use double-sided tape with a water-activated adhesive that is slippery when first activated, allowing easier installation. Once the adhesive cures, it creates a very strong bond between grip and shaft and the grip is usually impossible to remove without cutting it off. The hosel is the portion of the club head to which the shaft attaches. Though largely ignored by players, hosel design is integral to the balance, feel and power of a club. Modern hosels are golf states: A putter is a club with a loft not exceeding ten degrees designed primarily for use on the putting green. Therefore, any double sided club with a loft greater than 10 degrees is not legal. The trim ring, usually black (It may have additional trim colors), that is found directly on top of the hosel on many woods and irons. The ferrule is mostly decorative, creating a continuous line between the shaft and the wider hosel, but in some cases it can form part of the securing mechanism between hosel and shaft. Ferrules of differing weights can fine-tune the center of mass of the overall club head, but for these minute adjustments, screw-in weighted inserts at specific points on the club head are usually used instead. material added to the shaft to enable the player to obtain a firm hold (see 3 below). All parts of the club must be fixed so that the club is one unit, and it must have no external attachments." In addition, Appendix II-4a states, regarding club heads, that "the club head must be generally "plain in shape". All parts must be rigid, structural in nature and functional. The club head or its parts must not be designed to resemble any other object. It is not practicable to define 'plain in shape' precisely and comprehensively. " These two rules are used as the basis for most of the more specific rules of Appendix II, including that no club may have a concave face (1931) and various rules defining what

