Datasets:

ycfNTU

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best_zeroshot_oasum_chunk

like 0

Unknown (magazine)

I n M a y 1 9 2 3 , t h e f i r s t i s s u e o f " W e i r d T a l e s " a p p e a r e d , f r o m R u r a l P u b l i c a t i o n s i n C h i c a g o . " W e i r d T a l e s " w a s a p u l p m a g a z i n e t h a t s p e c i a l i z e d i n f a n t a s y s t o r i e s a n d m a t e r i a l t h a t n o o t h e r m a g a z i n e w o u l d a c c e p t . I t w a s n o t i n i t i a l l y s u c c e s s f u l , b u t b y t h e 1 9 3 0 s h a d e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f a n d w a s r e g u l a r l y p u b l i s h i n g s c i e n c e f i c t i o n ( S F ) a s w e l l a s f a n t a s y . " W e i r d T a l e s " w a s t h e f i r s t m a g a z i n e t o f o c u s s o l e l y o n f a n t a s y , a n d i t r e m a i n e d t h e p r e - e m i n e n t m a g a z i n e i n t h i s f i e l d f o r o v e r a d e c a d e . I n t h e m e a n t i m e , s c i e n c e f i c t i o n w a s s t a r t i n g t o f o r m a s e p a r a t e l y m a r k e t e d g e n r e , w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e i n 1 9 2 6 o f " A m a z i n g S t o r i e s " , a p u l p m a g a z i n e e d i t e d b y H u g o G e r n s b a c k . I n 1 9 3 0 p u l p p u b l i s h e r C l a y t o n P u b l i c a t i o n s l a u n c h e d " A s t o u n d i n g S t o r i e s o f S u p e r S c i e n c e " , b u t t h e c o m p a n y ' s b a n k r u p t c y i n 1 9 3 3 l e d t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e m a g a z i n e b y S t r e e t & S m i t h . T h e t i t l e w a s s h o r t e n e d t o " A s t o u n d i n g S t o r i e s " , a n d i t b e c a m e t h e l e a d i n g m a g a z i n e i n t h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n f i e l d o v e r t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s u n d e r t h e e d i t o r s h i p o f F . O r l i n T r e m a i n e . A t t h e e n d o f 1 9 3 7 , J o h n W . C a m p b e l l t o o k o v e r a s e d i t o r . B y 1 9 3 8 , C a m p b e l l w a s p l a n n i n g a f a n t a s y c o m p a n i o n t o " A s t o u n d i n g " : " W e i r d T a l e s " w a s s t i l l t h e l e a d e r i n t h e f a n t a s y g e n r e , t h o u g h c o m p e t i t o r s s u c h a s " S t r a n g e S t o r i e s " w e r e a l s o b e i n g l a u n c h e d . C a m p b e l l b e g a n a c q u i r i n g s t o r i e s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e n e w m a g a z i n e , w i t h o u t a d e f i n i t e l a u n c h d a t e i n m i n d . W h e n E r i c F r a n k R u s s e l l s e n t h i m t h e m a n u s c r i p t o f h i s n o v e l " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " , C a m p b e l l d e c i d e d i t w a s t i m e t o p u t h i s p l a n s i n t o a c t i o n . T h e f i r s t i s s u e o f " U n k n o w n " a p p e a r e d i n M a r c h 1 9 3 9 . I t w a s a m o n t h l y a t f i r s t , b u t p o o r s a l e s f o r c e d a s w i t c h t o a b i m o n t h l y s c h e d u l e b e g i n n i n g i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 4 1 . I n D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 , t h e s u b t i t l e " F a n t a s y F i c t i o n " w a s a d d e d , a n d i n O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 , t h e m a i n t i t l e w a s c h a n g e d t o " U n k n o w n W o r l d s " ; b o t h c h a n g e s w e r e i n t e n d e d t o m a k e t h e g e n r e o f t h e m a g a z i n e c l e a r e r t o p o t e n t i a l r e a d e r s . W h e n w a r t i m e p a p e r s h o r t a g e s b e c a m e s e v e r e i n l a t e 1 9 4 3 , C a m p b e l l c h o s e t o k e e p " A s t o u n d i n g " m o n t h l y a n d c a n c e l " U n k n o w n " , r a t h e r t h a n s w i t c h t h e f o r m e r t o a b i m o n t h l y s c h e d u l e a s w e l l . T h e l a s t i s s u e w a s d a t e d O c t o b e r 1 9 4 3 . C a m p b e l l ' s p l a n s f o r " U n k n o w n " w e r e l a i d o u t i n t h e F e b r u a r y 1 9 3 9 i s s u e o f " A s t o u n d i n g " , i n t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e n e w m a g a z i n e . H e a r g u e d t h a t " i t h a s b e e n t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e f a n t a s y t h a t y o u h a v e r e a d i n t h e p a s t t h a t h a s m a d e t h e v e r y w o r d a n a t h e m a . . . [ " U n k n o w n " ] w i l l o f f e r f a n t a s y o f a q u a l i t y s o f a r d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t w h i c h h a s a p p e a r e d i n t h e p a s t a s t o c h a n g e y o u r e n t i r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t e r m " . T h e f i r s t i s s u e , t h e f o l l o w i n g m o n t h , l e d w i t h R u s s e l l ' s " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " , t h e n o v e l t h a t h a d p e r s u a d e d C a m p b e l l t o s e t h i s p l a n s f o r a f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e i n t o m o t i o n : t h e p l o t , i n v o l v i n g a l i e n s w h o o w n t h e h u m a n r a c e , h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y S F h i s t o r i a n M i k e A s h l e y a s " a s t r a n g e m i x t u r e o f s c i e n c e f i c t i o n a n d o c c u l t f a n t a s y " . C a m p b e l l a s k e d R u s s e l l f o r r e v i s i o n s t o t h e s t o r y t o e m p h a s i z e t h e f a n t a s t i c e l e m e n t s b u t s t i l l d e m a n d e d t h a t R u s s e l l w o r k o u t t h e l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s p r e m i s e s . T h i s b e c a m e a d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e f i c t i o n p u b l i s h e d i n " U n k n o w n " ; i n A s h l e y ' s w o r d s , C a m p b e l l " b r o u g h t t h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n r a t i o n a l e t o f a n t a s y " . T h e f i r s t i s s u e a l s o c o n t a i n e d H o r a c e L . G o l d ' s " T r o u b l e w i t h W a t e r " , a c o m i c f a n t a s y a b o u t a m o d e r n N e w Y o r k e r w h o o f f e n d s a w a t e r g n o m e ; i n i t s w h i m s i c a l i t y a n d n a t u r a l i s t i c m e r g i n g o f a m o d e r n b a c k g r o u n d w i t h a c l a s s i c f a n t a s y t r o p e , " T r o u b l e w i t h W a t e r " w a s a b e t t e r i n d i c a t i o n t h a n " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " o f t h e d i r e c t i o n " U n k n o w n " w o u l d t a k e . C a m p b e l l c o m m e n t e d i n a l e t t e r a t t h e t i m e t h a t " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " , " T r o u b l e w i t h W a t e