Golf club

" W o o d s " a r e l o n g - d i s t a n c e c l u b s , m e a n t t o d r i v e t h e b a l l a g r e a t d i s t a n c e d o w n t h e f a i r w a y t o w a r d s t h e h o l e . T h e y g e n e r a l l y h a v e a l a r g e h e a d a n d a l o n g s h a f t f o r m a x i m u m c l u b s p e e d . H i s t o r i c a l l y , w o o d s w e r e m a d e f r o m p e r s i m m o n w o o d , a l t h o u g h s o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s — n o t a b l y P i n g — d e v e l o p e d l a m i n a t e d w o o d s . I n 1 9 7 9 , T a y l o r M a d e G o l f i n t r o d u c e d t h e f i r s t w o o d m a d e o f s t e e l . E v e n m o r e r e c e n t l y , m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a v e s t a r t e d u s i n g m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s c a r b o n f i b e r , t i t a n i u m , o r s c a n d i u m . E v e n t h o u g h m o s t ‘ w o o d s ’ a r e m a d e f r o m d i f f e r e n t m e t a l s , t h e y a r e s t i l l c a l l e d ‘ w o o d s ’ t o d e n o t e t h e g e n e r a l s h a p e a n d t h e i r i n t e n d e d u s e o n t h e g o l f c o u r s e . M o s t w o o d s m a d e t o d a y h a v e a g r a p h i t e s h a f t a n d a m o s t l y - h o l l o w t i t a n i u m , c o m p o s i t e , o r s t e e l h e a d , o f r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t w e i g h t a l l o w i n g f a s t e r c l u b - h e a d s p e e d s . W o o d s a r e t h e l o n g e s t c l u b s a n d t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l o f a l l t h e g o l f c l u b s . T h e r e a r e t y p i c a l l y t h r e e t o f o u r w o o d s i n a s e t w h i c h a r e u s e d f r o m t h e t e e b o x a n d , i f o n a l o n g h o l e , p o s s i b l y f o r t h e s e c o n d o r e v e n t h i r d s h o t . T h e b i g g e s t w o o d , k n o w n a s t h e " d r i v e r " o r " o n e w o o d " , i s o f t e n m a d e o f h o l l o w e d o u t t i t a n i u m w i t h f e a t h e r - l i g h t s h a f t s . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e w o o d s h a s b e e n i n c r e a s i n g i n r e c e n t d e c a d e s , a n d a t y p i c a l d r i v e r w i t h a g r a p h i t e s h a f t i s n o w l o n g . T h e w o o d s m a y a l s o h a v e v e r y l a r g e h e a d s , u p t o i n v o l u m e ( t h e m a x i m u m a l l o w e d b y t h e U S G A i n s a n c t i o n e d e v e n t s ; d r i v e r s w i t h e v e n l a r g e r c l u b - h e a d v o l u m e s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r l o n g - d r i v e c o m p e t i t i o n s a n d i n f o r m a l g a m e s ) . T h e s h a f t s r a n g e f r o m s e n i o r t o e x t r a - s t i f f d e p e n d i n g u p o n e a c h p l a y e r ’ s p r e f e r e n c e . " I r o n s " a r e c l u b s w i t h a s o l i d , a l l - m e t a l h e a d f e a t u r i n g a f l a t a n g l e d f a c e , a n d a s h o r t e r s h a f t a n d m o r e u p r i g h t l i e a n g l e t h a n a w o o d , f o r e a s e o f a c c e s s . I r o n s a r e d e s i g n e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f s h o t s f r o m a l l o v e r t h e c o u r s e , f r o m t h e t e e b o x o n s h o r t o r d o g - l e g g e d h o l e s , t o t h e f a i r w a y o r r o u g h o n a p p r o a c h t o t h e g r e e n , t o t r i c k y s i t u a t i o n s l i k e p u n c h i n g t h r o u g h o r l o b b i n g o v e r t r e e s , g e t t i n g o u t o f h a z a r d s , o r h i t t i n g f r o m t i g h t l i e s r e q u i r i n g a c o m p a c t s w i n g . M o s t o f t h e i r o n s h a v e a n u m b e r f r o m 1 t o 9 ( t h e n u m b e r s i n m o s t c o m m o n u s e a r e f r o m 3 t o 9 ) , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i r r e l a t i v e l o f t a n g l e w i t h i n a m a t c h e d s e t . I r o n s a r e t y p i c a l l y g r o u p e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r i n t e n d e d d i s t a n c e ( w h i c h a l s o r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e i r s h a f t l e n g t h a n d t h u s t h e i r d i f f i c u l t y t o h i t t h e b a l l ) ; i n t h e n u m b e r e d i r o n s , t h e r e a r e l o n g i r o n s ( 2 – 4 ) , m e d i u m i r o n s ( 5 – 7 ) , a n d s h o r t i r o n s ( 8 – 9 ) , w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e l y h i g h e r l o f t a n g l e s , s h o r t e r s h a f t s , a n d h e a v i e r c l u b h e a d s . A s w i t h w o o d s , ’ i r o n s ’ g e t t h e i r n a m e b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e o r i g i n a l l y m a d e f r o m f o r g e d i r o n . M o d e r n i r o n s a r e i n v e s t m e n t - c a s t o u t o f s t e e l a l l o y s , w h i c h a l l o w s f o r b e t t e r - e n g i n e e r e d ‘ c a v i t y - b a c k ’ d e s i g n s t h a t h a v e l o w e r c e n t e r s o f m a s s a n d h i g h e r m o m e n t s o f i n e r t i a , m a k i n g t h e c l u b e a s i e r t o h i t a n d g i v i n g b e t t e r d i s t a n c e t h a n o l d e r f o r g e d ’ m u s c l e - b a c k ’ d e s i g n s . F o r g e d i r o n s w i t h l e s s p e r i m e t e r w e i g h t i n g a r e s t i l l s e e n , e s p e c i a l l y i n s e t s t a r g e t i n g l o w - h a n d i c a p a n d s c r a t c h g o l f e r s , b e c a u s e t h i s l e s s f o r g i v i n g d e s i g n a l l o w s a s k i l l e d g o l f e r t o i n t e n t i o n a l l y h i t a c u r v e d s h o t ( a ’ f a d e ’ o r ’ d r a w ’ ) , t o f o l l o w t h e c o n t o u r o f t h e f a i r w a y o r ’ b e n d ’ a s h o t a r o u n d a n o b s t a c l e . " W e d g e s " a r e a s u b c l a s s o f i r o n s w i t h g r e a t e r l o f t t h a n t h e n u m b e r e d i r o n s ( g e n e r a l l y s t a r t i n g a t 4 7 ° – 4 8 ° o f l o f t , a b o v e t h e 9 - i r o n s o f 4 4 ° – 4 5 ° ) , a n d o t h e r f e a t u r e s s u c h a s h i g h - m a s s c l u b h e a d s a n d w i d e s o l e s t h a t a l l o w f o r e a s i e r u s e i n t r i c k y l i e s . W e d g e s a r e u s e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f s h o r t - d i s t a n c e , h i g h - a l t i t u d e , h i g h - a c c u r a c y ’ u t i l i t y ’ s h o t s , s u c h a s h i t t i n g t h e b a l l o n t o t h e g r e e n ( " a p p r o a c h " s h o t s ) , p l a c i n g t h e b a l l a c c u r a t e l y o n t h e f a i r w a y f o r a b e t t e r s h o t a t t h e g r e e n ( " l a y - u p " s h o t s ) , o r h i t t i n g t h e b a l l o u t o f h a z a r d s o r r o u g h o n t o t h e g r e e n ( c h i p p i n g ) . T h e r e a r e f i v e m a i n t y p e s o f w e d g e s , w i t h l o f t s r a n g i n g f r o m 4 5 ° t o 6 4 ° : p i t c h i n g w e d g e ( P W , 4 8 – 5 0 ° ) , g a p w e d g e ( G W , a l s o " a p p r o a c h " , " a t t a c k " , " u t i l i t y " , o r " d u a l " w e d g e , t y p i c a l l y 5 2 – 5 4 ° ) , s a n d w e d g e ( S W , 5 5 – 5 6 ° ) , l o b w e d g e ( L W , 5 8 ° – 6 0 ° ) , a n d u l t r a l o b w e d g e ( s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " f l o p w e d g e " o r F W , 6 4 ° – 6 8 ° ) . " H y b r i d s " a r e a c r o s s b e t w e e n a w o o d a n d a n i r o n , g i v i n g t h e s e c l u b s t h e w o o d ' s l o n g d i s t a n c e a n d h i g h e r l a u n c h , w i t h t h e i r o n ' s f a m i l i a r s w i n g . T h e c l u b h e a d o f a h y b r i d h a s a w o o d - i n s p i r e d , s l i g h t l y c o n v e x f a c e , a n d i s t y p i c a l l y h o l l o w l i k e m o d e r n m e t a l w o o d s t o a l l o w f o r h i g h i m p u l s e o n i m p a c t a n d f a s t e r s w i n g s p e e d s . T h e h e a d i s u s u a l l y s m a l l e r t h a n t r u e w o o d s , h o w e v e r , n o t e x t e n d i n g a s f a r b a c k f r o m t h e f a c e , a n d t h e l i e a n d s h a f t l e n g t h a r e s i m i l a r t o a n i r o n g i v i n g s i m i l a r s w i n g m e c h a n i c s . T h e s e c l u b s g e n e r a l l y r e p l a c e l o w - n u m b e r e d i r o n s i n a s t a n d a r d s e t ( b e t w e e n 2 a n d 5 , m o s t c o m m o n l y 3 – 4 ) , w h i c h a r e t y p i c a l l y t h e h a r d e s t c l u b s i n a p l a y e r ' s b a g t o h i t w e l l . B y d o i n g s o t h e y a l s o g e n e r a l l y m a k e h i g h e r - l o f t e d w o o d s r e d u n d a n t a s w e l l . H o w e v e r , s o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s p r o d u c e " i r o n r e p l a c e m e n t " s e t s t h a t u s e h y b r i d d e s i g n s t o r e p l a c e a n e n t i r e s e t o f t r a d i t i o n a l i r o n s , f r o m 3 t o p i t c h i n g w e d g e . S e t s d e s i g n e d f o r l e s s m u s c u l a r p l a y e r s c o m m o n l y f e a t u r e a c o m b i n a t i o n o f h i g h - l o f t e d w o o d s ( u p t o 7 - w o o d ) a n d h y b r i d s t o r e p l a c e t h e 5 , 6 a n d 7 - i r o n s , a l l o w i n g t h e s e p l a y e r s t o a c h i e v e g r e a t e r c a r r y d i s t a n c e s w i t h s l o w e r s w i n g s . " P u t t e r s " a r e a s p e c i a l c l a s s o f c l u b s w i t h a l o f t n o t e x c e e d i n g t e n d e g r e e s , d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o r o l l t h e b a l l a l o n g t h e g r a s s , g e n e r a l l y f r o m a p o i n t o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n t o w a r d t h e h o l e . C o n t r a r y t o p o p u l a r b e l i e f , p u t t e r s d o h a v e a l o f t ( o f t e n 5 ° f r o m t r u l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r a t i m p a c t ) t h a t h e l p s t o l i f t t h e b a l l f r o m a n y i n d e n t a t i o n i t h a s m a d e . N e w e r p u t t e r s a l s o i n c l u d e g r o o v e s o n t h e f a c e t o p r o m o t e r o l l r a t h e r t h a n a s k i d o f f t h e i m p a c t . T h i s i n c r e a s e s r o l l i n g d i s t a n c e a n d r e d u c e s b o u n c i n g o v e r t h e t u r f . P u t t e r s a r e t h e o n l y c l a s s o f c l u b a l l o w e d t o h a v e c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s , s u c h a s t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s , n o n - c i r c u l a r g r i p c r o s s - s e c t i o n s , b e n t s h a f t s o r h o s e l s , a n d a p p e n d a g e s d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o a i d p l a y e r s ' a i m . P r e s e n t i n s o m e g o l f e r s ' b a g s i s t h e " c h i p p e r " , a c l u b d e s i g n e d t o f e e l l i k e a p u t t e r b u t w i t h a m o r e l o f t e d f a c e , u s e d w i t h a p u t t i n g m o t i o n t o l i f t t h e b a l l o u t o f t h e h i g h e r g r a s s o f t h e r o u g h a n d f r i n g e a n d d r o p i t o n t h e g r e e n , w h e r e i t w i l l t h e n r o l l l i k e a p u t t . T h i s c l u b r e p l a c e s t h e u s e o f a h i g h - l o f t e d i r o n t o m a k e t h e s a m e s h o t , a n d a l l o w s t h e p l a y e r t o m a k e t h e s h o t f r o m a s t a n c e a n d w i t h a m o t i o n n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o a p u t t , w h i c h i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t w i t h a l o f t e d i r o n d u e t o a d i f f e r e n c e i n l i e a n g l e . M o s t c h i p p e r s h a v e a l o f t g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 d e g r e e s , w h i c h i s t h e m a x i m u m l o f t p e r m i t t e d b y t h e R u l e s o f G o l f f o r a c l u b t o b e c l a s s e d a s a p u t t e r , s o t h e s e c l u b s a r e a c t u a l l y c l a s s e d a s i r o n s . T o b e l e g a l f o r s a n c t i o n e d p l a y , a c h i p p e r c a n n o t h a v e a n y f e a t u r e t h a t i s d e f i n e d i n t h e r u l e s a s a l l o w a b l e o n l y o n p u t t e r s , e . g . t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s o r a f l a t - t o p p e d " p u t t e r g r i p " . T h i s d i s q u a l i f i e s m a n y c h i p p e r d e s i g n s , b u t t h e r e a r e s o m e U S G A - c o n f o r m i n g c h i p p e r s , a n d n o n - c o n f o r m i n g d e s i g n s c a n s t i l l b e u s e d f o r i n f o r m a l p l a y . T h e s h a f t s o f t h e w o o d s w e r e m a d e o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f w o o d b e f o r e b e i n g r e p l a c e d b y h i c k o r y i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . T h e v a r i e t i e s o f w o o d s i n c l u d e d a s h , p u r p l e h e a r t , o r a n g e w o o d , a n d b l u e - m a h o o . D e s p i t e t h e s t r e n g t h o f h i c k o r y , t h e l o n g - n o s e c l u b o f t h e m i d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s s t i l l p r o n e t o b r e a k i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e b a c k s w i n g . T h e c l u b h e a d s w e r e o f t e n m a d e f r o m w o o d s i n c l u d i n g a p p l e , p e a r , d o g w o o d , a n d b e e c h i n t h e e a r l y t i m e s u n t i l p e r s i m m o n b e c a m e t h e m a i n m a t e r i a l . G o l f c l u b s h a v e b e e n i m p r o v e d a n d t h e s h a f t s a r e n o w m a d e o f s t e e l , t i t a n i u m , o t h e r t y p e s o f m e t a l s o r c a r b o n f i b e r . T h e s h a f t i s a t a p e r e d s t e e l t u b e o r a s e r i e s o f s t e p p e d s t e e l t u b e s i n t e l e s c o p i c f a s h i o n . T h i s h a s i m p r o v e d t h e a c c u r a c y o f g o l f e r s . T h e g r i p s o f t h e c l u b s a r e m a d e f r o m l e a t h e r o r r u b b e r . T h e s h a f t i s a t a p e r e d t u b e m a d e o f m e t a l ( u s u a l l y s t e e l ) o r c a r b o n f i b e r c o m p o s i t e ( r e f e r r e d t o a s g r a p h i t e ) . T h e s h a f t i s r o u g h l y i n d i a m e t e r n e a r t h e g r i p a n d f r o m i n l e n g t h . S h a f t s w e i g h f r o m , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m a t e r i a l a n d l e n g t h . S h a f t s a r e q u a n t i f i e d i n a n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n i s t h e s h a f t f l e x . S i m p l y , t h e s h a f t f l e x i s t h e a m o u n t t h a t t h e s h a f t w i l l b e n d w h e n p l a c e d u n d e r a l o a d . A s t i f f e r s h a f t w i l l n o t f l e x a s m u c h , w h i c h r e q u i r e s m o r e p o w e r t o f l e x a n d " w h i p " t h r o u g h t h e b a l l p r o p e r l y ( w h i c h r e s u l t s i n h i g h e r c l u b s p e e d a t i m p a c t f o r m o r e d i s t a n c e ) , w h i l e a m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t w i l l w h i p w i t h l e s s p o w e r r e q u i r e d f o r b e t t e r d i s t a n c e o n s l o w e r s w i n g s , b u t m a y t o r q u e a n d o v e r - f l e x i f s w u n g w i t h t o o m u c h p o w e r c a u s i n g t h e h e a d n o t t o b e s q u a r e a t i m p a c t , r e s u l t i n g i n l o w e r a c c u r a c y . M o s t s h a f t m a k e r s o f f e r a v a r i e t y o f f l e x e s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n a r e : L / W ( L a d y / W o m e n ' s ) , A / I ( S o f t R e g u l a r , I n t e r m e d i a t e o r S e n i o r ) , R ( R e g u l a r ) , S ( S t i f f ) , a n d X ( T o u r S t i f f , E x t r a S t i f f o r S t r o n g ) . A r e g u l a r f l e x s h a f t i s g e n e r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h o s e w i t h a n a v e r a g e h e a d s p e e d ( ) , w h i l e a n A - F l e x ( o r s e n i o r s h a f t ) i s f o r p l a y e r s w i t h a s l o w e r s w i n g s p e e d ( ) , a n d t h e s t i f f e r s h a f t s , s u c h a s S - F l e x a n d X - F l e x ( S t i f f a n d E x t r a - S t i f f s h a f t s ) a r e r e s e r v e d o n l y f o r t h o s e p l a y e r s w i t h a n a b o v e a v e r a g e s w i n g i n g s p e e d , u s u a l l y a b o v e . S o m e c o m p a n i e s a l s o o f f e r a " s t i f f - r e g u l a r " o r " f i r m " f l e x f o r p l a y e r s w h o s e c l u b s p e e d f a l l s i n t h e u p p e r r a n g e o f a R e g u l a r s h a f t ( ) , a l l o w i n g g o l f e r s a n d c l u b m a k e r s t o f i n e - t u n e t h e f l e x f o r a s t r o n g e r a m a t e u r - l e v e l p l a y e r . A t i m p a c t , t h e c l u b h e a d c a n t w i s t a s a r e s u l t o f t o r q u e a p p l i e d t o t h e s h a f t , r e d u c i n g a c c u r a c y a s t h e f a c e o f t h e c l u b i s n o t s q u a r e t o t h e p l a y e r ' s s t a n c e . T h e a b i l i t y o f a s h a f t t o t w i s t a l o n g i t s l e n g t h d u e t o t h i s t o r q u e i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e f l e x o f t h e s h a f t i t s e l f ; a s t i f f e r s h a f t w i l l a l s o t o r q u e l e s s . T o c o u n t e r t o r q u e i n m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t s , c l u b m a k e r s d e s i g n t h e s h a f t s w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f t o r q u e t h r o u g h t h e i r l e n g t h , p a r t i c u l a r l y a l o n g t h e t h i n n e s t p a r t o f t h e s h a f t w h e r e i t j o i n s w i t h t h e c l u b h e a d . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e s h a f t i s m o s t f l e x i b l e , c a l l e d t h e " k i c k p o i n t " ; a b o v e t h a t p o i n t t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i a m e t e r o f t h e s h a f t m a k e s i t m o r e r i g i d , w h i l e b e l o w t h a t p o i n t t h e s h a f t i s r e i n f o r c e d i n t e r n a l l y t o r e d u c e t o r q u i n g o f t h e c l u b h e a d . S h a f t s h a v e t y p i c a l l y b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s h a v i n g a l o w , m e d i u m o r h i g h k i c k ; a l o w k i c k m e a n s t h e s h a f t w i l l s t o r e e n e r g y c l o s e r t o t h e c l u b h e a d , w h i c h m e a n s t h e c l u b h e a d c a n t w i s t m o r e b u t a l s o a l l o w s f o r h i g h e r c l u b h e a d s p e e d s . A h i g h k i c k s h a f t w i l l s t o r e e n e r g y c l o s e r t o t h e g r i p ; s u c h a s h a f t w i l l f e e l f i r m e r w h e n s w i n g i n g i t a n d w i l l g i v e b e t t e r c o n t r o l o v e r d i r e c t i o n , b u t t h e s a m e s t r e n g t h s w i n g w i l l f l e x t h e s h a f t l e s s , w h i c h w i l l r e d u c e c l u b - h e a d s p e e d . W i d e l y o v e r l o o k e d a s a p a r t o f t h e c l u b , t h e s h a f t i s c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y t o b e t h e e n g i n e o f t h e m o d e r n c l u b h e a d . S h a f t s r a n g e i n p r i c e f r o m a m e r e U S $ 4 t o o v e r U S $ 1 2 0 0 . C u r r e n t g r a p h i t e s h a f t s w e i g h c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n t h e i r s t e e l c o u n t e r p a r t s ( s o m e t i m e s w e i g h i n g l e s s t h a n f o r a d r i v e r s h a f t ) , a l l o w i n g f o r l i g h t e r c l u b s t h a t c a n b e s w u n g a t g r e a t e r s p e e d . B e g i n n i n g i n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , c u s t o m s h a f t s h a v e b e e n i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e c l u b - m a k i n g p r o c e s s . T h e s e s h a f t s w i l l , w i t h i n a g i v e n f l e x r a t i n g , a d d r e s s s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a , s u c h a s t o l a u n c h t h e b a l l h i g h e r o r l o w e r o r t o a d j u s t f o r t h e t i m i n g o f a p l a y e r ' s s w i n g t o l o a d a n d u n l o a d t h e s h a f t a t t h e c o r r e c t m o m e n t s o f t h e s w i n g f o r m a x i m u m p o w e r . W h e r e a s i n t h e p a s t e a c h c l u b c o u l d c o m e w i t h o n l y o n e s h a f t , t o d a y ' s c l u b h e a d s c a n b e f i t t e d w i t h d o z e n s o f d i f f e r e n t s h a f t s , e a c h w i t h s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n i n b e h a v i o r , c r e a t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a m u c h b e t t e r f i t f o r t h e a v e r a g e g o l f e r . T h e g r i p o f t h e c l u b i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e o p p o s i t e e n d o f t h e s h a f t f r o m t h e c l u b h e a d , a n d i s t h e p a r t o f t h e c l u b t h e p l a y e r h o l d s o n t o w h i l e s w i n g i n g . O r i g i n a l l y , t h e g r i p w a s c o m p o s e d o f o n e o r m o r e l e a t h e r s t r i p s w r a p p e d a r o u n d t h e s h a f t . T h e l e a t h e r o u t e r w r a p o n a g r i p i s s t i l l s e e n o n s o m e c l u b s , m o s t c o m m o n l y p u t t e r s , b u t m o s t m o d e r n g r i p s a r e a o n e - p i e c e " s l e e v e " m a d e o f r u b b e r , s y n t h e t i c o r c o m p o s i t e m a t e r i a l t h a t i s s l i d o v e r t h e s h a f t a n d s e c u r e d w i t h a n a d h e s i v e . T h e s e s l e e v e g r i p s a l l o w c l u b m a k e r s a n d g o l f e r s t o c u s t o m i z e t h e g r i p ' s d i a m e t e r , c o n s i s t e n c y ( s o f t n e s s / f i r m n e s s ) a n d t e x t u r i n g p a t t e r n t o b e s t f i t t h e p l a y e r . C l u b s w i t h a n o u t e r " w r a p " o f l e a t h e r o r l e a t h e r - l i k e s y n t h e t i c s t i l l t y p i c a l l y h a v e a " s l e e v e " f o r m u n d e r n e a t h t o a d d d i a m e t e r t o t h e g r i p a n d g i v e i t i t s b a s i c p r o f i l e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e s o f g o l f , a l l c l u b g r i p s m u s t h a v e t h e s a m e c r o s s - s e c t i o n s h a p e a l o n g t h e i r e n t i r e l e n g t h ( t h e d i a m e t e r c a n v a r y ) , a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p u t t e r , m u s t h a v e a c i r c u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n . T h e p u t t e r m a y h a v e a n y c r o s s s e c t i o n t h a t i s s y m m e t r i c a l a l o n g t h e l e n g t h o f t h e g r i p t h r o u g h a t l e a s t o n e p l a n e ; " s h i e l d " p r o f i l e s w i t h a f l a t t o p a n d c u r v e d u n d e r s i d e a r e c o m m o n . G r i p s m a y t a p e r f r o m t h i c k t o t h i n a l o n g t h e i r l e n g t h ( a n d v i r t u a l l y a l l d o ) , b u t t h e y a r e n o t a l l o w e d t o h a v e a n y " w a i s t i n g " ( a t h i n n e r s e c t i o n o f t h e g r i p s u r r o u n d e d b y t h i c k e r s e c t i o n s a b o v e a n d b e l o w i t ) o r " b u l g e s " ( t h i c k e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e g r i p s u r r o u n d e d b y t h i n n e r s e c t i o n s ) . M i n o r v a r i a t i o n s i n s u r f a c e t e x t u r e ( s u c h a s t h e n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n o f a " w r a p " - s t y l e g r i p ) a r e n o t c o u n t e d u n l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t . A d v a n c e s i n m a t e r i a l s h a v e r e s u l t e d i n m o r e d u r a b l e , l o n g e r - l a s t i n g s o f t g r i p s , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s g r i p s d o e v e n t u a l l y d r y o u t , h a r d e n , o r a r e o t h e r w i s e d a m a g e d a n d m u s t b e r e p l a c e d . R e p l a c e m e n t g r i p s s o l d a s d o - i t - y o u r s e l f k i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y i n e x p e n s i v e a n d o f h i g h q u a l i t y , a l t h o u g h c u s t o m g r i p s t h a t a r e l a r g e r , s o f t e r , o r t e x t u r e d d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m t h e e v e r y d a y " w r a p " - s t y l e g r i p a r e g e n e r a l l y b o u g h t a n d i n s t a l l e d b y a c l u b s m i t h . R e - g r i p p i n g u s e d t o r e q u i r e t o x i c , f l a m m a b l e s o l v e n t s t o s o f t e n a n d a c t i v a t e t h e a d h e s i v e , a n d a v i s e t o h o l d t h e c l u b s t e a d y w h i l e t h e g r i p w a s f o r c e d o n . T h e n e w e s t r e p l a c e m e n t k i t s , h o w e v e r , u s e d o u b l e - s i d e d t a p e w i t h a w a t e r - a c t i v a t e d a d h e s i v e t h a t i s s l i p p e r y w h e n f i r s t a c t i v a t e d , a l l o w i n g e a s i e r i n s t a l l a t i o n . O n c e t h e a d h e s i v e c u r e s , i t c r e a t e s a v e r y s t r o n g b o n d b e t w e e n g r i p a n d s h a f t a n d t h e g r i p i s u s u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o r e m o v e w i t h o u t c u t t i n g i t o f f . T h e h o s e l i s t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e c l u b h e a d t o w h i c h t h e s h a f t a t t a c h e s . T h o u g h l a r g e l y i g n o r e d b y p l a y e r s , h o s e l d e s i g n i s i n t e g r a l t o t h e b a l a n c e , f e e l a n d p o w e r o f a c l u b . M o d e r n h o s e l s a r e d e s i g n e d t o p l a c e a s l i t t l e m a s s a s p o s s i b l e o v e r t h e t o p o f t h e s t r i k i n g f a c e o f t h e c l u b , w h i c h l o w e r s t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y o f t h e c l u b f o r b e t t e r d i s t a n c e . E a c h h e a d h a s o n e f a c e w h i c h c o n t a c t s t h e b a l l d u r i n g t h e s t r o k e . P u t t e r s m a y h a v e t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s , a s l o n g a s t h e y a r e i d e n t i c a l a n d s y m m e t r i c a l . S o m e c h i p p e r s ( a c l u b s i m i l a r i n a p p e a r a n c e t o a d o u b l e - s i d e d p u t t e r b u t h a v i n g a l o f t o f 3 5 – 4 5 d e g r e e s ) h a v e t w o f a c e s , b u t a r e n o t l e g a l . P a g e 1 3 5 o f t h e 2 0 0 9 U S G A r u l e s o f g o l f s t a t e s : T h e c l u b h e a d m u s t h a v e o n l y o n e s t r i k i n g f a c e , e x c e p t t h a t a p u t t e r m a y h a v e t w o s u c h f a c e s i f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e t h e s a m e , a n d t h e y a r e o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r . P a g e 1 2 7 o f t h e U S G A r u l e s o f g o l f s t a t e s : A p u t t e r i s a c l u b w i t h a l o f t n o t e x c e e d i n g t e n d e g r e e s d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y f o r u s e o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n . T h e r e f o r e , a n y d o u b l e s i d e d c l u b w i t h a l o f t g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 d e g r e e s i s n o t l e g a l . T h e t r i m r i n g , u s u a l l y b l a c k ( I t m a y h a v e a d d i t i o n a l t r i m c o l o r s ) , t h a t i s f o u n d d i r e c t l y o n t o p o f t h e h o s e l o n m a n y w o o d s a n d i r o n s . T h e f e r r u l e i s m o s t l y d e c o r a t i v e , c r e a t i n g a c o n t i n u o u s l i n e b e t w e e n t h e s h a f t a n d t h e w i d e r h o s e l , b u t i n s o m e c a s e s i t c a n f o r m p a r t o f t h e s e c u r i n g m e c h a n i s m b e t w e e n h o s e l a n d s h a f t . F e r r u l e s o f d i f f e r i n g w e i g h t s c a n f i n e - t u n e t h e c e n t e r o f m a s s o f t h e o v e r a l l c l u b h e a d , b u t f o r t h e s e m i n u t e a d j u s t m e n t s , s c r e w - i n w e i g h t e d i n s e r t s a t s p e c i f i c p o i n t s o n t h e c l u b h e a d a r e u s u a l l y u s e d i n s t e a d . T h e r u l e s o f g o l f l i m i t e a c h p l a y e r t o a m a x i m u m o f 1 4 c l u b s i n t h e i r b a g . S t r i c t r u l e s p r o h i b i t s h a r i n g o f c l u b s b e t w e e n p l a y e r s t h a t e a c h h a v e t h e i r o w n s e t ( i f t w o p l a y e r s s h a r e c l u b s , t h e y m a y n o t h a v e m o r e t h a n 1 4 c l u b s c o m b i n e d ) , a n d w h i l e o c c a s i o n a l l e n d i n g o f a c l u b t o a p l a y e r i s g e n e r a l l y o v e r l o o k e d , h a b i t u a l b o r r o w i n g o f o t h e r p l a y e r s ' c l u b s o r t h e s h a r i n g o f a s i n g l e b a g o f c l u b s s l o w s p l a y c o n s i d e r a b l y w h e n b o t h p l a y e r s n e e d t h e s a m e c l u b . T h e m o s t c o m m o n s e t o f m e n ' s c l u b s i s : T h e a b o v e s e t i s o n l y 1 2 c l u b s ; t h e s e ( o r e q u i v a l e n t h y b r i d s u b s t i t u t e s ) a r e f o u n d i n v i r t u a l l y e v e r y g o l f b a g . T o t h i s , p l a y e r s t y p i c a l l y a d d t w o o f t h e f o l l o w i n g : W o m e n ' s c l u b s e t s a r e s i m i l a r i n o v e r a l l m a k e u p , b u t t y p i c a l l y h a v e h i g h e r l o f t s a n d s h o r t e r , m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t s i n r e t a i l s e t s t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e a v e r a g e f e m a l e p l a y e r ' s h e i g h t a n d s w i n g s p e e d . V a r i a t i o n s o n t h i s b a s i c s e t a b o u n d ; s e v e r a l c l u b o p t i o n s u s u a l l y e x i s t f o r a l m o s t a n y s h o t d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p l a y e r ' s s k i l l l e v e l a n d p l a y i n g s t y l e , a n d t h e o n l y c l u b u n i v e r s a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e i n d i s p e n s a b l e i s t h e p u t t e r . S o m e c o n s i d e r t h e m o d e r n d e e p - f a c e d d r i v e r t o b e e q u a l l y i r r e p l a c e a b l e ; t h i s i s c a u s e f o r s o m e d e b a t e , a s p r o f e s s i o n a l p l a y e r s i n c l u d i n g T i g e r W o o d s h a v e p l a y e d a n d w o n t o u r n a m e n t s w i t h o u t u s i n g a d r i v e r , i n s t e a d u s i n g a 3 - w o o d f o r t e e s h o t s a n d m a k i n g u p t h e d i f f e r e n c e o n t h e a p p r o a c h u s i n g a l o w e r - l o f t e d i r o n . T h e m o s t c o m m o n o m i s s i o n s a r e t h e " l o n g i r o n s " , n u m b e r e d f r o m 2 t o 5 , w h i c h a r e n o t o r i o u s l y d i f f i c u l t t o h i t w e l l . T h e p l a y e r c a n s u p p l e m e n t t h e g a p s i n d i s t a n c e w i t h e i t h e r h i g h e r - n u m b e r e d w o o d s s u c h a s t h e 5 a n d e v e n t h e 7 - w o o d , o r m a y r e p l a c e t h e l o n g i r o n s w i t h e q u i v a l e n t l y - n u m b e r e d h y b r i d c l u b s . I f h y b r i d s a r e u s e d , h i g h e r - l o f t e d w o o d s a r e o f t e n o m i t t e d a s r e d u n d a n t , b u t l a d i e s ' a n d s e n i o r s ' s e t s c o m m o n l y f e a t u r e b o t h h y b r i d s a n d h i g h - l o f t e d w o o d s , o m i t t i n g t h e l o n g i r o n s e n t i r e l y i n f a v o r o f t h e l o f t e d w o o d s , a n d r e p l a c i n g t h e m i d - i r o n s ( 5 – 7 ) w i t h h y b r i d s . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n a l l o w s f o r h i g h e r l a u n c h a n g l e s o n t h e l o n g - d i s t a n c e c l u b s , w h i c h g i v e s b e t t e r d i s t a n c e w i t h s l o w e r s w i n g s p e e d s . W h e r e a c l u b i s o m i t t e d a n d n o t r e p l a c e d w i t h a c l u b o f s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n , p l a y e r s m a y a d d a d d i t i o n a l c l u b s o f a d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s u c h a s a d d i t i o n a l w e d g e s . W h i l e 1 4 c l u b s i s a m a x i m u m , i t i s n o t a m i n i m u m ; p l a y e r s a r e f r e e t o u s e a n y l e s s e r n u m b e r o f c l u b s t h e y p r e f e r , s o s u b s t i t u t i o n s f o r t h e c o m m o n o m i s s i o n s a b o v e a r e n o t a l w a y s m a d e ; a p l a y e r m a y s i m p l y c h o o s e t o p l a y w i t h o u t a 5 - w o o d o r 2 – 4 i r o n s , i n s t e a d u s i n g a 4 - w o o d a n d m o v i n g d i r e c t l y t o t h e i r 5 - i r o n a s d e s i r e d d i s t a n c e d e c r e a s e s ( a 4 - w o o d i n a s k i l l e d g o l f e r ' s h a n d s a v e r a g e s 2 0 0 y a r d s ; a 5 - i r o n i n t h e s a m e p l a y e r ' s h a n d s w o u l d b e a b o u t 1 6 0 , w h i c h i s a l a r g e g a p b u t n o t u n p l a y a b l e ) . O t h e r c l u b s m a y b e o m i t t e d a s w e l l . O n c o u r s e s w h e r e b a g s m u s t b e c a r r i e d b y t h e p l a y e r , t h e p l a y e r m a y t a k e o n l y t h e o d d - n u m b e r e d i r o n s ; w i t h o u t t h e 4 , 6 o r 8 i r o n s ( t h e 3 i s s o m e t i m e s r e m o v e d i n s t e a d o f t h e 4 ) t h e b a g ' s w e i g h t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d . C a r r y i n g o n l y a d r i v e r , 3 - w o o d , 4 - h y b r i d , 5 - 7 - 9 i r o n s , p i t c h i n g a n d s a n d w e d g e s , a n d a p u t t e r r e d u c e s t h e n u m b e r o f c l u b s i n t h e b a g t o 9 ; t h i s i s a c o m m o n l o a d - o u t f o r a " S u n d a y b a g " t a k e n t o t h e d r i v i n g r a n g e o r t o a n i n f o r m a l g a m e . A s k i l l e d p l a y e r c a n u s u a l l y o v e r c o m e t h e l e s s e r s e l e c t i o n o f c l u b l o f t s b y r e d u c i n g t h e i r s w i n g s p e e d o n a l o w e r - l o f t i r o n a n d / o r p l a c i n g t h e b a l l f u r t h e r f o r w a r d i n t h e i r s t a n c e t o g e t t h e s a m e c a r r y d i s t a n c e a n d / o r l a u n c h a n g l e a s t h e n e x t h i g h e r l o f t n u m b e r . A n o t h e r i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m m o n i n f o r m a l f o r m a t i s a d e l i b e r a t e l y l o w u p p e r l i m i t s u c h a s f o u r c l u b s , o r t h r e e c l u b s p l u s p u t t e r , w i t h a t y p i c a l l o a d b e i n g a w o o d o r h y b r i d , m i d d l e i r o n , w e d g e a n d p u t t e r , a l t h o u g h o f t e n w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n p l a y e r s w i t h r e g a r d s t o w h i c h s p e c i f i c c l u b s a r e f a v o r e d i n e a c h r o l e . T h e r u l i n g a u t h o r i t i e s o f g o l f , T h e R & A ( f o r m e r l y p a r t o f T h e R o y a l a n d A n c i e n t G o l f C l u b o f S t A n d r e w s ) a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G o l f A s s o c i a t i o n ( U S G A ) , r e s e r v e t h e r i g h t t o d e f i n e w h a t s h a p e s a n d p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c l u b s a r e p e r m i s s i b l e i n t o u r n a m e n t p l a y . T h e c u r r e n t r u l e s f o r c l u b d e s i g n , i n c l u d i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f v a r i o u s r u l i n g s o n c l u b s i n t r o d u c e d f o r p l a y , a r e d e f i n e d i n A p p e n d i x I I o f t h e R u l e s o f G o l f . T h e o v e r a r c h i n g p r i n c i p l e o f c l u b d e s i g n u s e d b y b o t h a u t h o r i t i e s i s d e f i n e d i n A p p e n d i x I I - 1 a , w h i c h s t a t e s : " T h e c l u b m u s t n o t b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c u s t o m a r y f o r m a n d m a k e " . T h e c l u b m u s t b e c o m p o s e d o f a s h a f t a n d a h e a d a n d i t m a y a l s o h a v e m a t e r i a l a d d e d t o t h e s h a f t t o e n a b l e t h e p l a y e r t o o b t a i n a f i r m h o l d ( s e e 3 b e l o w ) . A l l p a r t s o f t h e c l u b m u s t b e f i x e d s o t h a t t h e c l u b i s o n e u n i t , a n d i t m u s t h a v e n o e x t e r n a l a t t a c h m e n t s . " I n a d d i t i o n , A p p e n d i x I I - 4 a s t a t e s , r e g a r d i n g c l u b h e a d s , t h a t " t h e c l u b h e a d m u s t b e g e n e r a l l y " p l a i n i n s h a p e " . A l l p a r t s m u s t b e r i g i d , s t r u c t u r a l i n n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n a l . T h e c l u b h e a d o r i t s p a r t s m u s t n o t b e d e s i g n e d t o r e s e m b l e a n y o t h e r o b j e c t . I t i s n o t p r a c t i c a b l e t o d e f i n e ' p l a i n i n s h a p e ' p r e c i s e l y a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y . " T h e s e t w o r u l e s a r e u s e d a s t h e b a s i s f o r m o s t o f t h e m o r e s p e c i f i c r u l e s o f A p p e n d i x I I , i n c l u d i n g t h a t n o c l u b m a y h a v e a c o n c a v e f a c e ( 1 9 3 1 ) a n d v a r i o u s r u l e s d e f i n i n g w h a t i s " t r a d i t i o n a l " a b o u t t h e s h a p e s o f s p e c i f i c c l u b s , w h i l e a l l o w i n g f o r t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f t e c h n o l o g y . T h e " t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c u s t o m a r y " r u l e w a s o r i g i n a l l y u s e d t o b a n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s t e e l c l u b s h a f t s ( p a t e n t e d i n 1 9 1 0 ) , a s t h a t m a t e r i a l w a s n o t t r a d i t i o n a l f o r s h a f t s ; t h a t s p e c i f i c b a n w a s r e s c i n d e d i n 1 9 2 4 b y t h e U S G A ( t h e R & A w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o b a n s t e e l s h a f t s u n t i l 1 9 2 9 ) , a n d s t e e l w o u l d b e c o m e u n i v e r s a l u n t i l t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f g r a p h i t e s h a f t s w h o s e i n t r o d u c t i o n w a s l e s s c o n t r o v e r s i a l . T h e " p l a i n i n s h a p e " r u l e w a s m o r e r e c e n t l y b e n t t o a l l o w f o r n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l d r i v e r c l u b h e a d s h a p e s , s u c h a s s q u a r e s , a s a c o m p r o m i s e t o c l u b - m a k e r s a f t e r i m p o s i n g a n d e n f o r c i n g a 4 6 0 c c v o l u m e l i m i t o n t h e s e s a m e c l u b h e a d s . M a n y r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d w o o d s h a v e a m a r k e d " t r a m p o l i n e e f f e c t " ( a l a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e f a c e u p o n i m p a c t f o l l o w e d b y a q u i c k r e s t o r a t i o n t o o r i g i n a l d i m e n s i o n s , a c t i n g l i k e a s l i n g s h o t ) , r e s u l t i n g i n v e r y h i g h b a l l s p e e d s a n d g r e a t l e n g t h s o f t e e s h o t s . A s o f 1 J a n u a r y 2 0 0 8 , t h e U S G A a n d R & A h a v e s e t t l e d o n a r e g u l a t i o n t h a t l i m i t s t h e a c c e p t a b l e " t r a m p o l i n e e f f e c t " t o a c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e s t i t u t i o n ( C O R ) — a m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e t r a n s f e r o f e n e r g y f r o m t h e c l u b h e a d t o t h e b a l l — o f . 8 3 0 . O t h e r l a r g e s c a l e U S G A r u l i n g s i n v o l v e a 1 9 9 0 l a w s u i t , a n d s u b s e q u e n t s e t t l e m e n t , a g a i n s t K a r s t e n M a n u f a c t u r i n g , m a k e r s o f t h e P I N G b r a n d , f o r t h e i r u s e o f s q u a r e , o r U - g r o o v e s i n t h e i r i m m e n s e l y p o p u l a r P i n g E y e 2 i r o n s . T h e U S G A a r g u e d t h a t p l a y e r s w h o u s e d t h e E y e 2 h a d a n u n f a i r a d v a n t a g e i n i m p a r t i n g s p i n o n t h e b a l l , w h i c h h e l p s t o s t o p t h e b a l l o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n s . T h e U S G A u t i l i z e d J o h n L . S a k s u n , f o u n d e r o f C a n a d i a n g o l f c o m p a n y A c c u f o r m G o l f , a s a c o n s u l t a n t t o s e t u p m e t h o d s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e u n i q u e g r o o v e s a n d d e t e r m i n i n g P I N G ' s c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e r u l i n g s . S a k s u n , b y p r o p o s i n g a c o s t - e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n t o h e l p P I N G c h a n g e t h e d e s i g n o f s u b s e q u e n t E y e 2 s , s a v e d P I N G h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s . P I N G s u b s e q u e n t l y w i t h d r e w t h e i r U S $ 1 0 0 m i l l i o n l a w s u i t a g a i n s t t h e U S G A . P i n g ’ s o l d e r c l u b s w e r e " g r a n d f a t h e r e d i n " a n d a l l o w e d t o r e m a i n i n p l a y a s p a r t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e U S G A h a s b e g u n p h a s i n g i n a b a n o n s q u a r e g r o o v e s i n g o l f . M a n u f a c t u r e r s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o d i s c o n t i n u e n o n c o m p l i a n t c l u b s b y J a n u a r y 1 , 2 0 1 1 . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e U S G A , a s J a n u a r y 1 , 2 0 1 0 , p r o f e s s i o n a l g o l f e r s o n o n e o f t h e t o p t o u r s , o r t h o s e a t t e m p t i n g t o q u a l i f y f o r o n e o f t h e t h r e e O p e n C h a m p i o n s h i p s ( s i n c e t h e n f o u r ) w i l l n e e d t o u s e n e w c o n f o r m i n g w e d g e s ( t h o s e w i t h o u t s q u a r e g r o o v e s ) . M o r e o v e r , t h o s e w h o p l a n t o q u a l i f y f o r a n y o t h e r U S G A c h a m p i o n s h i p ( A m a t e u r c h a m p i o n s h i p s — u n d e r 1 8 , A m a t e u r , o v e r 2 5 , a n d o v e r 5 0 i n b o t h s e x e s , a n d f o u r - b a l l , a l o n g w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e a m c h a m p i o n s h i p s ) , w i l l n e e d n e w c o n f o r m i n g w e d g e s b y 2 0 1 4 . I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s r e g u l a t i o n i n c l u d e s I G F a n d U S G A - s a n c t i o n e d r e g i o n a l a m a t e u r e v e n t s a s w e l l , a s a " c o n d i t i o n o f c o m p e t i t i o n " . W e d g e s t h a t c o n f o r m t o t h e n e w s t a n d a r d a r e o f t e n m a r k e t e d a s " C C " o r " C o n d i t i o n o f C o m p e t i t i o n " w e d g e s ; t h i s m o n i k e r i s l i k e l y t o f a l l i n t o d i s u s e a s p l a y e r s u p g r a d e c l u b s a n d t h e u s e o f n o n - c o n f o r m i n g i r o n s d i m i n i s h e s .