r " , a n d W h e r e A n g e l s F e a r . . . b y M a n l y W a d e W e l l m a n w e r e t h e o n l y s t o r i e s i n t h e f i r s t i s s u e t h a t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t e d h i s g o a l s f o r t h e m a g a z i n e . U n d e r C a m p b e l l ' s e d i t o r i a l s u p e r v i s i o n , t h e f a n t a s y e l e m e n t i n " U n k n o w n " s t o r i e s h a d t o b e t r e a t e d r i g o r o u s l y . T h i s n a t u r a l l y l e d t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e i n " U n k n o w n " o f w r i t e r s a l r e a d y c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h s i m i l a r r i g o r i n s c i e n c e f i c t i o n s t o r i e s , a n d C a m p b e l l s o o n e s t a b l i s h e d a s m a l l g r o u p o f w r i t e r s a s r e g u l a r c o n t r i b u t o r s , m a n y o f w h o m w e r e a l s o a p p e a r i n g i n t h e p a g e s o f " A s t o u n d i n g " . L . R o n H u b b a r d , T h e o d o r e S t u r g e o n , a n d L . S p r a g u e d e C a m p w e r e a m o n g t h e m o s t p r o l i f i c . H u b b a r d c o n t r i b u t e d e i g h t l e a d n o v e l s i n c l u d i n g " T y p e w r i t e r i n t h e S k y " , " S l a v e s o f S l e e p " , a n d " F e a r " , d e s c r i b e d b y A s h l e y a s a " c l a s s i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h r i l l e r " ; S F h i s t o r i a n a n d c r i t i c T h o m a s C l a r e s o n d e s c r i b e s a l l e i g h t a s " o u t s t a n d i n g " . D e C a m p , i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h F l e t c h e r P r a t t , c o n t r i b u t e d t h r e e s t o r i e s f e a t u r i n g H a r o l d S h e a , w h o f i n d s h i m s e l f i n a w o r l d w h e r e m a g i c o p e r a t e s b y r i g o r o u s r u l e s . T h e t i t l e o f o n e o f t h e s e , " T h e M a t h e m a t i c s o f M a g i c " , i s , a c c o r d i n g t o S F c r i t i c J o h n C l u t e , " p e r f e c t l y e x p r e s s i v e o f t h e t e r m s u n d e r w h i c h m a g i c f o u n d e a s y m e n t i o n i n " U n k n o w n " " . O t h e r " A s t o u n d i n g " w r i t e r s w h o w r o t e f o r " U n k n o w n " i n c l u d e d R o b e r t A . H e i n l e i n , w h o s e " T h e D e v i l M a k e s t h e L a w " ( r e p r i n t e d a s " M a g i c , I n c . " ) d e p i c t s a w o r l d w h e r e m a g i c i s a p a r t o f e v e r y d a y l i f e . H e i n l e i n a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d " T h e U n p l e a s a n t P r o f e s s i o n o f J o n a t h a n H o a g " a n d " T h e y " , d e s c r i b e d b y A s h l e y a s " p e r h a p s t h e u l t i m a t e s o l i p s i s t f a n t a s y " . A . E . v a n V o g t , a f r e q u e n t " A s t o u n d i n g " c o n t r i b u t o r , a p p e a r e d i n t h e f i n a l i s s u e w i t h " T h e B o o k o f P t a t h " ( l a t e r e x p a n d e d i n t o a n o v e l ) . I s a a c A s i m o v , d e s p i t e m u l t i p l e a t t e m p t s t o w r i t e f o r " U n k n o w n " , n e v e r a p p e a r e d i n t h e m a g a z i n e . O n h i s s i x t h a t t e m p t , h e s o l d " A u t h o r ! A u t h o r ! " t o C a m p b e l l , b u t t h e m a g a z i n e w a s c a n c e l e d b e f o r e i t c o u l d a p p e a r . I t e v e n t u a l l y a p p e a r e d i n t h e a n t h o l o g y " T h e U n k n o w n F i v e " . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e w r i t e r s o f " U n k n o w n " a n d " A s t o u n d i n g " , t h e r e w a s a g o o d d e a l o f o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e i r r e a d e r s h i p s : A s i m o v r e c o r d s t h a t d u r i n g t h e w a r , h e r e a d o n l y t h e s e t w o m a g a z i n e s . S F h i s t o r i a n P a u l C a r t e r h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e s p e c t r u m o f f a n t a s t i c f i c t i o n f r o m " W e i r d T a l e s " t h r o u g h " U n k n o w n " t o " A s t o u n d i n g " w a s f a r l e s s c l e a n l y s e p a r a t e d t h a n i s s o m e t i m e s a s s u m e d : m a n y s t o r i e s i n t h e e a r l y s c i e n c e f i c t i o n m a g a z i n e s s u c h a s " W o n d e r S t o r i e s " w e r e m o r e l i k e t h e w o r k s o f E d g a r A l l a n P o e t h a n t h e y w e r e t a l e s o f s c i e n t i f i c i m a g i n a t i o n . F r i t z L e i b e r ' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d s t o r y w a s " T w o S o u g h t A d v e n t u r e " , w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n t h e A u g u s t 1 9 3 9 i s s u e o f " U n k n o w n " ; t h i s w a s t h e f i r s t s t o r y i n h i s l o n g - r u n n i n g F a f h r d a n d t h e G r a y M o u s e r s e r i e s a b o u t a p a i r o f a d v e n t u r e r s i n a s w o r d a n d s o r c e r y s e t t i n g . F o u r m o r e F a f h r d a n d t h e G r a y M o u s e r s t o r i e s a p p e a r e d i n " U n k n o w n " i n a s m a n y y e a r s , a n d L e i b e r ' s n o v e l " C o n j u r e W i f e " , a b o u t a m a n w h o d i s c o v e r s t h a t a l l w o m e n a r e s e c r e t l y w i t c h e s , w a s t h e l e a d s t o r y i n t h e A p r i l 1 9 4 3 i s s u e . T h e p r o t a g o n i s t , a u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r , " i s f o r c e d t o a b a n d o n s c e p t i c i s m a n d d i s c o v e r t h e u n d e r l y i n g e q u a t i o n s o f m a g i c , v i a s y m b o l i c l o g i c " , i n c r i t i c D a v i d L a n g f o r d ' s d e s c r i p t i o n . L e i b e r a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d " S m o k e G h o s t " i n O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 , d e s c r i b e d b y A s h l e y a s " a r g u a b l y t h e f i r s t s e r i o u s l y m o d e r n g h o s t s t o r y " . A n o t h e r w r i t e r w h o s e f i r s t s t o r y a p p e a r e d i n " U n k n o w n " w a s J a m e s H . S c h m i t z , w h o s e " G r e e n f a c e " a p p e a r e d i n t h e A u g u s t 1 9 4 3 i s s u e . O t h e r n o t a b l e s t o r i e s t h a t a p p e a r e d i n " U n k n o w n " i n c l u d e J a c k W i l l i a m s o n ' s " D a r k e r T h a n Y o u T h i n k " ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 ) , w h i c h p r o v i d e s a s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s f o r a r a c e o f w e r e w o l v e s l i v i n g u n d e t e c t e d a l o n g s i d e h u m a n b e i n g s . E x p a n d e d i n t o a n o v e l i n 1 9 4 8 , i t r e m a i n s W i l l i a m s o n ' s b e s t - k n o w n f a n t a s y , a n d S F h i s t o r i a n M a l c o l m E d w a r d s c o m m e n t s t h a t t h e t w o p r o t a g o n i s t s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p i s " d e p i c t e d w i t h a t o r t u r e d ( a n d s t i l l h a u n t i n g ) e r o t i c f r a n k n e s s u n u s u a l i n g e n r e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e 1 9 4 0 s " . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e H a r o l d S h e a p i e c e s , d e C a m p p u b l i s h e d s e v e r a l o t h e r w e l l - r e c e i v e d s t o r i e s , i n c l u d i n g " T h e W h e e l s o f I f " ( O c t o b e r 1 9 4 0 ) a n d " L e s t D a r k n e s s F a l l " ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 9 ) , a n a l t e r n a t e h i s t o r y s t o r y a b o u t a t i m e - t r a v e l e r w h o a t t e m p t s t o s a v e t h e R o m a n E m p i r e f r o m t h e c o m i n g D a r k A g e s ; E d w a r d s a n d C l u t e c o m m e n t t h a t t h e s t o r y i s " t h e m o s t a c c o m p l i s h e d e a r l y e x c u r s i o n i n t o h i s t o r y i n m a g a z i n e S F , a n d i s r e g a r d e d a s a c l a s s i c " . A l s o h i g h l y r e g a r d e d i s W e l l m a n ' s " W h e n I t W a s M o o n l i g h t " ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 ) , a s t o r y a b o u t P o e . T h e f i r s t s i x t e e n i s s u e s o f " U n k n o w n " h a d c o v e r p a i n t i n g s , b u t f r o m J u l y 1 9 4 0 t h e c o v e r s t y l e w a s c h a n g e d t o a t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s , w i t h a s m a l l i n k d r a w i n g u s u a l l y a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e s u m m a r y o f e a c h s t o r y , i n a n a t t e m p t t o m a k e t h e m a g a z i n e a p p e a r m o r e d i g n i f i e d . T h e c o v e r a r t c a m e a l m o s t e n t i r e l y f r o m a r t i s t s w h o d i d n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o m a n y s c i e n c e f i c t i o n o r f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e s : s i x o f t h e s i x t e e n p a i n t i n g s w e r e b y H . W . S c o t t ; M a n u e l I s l i p , M o d e s t S t e i n , G r a v e s G l a d n e y , a n d E d d C a r t i e r p r o v i d e d t h e o t h e r s . C a r t i e r w a s t h e o n l y o n e o f t h e s e w h o r e g u l a r l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o S F a n d f a n t a s y p e r i o d i c a l s ; h e p a i n t e d f o u r o f " U n k n o w n " s l a s t s i x c o v e r s b e f o r e t h e c h a n g e t o a t e x t - h e a v y d e s i g n . " U n k n o w n " w a s , a l o n g w i t h " W e i r d T a l e s " , a n i m p o r t a n t e a r l y i n f l u e n c e o n t h e f a n t a s y g e n r e . I n t h e f o r e w o r d t o " F r o m U n k n o w n W o r l d s " , i n 1 9 4 8 , C a m p b e l l c o m m e n t e d t h a t f a n t a s y b e f o r e " U n k n o w n " h a d b e e n t o o m u c h i n f u s e d w i t h " g l o o m a n d t e r r o r " ; h i s a p p r o a c h i n " U n k n o w n " h a d b e e n t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e " c r e a t u r e s o f m y t h o l o g y a n d f o l k l o r e " c o u l d b e c h a r a c t e r s i n a n a m u s i n g t a l e a s e a s i l y a s t h e y c o u l d b e m a d e p a r t o f a h o r r o r s t o r y . H o r r o r s t o r i e s , h e s a i d , h a d a p l a c e , b u t " h o r r o r i n j e c t e d w i t h a s h a r p a n d p o i s o n e d n e e d l e i s j u s t a s e f f e c t i v e a s w h e n a p p l i e d w i t h t h e b l u n t - i n s t r u m e n t t e c h n i q u e o f t h e s o - c a l l e d G o t h i c h o r r o r t a l e " . C a m p b e l l i n s i s t e d o n t h e s a m e r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o f a n t a s y t h a t h e r e q u i r e d o f h i s s c i e n c e f i c t i o n w r i t e r s , a n d i n t h e w o r d s o f C l a r e s o n , t h i s l e d t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f " n o t o n l y t h e p r e v a l e n t n a r r a t i v e t o n e b u t a l s o m o s t o f t h e t r a p p i n g s t h a t h a d d o m i n a t e d f a n t a s y f r o m " T h e C a s t l e o f O t r a n t o " a n d " T h e M o n k " t h r o u g h t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o " W e i r d T a l e s " " . " U n k n o w n " q u i c k l y s e p a r a t e d i t s e l f f r o m " W e i r d T a l e s " , w h o s e f a n t a s i e s s t i l l p r i m a r i l y a i m e d t o p r o d u c e f e a r o r s h o c k . T h e c l o s e s t p r e d e c e s s o r t o " U n k n o w n " w a s T h o r n e S m i t h , w h o s e p r o h i b i t i o n - e r a " T o p p e r " s t o r i e s a l s o m i x e d f a n t a s y w i t h h u m o r . B e f o r e " U n k n o w n " , f a n t a s y h a d r e c e i v e d l i t t l e s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n , t h o u g h o n o c c a s i o n w r i t e r s s u c h a s J a m e s B r a n c h C a b e l l h a d a c h i e v e d r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . I n A s h l e y ' s o p i n i o n , " U n k n o w n " c r e a t e d t h e m o d e r n g e n r e o f f a n t a s y , t h o u g h c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s f o r t h e g e n r e h a d t o w a i t u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 0 s . C l a r e s o n a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t " U n k n o w n " i n f l u e n c e d t h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n t h a t a p p e a r e d i n " A s t o u n d i n g " a f t e r " U n k n o w n " f o l d e d . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s v i e w , s t o r i e s s u c h a s C l i f f o r d S i m a k ' s " C i t y " s e r i e s w o u l d n o t h a v e a p p e a r e d w i t h o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f g e n r e b o u n d a r i e s t h a t C a m p b e l l o v e r s a w . C l a r e s o n f u r t h e r p r o p o s e s t h a t " G a l a x y S c i e n c e F i c t i o n " a n d " T h e M a g a z i n e o f F a n t a s y & S c i e n c e F i c t i o n " , t w o o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d s u c c e s s f u l s c i e n c e f i c t i o n a n d f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e s , w e r e d i r e c t d e s c e n d a n t s o f " U n k n o w n " . " U n k n o w n " i s w i d e l y r e g a r d e d a s t h e f i n e s t f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e e v e r p u b l i s h e d : A s h l e y s a y s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t " " U n k n o w n " p u b l i s h e d w i t h o u t d o u b t t h e g r e a t e s t c o l l e c t i o n o f