Club sets

The text focuses on the club sets in golf, specifically highlighting the importance of woods, which are the most powerful clubs. Woods are used from the tee box and are characterized by their large heads and lightweight shafts. The article also touches on the different types of clubs, including hybrids, irons, and putters, and explains how modern club design allows for customization and flexibility. Additionally, the text discusses the rules governing golf clubs, including the maximum number of clubs allowed in a player's bag and the restrictions on club design.

the most powerful of all the golf clubs. There are typically three to four woods in a set which are used from the tee box and, if on a long hole, possibly for the second or even third shot. The biggest wood, known as the "driver" or "one wood", is often made of hollowed out titanium with feather-light shafts. The length of the woods has been increasing in recent decades, and a typical driver with a graphite shaft is now long. The woods may also have very large heads, up to in volume (the maximum allowed by the USGA in sanctioned events; drivers with even larger club-head volumes are available for long-drive competitions and informal games). The shafts range from senior to extra-stiff depending upon each player’s preference. a standard set (between 2 and 5, most commonly 3–4), which are typically the hardest clubs in a player's bag to hit well. By doing so they also generally make higher-lofted woods redundant as well. However, some manufacturers produce "iron replacement" sets that use hybrid designs to replace an entire set of traditional irons, from 3 to pitching wedge. Sets designed for less muscular players commonly feature a combination of high-lofted woods (up to 7-wood) and hybrids to replace the 5, 6 and 7-irons, allowing these players to achieve greater carry distances with slower swings. "Putters" are a special class of clubs with a loft not exceeding ten degrees, designed primarily to roll the ball along the grass, generally from a point on the putting green toward the adjust for the timing of a player's swing to load and unload the shaft at the correct moments of the swing for maximum power. Whereas in the past each club could come with only one shaft, today's club heads can be fitted with dozens of different shafts, each with slight variation in behavior, creating the potential for a much better fit for the average golfer. The grip of the club is attached to the opposite end of the shaft from the club head, and is the part of the club the player holds on to while swinging. Originally, the grip was composed of one or more leather strips wrapped around the shaft. The leather outer wrap on a grip is still seen on some clubs, most commonly putters, are larger, softer, or textured differently from the everyday "wrap"-style grip are generally bought and installed by a clubsmith. Re-gripping used to require toxic, flammable solvents to soften and activate the adhesive, and a vise to hold the club steady while the grip was forced on. The newest replacement kits, however, use double-sided tape with a water-activated adhesive that is slippery when first activated, allowing easier installation. Once the adhesive cures, it creates a very strong bond between grip and shaft and the grip is usually impossible to remove without cutting it off. The hosel is the portion of the club head to which the shaft attaches. Though largely ignored by players, hosel design is integral to the balance, feel and power of a club. Modern hosels are golf states: A putter is a club with a loft not exceeding ten degrees designed primarily for use on the putting green. Therefore, any double sided club with a loft greater than 10 degrees is not legal. The trim ring, usually black (It may have additional trim colors), that is found directly on top of the hosel on many woods and irons. The ferrule is mostly decorative, creating a continuous line between the shaft and the wider hosel, but in some cases it can form part of the securing mechanism between hosel and shaft. Ferrules of differing weights can fine-tune the center of mass of the overall club head, but for these minute adjustments, screw-in weighted inserts at specific points on the club head are usually used instead. The rules of golf limit each player to a maximum of 14 clubs in their bag. Strict rules prohibit sharing of clubs between players that each have their own set (if two players share clubs, they may not have more than 14 clubs combined), and while occasional lending of a club to a player is generally overlooked, habitual borrowing of other players' clubs or the sharing of a single bag of clubs slows play considerably when both players need the same club. The most common set of men's clubs is: The above set is only 12 clubs; these (or equivalent hybrid substitutes) are found in virtually every golf bag. To this, players typically add two of the following: Women's club sets are similar in overall makeup, but typically driver, 3-wood, 4-hybrid, 5-7-9 irons, pitching and sand wedges, and a putter reduces the number of clubs in the bag to 9; this is a common load-out for a "Sunday bag" taken to the driving range or to an informal game. A skilled player can usually overcome the lesser selection of club lofts by reducing their swing speed on a lower-loft iron and/or placing the ball further forward in their stance to get the same carry distance and/or launch angle as the next higher loft number. Another increasingly common informal format is a deliberately low upper limit such as four clubs, or three clubs plus putter, with a typical load being a wood or hybrid, middle iron, wedge and putter, although often with significant variation between players with material added to the shaft to enable the player to obtain a firm hold (see 3 below). All parts of the club must be fixed so that the club is one unit, and it must have no external attachments." In addition, Appendix II-4a states, regarding club heads, that "the club head must be generally "plain in shape". All parts must be rigid, structural in nature and functional. The club head or its parts must not be designed to resemble any other object. It is not practicable to define 'plain in shape' precisely and comprehensively. " These two rules are used as the basis for most of the more specific rules of Appendix II, including that no club may have a concave face (1931) and various rules defining what

Golf club

" W o o d s " a r e l o n g - d i s t a n c e c l u b s , m e a n t t o d r i v e t h e b a l l a g r e a t d i s t a n c e d o w n t h e f a i r w a y t o w a r d s t h e h o l e . T h e y g e n e r a l l y h a v e a l a r g e h e a d a n d a l o n g s h a f t f o r m a x i m u m c l u b s p e e d . H i s t o r i c a l l y , w o o d s w e r e m a d e f r o m p e r s i m m o n w o o d , a l t h o u g h s o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s — n o t a b l y P i n g — d e v e l o p e d l a m i n a t e d w o o d s . I n 1 9 7 9 , T a y l o r M a d e G o l f i n t r o d u c e d t h e f i r s t w o o d m a d e o f s t e e l . E v e n m o r e r e c e n t l y , m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a v e s t a r t e d u s i n g m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s c a r b o n f i b e r , t i t a n i u m , o r s c a n d i u m . E v e n t h o u g h m o s t ‘ w o o d s ’ a r e m a d e f r o m d i f f e r e n t m e t a l s , t h e y a r e s t i l l c a l l e d ‘ w o o d s ’ t o d e n o t e t h e g e n e r a l s h a p e a n d t h e i r i n t e n d e d u s e o n t h e g o l f c o u r s e . M o s t w o o d s m a d e t o d a y h a v e a g r a p h i t e s h a f t a n d a m o s t l y - h o l l o w t i t a n i u m , c o m p o s i t e , o r s t e e l h e a d , o f r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t w e i g h t a l l o w i n g f a s t e r c l u b - h e a d s p e e d s . W o o d s a r e t h e l o n g e s t c l u b s a n d t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l o f a l l t h e g o l f c l u b s . T h e r e a r e t y p i c a l l y t h r e e t o f o u r w o o d s i n a s e t w h i c h a r e u s e d f r o m t h e t e e b o x a n d , i f o n a l o n g h o l e , p o s s i b l y f o r t h e s e c o n d o r e v e n t h i r d s h o t . T h e b i g g e s t w o o d , k n o w n a s t h e " d r i v e r " o r " o n e w o o d " , i s o f t e n m a d e o f h o l l o w e d o u t t i t a n i u m w i t h f e a t h e r - l i g h t s h a f t s . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e w o o d s h a s b e e n i n c r e a s i n g i n r e c e n t d e c a d e s , a n d a t y p i c a l d r i v e r w i t h a g r a p h i t e s h a f t i s n o w l o n g . T h e w o o d s m a y a l s o h a v e v e r y l a r g e h e a d s , u p t o i n v o l u m e ( t h e m a x i m u m a l l o w e d b y t h e U S G A i n s a n c t i o n e d e v e n t s ; d r i v e r s w i t h e v e n l a r g e r c l u b - h e a d v o l u m e s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r l o n g - d r i v e c o m p e t i t i o n s a n d i n f o r m a l g a m e s ) . T h e s h a f t s r a n g e f r o m s e n i o r t o e x t r a - s t i f f d e p e n d i n g u p o n e a c h p l a y e r ’ s p r e f e r e n c e . " I r o n s " a r e c l u b s w i t h a s o l i d , a l l - m e t a l h e a d f e a t u r i n g a f l a t a n g l e d f a c e , a n d a s h o r t e r s h a f t a n d m o r e u p r i g h t l i e a n g l e t h a n a w o o d , f o r e a s e o f a c c e s s . I r o n s a r e d e s i g n e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f s h o t s f r o m a l l o v e r t h e c o u r s e , f r o m t h e t e e b o x o n s h o r t o r d o g - l e g g e d h o l e s , t o t h e f a i r w a y o r r o u g h o n a p p r o a c h t o t h e g r e e n , t o t r i c k y s i t u a t i o n s l i k e p u n c h i n g t h r o u g h o r l o b b i n g o v e r t r e e s , g e t t i n g o u t o f h a z a r d s , o r h i t t i n g f r o m t i g h t l i e s r e q u i r i n g a c o m p a c t s w i n g . M o s t o f t h e i r o n s h a v e a n u m b e r f r o m 1 t o 9 ( t h e n u m b e r s i n m o s t c o m m o n u s e a r e f r o m 3 t o 9 ) , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i r r e l a t i v e l o f t a n g l e w i t h i n a m a t c h e d s e t . I r o n s a r e t y p i c a l l y g r o u p e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r i n t e n d e d d i s t a n c e ( w h i c h a l s o r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e i r s h a f t l e n g t h a n d t h u s t h e i r d i f f i c u l t y t o h i t t h e b a l l ) ; i n t h e n u m b e r e d i r o n s , t h e r e a r e l o n g i r o n s ( 2 – 4 ) , m e d i u m i r o n s ( 5 – 7 ) , a n d s h o r t i r o n s ( 8 – 9 ) , w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e l y h i g h e r l o f t a n g l e s , s h o r t e r s h a f t s , a n d h e a v i e r c l u b h e a d s . A s w i t h w o o d s , ’ i r o n s ’ g e t t h e i r n a m e b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e o r i g i n a l l y m a d e f r o m f o r g e d i r o n . M o d e r n i r o n s a r e i n v e s t m e n t - c a s t o u t o f s t e e l a l l o y s , w h i c h a l l o w s f o r b e t t e r - e n g i n e e r e d ‘ c a v i t y - b a c k ’ d e s i g n s t h a t h a v e l o w e r c e n t e r s o f m a s s a n d h i g h e r m o m e n t s o f i n e r t i a , m a k i n g t h e c l u b e a s i e r t o h i t a n d g i v i n g b e t t e r d i s t a n c e t h a n o l d e r f o r g e d ’ m u s c l e - b a c k ’ d e s i g n s . F o r g e d i r o n s w i t h l e s s p e r i m e t e r w e i g h t i n g a r e s t i l l s e e n , e s p e c i a l l y i n s e t s t a r g e t i n g l o w - h a n d i c a p a n d s c r a t c h g o l f e r s , b e c a u s e t h i s l e s s f o r g i v i n g d e s i g n a l l o w s a s k i l l e d g o l f e r t o i n t e n t i o n a l l y h i t a c u r v e d s h o t ( a ’ f a d e ’ o r ’ d r a w ’ ) , t o f o l l o w t h e c o n t o u r o f t h e f a i r w a y o r ’ b e n d ’ a s h o t a r o u n d a n o b s t a c l e . " W e d g e s " a r e a s u b c l a s s o f i r o n s w i t h g r e a t e r l o f t t h a n t h e n u m b e r e d i r o n s ( g e n e r a l l y s t a r t i n g a t 4 7 ° – 4 8 ° o f l o f t , a b o v e t h e 9 - i r o n s o f 4 4 ° – 4 5 ° ) , a n d o t h e r f e a t u r e s s u c h a s h i g h - m a s s c l u b h e a d s a n d w i d e s o l e s t h a t a l l o w f o r e a s i e r u s e i n t r i c k y l i e s . W e d g e s a r e u s e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f s h o r t - d i s t a n c e , h i g h - a l t i t u d e , h i g h - a c c u r a c y ’ u t i l i t y ’ s h o t s , s u c h a s h i t t i n g t h e b a l l o n t o t h e g r e e n ( " a p p r o a c h " s h o t s ) , p l a c i n g t h e b a l l a c c u r a t e l y o n t h e f a i r w a y f o r a b e t t e r s h o t a t t h e g r e e n ( " l a y - u p " s h o t s ) , o r h i t t i n g t h e b a l l o u t o f h a z a r d s o r r o u g h o n t o t h e g r e e n ( c h i p p i n g ) . T h e r e a r e f i v e m a i n t y p e s o f w e d g e s , w i t h l o f t s r a n g i n g f r o m 4 5 ° t o 6 4 ° : p i t c h i n g w e d g e ( P W , 4 8 – 5 0 ° ) , g a p w e d g e ( G W , a l s o " a p p r o a c h " , " a t t a c k " , " u t i l i t y " , o r " d u a l " w e d g e , t y p i c a l l y 5 2 – 5 4 ° ) , s a n d w e d g e ( S W , 5 5 – 5 6 ° ) , l o b w e d g e ( L W , 5 8 ° – 6 0 ° ) , a n d u l t r a l o b w e d g e ( s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " f l o p w e d g e " o r F W , 6 4 ° – 6 8 ° ) . " H y b r i d s " a r e a c r o s s b e t w e e n a w o o d a n d a n i r o n , g i v i n g t h e s e c l u b s t h e w o o d ' s l o n g d i s t a n c e a n d h i g h e r l a u n c h , w i t h t h e i r o n ' s f a m i l i a r s w i n g . T h e c l u b h e a d o f a h y b r i d h a s a w o o d - i n s p i r e d , s l i g h t l y c o n v e x f a c e , a n d i s t y p i c a l l y h o l l o w l i k e m o d e r n m e t a l w o o d s t o a l l o w f o r h i g h i m p u l s e o n i m p a c t a n d f a s t e r s w i n g s p e e d s . T h e h e a d i s u s u a l l y s m a l l e r t h a n t r u e w o o d s , h o w e v e r , n o t e x t e n d i n g a s f a r b a c k f r o m t h e f a c e , a n d t h e l i e a n d s h a f t l e n g t h a r e s i m i l a r t o a n i r o n g i v i n g s i m i l a r s w i n g m e c h a n i c s . T h e s e c l u b s g e n e r a l l y r e p l a c e l o w - n u m b e r e d i r o n s i n a s t a n d a r d s e t ( b e t w e e n 2 a n d 5 , m o s t c o m m o n l y 3 – 4 ) , w h i c h a r e t y p i c a l l y t h e h a r d e s t c l u b s i n a p l a y e r ' s b a g t o h i t w e l l . B y d o i n g s o t h e y a l s o g e n e r a l l y m a k e h i g h e r - l o f t e d w o o d s r e d u n d a n t a s w e l l . H o w e v e r , s o m e m a n u f a c t u r e r s p r o d u c e " i r o n r e p l a c e m e n t " s e t s t h a t u s e h y b r i d d e s i g n s t o r e p l a c e a n e n t i r e s e t o f t r a d i t i o n a l i r o n s , f r o m 3 t o p i t c h i n g w e d g e . S e t s d e s i g n e d f o r l e s s m u s c u l a r p l a y e r s c o m m o n l y f e a t u r e a c o m b i n a t i o n o f h i g h - l o f t e d w o o d s ( u p t o 7 - w o o d ) a n d h y b r i d s t o r e p l a c e t h e 5 , 6 a n d 7 - i r o n s , a l l o w i n g t h e s e p l a y e r s t o a c h i e v e g r e a t e r c a r r y d i s t a n c e s w i t h s l o w e r s w i n g s . " P u t t e r s " a r e a s p e c i a l c l a s s o f c l u b s w i t h a l o f t n o t e x c e e d i n g t e n d e g r e e s , d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o r o l l t h e b a l l a l o n g t h e g r a s s , g e n e r a l l y f r o m a p o i n t o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n t o w a r d t h e h o l e . C o n t r a r y t o p o p u l a r b e l i e f , p u t t e r s d o h a v e a l o f t ( o f t e n 5 ° f r o m t r u l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r a t i m p a c t ) t h a t h e l p s t o l i f t t h e b a l l f r o m a n y i n d e n t a t i o n i t h a s m a d e . N e w e r p u t t e r s a l s o i n c l u d e g r o o v e s o n t h e f a c e t o p r o m o t e r o l l r a t h e r t h a n a s k i d o f f t h e i m p a c t . T h i s i n c r e a s e s r o l l i n g d i s t a n c e a n d r e d u c e s b o u n c i n g o v e r t h e t u r f . P u t t e r s a r e t h e o n l y c l a s s o f c l u b a l l o w e d t o h a v e c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s , s u c h a s t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s , n o n - c i r c u l a r g r i p c r o s s - s e c t i o n s , b e n t s h a f t s o r h o s e l s , a n d a p p e n d a g e s d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y t o a i d p l a y e r s ' a i m . P r e s e n t i n s o m e g o l f e r s ' b a g s i s t h e " c h i p p e r " , a c l u b d e s i g n e d t o f e e l l i k e a p u t t e r b u t w i t h a m o r e l o f t e d f a c e , u s e d w i t h a p u t t i n g m o t i o n t o l i f t t h e b a l l o u t o f t h e h i g h e r g r a s s o f t h e r o u g h a n d f r i n g e a n d d r o p i t o n t h e g r e e n , w h e r e i t w i l l t h e n r o l l l i k e a p u t t . T h i s c l u b r e p l a c e s t h e u s e o f a h i g h - l o f t e d i r o n t o m a k e t h e s a m e s h o t , a n d a l l o w s t h e p l a y e r t o m a k e t h e s h o t f r o m a s t a n c e a n d w i t h a m o t i o n n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o a p u t t , w h i c h i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t w i t h a l o f t e d i r o n d u e t o a d i f f e r e n c e i n l i e a n g l e . M o s t c h i p p e r s h a v e a l o f t g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 d e g r e e s , w h i c h i s t h e m a x i m u m l o f t p e r m i t t e d b y t h e R u l e s o f G o l f f o r a c l u b t o b e c l a s s e d a s a p u t t e r , s o t h e s e c l u b s a r e a c t u a l l y c l a s s e d a s i r o n s . T o b e l e g a l f o r s a n c t i o n e d p l a y , a c h i p p e r c a n n o t h a v e a n y f e a t u r e t h a t i s d e f i n e d i n t h e r u l e s a s a l l o w a b l e o n l y o n p u t t e r s , e . g . t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s o r a f l a t - t o p p e d " p u t t e r g r i p " . T h i s d i s q u a l i f i e s m a n y c h i p p e r d e s i g n s , b u t t h e r e a r e s o m e U S G A - c o n f o r m i n g c h i p p e r s , a n d n o n - c o n f o r m i n g d e s i g n s c a n s t i l l b e u s e d f o r i n f o r m a l p l a y . T h e s h a f t s o f t h e w o o d s w e r e m a d e o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f w o o d b e f o r e b e i n g r e p l a c e d b y h i c k o r y i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . T h e v a r i e t i e s o f w o o d s i n c l u d e d a s h , p u r p l e h e a r t , o r a n g e w o o d , a n d b l u e - m a h o o . D e s p i t e t h e s t r e n g t h o f h i c k o r y , t h e l o n g - n o s e c l u b o f t h e m i d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s s t i l l p r o n e t o b r e a k i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e b a c k s w i n g . T h e c l u b h e a d s w e r e o f t e n m a d e f r o m w o o d s i n c l u d i n g a p p l e , p e a r , d o g w o o d , a n d b e e c h i n t h e e a r l y t i m e s u n t i l p e r s i m m o n b e c a m e t h e m a i n m a t e r i a l . G o l f c l u b s h a v e b e e n i m p r o v e d a n d t h e s h a f t s a r e n o w m a d e o f s t e e l , t i t a n i u m , o t h e r t y p e s o f m e t a l s o r c a r b o n f i b e r . T h e s h a f t i s a t a p e r e d s t e e l t u b e o r a s e r i e s o f s t e p p e d s t e e l t u b e s i n t e l e s c o p i c f a s h i o n . T h i s h a s i m p r o v e d t h e a c c u r a c y o f g o l f e r s . T h e g r i p s o f t h e c l u b s a r e m a d e f r o m l e a t h e r o r r u b b e r . T h e s h a f t i s a t a p e r e d t u b e m a d e o f m e t a l ( u s u a l l y s t e e l ) o r c a r b o n f i b e r c o m p o s i t e ( r e f e r r e d t o a s g r a p h i t e ) . T h e s h a f t i s r o u g h l y i n d i a m e t e r n e a r t h e g r i p a n d f r o m i n l e n g t h . S h a f t s w e i g h f r o m , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m a t e r i a l a n d l e n g t h . S h a f t s a r e q u a n t i f i e d i n a n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n i s t h e s h a f t f l e x . S i m p l y , t h e s h a f t f l e x i s t h e a m o u n t t h a t t h e s h a f t w i l l b e n d w h e n p l a c e d u n d e r a l o a d . A s t i f f e r s h a f t w i l l n o t f l e x a s m u c h , w h i c h r e q u i r e s m o r e p o w e r t o f l e x a n d " w h i p " t h r o u g h t h e b a l l p r o p e r l y ( w h i c h r e s u l t s i n h i g h e r c l u b s p e e d a t i m p a c t f o r m o r e d i s t a n c e ) , w h i l e a m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t w i l l w h i p w i t h l e s s p o w e r r e q u i r e d f o r b e t t e r d i s t a n c e o n s l o w e r s w i n g s , b u t m a y t o r q u e a n d o v e r - f l e x i f s w u n g w i t h t o o m u c h p o w e r c a u s i n g t h e h e a d n o t t o b e s q u a r e a t i m p a c t , r e s u l t i n g i n l o w e r a c c u r a c y . M o s t s h a f t m a k e r s o f f e r a v a r i e t y o f f l e x e s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n a r e : L / W ( L a d y / W o m e n ' s ) , A / I ( S o f t R e g u l a r , I n t e r m e d i a t e o r S e n i o r ) , R ( R e g u l a r ) , S ( S t i f f ) , a n d X ( T o u r S t i f f , E x t r a S t i f f o r S t r o n g ) . A r e g u l a r f l e x s h a f t i s g e n e r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h o s e w i t h a n a v e r a g e h e a d s p e e d ( ) , w h i l e a n A - F l e x ( o r s e n i o r s h a f t ) i s f o r p l a y e r s w i t h a s l o w e r s w i n g s p e e d ( ) , a n d t h e s t i f f e r s h a f t s , s u c h a s S - F l e x a n d X - F l e x ( S t i f f a n d E x t r a - S t i f f s h a f t s ) a r e r e s e r v e d o n l y f o r t h o s e p l a y e r s w i t h a n a b o v e a v e r a g e s w i n g i n g s p e e d , u s u a l l y a b o v e . S o m e c o m p a n i e s a l s o o f f e r a " s t i f f - r e g u l a r " o r " f i r m " f l e x f o r p l a y e r s w h o s e c l u b s p e e d f a l l s i n t h e u p p e r r a n g e o f a R e g u l a r s h a f t ( ) , a l l o w i n g g o l f e r s a n d c l u b m a k e r s t o f i n e - t u n e t h e f l e x f o r a s t r o n g e r a m a t e u r - l e v e l p l a y e r . A t i m p a c t , t h e c l u b h e a d c a n t w i s t a s a r e s u l t o f t o r q u e a p p l i e d t o t h e s h a f t , r e d u c i n g a c c u r a c y a s t h e f a c e o f t h e c l u b i s n o t s q u a r e t o t h e p l a y e r ' s s t a n c e . T h e a b i l i t y o f a s h a f t t o t w i s t a l o n g i t s l e n g t h d u e t o t h i s t o r q u e i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e f l e x o f t h e s h a f t i t s e l f ; a s t i f f e r s h a f t w i l l a l s o t o r q u e l e s s . T o c o u n t e r t o r q u e i n m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t s , c l u b m a k e r s d e s i g n t h e s h a f t s w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f t o r q u e t h r o u g h t h e i r l e n g t h , p a r t i c u l a r l y a l o n g t h e t h i n n e s t p a r t o f t h e s h a f t w h e r e i t j o i n s w i t h t h e c l u b h e a d . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e s h a f t i s m o s t f l e x i b l e , c a l l e d t h e " k i c k p o i n t " ; a b o v e t h a t p o i n t t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i a m e t e r o f t h e s h a f t m a k e s i t m o r e r i g i d , w h i l e b e l o w t h a t p o i n t t h e s h a f t i s r e i n f o r c e d i n t e r n a l l y t o r e d u c e t o r q u i n g o f t h e c l u b h e a d . S h a f t s h a v e t y p i c a l l y b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s h a v i n g a l o w , m e d i u m o r h i g h k i c k ; a l o w k i c k m e a n s t h e s h a f t w i l l s t o r e e n e r g y c l o s e r t o t h e c l u b h e a d , w h i c h m e a n s t h e c l u b h e a d c a n t w i s t m o r e b u t a l s o a l l o w s f o r h i g h e r c l u b h e a d s p e e d s . A h i g h k i c k s h a f t w i l l s t o r e e n e r g y c l o s e r t o t h e g r i p ; s u c h a s h a f t w i l l f e e l f i r m e r w h e n s w i n g i n g i t a n d w i l l g i v e b e t t e r c o n t r o l o v e r d i r e c t i o n , b u t t h e s a m e s t r e n g t h s w i n g w i l l f l e x t h e s h a f t l e s s , w h i c h w i l l r e d u c e c l u b - h e a d s p e e d . W i d e l y o v e r l o o k e d a s a p a r t o f t h e c l u b , t h e s h a f t i s c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y t o b e t h e e n g i n e o f t h e m o d e r n c l u b h e a d . S h a f t s r a n g e i n p r i c e f r o m a m e r e U S $ 4 t o o v e r U S $ 1 2 0 0 . C u r r e n t g r a p h i t e s h a f t s w e i g h c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n t h e i r s t e e l c o u n t e r p a r t s ( s o m e t i m e s w e i g h i n g l e s s t h a n f o r a d r i v e r s h a f t ) , a l l o w i n g f o r l i g h t e r c l u b s t h a t c a n b e s w u n g a t g r e a t e r s p e e d . B e g i n n i n g i n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s , c u s t o m s h a f t s h a v e b e e n i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e c l u b - m a k i n g p r o c e s s . T h e s e s h a f t s w i l l , w i t h i n a g i v e n f l e x r a t i n g , a d d r e s s s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a , s u c h a s t o l a u n c h t h e b a l l h i g h e r o r l o w e r o r t o a d j u s t f o r t h e t i m i n g o f a p l a y e r ' s s w i n g t o l o a d a n d u n l o a d t h e s h a f t a t t h e c o r r e c t m o m e n t s o f t h e s w i n g f o r m a x i m u m p o w e r . W h e r e a s i n t h e p a s t e a c h c l u b c o u l d c o m e w i t h o n l y o n e s h a f t , t o d a y ' s c l u b h e a d s c a n b e f i t t e d w i t h d o z e n s o f d i f f e r e n t s h a f t s , e a c h w i t h s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n i n b e h a v i o r , c r e a t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a m u c h b e t t e r f i t f o r t h e a v e r a g e g o l f e r . T h e g r i p o f t h e c l u b i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e o p p o s i t e e n d o f t h e s h a f t f r o m t h e c l u b h e a d , a n d i s t h e p a r t o f t h e c l u b t h e p l a y e r h o l d s o n t o w h i l e s w i n g i n g . O r i g i n a l l y , t h e g r i p w a s c o m p o s e d o f o n e o r m o r e l e a t h e r s t r i p s w r a p p e d a r o u n d t h e s h a f t . T h e l e a t h e r o u t e r w r a p o n a g r i p i s s t i l l s e e n o n s o m e c l u b s , m o s t c o m m o n l y p u t t e r s , b u t m o s t m o d e r n g r i p s a r e a o n e - p i e c e " s l e e v e " m a d e o f r u b b e r , s y n t h e t i c o r c o m p o s i t e m a t e r i a l t h a t i s s l i d o v e r t h e s h a f t a n d s e c u r e d w i t h a n a d h e s i v e . T h e s e s l e e v e g r i p s a l l o w c l u b m a k e r s a n d g o l f e r s t o c u s t o m i z e t h e g r i p ' s d i a m e t e r , c o n s i s t e n c y ( s o f t n e s s / f i r m n e s s ) a n d t e x t u r i n g p a t t e r n t o b e s t f i t t h e p l a y e r . C l u b s w i t h a n o u t e r " w r a p " o f l e a t h e r o r l e a t h e r - l i k e s y n t h e t i c s t i l l t y p i c a l l y h a v e a " s l e e v e " f o r m u n d e r n e a t h t o a d d d i a m e t e r t o t h e g r i p a n d g i v e i t i t s b a s i c p r o f i l e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e s o f g o l f , a l l c l u b g r i p s m u s t h a v e t h e s a m e c r o s s - s e c t i o n s h a p e a l o n g t h e i r e n t i r e l e n g t h ( t h e d i a m e t e r c a n v a r y ) , a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p u t t e r , m u s t h a v e a c i r c u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n . T h e p u t t e r m a y h a v e a n y c r o s s s e c t i o n t h a t i s s y m m e t r i c a l a l o n g t h e l e n g t h o f t h e g r i p t h r o u g h a t l e a s t o n e p l a n e ; " s h i e l d " p r o f i l e s w i t h a f l a t t o p a n d c u r v e d u n d e r s i d e a r e c o m m o n . G r i p s m a y t a p e r f r o m t h i c k t o t h i n a l o n g t h e i r l e n g t h ( a n d v i r t u a l l y a l l d o ) , b u t t h e y a r e n o t a l l o w e d t o h a v e a n y " w a i s t i n g " ( a t h i n n e r s e c t i o n o f t h e g r i p s u r r o u n d e d b y t h i c k e r s e c t i o n s a b o v e a n d b e l o w i t ) o r " b u l g e s " ( t h i c k e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e g r i p s u r r o u n d e d b y t h i n n e r s e c t i o n s ) . M i n o r v a r i a t i o n s i n s u r f a c e t e x t u r e ( s u c h a s t h e n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n o f a " w r a p " - s t y l e g r i p ) a r e n o t c o u n t e d u n l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t . A d v a n c e s i n m a t e r i a l s h a v e r e s u l t e d i n m o r e d u r a b l e , l o n g e r - l a s t i n g s o f t g r i p s , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s g r i p s d o e v e n t u a l l y d r y o u t , h a r d e n , o r a r e o t h e r w i s e d a m a g e d a n d m u s t b e r e p l a c e d . R e p l a c e m e n t g r i p s s o l d a s d o - i t - y o u r s e l f k i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y i n e x p e n s i v e a n d o f h i g h q u a l i t y , a l t h o u g h c u s t o m g r i p s t h a t a r e l a r g e r , s o f t e r , o r t e x t u r e d d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m t h e e v e r y d a y " w r a p " - s t y l e g r i p a r e g e n e r a l l y b o u g h t a n d i n s t a l l e d b y a c l u b s m i t h . R e - g r i p p i n g u s e d t o r e q u i r e t o x i c , f l a m m a b l e s o l v e n t s t o s o f t e n a n d a c t i v a t e t h e a d h e s i v e , a n d a v i s e t o h o l d t h e c l u b s t e a d y w h i l e t h e g r i p w a s f o r c e d o n . T h e n e w e s t r e p l a c e m e n t k i t s , h o w e v e r , u s e d o u b l e - s i d e d t a p e w i t h a w a t e r - a c t i v a t e d a d h e s i v e t h a t i s s l i p p e r y w h e n f i r s t a c t i v a t e d , a l l o w i n g e a s i e r i n s t a l l a t i o n . O n c e t h e a d h e s i v e c u r e s , i t c r e a t e s a v e r y s t r o n g b o n d b e t w e e n g r i p a n d s h a f t a n d t h e g r i p i s u s u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o r e m o v e w i t h o u t c u t t i n g i t o f f . T h e h o s e l i s t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e c l u b h e a d t o w h i c h t h e s h a f t a t t a c h e s . T h o u g h l a r g e l y i g n o r e d b y p l a y e r s , h o s e l d e s i g n i s i n t e g r a l t o t h e b a l a n c e , f e e l a n d p o w e r o f a c l u b . M o d e r n h o s e l s a r e d e s i g n e d t o p l a c e a s l i t t l e m a s s a s p o s s i b l e o v e r t h e t o p o f t h e s t r i k i n g f a c e o f t h e c l u b , w h i c h l o w e r s t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y o f t h e c l u b f o r b e t t e r d i s t a n c e . E a c h h e a d h a s o n e f a c e w h i c h c o n t a c t s t h e b a l l d u r i n g t h e s t r o k e . P u t t e r s m a y h a v e t w o s t r i k i n g f a c e s , a s l o n g a s t h e y a r e i d e n t i c a l a n d s y m m e t r i c a l . S o m e c h i p p e r s ( a c l u b s i m i l a r i n a p p e a r a n c e t o a d o u b l e - s i d e d p u t t e r b u t h a v i n g a l o f t o f 3 5 – 4 5 d e g r e e s ) h a v e t w o f a c e s , b u t a r e n o t l e g a l . P a g e 1 3 5 o f t h e 2 0 0 9 U S G A r u l e s o f g o l f s t a t e s : T h e c l u b h e a d m u s t h a v e o n l y o n e s t r i k i n g f a c e , e x c e p t t h a t a p u t t e r m a y h a v e t w o s u c h f a c e s i f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e t h e s a m e , a n d t h e y a r e o p p o s i t e e a c h o t h e r . P a g e 1 2 7 o f t h e U S G A r u l e s o f g o l f s t a t e s : A p u t t e r i s a c l u b w i t h a l o f t n o t e x c e e d i n g t e n d e g r e e s d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y f o r u s e o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n . T h e r e f o r e , a n y d o u b l e s i d e d c l u b w i t h a l o f t g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 d e g r e e s i s n o t l e g a l . T h e t r i m r i n g , u s u a l l y b l a c k ( I t m a y h a v e a d d i t i o n a l t r i m c o l o r s ) , t h a t i s f o u n d d i r e c t l y o n t o p o f t h e h o s e l o n m a n y w o o d s a n d i r o n s . T h e f e r r u l e i s m o s t l y d e c o r a t i v e , c r e a t i n g a c o n t i n u o u s l i n e b e t w e e n t h e s h a f t a n d t h e w i d e r h o s e l , b u t i n s o m e c a s e s i t c a n f o r m p a r t o f t h e s e c u r i n g m e c h a n i s m b e t w e e n h o s e l a n d s h a f t . F e r r u l e s o f d i f f e r i n g w e i g h t s c a n f i n e - t u n e t h e c e n t e r o f m a s s o f t h e o v e r a l l c l u b h e a d , b u t f o r t h e s e m i n u t e a d j u s t m e n t s , s c r e w - i n w e i g h t e d i n s e r t s a t s p e c i f i c p o i n t s o n t h e c l u b h e a d a r e u s u a l l y u s e d i n s t e a d . T h e r u l e s o f g o l f l i m i t e a c h p l a y e r t o a m a x i m u m o f 1 4 c l u b s i n t h e i r b a g . S t r i c t r u l e s p r o h i b i t s h a r i n g o f c l u b s b e t w e e n p l a y e r s t h a t e a c h h a v e t h e i r o w n s e t ( i f t w o p l a y e r s s h a r e c l u b s , t h e y m a y n o t h a v e m o r e t h a n 1 4 c l u b s c o m b i n e d ) , a n d w h i l e o c c a s i o n a l l e n d i n g o f a c l u b t o a p l a y e r i s g e n e r a l l y o v e r l o o k e d , h a b i t u a l b o r r o w i n g o f o t h e r p l a y e r s ' c l u b s o r t h e s h a r i n g o f a s i n g l e b a g o f c l u b s s l o w s p l a y c o n s i d e r a b l y w h e n b o t h p l a y e r s n e e d t h e s a m e c l u b . T h e m o s t c o m m o n s e t o f m e n ' s c l u b s i s : T h e a b o v e s e t i s o n l y 1 2 c l u b s ; t h e s e ( o r e q u i v a l e n t h y b r i d s u b s t i t u t e s ) a r e f o u n d i n v i r t u a l l y e v e r y g o l f b a g . T o t h i s , p l a y e r s t y p i c a l l y a d d t w o o f t h e f o l l o w i n g : W o m e n ' s c l u b s e t s a r e s i m i l a r i n o v e r a l l m a k e u p , b u t t y p i c a l l y h a v e h i g h e r l o f t s a n d s h o r t e r , m o r e f l e x i b l e s h a f t s i n r e t a i l s e t s t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e a v e r a g e f e m a l e p l a y e r ' s h e i g h t a n d s w i n g s p e e d . V a r i a t i o n s o n t h i s b a s i c s e t a b o u n d ; s e v e r a l c l u b o p t i o n s u s u a l l y e x i s t f o r a l m o s t a n y s h o t d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p l a y e r ' s s k i l l l e v e l a n d p l a y i n g s t y l e , a n d t h e o n l y c l u b u n i v e r s a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e i n d i s p e n s a b l e i s t h e p u t t e r . S o m e c o n s i d e r t h e m o d e r n d e e p - f a c e d d r i v e r t o b e e q u a l l y i r r e p l a c e a b l e ; t h i s i s c a u s e f o r s o m e d e b a t e , a s p r o f e s s i o n a l p l a y e r s i n c l u d i n g T i g e r W o o d s h a v e p l a y e d a n d w o n t o u r n a m e n t s w i t h o u t u s i n g a d r i v e r , i n s t e a d u s i n g a 3 - w o o d f o r t e e s h o t s a n d m a k i n g u p t h e d i f f e r e n c e o n t h e a p p r o a c h u s i n g a l o w e r - l o f t e d i r o n . T h e m o s t c o m m o n o m i s s i o n s a r e t h e " l o n g i r o n s " , n u m b e r e d f r o m 2 t o 5 , w h i c h a r e n o t o r i o u s l y d i f f i c u l t t o h i t w e l l . T h e p l a y e r c a n s u p p l e m e n t t h e g a p s i n d i s t a n c e w i t h e i t h e r h i g h e r - n u m b e r e d w o o d s s u c h a s t h e 5 a n d e v e n t h e 7 - w o o d , o r m a y r e p l a c e t h e l o n g i r o n s w i t h e q u i v a l e n t l y - n u m b e r e d h y b r i d c l u b s . I f h y b r i d s a r e u s e d , h i g h e r - l o f t e d w o o d s a r e o f t e n o m i t t e d a s r e d u n d a n t , b u t l a d i e s ' a n d s e n i o r s ' s e t s c o m m o n l y f e a t u r e b o t h h y b r i d s a n d h i g h - l o f t e d w o o d s , o m i t t i n g t h e l o n g i r o n s e n t i r e l y i n f a v o r o f t h e l o f t e d w o o d s , a n d r e p l a c i n g t h e m i d - i r o n s ( 5 – 7 ) w i t h h y b r i d s . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n a l l o w s f o r h i g h e r l a u n c h a n g l e s o n t h e l o n g - d i s t a n c e c l u b s , w h i c h g i v e s b e t t e r d i s t a n c e w i t h s l o w e r s w i n g s p e e d s . W h e r e a c l u b i s o m i t t e d a n d n o t r e p l a c e d w i t h a c l u b o f s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n , p l a y e r s m a y a d d a d d i t i o n a l c l u b s o f a d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s u c h a s a d d i t i o n a l w e d g e s . W h i l e 1 4 c l u b s i s a m a x i m u m , i t i s n o t a m i n i m u m ; p l a y e r s a r e f r e e t o u s e a n y l e s s e r n u m b e r o f c l u b s t h e y p r e f e r , s o s u b s t i t u t i o n s f o r t h e c o m m o n o m i s s i o n s a b o v e a r e n o t a l w a y s m a d e ; a p l a y e r m a y s i m p l y c h o o s e t o p l a y w i t h o u t a 5 - w o o d o r 2 – 4 i r o n s , i n s t e a d u s i n g a 4 - w o o d a n d m o v i n g d i r e c t l y t o t h e i r 5 - i r o n a s d e s i r e d d i s t a n c e d e c r e a s e s ( a 4 - w o o d i n a s k i l l e d g o l f e r ' s h a n d s a v e r a g e s 2 0 0 y a r d s ; a 5 - i r o n i n t h e s a m e p l a y e r ' s h a n d s w o u l d b e a b o u t 1 6 0 , w h i c h i s a l a r g e g a p b u t n o t u n p l a y a b l e ) . O t h e r c l u b s m a y b e o m i t t e d a s w e l l . O n c o u r s e s w h e r e b a g s m u s t b e c a r r i e d b y t h e p l a y e r , t h e p l a y e r m a y t a k e o n l y t h e o d d - n u m b e r e d i r o n s ; w i t h o u t t h e 4 , 6 o r 8 i r o n s ( t h e 3 i s s o m e t i m e s r e m o v e d i n s t e a d o f t h e 4 ) t h e b a g ' s w e i g h t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d . C a r r y i n g o n l y a d r i v e r , 3 - w o o d , 4 - h y b r i d , 5 - 7 - 9 i r o n s , p i t c h i n g a n d s a n d w e d g e s , a n d a p u t t e r r e d u c e s t h e n u m b e r o f c l u b s i n t h e b a g t o 9 ; t h i s i s a c o m m o n l o a d - o u t f o r a " S u n d a y b a g " t a k e n t o t h e d r i v i n g r a n g e o r t o a n i n f o r m a l g a m e . A s k i l l e d p l a y e r c a n u s u a l l y o v e r c o m e t h e l e s s e r s e l e c t i o n o f c l u b l o f t s b y r e d u c i n g t h e i r s w i n g s p e e d o n a l o w e r - l o f t i r o n a n d / o r p l a c i n g t h e b a l l f u r t h e r f o r w a r d i n t h e i r s t a n c e t o g e t t h e s a m e c a r r y d i s t a n c e a n d / o r l a u n c h a n g l e a s t h e n e x t h i g h e r l o f t n u m b e r . A n o t h e r i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m m o n i n f o r m a l f o r m a t i s a d e l i b e r a t e l y l o w u p p e r l i m i t s u c h a s f o u r c l u b s , o r t h r e e c l u b s p l u s p u t t e r , w i t h a t y p i c a l l o a d b e i n g a w o o d o r h y b r i d , m i d d l e i r o n , w e d g e a n d p u t t e r , a l t h o u g h o f t e n w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n p l a y e r s w i t h r e g a r d s t o w h i c h s p e c i f i c c l u b s a r e f a v o r e d i n e a c h r o l e . T h e r u l i n g a u t h o r i t i e s o f g o l f , T h e R & A ( f o r m e r l y p a r t o f T h e R o y a l a n d A n c i e n t G o l f C l u b o f S t A n d r e w s ) a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G o l f A s s o c i a t i o n ( U S G A ) , r e s e r v e t h e r i g h t t o d e f i n e w h a t s h a p e s a n d p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c l u b s a r e p e r m i s s i b l e i n t o u r n a m e n t p l a y . T h e c u r r e n t r u l e s f o r c l u b d e s i g n , i n c l u d i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f v a r i o u s r u l i n g s o n c l u b s i n t r o d u c e d f o r p l a y , a r e d e f i n e d i n A p p e n d i x I I o f t h e R u l e s o f G o l f . T h e o v e r a r c h i n g p r i n c i p l e o f c l u b d e s i g n u s e d b y b o t h a u t h o r i t i e s i s d e f i n e d i n A p p e n d i x I I - 1 a , w h i c h s t a t e s : " T h e c l u b m u s t n o t b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c u s t o m a r y f o r m a n d m a k e " . T h e c l u b m u s t b e c o m p o s e d o f a s h a f t a n d a h e a d a n d i t m a y a l s o h a v e m a t e r i a l a d d e d t o t h e s h a f t t o e n a b l e t h e p l a y e r t o o b t a i n a f i r m h o l d ( s e e 3 b e l o w ) . A l l p a r t s o f t h e c l u b m u s t b e f i x e d s o t h a t t h e c l u b i s o n e u n i t , a n d i t m u s t h a v e n o e x t e r n a l a t t a c h m e n t s . " I n a d d i t i o n , A p p e n d i x I I - 4 a s t a t e s , r e g a r d i n g c l u b h e a d s , t h a t " t h e c l u b h e a d m u s t b e g e n e r a l l y " p l a i n i n s h a p e " . A l l p a r t s m u s t b e r i g i d , s t r u c t u r a l i n n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n a l . T h e c l u b h e a d o r i t s p a r t s m u s t n o t b e d e s i g n e d t o r e s e m b l e a n y o t h e r o b j e c t . I t i s n o t p r a c t i c a b l e t o d e f i n e ' p l a i n i n s h a p e ' p r e c i s e l y a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y . " T h e s e t w o r u l e s a r e u s e d a s t h e b a s i s f o r m o s t o f t h e m o r e s p e c i f i c r u l e s o f A p p e n d i x I I , i n c l u d i n g t h a t n o c l u b m a y h a v e a c o n c a v e f a c e ( 1 9 3 1 ) a n d v a r i o u s r u l e s d e f i n i n g w h a t i s " t r a d i t i o n a l " a b o u t t h e s h a p e s o f s p e c i f i c c l u b s , w h i l e a l l o w i n g f o r t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f t e c h n o l o g y . T h e " t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c u s t o m a r y " r u l e w a s o r i g i n a l l y u s e d t o b a n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s t e e l c l u b s h a f t s ( p a t e n t e d i n 1 9 1 0 ) , a s t h a t m a t e r i a l w a s n o t t r a d i t i o n a l f o r s h a f t s ; t h a t s p e c i f i c b a n w a s r e s c i n d e d i n 1 9 2 4 b y t h e U S G A ( t h e R & A w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o b a n s t e e l s h a f t s u n t i l 1 9 2 9 ) , a n d s t e e l w o u l d b e c o m e u n i v e r s a l u n t i l t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f g r a p h i t e s h a f t s w h o s e i n t r o d u c t i o n w a s l e s s c o n t r o v e r s i a l . T h e " p l a i n i n s h a p e " r u l e w a s m o r e r e c e n t l y b e n t t o a l l o w f o r n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l d r i v e r c l u b h e a d s h a p e s , s u c h a s s q u a r e s , a s a c o m p r o m i s e t o c l u b - m a k e r s a f t e r i m p o s i n g a n d e n f o r c i n g a 4 6 0 c c v o l u m e l i m i t o n t h e s e s a m e c l u b h e a d s . M a n y r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d w o o d s h a v e a m a r k e d " t r a m p o l i n e e f f e c t " ( a l a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e f a c e u p o n i m p a c t f o l l o w e d b y a q u i c k r e s t o r a t i o n t o o r i g i n a l d i m e n s i o n s , a c t i n g l i k e a s l i n g s h o t ) , r e s u l t i n g i n v e r y h i g h b a l l s p e e d s a n d g r e a t l e n g t h s o f t e e s h o t s . A s o f 1 J a n u a r y 2 0 0 8 , t h e U S G A a n d R & A h a v e s e t t l e d o n a r e g u l a t i o n t h a t l i m i t s t h e a c c e p t a b l e " t r a m p o l i n e e f f e c t " t o a c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e s t i t u t i o n ( C O R ) — a m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e t r a n s f e r o f e n e r g y f r o m t h e c l u b h e a d t o t h e b a l l — o f . 8 3 0 . O t h e r l a r g e s c a l e U S G A r u l i n g s i n v o l v e a 1 9 9 0 l a w s u i t , a n d s u b s e q u e n t s e t t l e m e n t , a g a i n s t K a r s t e n M a n u f a c t u r i n g , m a k e r s o f t h e P I N G b r a n d , f o r t h e i r u s e o f s q u a r e , o r U - g r o o v e s i n t h e i r i m m e n s e l y p o p u l a r P i n g E y e 2 i r o n s . T h e U S G A a r g u e d t h a t p l a y e r s w h o u s e d t h e E y e 2 h a d a n u n f a i r a d v a n t a g e i n i m p a r t i n g s p i n o n t h e b a l l , w h i c h h e l p s t o s t o p t h e b a l l o n t h e p u t t i n g g r e e n s . T h e U S G A u t i l i z e d J o h n L . S a k s u n , f o u n d e r o f C a n a d i a n g o l f c o m p a n y A c c u f o r m G o l f , a s a c o n s u l t a n t t o s e t u p m e t h o d s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e u n i q u e g r o o v e s a n d d e t e r m i n i n g P I N G ' s c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e r u l i n g s . S a k s u n , b y p r o p o s i n g a c o s t - e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n t o h e l p P I N G c h a n g e t h e d e s i g n o f s u b s e q u e n t E y e 2 s , s a v e d P I N G h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s . P I N G s u b s e q u e n t l y w i t h d r e w t h e i r U S $ 1 0 0 m i l l i o n l a w s u i t a g a i n s t t h e U S G A . P i n g ’ s o l d e r c l u b s w e r e " g r a n d f a t h e r e d i n " a n d a l l o w e d t o r e m a i n i n p l a y a s p a r t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e U S G A h a s b e g u n p h a s i n g i n a b a n o n s q u a r e g r o o v e s i n g o l f . M a n u f a c t u r e r s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o d i s c o n t i n u e n o n c o m p l i a n t c l u b s b y J a n u a r y 1 , 2 0 1 1 . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e U S G A , a s J a n u a r y 1 , 2 0 1 0 , p r o f e s s i o n a l g o l f e r s o n o n e o f t h e t o p t o u r s , o r t h o s e a t t e m p t i n g t o q u a l i f y f o r o n e o f t h e t h r e e O p e n C h a m p i o n s h i p s ( s i n c e t h e n f o u r ) w i l l n e e d t o u s e n e w c o n f o r m i n g w e d g e s ( t h o s e w i t h o u t s q u a r e g r o o v e s ) . M o r e o v e r , t h o s e w h o p l a n t o q u a l i f y f o r a n y o t h e r U S G A c h a m p i o n s h i p ( A m a t e u r c h a m p i o n s h i p s — u n d e r 1 8 , A m a t e u r , o v e r 2 5 , a n d o v e r 5 0 i n b o t h s e x e s , a n d f o u r - b a l l , a l o n g w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e a m c h a m p i o n s h i p s ) , w i l l n e e d n e w c o n f o r m i n g w e d g e s b y 2 0 1 4 . I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s r e g u l a t i o n i n c l u d e s I G F a n d U S G A - s a n c t i o n e d r e g i o n a l a m a t e u r e v e n t s a s w e l l , a s a " c o n d i t i o n o f c o m p e t i t i o n " . W e d g e s t h a t c o n f o r m t o t h e n e w s t a n d a r d a r e o f t e n m a r k e t e d a s " C C " o r " C o n d i t i o n o f C o m p e t i t i o n " w e d g e s ; t h i s m o n i k e r i s l i k e l y t o f a l l i n t o d i s u s e a s p l a y e r s u p g r a d e c l u b s a n d t h e u s e o f n o n - c o n f o r m i n g i r o n s d i m i n i s h e s .