f a n t a s y s t o r i e s p r o d u c e d i n o n e m a g a z i n e . " D e s p i t e i t s l a c k o f c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s , " U n k n o w n " i s t h e m o s t l a m e n t e d o f a l l s c i e n c e f i c t i o n a n d f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e s ; L e s t e r d e l R e y d e s c r i b e s i t a s h a v i n g g a i n e d " a d e v o t i o n f r o m i t s r e a d e r s t h a t n o o t h e r m a g a z i n e c a n m a t c h " . E d w a r d s c o m m e n t s t h a t " U n k n o w n " " a p p e a r e d d u r i n g C a m p b e l l ' s p e a k y e a r s a s a n e d i t o r ; i t s r e p u t a t i o n m a y s t a n d a s h i g h a s i t d o e s p a r t l y b e c a u s e i t d i e d w h i l e s t i l l a t i t s b e s t " . " U n k n o w n " w a s e d i t e d b y J o h n W . C a m p b e l l a n d p u b l i s h e d b y S t r e e t & S m i t h P u b l i c a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t i t s r u n . I t w a s p u l p - s i z e d f r o m i t s l a u n c h t h r o u g h A u g u s t 1 9 4 1 , a n d t h e n b e d s h e e t - s i z e d f r o m O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 t o A p r i l 1 9 4 3 . T h e l a s t t h r e e i s s u e s w e r e p u l p - s i z e d a g a i n . S t r e e t & S m i t h h a d p l a n n e d t o s w i t c h i t t o d i g e s t s i z e w i t h t h e D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 3 i s s u e , b u t i t w a s c a n c e l e d b e f o r e t h a t i s s u e a p p e a r e d . T h e p r i c e b e g a n a t 2 0 c e n t s a n d r o s e t o 2 5 c e n t s w i t h t h e c h a n g e t o b e d s h e e t s i z e ; i t r e m a i n e d a t 2 5 c e n t s w h e n t h e s i z e c h a n g e d b a c k t o p u l p . I t h a d 1 6 4 p a g e s w h e n p u l p - s i z e d a n d 1 3 0 p a g e s w h i l e i t w a s b e d s h e e t - s i z e d . I t b e g a n a s a m o n t h l y a n d s w i t c h e d t o b i m o n t h l y f r o m D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 o n . T h e v o l u m e n u m b e r i n g w a s r e g u l a r , w i t h s i x v o l u m e s o f s i x n u m b e r s a n d a f i n a l v o l u m e o f t h r e e n u m b e r s . T h e t i t l e b e g a n a s s i m p l y " U n k n o w n " . I n D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 " F a n t a s y F i c t i o n " w a s a d d e d a s a s u b t i t l e , a n d f r o m t h e O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 i s s u e t h e t i t l e b e c a m e " U n k n o w n W o r l d s " . T h e f i r s t s i x U . S . i s s u e s w e r e a v a i l a b l e d i r e c t l y i n t h e U K , b u t t h e r e a f t e r a n a b r i d g e d B r i t i s h r e p r i n t e d i t i o n w a s i s s u e d b y A t l a s P u b l i c a t i o n s , b e g i n n i n g i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 3 9 . I t w a s p u l p - s i z e d , a n d p r i c e d a t 9 d ( n i n e p e n c e ) t h r o u g h o u t . I t a p p e a r e d o n a r e g u l a r m o n t h l y s c h e d u l e u n t i l D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 , a f t e r w h i c h t h e s c h e d u l e b e c a m e q u i t e i r r e g u l a r , w i t h t w o o r t h r e e i s s u e s a p p e a r i n g e a c h y e a r u n t i l 1 9 4 9 . T h e v o l u m e n u m b e r i n g i n i t i a l l y f o l l o w e d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g U . S . e d i t i o n s , w i t h s o m e o m i t t e d n u m b e r s i n 1 9 4 2 a n d 1 9 4 3 , a n d t h e n d i s a p p e a r e d f o r f o u r i s s u e s ; f r o m t h e t w e n t y - e i g h t h i s s u e ( S p r i n g 1 9 4 5 ) t h e m a g a z i n e w a s n u m b e r e d a s i f i t h a d b e e n g i v e n v o l u m e s o f t w e l v e n u m b e r s s i n c e t h e s t a r t o f t h e r u n . T h e t i t l e w a s c h a n g e d f r o m " U n k n o w n " t o " U n k n o w n W o r l d s " w i t h t h e M a r c h 1 9 4 2 i s s u e . I n 1 9 4 8 , S t r e e t & S m i t h r e p r i n t e d s e v e r a l s t o r i e s f r o m " U n k n o w n " i n a b e d s h e e t - s i z e d m a g a z i n e f o r m a t , p r i c e d a t 2 5 c e n t s , w i t h t h e t i t l e " F r o m U n k n o w n W o r l d s " . T h i s w a s a n a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e r e w a s a m a r k e t f o r a r e v i v e d " U n k n o w n " . S t r e e t & S m i t h p r i n t e d 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 c o p i e s , a g a i n s t t h e a d v i c e o f J o h n C a m p b e l l , b u t a l t h o u g h i t s o l d b e t t e r t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l , t o o m a n y c o p i e s w e r e r e t u r n e d f o r t h e p u b l i s h e r t o b e w i l l i n g t o r e v i v e t h e m a g a z i n e . T h e i s s u e w a s r e p r i n t e d i n B r i t a i n i n 1 9 5 2 , r e d u c e d i n s i z e t o a n d c u t f r o m 1 3 0 p a g e s t o 1 2 4 ; i t w a s p r i c e d a t 2 / 6 ( t w o s h i l l i n g s a n d s i x p e n c e ) . P a r t o f t h e r u n w a s i s s u e d i n a h a r d c o v e r b i n d i n g a t a h i g h e r p r i c e . O n e s t o r y f r o m t h e U . S . v e r s i o n w a s o m i t t e d : " O n e M a n ' s H a r p " b y B a b e t t e R o s m o n d . T h r e e a n t h o l o g i e s o f s t o r i e s f r o m " U n k n o w n " w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s . " T h e U n k n o w n F i v e " i n c l u d e s f o u r s t o r i e s r e p r i n t e d f r o m " U n k n o w n " a n d t h e f i r s t p r i n t a p p e a r a n c e o f " A u t h o r ! A u t h o r ! " , b y I s a a c A s i m o v , w h i c h w a s s o l d t o " U n k n o w n " s h o r t l y b e f o r e S t r e e t & S m i t h s h u t i t d o w n . T w o a d d i t i o n a l " U n k n o w n " a n t h o l o g i e s w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e l a t e 1 9 8 0 s .

Contents and reception

Astounding Stories was acquired by Street & Smith, becoming the leading sci-fi magazine under F. Orlin Tremaine's editorship. Later, John W. Campbell took over as editor and planned a fantasy companion, "Unknown," which debuted in 1939. Campbell brought a scientific approach to fantasy, emphasizing logical implications and rigorous treatment of fantastical elements. Notable stories included "Sinister Barrier" by Eric Frank Russell, "Trouble with Water" by Horace L. Gold, and works by Fritz Leiber, James H. Schmitz, and Jack Williamson. Despite its short run, "Unknown" is widely regarded as the finest fantasy magazine ever published, influencing later publications like "Galaxy Science Fiction" and "The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction."