Regulations

The regulations for text focus on placing minimal mass above the striking face of the club, lowering the center of gravity for improved distance. Putters can have two identical and symmetrical striking faces. Chippers with two faces are not legal. The ferrule is mainly decorative but can affect the club's center of mass. The R&A and USGA govern club design, ensuring they adhere to traditional forms and do not provide an unfair advantage.

designed to place as little mass as possible over the top of the striking face of the club, which lowers the center of gravity of the club for better distance. Each head has one face which contacts the ball during the stroke. Putters may have two striking faces, as long as they are identical and symmetrical. Some chippers (a club similar in appearance to a double-sided putter but having a loft of 35–45 degrees) have two faces, but are not legal. Page 135 of the 2009 USGA rules of golf states: The club head must have only one striking face, except that a putter may have two such faces if their characteristics are the same, and they are opposite each other. Page 127 of the USGA rules of golf states: A putter is a club with a loft not exceeding ten degrees designed primarily for use on the putting green. Therefore, any double sided club with a loft greater than 10 degrees is not legal. The trim ring, usually black (It may have additional trim colors), that is found directly on top of the hosel on many woods and irons. The ferrule is mostly decorative, creating a continuous line between the shaft and the wider hosel, but in some cases it can form part of the securing mechanism between hosel and shaft. Ferrules of differing weights can fine-tune the center of mass of the overall club head, but for these minute adjustments, screw-in weighted inserts at specific points on the club head are usually used instead. regards to which specific clubs are favored in each role. The ruling authorities of golf, The R&A (formerly part of The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews) and the United States Golf Association (USGA), reserve the right to define what shapes and physical characteristics of clubs are permissible in tournament play. The current rules for club design, including the results of various rulings on clubs introduced for play, are defined in Appendix II of the Rules of Golf. The overarching principle of club design used by both authorities is defined in Appendix II-1a, which states: "The club must not be substantially different from the "traditional and customary form and make". The club must be composed of a shaft and a head and it may also have material added to the shaft to enable the player to obtain a firm hold (see 3 below). All parts of the club must be fixed so that the club is one unit, and it must have no external attachments." In addition, Appendix II-4a states, regarding club heads, that "the club head must be generally "plain in shape". All parts must be rigid, structural in nature and functional. The club head or its parts must not be designed to resemble any other object. It is not practicable to define 'plain in shape' precisely and comprehensively. " These two rules are used as the basis for most of the more specific rules of Appendix II, including that no club may have a concave face (1931) and various rules defining what is "traditional" about the shapes of specific clubs, while allowing for the progression of technology. The "traditional and customary" rule was originally used to ban the introduction of steel club shafts (patented in 1910), as that material was not traditional for shafts; that specific ban was rescinded in 1924 by the USGA (the R&A would continue to ban steel shafts until 1929), and steel would become universal until the development of graphite shafts whose introduction was less controversial. The "plain in shape" rule was more recently bent to allow for non-traditional driver club head shapes, such as squares, as a compromise to club-makers after imposing and enforcing a 460cc volume limit on these same club heads. Many recently developed woods have a marked "trampoline effect" (a large deformation of the face upon impact followed by a quick restoration to original dimensions, acting like a slingshot), resulting in very high ball speeds and great lengths of tee shots. As of 1 January 2008, the USGA and R&A have settled on a regulation that limits the acceptable "trampoline effect" to a coefficient of restitution (COR)—a measurement of the efficiency of the transfer of energy from the club head to the ball—of .830. Other large scale USGA rulings involve a 1990 lawsuit, and subsequent settlement, against Karsten Manufacturing, makers of the PING brand, for their use of square, or U-grooves in their immensely popular Ping Eye2 irons. The USGA argued that players who used the Eye2 had an unfair advantage in imparting spin on the ball, which helps to stop the ball on the putting greens. The USGA utilized John L. Saksun, founder of Canadian golf company Accuform Golf, as a consultant to set up methods of measuring the unique grooves and determining PING's compliance with the rulings. Saksun, by proposing a cost-effective solution to help PING change the design of subsequent Eye2s, saved PING hundreds of millions. PING subsequently withdrew their US$100 million lawsuit against the USGA. Ping’s older clubs were "grandfathered in" and allowed to remain in play as part of the settlement. However, the USGA has begun phasing in a ban on square grooves in golf. Manufacturers were required to discontinue noncompliant clubs by January 1, 2011. According to the USGA, as January 1, 2010, professional golfers on one of the top tours, or those attempting to qualify for one of the three Open Championships (since then four) will need to use new conforming wedges (those without square grooves). Moreover, those who plan to qualify for any other USGA championship (Amateur championships—under 18, Amateur, over 25, and over 50 in both sexes, and four-ball, along with international team championships), will need new conforming wedges by 2014. In addition, this regulation includes IGF and USGA-sanctioned regional amateur events as well, as a "condition of competition". Wedges that conform to the new standard are often marketed as "CC" or "Condition of Competition" wedges; this moniker is likely to fall into disuse as players upgrade clubs and the use of non-conforming irons diminishes.

Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan

I t i s a s y s t e m o f c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t s c h o o l s i n I n d i a a n d o t h e r c o u n t r i e s t h a t h a v e b e e n i n s t i t u t e d u n d e r t h e a e g i s o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n a n d c a m e i n t o b e i n g i n 1 9 6 3 u n d e r t h e n a m e C e n t r a l S c h o o l s . L a t e r , t h e n a m e w a s c h a n g e d t o K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a . I t i s a n o n - p r o f i t o r g a n i s a t i o n . I t s s c h o o l s a r e a l l a f f i l i a t e d t o t h e C e n t r a l B o a r d o f S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n ( C B S E ) . I t s o b j e c t i v e i s t o e d u c a t e c h i l d r e n o f t h e I n d i a n D e f e n c e S e r v i c e s p e r s o n n e l w h o a r e o f t e n p o s t e d t o r e m o t e l o c a t i o n s . W i t h t h e a r m y s t a r t i n g i t s o w n A r m y P u b l i c S c h o o l s , t h e s e r v i c e w a s e x t e n d e d b u t n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o a l l c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y e e s . A u n i f o r m c u r r i c u l u m i s f o l l o w e d b y s c h o o l s a l l o v e r I n d i a . B y p r o v i d i n g a c o m m o n s y l l a b u s a n d s y s t e m o f e d u c a t i o n , t h e K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a s a r e i n t e n d e d t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n o f g o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y e e s d o n o t f a c e e d u c a t i o n d i s a d v a n t a g e s w h e n t h e i r p a r e n t s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m o n e l o c a t i o n t o a n o t h e r . T h e s c h o o l s h a v e b e e n o p e r a t i o n a l f o r m o r e t h a n 5 0 y e a r s . T h e K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a S a n g a t h a n o r ' C e n t r a l S c h o o l O r g a n i s a t i o n ' , o v e r s e e s t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e s c h o o l s w i t h i t s h e a d q u a r t e r s i n N e w D e l h i . T h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h i s b o d y i s b a s e d o n l e v e l s . T h e c h a i r m a n o f K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a S a n g a t h a n i s a l w a y s t h e M i n i s t e r i n C h a r g e o f H u m a n R e s o u r c e D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a ; t h e d e p u t y c h a i r m a n i s M i n i s t e r o f S t a t e o f M H R D . T h e r e a l w o r k i n g p o w e r l i e s w i t h t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r o f K V S ; t h e r e a r e a d d i t i o n a l c o m m i s s i o n e r s t o a c c o m p a n y t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f K V S i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s . T h e h e a d o f a K V S r e g i o n i s D e p u t y C o m m i s s i o n e r a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r . T h e r e a r e i n d i v i d u a l p r i n c i p a l s o f e v e r y K V a d m i n i s t r a t i n g t h e s c h o o l s a l o n g w i t h a V i c e - P r i n c i p a l , H e a d M a s t e r / M i s t r e s s . T h e V i d y a l a y a a l s o h a s s e v e r a l c o m m i t t e e s f o r t h e h o l i s t i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s a n d w e l l m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e s c h o o l c o m p o u n d a n d s y s t e m . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o n e i s t h e V M C ( V i d y a l a y a M a n a g e m e n t C o m m i t t e e ) , w h i c h i s t h e h e a d o f a l l c o m m i t t e e s . , t h e r e w e r e 1 , 2 4 8 s c h o o l s n a m e d K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a s , h a v i n g s t a r t e d w i t h o n l y 2 0 s c h o o l s i n t h e y e a r 1 9 6 3 . I t i s o n e o f t h e l a r g e s t s c h o o l c h a i n s i n w o r l d w i t h 1 , 2 4 5 s c h o o l s i n I n d i a a n d t h r e e o p e r a t e d a b r o a d . A t o t a l o f 1 3 , 8 8 , 8 9 9 s t u d e n t s ( ) a n d 4 8 , 3 1 4 e m p l o y e e s w e r e o n t h e r o l l s ( ) . K V S h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t S t a t e b y B h a r a t S c o u t s & G u i d e s M o v e m e n t a s a r o u n d 2 , 4 9 , 1 9 8 s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d a s t h e S c o u t s , G u i d e s , C u b s a n d B u l b u l s . T h e s e w e r e d i v i d e d a m o n g 2 5 r e g i o n s , e a c h h e a d e d b y a d e p u t y c o m m i s s i o n e r . T h e t h r e e K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a s o u t s i d e I n d i a i s i n K a t h m a n d u , M o s c o w , a n d T e h r a n s i t u a t e d i n s i d e E m b a s s i e s i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s a n d t h e i r e x p e n d i t u r e s a r e b o r n e b y t h e M i n i s t r y o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s . T h e y a r e i n t e n d e d f o r c h i l d r e n o f I n d i a n e m b a s s y s t a f f a n d o t h e r e x p a t r i a t e e m p l o y e e s o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a . O n e s c h o o l i n T s i m a l a k h a , B h u t a n , w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e B h u t a n e s e G o v e r n m e n t , t h u s c e a s i n g t o b e a K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a ( t h e n k n o w n a s I n d o - B h u t a n C e n t r a l S c h o o l ( I B C S ) ) i n 1 9 8 9 , a f t e r o n e o f t h e m a j o r I n d o - B h u t a n p r o j e c t s ( t h e C h u k h h a H y d a l p o w e r p r o j e c t ) w a s n e a r c o m p l e t i o n . I n d i a n G o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y e e s w e r e g r a d u a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d b a c k t o t h e i r o w n c o u n t r y . A l l t h e s c h o o l s s h a r e a c o m m o n s y l l a b u s a n d o f f e r b i l i n g u a l i n s t r u c t i o n , i n E n g l i s h a n d H i n d i . T h e y a r e c o - e d u c a t i o n a l . S a n s k r i t i s t a u g h t a s a c o m p u l s o r y s u b j e c t f r o m c l a s s e s V I t o V I I I a n d a s a n o p t i o n a l s u b j e c t u n t i l c l a s s X I I . S t u d e n t s i n c l a s s e s V I t o V I I I c o u l d s t u d y t h e G e r m a n l a n g u a g e u n t i l N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 4 , w h e n t h e s c h e m e w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d . B u t w a s a g a i n r e c o n t i n u e d a n d i s a v a i l a b l e i n s o m e s c h o o l s u n t i l c l a s s 1 0 . I n M o s c o w , s t u d e n t s a r e g i v e n a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o c h o o s e F r e n c h o r R u s s i a n a s t h e i r t h i r d o r s e c o n d l a n g u a g e . T u i t i o n f e e s a r e c h a r g e d f o r K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a s t u d e n t s h a v e t o p a y t h e s c h o o l d e v e l o p m e n t f u n d ( " V i d y a l a y a V i k a s N i d h i " ) , w i t h t h e p r o c e e d s s p e n t o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s c h o o l . S t u d e n t s f r o m S c h e d u l e d C a s t e s a n d S c h e d u l e d T r i b e s a n d c h i l d r e n o f K V S e m p l o y e e s a r e e x e m p t f r o m t u i t i o n f e e s . G i r l s w h o a r e t h e i r p a r e n t s ' o n l y c h i l d f r o m c l a s s V I o n w a r d a r e e x e m p t f r o m t u i t i o n a n d s c h o o l d e v e l o p m e n t f u n d . K V S a l s o h a s t h e M P Q u o t a w h i c h i n v o l v e s s o m e s p e c i a l p r o v i s i o n u n d e r w h i c h a d m i s s i o n s a r e g i v e n . M e m b e r s o f L o k S a b h a & R a j y a S a b h a c a n r e c o m m e n d s a f e w n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s f o r t h e a d m i s s i o n . B u t t h e s e S p e c i a l P r o v i s i o n s o n l y w o r k s w h e n K V S i s l o c a t e d i n t h e c o n s t i t u e n c y o f t h e M P . A l l m e m b e r s o f p a r l i a m e n t c o u l d r e c o m m e n d u p t o s i x s t u d e n t s f r o m t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n c y f o r a d m i s s i o n t o a K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a . F r o m t h e a c a d e m i c s e s s i o n 2 0 1 6 – 1 7 , t h e q u o t a h a s b e e n i n c r e a s e d t o 1 0 s t u d e n t s . T h e Q u a l i t y C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( Q C I ) h a s a c c r e d i t e d t h r e e o f K V s c h o o l s : K V R K P u r a m , K V I I T P o w a i a n d K V B h i n g a . T h e K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a G o l e M a r k e t s c h o o l i n C e n t r a l D e l h i h a s e a r n e d n o t i c e f o r u p g r a d i n g t o " E - C l a s s r o o m " a n d e - L e a r n i n g t e a c h i n g p r o c e s s e s w i t h t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f S m a r t B o a r d s i n t h e c l a s s r o o m . T h i s s c h o o l p r o d u c e s a n a n n u a l s c h o o l m a g a z i n e c a l l e d " V i d y a l a y a P a t r i k a " . T h e o r g a n i s a t i o n i s o n e o f t h e f e w s c h o o l s t h a t o f f e r s a l l v a r i e t i e s i n s p o r t s , g a m e s , a c t i v i t i e s a n d t h e l a r g e s t s c o p e o f s u b j e c t s o f f e r e d b y C B S E t o i t s s t u d e n t s a n d i s k n o w n f o r i t s h o l i s t i c f o c u s . I t h a s b e e n f e l i c i t a t e d w i t h m a n y a w a r d s b y G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a i n c l u d i n g t h e R a s h t r i y a K h e l P r o t s a h a n P u r u s k a r i n 2 0 1 7 a n d R a j b h a s h a K i r t i P u r a s k a r o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f H i n d i D i w a s i n 2 0 1 8 - 1 9 .

History

Kendriya Vidyalaya is a system of central government schools in India established in 1963 to provide education to children of Indian Defence Services personnel and later extended to all central government employees. The schools follow a uniform curriculum and are affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). The objective is to ensure that children of government employees do not face education disadvantages when their parents are transferred from one location to another. Today, there are 1,248 schools with over 13 lakh students and 48,000 employees.

It is a system of central government schools in India and other countries that have been instituted under the aegis of the Ministry of Education and came into being in 1963 under the name Central Schools. Later, the name was changed to Kendriya Vidyalaya. It is a non-profit organisation. Its schools are all affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). Its objective is to educate children of the Indian Defence Services personnel who are often posted to remote locations. With the army starting its own Army Public Schools, the service was extended but not restricted to all central government employees. A uniform curriculum is followed by schools all over India. By providing a common syllabus and system of education, the Kendriya Vidyalayas are intended to ensure that the children of government employees do not face education disadvantages when their parents are transferred from one location to another. The schools have been operational for more than 50 years. The Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan or 'Central School Organisation', oversees the functioning of the schools with its headquarters in New Delhi. The administration of this body is based on levels. The chairman of Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan is always the Minister in Charge of Human Resource Development of the Government of India; the deputy chairman is Minister of State of MHRD. The real working power lies with the Commissioner of KVS; there are additional commissioners to accompany the Commissioner in the administration of KVS in different fields. The head of a KVS region is Deputy Commissioner accompanied by an Assistant Commissioner. There are individual principals of every KV administrating the schools along with a Vice-Principal, Head Master/ Mistress. The Vidyalaya also has several committees for the holistic development of the students and well maintenance of the school compound and system. The most important one is the VMC (Vidyalaya Management Committee), which is the head of all committees. , there were 1,248 schools named Kendriya Vidyalayas,having started with only 20 schools in the year 1963. It is one of the largest school chains in world with 1,245 schools in India and three operated abroad. A total of 13,88,899 students () and 48,314 employees were on the rolls (). KVS has been recognized as an independent State by Bharat Scouts & Guides Movement as around 2,49,198 students enrolled as the Scouts, Guides, Cubs and Bulbuls. These were divided among 25 regions, each headed by a deputy commissioner. The three Kendriya Vidyalayas outside India is in Kathmandu, Moscow, and Tehran situated inside Embassies in these countries and their expenditures are borne by the Ministry of External Affairs. They are intended for children of Indian embassy staff and other expatriate employees of the Government of India. One school in Tsimalakha, Bhutan, was transferred to the Bhutanese Government, thus ceasing to be a Kendriya Vidyalaya (then known as Indo-Bhutan Central School (IBCS)) in 1989, after one of the major Indo-Bhutan projects (the Chukhha Hydal power project) was near completion. Indian Government employees were gradually transferred back to their own country. All the schools share a common syllabus and offer bilingual instruction, in English and Hindi. They are co-educational. Sanskrit is taught as a compulsory subject from classes VI to VIII and as an optional subject until class XII. Students in classes VI to VIII could study the German language until November 2014, when the scheme was discontinued. But was again recontinued and is available in some schools until class 10. In Moscow, students are given an opportunity to choose French or Russian as their third or second language. Tuition fees are charged for Kendriya Vidyalaya students have to pay the school development fund ("Vidyalaya Vikas Nidhi"), with the proceeds spent on the development of that particular school. Students from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and children of KVS employees are exempt from tuition fees. Girls who are their parents' only child from class VI onward are exempt from tuition and school development fund. KVS also has the MP Quota which involves some special provision under which admissions are given. Members of Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha can recommends a few number of students for the admission. But these Special Provisions only works when KVS is located in the constituency of the MP. All members of parliament could recommend up to six students from their constituency for admission to a Kendriya Vidyalaya. From the academic session 2016–17, the quota has been increased to 10 students. The Quality Council of India (QCI) has accredited three of KV schools: KV RK Puram, KV IIT Powai and KV Bhinga. The Kendriya Vidyalaya Gole Market school in Central Delhi has earned notice for upgrading to "E-Classroom" and e-Learning teaching processes with the implementation of Smart Boards in the classroom. This school produces an annual school magazine called "Vidyalaya Patrika". The organisation is one of the few schools that offers all varieties in sports, games, activities and the largest scope of subjects offered by CBSE to its students and is known for its holistic focus. It has been felicitated with many awards by Government of India including the Rashtriya Khel Protsahan Puruskar in 2017 and Rajbhasha Kirti Puraskar on the occasion of Hindi Diwas in 2018-19.

Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan

I t i s a s y s t e m o f c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t s c h o o l s i n I n d i a a n d o t h e r c o u n t r i e s t h a t h a v e b e e n i n s t i t u t e d u n d e r t h e a e g i s o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n a n d c a m e i n t o b e i n g i n 1 9 6 3 u n d e r t h e n a m e C e n t r a l S c h o o l s . L a t e r , t h e n a m e w a s c h a n g e d t o K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a . I t i s a n o n - p r o f i t o r g a n i s a t i o n . I t s s c h o o l s a r e a l l a f f i l i a t e d t o t h e C e n t r a l B o a r d o f S e c o n d a r y E d u c a t i o n ( C B S E ) . I t s o b j e c t i v e i s t o e d u c a t e c h i l d r e n o f t h e I n d i a n D e f e n c e S e r v i c e s p e r s o n n e l w h o a r e o f t e n p o s t e d t o r e m o t e l o c a t i o n s . W i t h t h e a r m y s t a r t i n g i t s o w n A r m y P u b l i c S c h o o l s , t h e s e r v i c e w a s e x t e n d e d b u t n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o a l l c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y e e s . A u n i f o r m c u r r i c u l u m i s f o l l o w e d b y s c h o o l s a l l o v e r I n d i a . B y p r o v i d i n g a c o m m o n s y l l a b u s a n d s y s t e m o f e d u c a t i o n , t h e K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a s a r e i n t e n d e d t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n o f g o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y e e s d o n o t f a c e e d u c a t i o n d i s a d v a n t a g e s w h e n t h e i r p a r e n t s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m o n e l o c a t i o n t o a n o t h e r . T h e s c h o o l s h a v e b e e n o p e r a t i o n a l f o r m o r e t h a n 5 0 y e a r s . T h e K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a S a n g a t h a n o r ' C e n t r a l S c h o o l O r g a n i s a t i o n ' , o v e r s e e s t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e s c h o o l s w i t h i t s h e a d q u a r t e r s i n N e w D e l h i . T h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h i s b o d y i s b a s e d o n l e v e l s . T h e c h a i r m a n o f K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a S a n g a t h a n i s a l w a y s t h e M i n i s t e r i n C h a r g e o f H u m a n R e s o u r c e D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a ; t h e d e p u t y c h a i r m a n i s M i n i s t e r o f S t a t e o f M H R D . T h e r e a l w o r k i n g p o w e r l i e s w i t h t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r o f K V S ; t h e r e a r e a d d i t i o n a l c o m m i s s i o n e r s t o a c c o m p a n y t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f K V S i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s . T h e h e a d o f a K V S r e g i o n i s D e p u t y C o m m i s s i o n e r a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n A s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r . T h e r e a r e i n d i v i d u a l p r i n c i p a l s o f e v e r y K V a d m i n i s t r a t i n g t h e s c h o o l s a l o n g w i t h a V i c e - P r i n c i p a l , H e a d M a s t e r / M i s t r e s s . T h e V i d y a l a y a a l s o h a s s e v e r a l c o m m i t t e e s f o r t h e h o l i s t i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s a n d w e l l m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e s c h o o l c o m p o u n d a n d s y s t e m . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o n e i s t h e V M C ( V i d y a l a y a M a n a g e m e n t C o m m i t t e e ) , w h i c h i s t h e h e a d o f a l l c o m m i t t e e s . , t h e r e w e r e 1 , 2 4 8 s c h o o l s n a m e d K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a s , h a v i n g s t a r t e d w i t h o n l y 2 0 s c h o o l s i n t h e y e a r 1 9 6 3 . I t i s o n e o f t h e l a r g e s t s c h o o l c h a i n s i n w o r l d w i t h 1 , 2 4 5 s c h o o l s i n I n d i a a n d t h r e e o p e r a t e d a b r o a d . A t o t a l o f 1 3 , 8 8 , 8 9 9 s t u d e n t s ( ) a n d 4 8 , 3 1 4 e m p l o y e e s w e r e o n t h e r o l l s ( ) . K V S h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t S t a t e b y B h a r a t S c o u t s & G u i d e s M o v e m e n t a s a r o u n d 2 , 4 9 , 1 9 8 s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d a s t h e S c o u t s , G u i d e s , C u b s a n d B u l b u l s . T h e s e w e r e d i v i d e d a m o n g 2 5 r e g i o n s , e a c h h e a d e d b y a d e p u t y c o m m i s s i o n e r . T h e t h r e e K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a s o u t s i d e I n d i a i s i n K a t h m a n d u , M o s c o w , a n d T e h r a n s i t u a t e d i n s i d e E m b a s s i e s i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s a n d t h e i r e x p e n d i t u r e s a r e b o r n e b y t h e M i n i s t r y o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s . T h e y a r e i n t e n d e d f o r c h i l d r e n o f I n d i a n e m b a s s y s t a f f a n d o t h e r e x p a t r i a t e e m p l o y e e s o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a . O n e s c h o o l i n T s i m a l a k h a , B h u t a n , w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e B h u t a n e s e G o v e r n m e n t , t h u s c e a s i n g t o b e a K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a ( t h e n k n o w n a s I n d o - B h u t a n C e n t r a l S c h o o l ( I B C S ) ) i n 1 9 8 9 , a f t e r o n e o f t h e m a j o r I n d o - B h u t a n p r o j e c t s ( t h e C h u k h h a H y d a l p o w e r p r o j e c t ) w a s n e a r c o m p l e t i o n . I n d i a n G o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y e e s w e r e g r a d u a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d b a c k t o t h e i r o w n c o u n t r y . A l l t h e s c h o o l s s h a r e a c o m m o n s y l l a b u s a n d o f f e r b i l i n g u a l i n s t r u c t i o n , i n E n g l i s h a n d H i n d i . T h e y a r e c o - e d u c a t i o n a l . S a n s k r i t i s t a u g h t a s a c o m p u l s o r y s u b j e c t f r o m c l a s s e s V I t o V I I I a n d a s a n o p t i o n a l s u b j e c t u n t i l c l a s s X I I . S t u d e n t s i n c l a s s e s V I t o V I I I c o u l d s t u d y t h e G e r m a n l a n g u a g e u n t i l N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 4 , w h e n t h e s c h e m e w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d . B u t w a s a g a i n r e c o n t i n u e d a n d i s a v a i l a b l e i n s o m e s c h o o l s u n t i l c l a s s 1 0 . I n M o s c o w , s t u d e n t s a r e g i v e n a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o c h o o s e F r e n c h o r R u s s i a n a s t h e i r t h i r d o r s e c o n d l a n g u a g e . T u i t i o n f e e s a r e c h a r g e d f o r K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a s t u d e n t s h a v e t o p a y t h e s c h o o l d e v e l o p m e n t f u n d ( " V i d y a l a y a V i k a s N i d h i " ) , w i t h t h e p r o c e e d s s p e n t o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s c h o o l . S t u d e n t s f r o m S c h e d u l e d C a s t e s a n d S c h e d u l e d T r i b e s a n d c h i l d r e n o f K V S e m p l o y e e s a r e e x e m p t f r o m t u i t i o n f e e s . G i r l s w h o a r e t h e i r p a r e n t s ' o n l y c h i l d f r o m c l a s s V I o n w a r d a r e e x e m p t f r o m t u i t i o n a n d s c h o o l d e v e l o p m e n t f u n d . K V S a l s o h a s t h e M P Q u o t a w h i c h i n v o l v e s s o m e s p e c i a l p r o v i s i o n u n d e r w h i c h a d m i s s i o n s a r e g i v e n . M e m b e r s o f L o k S a b h a & R a j y a S a b h a c a n r e c o m m e n d s a f e w n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s f o r t h e a d m i s s i o n . B u t t h e s e S p e c i a l P r o v i s i o n s o n l y w o r k s w h e n K V S i s l o c a t e d i n t h e c o n s t i t u e n c y o f t h e M P . A l l m e m b e r s o f p a r l i a m e n t c o u l d r e c o m m e n d u p t o s i x s t u d e n t s f r o m t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n c y f o r a d m i s s i o n t o a K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a . F r o m t h e a c a d e m i c s e s s i o n 2 0 1 6 – 1 7 , t h e q u o t a h a s b e e n i n c r e a s e d t o 1 0 s t u d e n t s . T h e Q u a l i t y C o u n c i l o f I n d i a ( Q C I ) h a s a c c r e d i t e d t h r e e o f K V s c h o o l s : K V R K P u r a m , K V I I T P o w a i a n d K V B h i n g a . T h e K e n d r i y a V i d y a l a y a G o l e M a r k e t s c h o o l i n C e n t r a l D e l h i h a s e a r n e d n o t i c e f o r u p g r a d i n g t o " E - C l a s s r o o m " a n d e - L e a r n i n g t e a c h i n g p r o c e s s e s w i t h t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f S m a r t B o a r d s i n t h e c l a s s r o o m . T h i s s c h o o l p r o d u c e s a n a n n u a l s c h o o l m a g a z i n e c a l l e d " V i d y a l a y a P a t r i k a " . T h e o r g a n i s a t i o n i s o n e o f t h e f e w s c h o o l s t h a t o f f e r s a l l v a r i e t i e s i n s p o r t s , g a m e s , a c t i v i t i e s a n d t h e l a r g e s t s c o p e o f s u b j e c t s o f f e r e d b y C B S E t o i t s s t u d e n t s a n d i s k n o w n f o r i t s h o l i s t i c f o c u s . I t h a s b e e n f e l i c i t a t e d w i t h m a n y a w a r d s b y G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a i n c l u d i n g t h e R a s h t r i y a K h e l P r o t s a h a n P u r u s k a r i n 2 0 1 7 a n d R a j b h a s h a K i r t i P u r a s k a r o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f H i n d i D i w a s i n 2 0 1 8 - 1 9 .