to the acquisition of the magazine by Street & Smith. The title was shortened to "Astounding Stories", and it became the leading magazine in the science fiction field over the next few years under the editorship of F. Orlin Tremaine. At the end of 1937, John W. Campbell took over as editor. By 1938, Campbell was planning a fantasy companion to "Astounding": "Weird Tales" was still the leader in the fantasy genre, though competitors such as "Strange Stories" were also being launched. Campbell began acquiring stories suitable for the new magazine, without a definite launch date in mind. When Eric Frank Russell sent him the manuscript of his novel "Sinister Barrier", Campbell decided it was time to put his plans into action. The first issue of "Unknown" appeared you have read in the past that has made the very word anathema ... ["Unknown"] will offer fantasy of a quality so far different from that which has appeared in the past as to change your entire understanding of the term". The first issue, the following month, led with Russell's "Sinister Barrier", the novel that had persuaded Campbell to set his plans for a fantasy magazine into motion: the plot, involving aliens who own the human race, has been described by SF historian Mike Ashley as "a strange mixture of science fiction and occult fantasy". Campbell asked Russell for revisions to the story to emphasize the fantastic elements but still demanded that Russell work out the logical implications of his premises. This became a defining characteristic of the fiction published in "Unknown"; in Ashley's words, Campbell "brought the science fiction rationale to fantasy". The first issue also contained Horace L. Gold's "Trouble with Water", a comic fantasy about a modern New Yorker who offends a water gnome; in its whimsicality and naturalistic merging of a modern background with a classic fantasy trope, "Trouble with Water" was a better indication than "Sinister Barrier" of the direction "Unknown" would take. Campbell commented in a letter at the time that "Sinister Barrier", "Trouble with Water", and Where Angels Fear ... by Manly Wade Wellman were the only stories in the first issue that accurately reflected his goals for the magazine. Under Campbell's editorial supervision, the fantasy element in "Unknown" stories had to be treated rigorously. This naturally led to adventurers in a sword and sorcery setting. Four more Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories appeared in "Unknown" in as many years, and Leiber's novel "Conjure Wife", about a man who discovers that all women are secretly witches, was the lead story in the April 1943 issue. The protagonist, a university professor, "is forced to abandon scepticism and discover the underlying equations of magic, via symbolic logic", in critic David Langford's description. Leiber also contributed "Smoke Ghost" in October 1941, described by Ashley as "arguably the first seriously modern ghost story". Another writer whose first story appeared in "Unknown" was James H. Schmitz, whose "Greenface" appeared in the August 1943 issue. Other notable stories that appeared in "Unknown" include Jack Williamson's "Darker Than You Think" (December 1940), which along with "Weird Tales", an important early influence on the fantasy genre. In the foreword to "From Unknown Worlds", in 1948, Campbell commented that fantasy before "Unknown" had been too much infused with "gloom and terror"; his approach in "Unknown" had been to assume that the "creatures of mythology and folklore" could be characters in an amusing tale as easily as they could be made part of a horror story. Horror stories, he said, had a place, but "horror injected with a sharp and poisoned needle is just as effective as when applied with the blunt-instrument technique of the so-called Gothic horror tale". Campbell insisted on the same rational approach to fantasy that he required of his science fiction writers, and in the words of Clareson, this led to this view, stories such as Clifford Simak's "City" series would not have appeared without the destruction of genre boundaries that Campbell oversaw. Clareson further proposes that "Galaxy Science Fiction" and "The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction", two of the most important and successful science fiction and fantasy magazines, were direct descendants of "Unknown". "Unknown" is widely regarded as the finest fantasy magazine ever published: Ashley says, for example, that ""Unknown" published without doubt the greatest collection of fantasy stories produced in one magazine." Despite its lack of commercial success, "Unknown" is the most lamented of all science fiction and fantasy magazines; Lester del Rey describes it as having gained "a devotion from its readers that no other magazine can match". Edwards comments that "Unknown" "appeared during while it was bedsheet-sized. It began as a monthly and switched to bimonthly from December 1940 on. The volume numbering was regular, with six volumes of six numbers and a final volume of three numbers. The title began as simply "Unknown". In December 1940 "Fantasy Fiction" was added as a subtitle, and from the October 1941 issue the title became "Unknown Worlds". The first six U.S. issues were available directly in the UK, but thereafter an abridged British reprint edition was issued by Atlas Publications, beginning in September 1939. It was pulp-sized, and priced at 9d (nine pence) throughout. It appeared on a regular monthly schedule until December 1940, after which the schedule became quite irregular, with two or three issues appearing each year until 1949. The volume publisher to be willing to revive the magazine. The issue was reprinted in Britain in 1952, reduced in size to and cut from 130 pages to 124; it was priced at 2/6 (two shillings and six pence). Part of the run was issued in a hardcover binding at a higher price. One story from the U.S. version was omitted: "One Man's Harp" by Babette Rosmond. Three anthologies of stories from "Unknown" were published in the early 1960s. "The Unknown Five" includes four stories reprinted from "Unknown" and the first print appearance of "Author! Author!", by Isaac Asimov, which was sold to "Unknown" shortly before Street & Smith shut it down. Two additional "Unknown" anthologies were published in the late 1980s.

Unknown (magazine)