Schools

The Kendriya Vidyalaya (KV) is a system of central government schools in India and other countries, established in 1963 under the Ministry of Education. It aims to provide education to children of Indian Defence Services personnel and central government employees who are often transferred to remote locations. The KV schools follow a uniform curriculum and are affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). With over 1,200 schools in India and three abroad, it is one of the largest school chains in the world. The schools offer bilingual instruction in English and Hindi, and provide a range of extracurricular activities and sports facilities.

It is a system of central government schools in India and other countries that have been instituted under the aegis of the Ministry of Education and came into being in 1963 under the name Central Schools. Later, the name was changed to Kendriya Vidyalaya. It is a non-profit organisation. Its schools are all affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). Its objective is to educate children of the Indian Defence Services personnel who are often posted to remote locations. With the army starting its own Army Public Schools, the service was extended but not restricted to all central government employees. A uniform curriculum is followed by schools all over India. By providing a common syllabus and system of education, the Kendriya Vidyalayas are intended to ensure that the children of government employees do not face education disadvantages when their parents are transferred from one location to another. The schools have been operational for more than 50 years. The Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan or 'Central School Organisation', oversees the functioning of the schools with its headquarters in New Delhi. The administration of this body is based on levels. The chairman of Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan is always the Minister in Charge of Human Resource Development of the Government of India; the deputy chairman is Minister of State of MHRD. The real working power lies with the Commissioner of KVS; there are additional commissioners to accompany the Commissioner in the administration of KVS in different fields. The head of a KVS region is Deputy Commissioner accompanied by an Assistant Commissioner. There are individual principals of every KV administrating the schools along with a Vice-Principal, Head Master/ Mistress. The Vidyalaya also has several committees for the holistic development of the students and well maintenance of the school compound and system. The most important one is the VMC (Vidyalaya Management Committee), which is the head of all committees. , there were 1,248 schools named Kendriya Vidyalayas,having started with only 20 schools in the year 1963. It is one of the largest school chains in world with 1,245 schools in India and three operated abroad. A total of 13,88,899 students () and 48,314 employees were on the rolls (). KVS has been recognized as an independent State by Bharat Scouts & Guides Movement as around 2,49,198 students enrolled as the Scouts, Guides, Cubs and Bulbuls. These were divided among 25 regions, each headed by a deputy commissioner. The three Kendriya Vidyalayas outside India is in Kathmandu, Moscow, and Tehran situated inside Embassies in these countries and their expenditures are borne by the Ministry of External Affairs. They are intended for children of Indian embassy staff and other expatriate employees of the Government of India. One school in Tsimalakha, Bhutan, was transferred to the Bhutanese Government, thus ceasing to be a Kendriya Vidyalaya (then known as Indo-Bhutan Central School (IBCS)) in 1989, after one of the major Indo-Bhutan projects (the Chukhha Hydal power project) was near completion. Indian Government employees were gradually transferred back to their own country. All the schools share a common syllabus and offer bilingual instruction, in English and Hindi. They are co-educational. Sanskrit is taught as a compulsory subject from classes VI to VIII and as an optional subject until class XII. Students in classes VI to VIII could study the German language until November 2014, when the scheme was discontinued. But was again recontinued and is available in some schools until class 10. In Moscow, students are given an opportunity to choose French or Russian as their third or second language. Tuition fees are charged for Kendriya Vidyalaya students have to pay the school development fund ("Vidyalaya Vikas Nidhi"), with the proceeds spent on the development of that particular school. Students from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and children of KVS employees are exempt from tuition fees. Girls who are their parents' only child from class VI onward are exempt from tuition and school development fund. KVS also has the MP Quota which involves some special provision under which admissions are given. Members of Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha can recommends a few number of students for the admission. But these Special Provisions only works when KVS is located in the constituency of the MP. All members of parliament could recommend up to six students from their constituency for admission to a Kendriya Vidyalaya. From the academic session 2016–17, the quota has been increased to 10 students. The Quality Council of India (QCI) has accredited three of KV schools: KV RK Puram, KV IIT Powai and KV Bhinga. The Kendriya Vidyalaya Gole Market school in Central Delhi has earned notice for upgrading to "E-Classroom" and e-Learning teaching processes with the implementation of Smart Boards in the classroom. This school produces an annual school magazine called "Vidyalaya Patrika". The organisation is one of the few schools that offers all varieties in sports, games, activities and the largest scope of subjects offered by CBSE to its students and is known for its holistic focus. It has been felicitated with many awards by Government of India including the Rashtriya Khel Protsahan Puruskar in 2017 and Rajbhasha Kirti Puraskar on the occasion of Hindi Diwas in 2018-19.

Unknown (magazine)