I n M a y 1 9 2 3 , t h e f i r s t i s s u e o f " W e i r d T a l e s " a p p e a r e d , f r o m R u r a l P u b l i c a t i o n s i n C h i c a g o . " W e i r d T a l e s " w a s a p u l p m a g a z i n e t h a t s p e c i a l i z e d i n f a n t a s y s t o r i e s a n d m a t e r i a l t h a t n o o t h e r m a g a z i n e w o u l d a c c e p t . I t w a s n o t i n i t i a l l y s u c c e s s f u l , b u t b y t h e 1 9 3 0 s h a d e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f a n d w a s r e g u l a r l y p u b l i s h i n g s c i e n c e f i c t i o n ( S F ) a s w e l l a s f a n t a s y . " W e i r d T a l e s " w a s t h e f i r s t m a g a z i n e t o f o c u s s o l e l y o n f a n t a s y , a n d i t r e m a i n e d t h e p r e - e m i n e n t m a g a z i n e i n t h i s f i e l d f o r o v e r a d e c a d e . I n t h e m e a n t i m e , s c i e n c e f i c t i o n w a s s t a r t i n g t o f o r m a s e p a r a t e l y m a r k e t e d g e n r e , w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e i n 1 9 2 6 o f " A m a z i n g S t o r i e s " , a p u l p m a g a z i n e e d i t e d b y H u g o G e r n s b a c k . I n 1 9 3 0 p u l p p u b l i s h e r C l a y t o n P u b l i c a t i o n s l a u n c h e d " A s t o u n d i n g S t o r i e s o f S u p e r S c i e n c e " , b u t t h e c o m p a n y ' s b a n k r u p t c y i n 1 9 3 3 l e d t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e m a g a z i n e b y S t r e e t & S m i t h . T h e t i t l e w a s s h o r t e n e d t o " A s t o u n d i n g S t o r i e s " , a n d i t b e c a m e t h e l e a d i n g m a g a z i n e i n t h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n f i e l d o v e r t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s u n d e r t h e e d i t o r s h i p o f F . O r l i n T r e m a i n e . A t t h e e n d o f 1 9 3 7 , J o h n W . C a m p b e l l t o o k o v e r a s e d i t o r . B y 1 9 3 8 , C a m p b e l l w a s p l a n n i n g a f a n t a s y c o m p a n i o n t o " A s t o u n d i n g " : " W e i r d T a l e s " w a s s t i l l t h e l e a d e r i n t h e f a n t a s y g e n r e , t h o u g h c o m p e t i t o r s s u c h a s " S t r a n g e S t o r i e s " w e r e a l s o b e i n g l a u n c h e d . C a m p b e l l b e g a n a c q u i r i n g s t o r i e s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e n e w m a g a z i n e , w i t h o u t a d e f i n i t e l a u n c h d a t e i n m i n d . W h e n E r i c F r a n k R u s s e l l s e n t h i m t h e m a n u s c r i p t o f h i s n o v e l " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " , C a m p b e l l d e c i d e d i t w a s t i m e t o p u t h i s p l a n s i n t o a c t i o n . T h e f i r s t i s s u e o f " U n k n o w n " a p p e a r e d i n M a r c h 1 9 3 9 . I t w a s a m o n t h l y a t f i r s t , b u t p o o r s a l e s f o r c e d a s w i t c h t o a b i m o n t h l y s c h e d u l e b e g i n n i n g i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 4 1 . I n D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 , t h e s u b t i t l e " F a n t a s y F i c t i o n " w a s a d d e d , a n d i n O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 , t h e m a i n t i t l e w a s c h a n g e d t o " U n k n o w n W o r l d s " ; b o t h c h a n g e s w e r e i n t e n d e d t o m a k e t h e g e n r e o f t h e m a g a z i n e c l e a r e r t o p o t e n t i a l r e a d e r s . W h e n w a r t i m e p a p e r s h o r t a g e s b e c a m e s e v e r e i n l a t e 1 9 4 3 , C a m p b e l l c h o s e t o k e e p " A s t o u n d i n g " m o n t h l y a n d c a n c e l " U n k n o w n " , r a t h e r t h a n s w i t c h t h e f o r m e r t o a b i m o n t h l y s c h e d u l e a s w e l l . T h e l a s t i s s u e w a s d a t e d O c t o b e r 1 9 4 3 . C a m p b e l l ' s p l a n s f o r " U n k n o w n " w e r e l a i d o u t i n t h e F e b r u a r y 1 9 3 9 i s s u e o f " A s t o u n d i n g " , i n t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e n e w m a g a z i n e . H e a r g u e d t h a t " i t h a s b e e n t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e f a n t a s y t h a t y o u h a v e r e a d i n t h e p a s t t h a t h a s m a d e t h e v e r y w o r d a n a t h e m a . . . [ " U n k n o w n " ] w i l l o f f e r f a n t a s y o f a q u a l i t y s o f a r d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t w h i c h h a s a p p e a r e d i n t h e p a s t a s t o c h a n g e y o u r e n t i r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t e r m " . T h e f i r s t i s s u e , t h e f o l l o w i n g m o n t h , l e d w i t h R u s s e l l ' s " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " , t h e n o v e l t h a t h a d p e r s u a d e d C a m p b e l l t o s e t h i s p l a n s f o r a f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e i n t o m o t i o n : t h e p l o t , i n v o l v i n g a l i e n s w h o o w n t h e h u m a n r a c e , h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y S F h i s t o r i a n M i k e A s h l e y a s " a s t r a n g e m i x t u r e o f s c i e n c e f i c t i o n a n d o c c u l t f a n t a s y " . C a m p b e l l a s k e d R u s s e l l f o r r e v i s i o n s t o t h e s t o r y t o e m p h a s i z e t h e f a n t a s t i c e l e m e n t s b u t s t i l l d e m a n d e d t h a t R u s s e l l w o r k o u t t h e l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s p r e m i s e s . T h i s b e c a m e a d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e f i c t i o n p u b l i s h e d i n " U n k n o w n " ; i n A s h l e y ' s w o r d s , C a m p b e l l " b r o u g h t t h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n r a t i o n a l e t o f a n t a s y " . T h e f i r s t i s s u e a l s o c o n t a i n e d H o r a c e L . G o l d ' s " T r o u b l e w i t h W a t e r " , a c o m i c f a n t a s y a b o u t a m o d e r n N e w Y o r k e r w h o o f f e n d s a w a t e r g n o m e ; i n i t s w h i m s i c a l i t y a n d n a t u r a l i s t i c m e r g i n g o f a m o d e r n b a c k g r o u n d w i t h a c l a s s i c f a n t a s y t r o p e , " T r o u b l e w i t h W a t e r " w a s a b e t t e r i n d i c a t i o n t h a n " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " o f t h e d i r e c t i o n " U n k n o w n " w o u l d t a k e . C a m p b e l l c o m m e n t e d i n a l e t t e r a t t h e t i m e t h a t " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " , " T r o u b l e w i t h W a t e r " , a n d W h e r e A n g e l s F e a r . . . b y M a n l y W a d e W e l l m a n w e r e t h e o n l y s t o r i e s i n t h e f i r s t i s s u e t h a t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t e d h i s g o a l s f o r t h e m a g a z i n e . U n d e r C a m p b e l l ' s e d i t o r i a l s u p e r v i s i o n , t h e f a n t a s y e l e m e n t i n " U n k n o w n " s t o r i e s h a d t o b e t r e a t e d r i g o r o u s l y . T h i s n a t u r a l l y l e d t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e i n " U n k n o w n " o f w r i t e r s a l r e a d y c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h s i m i l a r r i g o r i n s c i e n c e f i c t i o n s t o r i e s , a n d C a m p b e l l s o o n e s t a b l i s h e d a s m a l l g r o u p o f w r i t e r s a s r e g u l a r c o n t r i b u t o r s , m a n y o f w h o m w e r e a l s o a p p e a r i n g i n t h e p a g e s o f " A s t o u n d i n g " . L . R o n H u b b a r d , T h e o d o r e S t u r g e o n , a n d L . S p r a g u e d e C a m p w e r e a m o n g t h e m o s t p r o l i f i c . H u b b a r d c o n t r i b u t e d e i g h t l e a d n o v e l s i n c l u d i n g " T y p e w r i t e r i n t h e S k y " , " S l a v e s o f S l e e p " , a n d " F e a r " , d e s c r i b e d b y A s h l e y a s a " c l a s s i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h r i l l e r " ; S F h i s t o r i a n a n d c r i t i c T h o m a s C l a r e s o n d e s c r i b e s a l l e i g h t a s " o u t s t a n d i n g " . D e C a m p , i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h F l e t c h e r P r a t t , c o n t r i b u t e d t h r e e s t o r i e s f e a t u r i n g H a r o l d S h e a , w h o f i n d s h i m s e l f i n a w o r l d w h e r e m a g i c o p e r a t e s b y r i g o r o u s r u l e s . T h e t i t l e o f o n e o f t h e s e , " T h e M a t h e m a t i c s o f M a g i c " , i s , a c c o r d i n g t o S F c r i t i c J o h n C l u t e , " p e r f e c t l y e x p r e s s i v e o f t h e t e r m s u n d e r w h i c h m a g i c f o u n d e a s y m e n t i o n i n " U n k n o w n " " . O t h e r " A s t o u n d i n g " w r i t e r s w h o w r o t e f o r " U n k n o w n " i n c l u d e d R o b e r t A . H e i n l e i n , w h o s e " T h e D e v i l M a k e s t h e L a w " ( r e p r i n t e d a s " M a g i c , I n c . " ) d e p i c t s a w o r l d w h e r e m a g i c i s a p a r t o f e v e r y d a y l i f e . H e i n l e i n a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d " T h e U n p l e a s a n t P r o f e s s i o n o f J o n a t h a n H o a g " a n d " T h e y " , d e s c r i b e d b y A s h l e y a s " p e r h a p s t h e u l t i m a t e s o l i p s i s t f a n t a s y " . A . E . v a n V o g t , a f r e q u e n t " A s t o u n d i n g " c o n t r i b u t o r , a p p e a r e d i n t h e f i n a l i s s u e w i t h " T h e B o o k o f P t a t h " ( l a t e r e x p a n d e d i n t o a n o v e l ) . I s a a c A s i m o v , d e s p i t e m u l t i p l e a t t e m p t s t o w r i t e f o r " U n k n o w n " , n e v e r a p p e a r e d i n t h e m a g a z i n e . O n h i s s i x t h a t t e m p t , h e s o l d " A u t h o r ! A u t h o r ! " t o C a m p b e l l , b u t t h e m a g a z i n e w a s c a n c e l e d b e f o r e i t c o u l d a p p e a r . I t e v e n t u a l l y a p p e a r e d i n t h e a n t h o l o g y " T h e U n k n o w n F i v e " . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e w r i t e r s o f " U n k n o w n " a n d " A s t o u n d i n g " , t h e r e w a s a g o o d d e a l o f o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e i r r e a d e r s h i p s : A s i m o v r e c o r d s t h a t d u r i n g t h e w a r , h e r e a d o n l y t h e s e t w o m a g a z i n e s . S F h i s t o r i a n P a u l C a r t e r h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e s p e c t r u m o f f a n t a s t i c f i c t i o n f r o m " W e i r d T a l e s " t h r o u g h " U n k n o w n " t o " A s t o u n d i n g " w a s f a r l e s s c l e a n l y s e p a r a t e d t h a n i s s o m e t i m e s a s s u m e d : m a n y s t o r i e s i n t h e e a r l y s c i e n c e f i c t i o n m a g a z i n e s s u c h a s " W o n d e r S t o r i e s " w e r e m o r e l i k e t h e w o r k s o f E d g a r A l l a n P o e t h a n t h e y w e r e t a l e s o f s c i e n t i f i c i m a g i n a t i o n . F r i t z L e i b e r ' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d s t o r y w a s " T w o S o u g h t A d v e n t u r e " , w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n t h e A u g u s t 1 9 3 9 i s s u e o f " U n k n o w n " ; t h i s w a s t h e f i r s t s t o r y i n h i s l o n g - r u n n i n g F a f h r d a n d t h e G r a y M o u s e r s e r i e s a b o u t a p a i r o f a d v e n t u r e r s i n a s w o r d a n d s o r c e r y s e t t i n g . F o u r m o r e F a f h r d a n d t h e G r a y M o u s e r s t o r i e s a p p e a r e d i n " U n k n o w n " i n a s m a n y y e a r s , a n d L e i b e r ' s n o v e l " C o n j u r e W i f e " , a b o u t a m a n w h o d i s c o v e r s t h a t a l l w o m e n a r e s e c r e t l y w i t c h e s , w a s t h e l e a d s t o r y i n t h e A p r i l 1 9 4 3 i s s u e . T h e p r o t a g o n i s t , a u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r , " i s f o r c e d t o a b a n d o n s c e p t i c i s m a n d d i s c o v e r t h e u n d e r l y i n g e q u a t i o n s o f m a g i c , v i a s y m b o l i c l o g i c " , i n c r i t i c D a v i d L a n g f o r d ' s d e s c r i p t i o n . L e i b e r a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d " S m o k e G h o s t " i n O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 , d e s c r i b e d b y A s h l e y a s " a r g u a b l y t h e f i r s t s e r i o u s l y m o d e r n g h o s t s t o r y " . A n o t h e r w r i t e r w h o s e f i r s t s t o r y a p p e a r e d i n " U n k n o w n " w a s J a m e s H . S c h m i t z , w h o s e " G r e e n f a c e " a p p e a r e d i n t h e A u g u s t 1 9 4 3 i s s u e . O t h e r n o t a b l e s t o r i e s t h a t a p p e a r e d i n " U n k n o w n " i n c l u d e J a c k W i l l i a m s o n ' s " D a r k e r T h a n Y o u T h i n k " ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 ) , w h i c h p r o v i d e s a s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s f o r a r a c e o f w e r e w o l v e s l i v i n g u n d e t e c t e d a l o n g s i d e h u m a n b e i n g s . E x p a n d e d i n t o a n o v e l i n 1 9 4 8 , i t r e m a i n s W i l l i a m s o n ' s b e s t - k n o w n f a n t a s y , a n d S F h i s t o r i a n M a l c o l m E d w a r d s c o m m e n t s t h a t t h e t w o p r o t a g o n i s t s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p i s " d e p i c t e d w i t h a t o r t u r e d ( a n d s t i l l h a u n t i n g ) e r o t i c f r a n k n e s s u n u s u a l i n g e n r e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e 1 9 4 0 s " . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e H a r o l d S h e a p i e c e s , d e C a m p p u b l i s h e d s e v e r a l o t h e r w e l l - r e c e i v e d s t o r i e s , i n c l u d i n g " T h e W h e e l s o f I f " ( O c t o b e r 1 9 4 0 ) a n d " L e s t D a r k n e s s F a l l " ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 9 ) , a n a l t e r n a t e h i s t o r y s t o r y a b o u t a t i m e - t r a v e l e r w h o a t t e m p t s t o s a v e t h e R o m a n E m p i r e f r o m t h e c o m i n g D a r k A g e s ; E d w a r d s a n d C l u t e c o m m e n t t h a t t h e s t o r y i s " t h e m o s t a c c o m p l i s h e d e a r l y e x c u r s i o n i n t o h i s t o r y i n m a g a z i n e S F , a n d i s r e g a r d e d a s a c l a s s i c " . A l s o h i g h l y r e g a r d e d i s W e l l m a n ' s " W h e n I t W a s M o o n l i g h t " ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 ) , a s t o r y a b o u t P o e . T h e f i r s t s i x t e e n i s s u e s o f " U n k n o w n " h a d c o v e r p a i n t i n g s , b u t f r o m J u l y 1 9 4 0 t h e c o v e r s t y l e w a s c h a n g e d t o a t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s , w i t h a s m a l l i n k d r a w i n g u s u a l l y a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e s u m m a r y o f e a c h s t o r y , i n a n a t t e m p t t o m a k e t h e m a g a z i n e a p p e a r m o r e d i g n i f i e d . T h e c o v e r a r t c a m e a l m o s t e n t i r e l y f r o m a r t i s t s w h o d i d n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o m a n y s c i e n c e f i c t i o n o r f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e s : s i x o f t h e s i x t e e n p a i n t i n g s w e r e b y H . W . S c o t t ; M a n u e l I s l i p , M o d e s t S t e i n , G r a v e s G l a d n e y , a n d E d d C a r t i e r p r o v i d e d t h e o t h e r s . C a r t i e r w a s t h e o n l y o n e o f t h e s e w h o r e g u l a r l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o S F a n d f a n t a s y p e r i o d i c a l s ; h e p a i n t e d f o u r o f " U n k n o w n " s l a s t s i x c o v e r s b e f o r e t h e c h a n g e t o a t e x t - h e a v y d e s i g n . " U n k n o w n " w a s , a l o n g w i t h " W e i r d T a l e s " , a n i m p o r t a n t e a r l y i n f l u e n c e o n t h e f a n t a s y g e n r e . I n t h e f o