I n M a y 1 9 2 3 , t h e f i r s t i s s u e o f " W e i r d T a l e s " a p p e a r e d , f r o m R u r a l P u b l i c a t i o n s i n C h i c a g o . " W e i r d T a l e s " w a s a p u l p m a g a z i n e t h a t s p e c i a l i z e d i n f a n t a s y s t o r i e s a n d m a t e r i a l t h a t n o o t h e r m a g a z i n e w o u l d a c c e p t . I t w a s n o t i n i t i a l l y s u c c e s s f u l , b u t b y t h e 1 9 3 0 s h a d e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f a n d w a s r e g u l a r l y p u b l i s h i n g s c i e n c e f i c t i o n ( S F ) a s w e l l a s f a n t a s y . " W e i r d T a l e s " w a s t h e f i r s t m a g a z i n e t o f o c u s s o l e l y o n f a n t a s y , a n d i t r e m a i n e d t h e p r e - e m i n e n t m a g a z i n e i n t h i s f i e l d f o r o v e r a d e c a d e . I n t h e m e a n t i m e , s c i e n c e f i c t i o n w a s s t a r t i n g t o f o r m a s e p a r a t e l y m a r k e t e d g e n r e , w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e i n 1 9 2 6 o f " A m a z i n g S t o r i e s " , a p u l p m a g a z i n e e d i t e d b y H u g o G e r n s b a c k . I n 1 9 3 0 p u l p p u b l i s h e r C l a y t o n P u b l i c a t i o n s l a u n c h e d " A s t o u n d i n g S t o r i e s o f S u p e r S c i e n c e " , b u t t h e c o m p a n y ' s b a n k r u p t c y i n 1 9 3 3 l e d t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e m a g a z i n e b y S t r e e t & S m i t h . T h e t i t l e w a s s h o r t e n e d t o " A s t o u n d i n g S t o r i e s " , a n d i t b e c a m e t h e l e a d i n g m a g a z i n e i n t h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n f i e l d o v e r t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s u n d e r t h e e d i t o r s h i p o f F . O r l i n T r e m a i n e . A t t h e e n d o f 1 9 3 7 , J o h n W . C a m p b e l l t o o k o v e r a s e d i t o r . B y 1 9 3 8 , C a m p b e l l w a s p l a n n i n g a f a n t a s y c o m p a n i o n t o " A s t o u n d i n g " : " W e i r d T a l e s " w a s s t i l l t h e l e a d e r i n t h e f a n t a s y g e n r e , t h o u g h c o m p e t i t o r s s u c h a s " S t r a n g e S t o r i e s " w e r e a l s o b e i n g l a u n c h e d . C a m p b e l l b e g a n a c q u i r i n g s t o r i e s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e n e w m a g a z i n e , w i t h o u t a d e f i n i t e l a u n c h d a t e i n m i n d . W h e n E r i c F r a n k R u s s e l l s e n t h i m t h e m a n u s c r i p t o f h i s n o v e l " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " , C a m p b e l l d e c i d e d i t w a s t i m e t o p u t h i s p l a n s i n t o a c t i o n . T h e f i r s t i s s u e o f " U n k n o w n " a p p e a r e d i n M a r c h 1 9 3 9 . I t w a s a m o n t h l y a t f i r s t , b u t p o o r s a l e s f o r c e d a s w i t c h t o a b i m o n t h l y s c h e d u l e b e g i n n i n g i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 4 1 . I n D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 , t h e s u b t i t l e " F a n t a s y F i c t i o n " w a s a d d e d , a n d i n O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 , t h e m a i n t i t l e w a s c h a n g e d t o " U n k n o w n W o r l d s " ; b o t h c h a n g e s w e r e i n t e n d e d t o m a k e t h e g e n r e o f t h e m a g a z i n e c l e a r e r t o p o t e n t i a l r e a d e r s . W h e n w a r t i m e p a p e r s h o r t a g e s b e c a m e s e v e r e i n l a t e 1 9 4 3 , C a m p b e l l c h o s e t o k e e p " A s t o u n d i n g " m o n t h l y a n d c a n c e l " U n k n o w n " , r a t h e r t h a n s w i t c h t h e f o r m e r t o a b i m o n t h l y s c h e d u l e a s w e l l . T h e l a s t i s s u e w a s d a t e d O c t o b e r 1 9 4 3 . C a m p b e l l ' s p l a n s f o r " U n k n o w n " w e r e l a i d o u t i n t h e F e b r u a r y 1 9 3 9 i s s u e o f " A s t o u n d i n g " , i n t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e n e w m a g a z i n e . H e a r g u e d t h a t " i t h a s b e e n t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e f a n t a s y t h a t y o u h a v e r e a d i n t h e p a s t t h a t h a s m a d e t h e v e r y w o r d a n a t h e m a . . . [ " U n k n o w n " ] w i l l o f f e r f a n t a s y o f a q u a l i t y s o f a r d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t w h i c h h a s a p p e a r e d i n t h e p a s t a s t o c h a n g e y o u r e n t i r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t e r m " . T h e f i r s t i s s u e , t h e f o l l o w i n g m o n t h , l e d w i t h R u s s e l l ' s " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " , t h e n o v e l t h a t h a d p e r s u a d e d C a m p b e l l t o s e t h i s p l a n s f o r a f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e i n t o m o t i o n : t h e p l o t , i n v o l v i n g a l i e n s w h o o w n t h e h u m a n r a c e , h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y S F h i s t o r i a n M i k e A s h l e y a s " a s t r a n g e m i x t u r e o f s c i e n c e f i c t i o n a n d o c c u l t f a n t a s y " . C a m p b e l l a s k e d R u s s e l l f o r r e v i s i o n s t o t h e s t o r y t o e m p h a s i z e t h e f a n t a s t i c e l e m e n t s b u t s t i l l d e m a n d e d t h a t R u s s e l l w o r k o u t t h e l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s p r e m i s e s . T h i s b e c a m e a d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e f i c t i o n p u b l i s h e d i n " U n k n o w n " ; i n A s h l e y ' s w o r d s , C a m p b e l l " b r o u g h t t h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n r a t i o n a l e t o f a n t a s y " . T h e f i r s t i s s u e a l s o c o n t a i n e d H o r a c e L . G o l d ' s " T r o u b l e w i t h W a t e r " , a c o m i c f a n t a s y a b o u t a m o d e r n N e w Y o r k e r w h o o f f e n d s a w a t e r g n o m e ; i n i t s w h i m s i c a l i t y a n d n a t u r a l i s t i c m e r g i n g o f a m o d e r n b a c k g r o u n d w i t h a c l a s s i c f a n t a s y t r o p e , " T r o u b l e w i t h W a t e r " w a s a b e t t e r i n d i c a t i o n t h a n " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " o f t h e d i r e c t i o n " U n k n o w n " w o u l d t a k e . C a m p b e l l c o m m e n t e d i n a l e t t e r a t t h e t i m e t h a t " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " , " T r o u b l e w i t h W a t e r " , a n d W h e r e A n g e l s F e a r . . . b y M a n l y W a d e W e l l m a n w e r e t h e o n l y s t o r i e s i n t h e f i r s t i s s u e t h a t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t e d h i s g o a l s f o r t h e m a g a z i n e . U n d e r C a m p b e l l ' s e d i t o r i a l s u p e r v i s i o n , t h e f a n t a s y e l e m e n t i n " U n k n o w n " s t o r i e s h a d t o b e t r e a t e d r i g o r o u s l y . T h i s n a t u r a l l y l e d t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e i n " U n k n o w n " o f w r i t e r s a l r e a d y c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h s i m i l a r r i g o r i n s c i e n c e f i c t i o n s t o r i e s , a n d C a m p b e l l s o o n e s t a b l i s h e d a s m a l l g r o u p o f w r i t e r s a s r e g u l a r c o n t r i b u t o r s , m a n y o f w h o m w e r e a l s o a p p e a r i n g i n t h e p a g e s o f " A s t o u n d i n g " . L . R o n H u b b a r d , T h e o d o r e S t u r g e o n , a n d L . S p r a g u e d e C a m p w e r e a m o n g t h e m o s t p r o l i f i c . H u b b a r d c o n t r i b u t e d e i g h t l e a d n o v e l s i n c l u d i n g " T y p e w r i t e r i n t h e S k y " , " S l a v e s o f S l e e p " , a n d " F e a r " , d e s c r i b e d b y A s h l e y a s a " c l a s s i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h r i l l e r " ; S F h i s t o r i a n a n d c r i t i c T h o m a s C l a r e s o n d e s c r i b e s a l l e i g h t a s " o u t s t a n d i n g " . D e C a m p , i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h F l e t c h e r P r a t t , c o n t r i b u t e d t h r e e s t o r i e s f e a t u r i n g H a r o l d S h e a , w h o f i n d s h i m s e l f i n a w o r l d w h e r e m a g i c o p e r a t e s b y r i g o r o u s r u l e s . T h e t i t l e o f o n e o f t h e s e , " T h e M a t h e m a t i c s o f M a g i c " , i s , a c c o r d i n g t o S F c r i t i c J o h n C l u t e , " p e r f e c t l y e x p r e s s i v e o f t h e t e r m s u n d e r w h i c h m a g i c f o u n d e a s y m e n t i o n i n " U n k n o w n " " . O t h e r " A s t o u n d i n g " w r i t e r s w h o w r o t e f o r " U n k n o w n " i n c l u d e d R o b e r t A . H e i n l e i n , w h o s e " T h e D e v i l M a k e s t h e L a w " ( r e p r i n t e d a s " M a g i c , I n c . " ) d e p i c t s a w o r l d w h e r e m a g i c i s a p a r t o f e v e r y d a y l i f e . H e i n l e i n a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d " T h e U n p l e a s a n t P r o f e s s i o n o f J o n a t h a n H o a g " a n d " T h e y " , d e s c r i b e d b y A s h l e y a s " p e r h a p s t h e u l t i m a t e s o l i p s i s t f a n t a s y " . A . E . v a n V o g t , a f r e q u e n t " A s t o u n d i n g " c o n t r i b u t o r , a p p e a r e d i n t h e f i n a l i s s u e w i t h " T h e B o o k o f P t a t h " ( l a t e r e x p a n d e d i n t o a n o v e l ) . I s a a c A s i m o v , d e s p i t e m u l t i p l e a t t e m p t s t o w r i t e f o r " U n k n o w n " , n e v e r a p p e a r e d i n t h e m a g a z i n e . O n h i s s i x t h a t t e m p t , h e s o l d " A u t h o r ! A u t h o r ! " t o C a m p b e l l , b u t t h e m a g a z i n e w a s c a n c e l e d b e f o r e i t c o u l d a p p e a r . I t e v e n t u a l l y a p p e a r e d i n t h e a n t h o l o g y " T h e U n k n o w n F i v e " . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e w r i t e r s o f " U n k n o w n " a n d " A s t o u n d i n g " , t h e r e w a s a g o o d d e a l o f o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e i r r e a d e r s h i p s : A s i m o v r e c o r d s t h a t d u r i n g t h e w a r , h e r e a d o n l y t h e s e t w o m a g a z i n e s . S F h i s t o r i a n P a u l C a r t e r h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e s p e c t r u m o f f a n t a s t i c f i c t i o n f r o m " W e i r d T a l e s " t h r o u g h " U n k n o w n " t o " A s t o u n d i n g " w a s f a r l e s s c l e a n l y s e p a r a t e d t h a n i s s o m e t i m e s a s s u m e d : m a n y s t o r i e s i n t h e e a r l y s c i e n c e f i c t i o n m a g a z i n e s s u c h a s " W o n d e r S t o r i e s " w e r e m o r e l i k e t h e w o r k s o f E d g a r A l l a n P o e t h a n t h e y w e r e t a l e s o f s c i e n t i f i c i m a g i n a t i o n . F r i t z L e i b e r ' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d s t o r y w a s " T w o S o u g h t A d v e n t u r e " , w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n t h e A u g u s t 1 9 3 9 i s s u e o f " U n k n o w n " ; t h i s w a s t h e f i r s t s t o r y i n h i s l o n g - r u n n i n g F a f h r d a n d t h e G r a y M o u s e r s e r i e s a b o u t a p a i r o f a d v e n t u r e r s i n a s w o r d a n d s o r c e r y s e t t i n g . F o u r m o r e F a f h r d a n d t h e G r a y M o u s e r s t o r i e s a p p e a r e d i n " U n k n o w n " i n a s m a n y y e a r s , a n d L e i b e r ' s n o v e l " C o n j u r e W i f e " , a b o u t a m a n w h o d i s c o v e r s t h a t a l l w o m e n a r e s e c r e t l y w i t c h e s , w a s t h e l e a d s t o r y i n t h e A p r i l 1 9 4 3 i s s u e . T h e p r o t a g o n i s t , a u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r , " i s f o r c e d t o a b a n d o n s c e p t i c i s m a n d d i s c o v e r t h e u n d e r l y i n g e q u a t i o n s o f m a g i c , v i a s y m b o l i c l o g i c " , i n c r i t i c D a v i d L a n g f o r d ' s d e s c r i p t i o n . L e i b e r a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d " S m o k e G h o s t " i n O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 , d e s c r i b e d b y A s h l e y a s " a r g u a b l y t h e f i r s t s e r i o u s l y m o d e r n g h o s t s t o r y " . A n o t h e r w r i t e r w h o s e f i r s t s t o r y a p p e a r e d i n " U n k n o w n " w a s J a m e s H . S c h m i t z , w h o s e " G r e e n f a c e " a p p e a r e d i n t h e A u g u s t 1 9 4 3 i s s u e . O t h e r n o t a b l e s t o r i e s t h a t a p p e a r e d i n " U n k n o w n " i n c l u d e J a c k W i l l i a m s o n ' s " D a r k e r T h a n Y o u T h i n k " ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 ) , w h i c h p r o v i d e s a s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s f o r a r a c e o f w e r e w o l v e s l i v i n g u n d e t e c t e d a l o n g s i d e h u m a n b e i n g s . E x p a n d e d i n t o a n o v e l i n 1 9 4 8 , i t r e m a i n s W i l l i a m s o n ' s b e s t - k n o w n f a n t a s y , a n d S F h i s t o r i a n M a l c o l m E d w a r d s c o m m e n t s t h a t t h e t w o p r o t a g o n i s t s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p i s " d e p i c t e d w i t h a t o r t u r e d ( a n d s t i l l h a u n t i n g ) e r o t i c f r a n k n e s s u n u s u a l i n g e n r e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e 1 9 4 0 s " . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e H a r o l d S h e a p i e c e s , d e C a m p p u b l i s h e d s e v e r a l o t h e r w e l l - r e c e i v e d s t o r i e s , i n c l u d i n g " T h e W h e e l s o f I f " ( O c t o b e r 1 9 4 0 ) a n d " L e s t D a r k n e s s F a l l " ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 9 ) , a n a l t e r n a t e h i s t o r y s t o r y a b o u t a t i m e - t r a v e l e r w h o a t t e m p t s t o s a v e t h e R o m a n E m p i r e f r o m t h e c o m i n g D a r k A g e s ; E d w a r d s a n d C l u t e c o m m e n t t h a t t h e s t o r y i s " t h e m o s t a c c o m p l i s h e d e a r l y e x c u r s i o n i n t o h i s t o r y i n m a g a z i n e S F , a n d i s r e g a r d e d a s a c l a s s i c " . A l s o h i g h l y r e g a r d e d i s W e l l m a n ' s " W h e n I t W a s M o o n l i g h t " ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 ) , a s t o r y a b o u t P o e . T h e f i r s t s i x t e e n i s s u e s o f " U n k n o w n " h a d c o v e r p a i n t i n g s , b u t f r o m J u l y 1 9 4 0 t h e c o v e r s t y l e w a s c h a n g e d t o a t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s , w i t h a s m a l l i n k d r a w i n g u s u a l l y a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e s u m m a r y o f e a c h s t o r y , i n a n a t t e m p t t o m a k e t h e m a g a z i n e a p p e a r m o r e d i g n i f i e d . T h e c o v e r a r t c a m e a l m o s t e n t i r e l y f r o m a r t i s t s w h o d i d n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o m a n y s c i e n c e f i c t i o n o r f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e s : s i x o f t h e s i x t e e n p a i n t i n g s w e r e b y H . W . S c o t t ; M a n u e l I s l i p , M o d e s t S t e i n , G r a v e s G l a d n e y , a n d E d d C a r t i e r p r o v i d e d t h e o t h e r s . C a r t i e r w a s t h e o n l y o n e o f t h e s e w h o r e g u l a r l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o S F a n d f a n t a s y p e r i o d i c a l s ; h e p a i n t e d f o u r o f " U n k n o w n " s l a s t s i x c o v e r s b e f o r e t h e c h a n g e t o a t e x t - h e a v y d e s i g n . " U n k n o w n " w a s , a l o n g w i t h " W e i r d T a l e s " , a n i m p o r t a n t e a r l y i n f l u e n c e o n t h e f a n t a s y g e n r e . I n t h e f o r e w o r d t o " F r o m U n k n o w n W o r l d s " , i n 1 9 4 8 , C a m p b e l l c o m m e n t e d t h a t f a n t a s y b e f o r e " U n k n o w n " h a d b e e n t o o m u c h i n f u s e d w i t h " g l o o m a n d t e r r o r " ; h i s a p p r o a c h i n " U n k n o w n " h a d b e e n t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e " c r e a t u r e s o f m y t h o l o g y a n d f o l k l o r e " c o u l d b e c h a r a c t e r s i n a n a m u s i n g t a l e a s e a s i l y a s t h e y c o u l d b e m a d e p a r t o f a h o r r o r s t o r y . H o r r o r s t o r i e s , h e s a i d , h a d a p l a c e , b u t " h o r r o r i n j e c t e d w i t h a s h a r p a n d p o i s o n e d n e e d l e i s j u s t a s e f f e c t i v e a s w h e n a p p l i e d w i t h t h e b l u n t - i n s t r u m e n t t e c h n i q u e o f t h e s o - c a l l e d G o t h i c h o r r o r t a l e " . C a m p b e l l i n s i s t e d o n t h e s a m e r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o f a n t a s y t h a t h e r e q u i r e d o f h i s s c i e n c e f i c t i o n w r i t e r s , a n d i n t h e w o r d s o f C l a r e s o n , t h i s l e d t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f " n o t o n l y t h e p r e v a l e n t n a r r a t i v e t o n e b u t a l s o m o s t o f t h e t r a p p i n g s t h a t h a d d o m i n a t e d f a n t a s y f r o m " T h e C a s t l e o f O t r a n t o " a n d " T h e M o n k " t h r o u g h t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o " W e i r d T a l e s " " . " U n k n o w n " q u i c k l y s e p a r a t e d i t s e l f f r o m " W e i r d T a l e s " , w h o s e f a n t a s i e s s t i l l p r i m a r i l y a i m e d t o p r o d u c e f e a r o r s h o c k . T h e c l o s e s t p r e d e c e s s o r t o " U n k n o w n " w a s T h o r n e S m i t h , w h o s e p r o h i b i t i o n - e r a " T o p p e r " s t o r i e s a l s o m i x e d f a n t a s y w i t h h u m o r . B e f o r e " U n k n o w n " , f a n t a s y h a d r e c e i v e d l i t t l e s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n , t h o u g h o n o c c a s i o n w r i t e r s s u c h a s J a m e s B r a n c h C a b e l l h a d a c h i e v e d r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . I n A s h l e y ' s o p i n i o n , " U n k n o w n " c r e a t e d t h e m o d e r n g e n r e o f f a n t a s y , t h o u g h c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s f o r t h e g e n r e h a d t o w a i t u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 0 s . C l a r e s o n a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t " U n k n o w n " i n f l u e n c e d t h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n t h a t a p p e a r e d i n " A s t o u n d i n g " a f t e r " U n k n o w n " f o l d e d . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s v i e w , s t o r i e s s u c h a s C l i f f o r d S i m a k ' s " C i t y " s e r i e s w o u l d n o t h a v e a p p e a r e d w i t h o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f g e n r e b o u n d a r i e s t h a t C a m p b e l l o v e r s a w . C l a r e s o n f u r t h e r p r o p o s e s t h a t " G a l a x y S c i e n c e F i c t i o n " a n d " T h e M a g a z i n e o f F a n t a s y & S c i e n c e F i c t i o n " , t w o o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d s u c c e s s f u l s c i e n c e f i c t i o n a n d f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e s , w e r e d i r e c t d e s c e n d a n t s o f " U n k n o w n " . " U n k n o w n " i s w i d e l y r e g a r d e d a s t h e f i n e s t f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e e v e r p u b l i s h e d : A s h l e y s a y s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t " " U n k n o w n " p u b l i s h e d w i t h o u t d o u b t t h e g r e a t e s t c o l l e c t i o n o f f a n t a s y s t o r i e s p r o d u c e d i n o n e m a g a z i n e . " D e s p i t e i t s l a c k o f c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s , " U n k n o w n " i s t h e m o s t l a m e n t e d o f a l l s c i e n c e f i c t i o n a n d f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e s ; L e s t e r d e l R e y d e s c r i b e s i t a s h a v i n g g a i n e d " a d e v o t i o n f r o m i t s r e a d e r s t h a t n o o t h e r m a g a z i n e c a n m a t c h " . E d w a r d s c o m m e n t s t h a t " U n k n o w n " " a p p e a r e d d u r i n g C a m p b e l l ' s p e a k y e a r s a s a n e d i t o r ; i t s r e p u t a t i o n m a y s t a n d a s h i g h a s i t d o e s p a r t l y b e c a u s e i t d i e d w h i l e s t i l l a t i t s b e s t " . " U n k n o w n " w a s e d i t e d b y J o h n W . C a m p b e l l a n d p u b l i s h e d b y S t r e e t & S m i t h P u b l i c a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t i t s r u n . I t w a s p u l p - s i z e d f r o m i t s l a u n c h t h r o u g h A u g u s t 1 9 4 1 , a n d t h e n b e d s h e e t - s i z e d f r o m O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 t o A p r i l 1 9 4 3 . T h e l a s t t h r e e i s s u e s w e r e p u l p - s i z e d a g a i n . S t r e e t & S m i t h h a d p l a n n e d t o s w i t c h i t t o d i g e s t s i z e w i t h t h e D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 3 i s s u e , b u t i t w a s c a n c e l e d b e f o r e t h a t i s s u e a p p e a r e d . T h e p r i c e b e g a n a t 2 0 c e n t s a n d r o s e t o 2 5 c e n t s w i t h t h e c h a n g e t o b e d s h e e t s i z e ; i t r e m a i n e d a t 2 5 c e n t s w h e n t h e s i z e c h a n g e d b a c k t o p u l p . I t h a d 1 6 4 p a g e s w h e n p u l p - s i z e d a n d 1 3 0 p a g e s w h i l e i t w a s b e d s h e e t - s i z e d . I t b e g a n a s a m o n t h l y a n d s w i t c h e d t o b i m o n t h l y f r o m D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 o n . T h e v o l u m e n u m b e r i n g w a s r e g u l a r , w i t h s i x v o l u m e s o f s i x n u m b e r s a n d a f i n a l v o l u m e o f t h r e e n u m b e r s . T h e t i t l e b e g a n a s s i m p l y " U n k n o w n " . I n D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 " F a n t a s y F i c t i o n " w a s a d d e d a s a s u b t i t l e , a n d f r o m t h e O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 i s s u e t h e t i t l e b e c a m e " U n k n o w n W o r l d s " . T h e f i r s t s i x U . S . i s s u e s w e r e a v a i l a b l e d i r e c t l y i n t h e U K , b u t t h e r e a f t e r a n a b r i d g e d B r i t i s h r e p r i n t e d i t i o n w a s i s s u e d b y A t l a s P u b l i c a t i o n s , b e g i n n i n g i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 3 9 . I t w a s p u l p - s i z e d , a n d p r i c e d a t 9 d ( n i n e p e n c e ) t h r o u g h o u t . I t a p p e a r e d o n a r e g u l a r m o n t h l y s c h e d u l e u n t i l D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 , a f t e r w h i c h t h e s c h e d u l e b e c a m e q u i t e i r r e g u l a r , w i t h t w o o r t h r e e i s s u e s a p p e a r i n g e a c h y e a r u n t i l 1 9 4 9 . T h e v o l u m e n u m b e r i n g i n i t i a l l y f o l l o w e d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g U . S . e d i t i o n s , w i t h s o m e o m i t t e d n u m b e r s i n 1 9 4 2 a n d 1 9 4 3 , a n d t h e n d i s a p p e a r e d f o r f o u r i s s u e s ; f r o m t h e t w e n t y - e i g h t h i s s u e ( S p r i n g 1 9 4 5 ) t h e m a g a z i n e w a s n u m b e r e d a s i f i t h a d b e e n g i v e n v o l u m e s o f t w e l v e n u m b e r s s i n c e t h e s t a r t o f t h e r u n . T h e t i t l e w a s c h a n g e d f r o m " U n k n o w n " t o " U n k n o w n W o r l d s " w i t h t h e M a r c h 1 9 4 2 i s s u e . I n 1 9 4 8 , S t r e e t & S m i t h r e p r i n t e d s e v e r a l s t o r i e s f r o m " U n k n o w n " i n a b e d s h e e t - s i z e d m a g a z i n e f o r m a t , p r i c e d a t 2 5 c e n t s , w i t h t h e t i t l e " F r o m U n k n o w n W o r l d s " . T h i s w a s a n a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e r e w a s a m a r k e t f o r a r e v i v e d " U n k n o w n " . S t r e e t & S m i t h p r i n t e d 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 c o p i e s , a g a i n s t t h e a d v i c e o f J o h n C a m p b e l l , b u t a l t h o u g h i t s o l d b e t t e r t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l , t o o m a n y c o p i e s w e r e r e t u r n e d f o r t h e p u b l i s h e r t o b e w i l l i n g t o r e v i v e t h e m a g a z i n e . T h e i s s u e w a s r e p r i n t e d i n B r i t a i n i n 1 9 5 2 , r e d u c e d i n s i z e t o a n d c u t f r o m 1 3 0 p a g e s t o 1 2 4 ; i t w a s p r i c e d a t 2 / 6 ( t w o s h i l l i n g s a n d s i x p e n c e ) . P a r t o f t h e r u n w a s i s s u e d i n a h a r d c o v e r b i n d i n g a t a h i g h e r p r i c e . O n e s t o r y f r o m t h e U . S . v e r s i o n w a s o m i t t e d : " O n e M a n ' s H a r p " b y B a b e t t e R o s m o n d . T h r e e a n t h o l o g i e s o f s t o r i e s f r o m " U n k n o w n " w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s . " T h e U n k n o w n F i v e " i n c l u d e s f o u r s t o r i e s r e p r i n t e d f r o m " U n k n o w n " a n d t h e f i r s t p r i n t a p p e a r a n c e o f " A u t h o r ! A u t h o r ! " , b y I s a a c A s i m o v , w h i c h w a s s o l d t o " U n k n o w n " s h o r t l y b e f o r e S t r e e t & S m i t h s h u t i t d o w n . T w o a d d i t i o n a l " U n k n o w n " a n t h o l o g i e s w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e l a t e 1 9 8 0 s .

Background and publication history

Weird Tales, a pulp magazine, was first published in 1923 and focused on fantasy stories. By the 1930s, it had established itself and started publishing science fiction as well. In 1930, Astounding Stories of Super Science was launched, but its publisher went bankrupt in 1933. In 1939, Unknown Fantasy Fiction was launched, offering a new kind of fantasy that was scientifically grounded. The magazine was edited by John W. Campbell and published by Street & Smith Publications. It ran for five years, producing 39 issues, and featured authors such as L. Ron Hubbard, Fritz Leiber, and H.P. Lovecraft.

In May 1923, the first issue of "Weird Tales" appeared, from Rural Publications in Chicago. "Weird Tales" was a pulp magazine that specialized in fantasy stories and material that no other magazine would accept. It was not initially successful, but by the 1930s had established itself and was regularly publishing science fiction (SF) as well as fantasy. "Weird Tales" was the first magazine to focus solely on fantasy, and it remained the pre-eminent magazine in this field for over a decade. In the meantime, science fiction was starting to form a separately marketed genre, with the appearance in 1926 of "Amazing Stories", a pulp magazine edited by Hugo Gernsback. In 1930 pulp publisher Clayton Publications launched "Astounding Stories of Super Science", but the company's bankruptcy in 1933 led you have read in the past that has made the very word anathema ... ["Unknown"] will offer fantasy of a quality so far different from that which has appeared in the past as to change your entire understanding of the term". The first issue, the following month, led with Russell's "Sinister Barrier", the novel that had persuaded Campbell to set his plans for a fantasy magazine into motion: the plot, involving aliens who own the human race, has been described by SF historian Mike Ashley as "a strange mixture of science fiction and occult fantasy". Campbell asked Russell for revisions to the story to emphasize the fantastic elements but still demanded that Russell work out the logical implications of his premises. This became a defining characteristic of the Unknown Five". In addition to the overlap between the writers of "Unknown" and "Astounding", there was a good deal of overlap between their readerships: Asimov records that during the war, he read only these two magazines. SF historian Paul Carter has argued that the spectrum of fantastic fiction from "Weird Tales" through "Unknown" to "Astounding" was far less cleanly separated than is sometimes assumed: many stories in the early science fiction magazines such as "Wonder Stories" were more like the works of Edgar Allan Poe than they were tales of scientific imagination. Fritz Leiber's first published story was "Two Sought Adventure", which appeared in the August 1939 issue of "Unknown"; this was the first story in his long-running Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser series about a pair of provides a scientific basis for a race of werewolves living undetected alongside human beings. Expanded into a novel in 1948, it remains Williamson's best-known fantasy, and SF historian Malcolm Edwards comments that the two protagonists' relationship is "depicted with a tortured (and still haunting) erotic frankness unusual in genre literature of the 1940s". In addition to the Harold Shea pieces, de Camp published several other well-received stories, including "The Wheels of If" (October 1940) and "Lest Darkness Fall" (December 1939), an alternate history story about a time-traveler who attempts to save the Roman Empire from the coming Dark Ages; Edwards and Clute comment that the story is "the most accomplished early excursion into history in magazine SF, and is regarded as a classic". Also highly regarded is Wellman's Campbell's peak years as an editor; its reputation may stand as high as it does partly because it died while still at its best". "Unknown" was edited by John W. Campbell and published by Street & Smith Publications throughout its run. It was pulp-sized from its launch through August 1941, and then bedsheet-sized from October 1941 to April 1943. The last three issues were pulp-sized again. Street & Smith had planned to switch it to digest size with the December 1943 issue, but it was canceled before that issue appeared. The price began at 20 cents and rose to 25 cents with the change to bedsheet size; it remained at 25 cents when the size changed back to pulp. It had 164 pages when pulp-sized and 130 pages while it was bedsheet-sized. It began as a monthly and switched to bimonthly from December 1940 on. The volume numbering was regular, with six volumes of six numbers and a final volume of three numbers. The title began as simply "Unknown". In December 1940 "Fantasy Fiction" was added as a subtitle, and from the October 1941 issue the title became "Unknown Worlds". The first six U.S. issues were available directly in the UK, but thereafter an abridged British reprint edition was issued by Atlas Publications, beginning in September 1939. It was pulp-sized, and priced at 9d (nine pence) throughout. It appeared on a regular monthly schedule until December 1940, after which the schedule became quite irregular, with two or three issues appearing each year until 1949. The volume numbering initially followed the corresponding U.S. editions, with some omitted numbers in 1942 and 1943, and then disappeared for four issues; from the twenty-eighth issue (Spring 1945) the magazine was numbered as if it had been given volumes of twelve numbers since the start of the run. The title was changed from "Unknown" to "Unknown Worlds" with the March 1942 issue. In 1948, Street & Smith reprinted several stories from "Unknown" in a bedsheet-sized magazine format, priced at 25 cents, with the title "From Unknown Worlds". This was an attempt to determine if there was a market for a revived "Unknown". Street & Smith printed 300,000 copies, against the advice of John Campbell, but although it sold better than the original, too many copies were returned for the publisher to be willing to revive the magazine. The issue was reprinted in Britain in 1952, reduced in size to and cut from 130 pages to 124; it was priced at 2/6 (two shillings and six pence). Part of the run was issued in a hardcover binding at a higher price. One story from the U.S. version was omitted: "One Man's Harp" by Babette Rosmond. Three anthologies of stories from "Unknown" were published in the early 1960s. "The Unknown Five" includes four stories reprinted from "Unknown" and the first print appearance of "Author! Author!", by Isaac Asimov, which was sold to "Unknown" shortly before Street & Smith shut it down. Two additional "Unknown" anthologies were published in the late 1980s.