r e w o r d t o " F r o m U n k n o w n W o r l d s " , i n 1 9 4 8 , C a m p b e l l c o m m e n t e d t h a t f a n t a s y b e f o r e " U n k n o w n " h a d b e e n t o o m u c h i n f u s e d w i t h " g l o o m a n d t e r r o r " ; h i s a p p r o a c h i n " U n k n o w n " h a d b e e n t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e " c r e a t u r e s o f m y t h o l o g y a n d f o l k l o r e " c o u l d b e c h a r a c t e r s i n a n a m u s i n g t a l e a s e a s i l y a s t h e y c o u l d b e m a d e p a r t o f a h o r r o r s t o r y . H o r r o r s t o r i e s , h e s a i d , h a d a p l a c e , b u t " h o r r o r i n j e c t e d w i t h a s h a r p a n d p o i s o n e d n e e d l e i s j u s t a s e f f e c t i v e a s w h e n a p p l i e d w i t h t h e b l u n t - i n s t r u m e n t t e c h n i q u e o f t h e s o - c a l l e d G o t h i c h o r r o r t a l e " . C a m p b e l l i n s i s t e d o n t h e s a m e r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o f a n t a s y t h a t h e r e q u i r e d o f h i s s c i e n c e f i c t i o n w r i t e r s , a n d i n t h e w o r d s o f C l a r e s o n , t h i s l e d t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f " n o t o n l y t h e p r e v a l e n t n a r r a t i v e t o n e b u t a l s o m o s t o f t h e t r a p p i n g s t h a t h a d d o m i n a t e d f a n t a s y f r o m " T h e C a s t l e o f O t r a n t o " a n d " T h e M o n k " t h r o u g h t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o " W e i r d T a l e s " " . " U n k n o w n " q u i c k l y s e p a r a t e d i t s e l f f r o m " W e i r d T a l e s " , w h o s e f a n t a s i e s s t i l l p r i m a r i l y a i m e d t o p r o d u c e f e a r o r s h o c k . T h e c l o s e s t p r e d e c e s s o r t o " U n k n o w n " w a s T h o r n e S m i t h , w h o s e p r o h i b i t i o n - e r a " T o p p e r " s t o r i e s a l s o m i x e d f a n t a s y w i t h h u m o r . B e f o r e " U n k n o w n " , f a n t a s y h a d r e c e i v e d l i t t l e s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n , t h o u g h o n o c c a s i o n w r i t e r s s u c h a s J a m e s B r a n c h C a b e l l h a d a c h i e v e d r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . I n A s h l e y ' s o p i n i o n , " U n k n o w n " c r e a t e d t h e m o d e r n g e n r e o f f a n t a s y , t h o u g h c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s f o r t h e g e n r e h a d t o w a i t u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 0 s . C l a r e s o n a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t " U n k n o w n " i n f l u e n c e d t h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n t h a t a p p e a r e d i n " A s t o u n d i n g " a f t e r " U n k n o w n " f o l d e d . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s v i e w , s t o r i e s s u c h a s C l i f f o r d S i m a k ' s " C i t y " s e r i e s w o u l d n o t h a v e a p p e a r e d w i t h o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f g e n r e b o u n d a r i e s t h a t C a m p b e l l o v e r s a w . C l a r e s o n f u r t h e r p r o p o s e s t h a t " G a l a x y S c i e n c e F i c t i o n " a n d " T h e M a g a z i n e o f F a n t a s y & S c i e n c e F i c t i o n " , t w o o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d s u c c e s s f u l s c i e n c e f i c t i o n a n d f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e s , w e r e d i r e c t d e s c e n d a n t s o f " U n k n o w n " . " U n k n o w n " i s w i d e l y r e g a r d e d a s t h e f i n e s t f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e e v e r p u b l i s h e d : A s h l e y s a y s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t " " U n k n o w n " p u b l i s h e d w i t h o u t d o u b t t h e g r e a t e s t c o l l e c t i o n o f f a n t a s y s t o r i e s p r o d u c e d i n o n e m a g a z i n e . " D e s p i t e i t s l a c k o f c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s , " U n k n o w n " i s t h e m o s t l a m e n t e d o f a l l s c i e n c e f i c t i o n a n d f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e s ; L e s t e r d e l R e y d e s c r i b e s i t a s h a v i n g g a i n e d " a d e v o t i o n f r o m i t s r e a d e r s t h a t n o o t h e r m a g a z i n e c a n m a t c h " . E d w a r d s c o m m e n t s t h a t " U n k n o w n " " a p p e a r e d d u r i n g C a m p b e l l ' s p e a k y e a r s a s a n e d i t o r ; i t s r e p u t a t i o n m a y s t a n d a s h i g h a s i t d o e s p a r t l y b e c a u s e i t d i e d w h i l e s t i l l a t i t s b e s t " . " U n k n o w n " w a s e d i t e d b y J o h n W . C a m p b e l l a n d p u b l i s h e d b y S t r e e t & S m i t h P u b l i c a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t i t s r u n . I t w a s p u l p - s i z e d f r o m i t s l a u n c h t h r o u g h A u g u s t 1 9 4 1 , a n d t h e n b e d s h e e t - s i z e d f r o m O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 t o A p r i l 1 9 4 3 . T h e l a s t t h r e e i s s u e s w e r e p u l p - s i z e d a g a i n . S t r e e t & S m i t h h a d p l a n n e d t o s w i t c h i t t o d i g e s t s i z e w i t h t h e D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 3 i s s u e , b u t i t w a s c a n c e l e d b e f o r e t h a t i s s u e a p p e a r e d . T h e p r i c e b e g a n a t 2 0 c e n t s a n d r o s e t o 2 5 c e n t s w i t h t h e c h a n g e t o b e d s h e e t s i z e ; i t r e m a i n e d a t 2 5 c e n t s w h e n t h e s i z e c h a n g e d b a c k t o p u l p . I t h a d 1 6 4 p a g e s w h e n p u l p - s i z e d a n d 1 3 0 p a g e s w h i l e i t w a s b e d s h e e t - s i z e d . I t b e g a n a s a m o n t h l y a n d s w i t c h e d t o b i m o n t h l y f r o m D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 o n . T h e v o l u m e n u m b e r i n g w a s r e g u l a r , w i t h s i x v o l u m e s o f s i x n u m b e r s a n d a f i n a l v o l u m e o f t h r e e n u m b e r s . T h e t i t l e b e g a n a s s i m p l y " U n k n o w n " . I n D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 " F a n t a s y F i c t i o n " w a s a d d e d a s a s u b t i t l e , a n d f r o m t h e O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 i s s u e t h e t i t l e b e c a m e " U n k n o w n W o r l d s " . T h e f i r s t s i x U . S . i s s u e s w e r e a v a i l a b l e d i r e c t l y i n t h e U K , b u t t h e r e a f t e r a n a b r i d g e d B r i t i s h r e p r i n t e d i t i o n w a s i s s u e d b y A t l a s P u b l i c a t i o n s , b e g i n n i n g i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 3 9 . I t w a s p u l p - s i z e d , a n d p r i c e d a t 9 d ( n i n e p e n c e ) t h r o u g h o u t . I t a p p e a r e d o n a r e g u l a r m o n t h l y s c h e d u l e u n t i l D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 , a f t e r w h i c h t h e s c h e d u l e b e c a m e q u i t e i r r e g u l a r , w i t h t w o o r t h r e e i s s u e s a p p e a r i n g e a c h y e a r u n t i l 1 9 4 9 . T h e v o l u m e n u m b e r i n g i n i t i a l l y f o l l o w e d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g U . S . e d i t i o n s , w i t h s o m e o m i t t e d n u m b e r s i n 1 9 4 2 a n d 1 9 4 3 , a n d t h e n d i s a p p e a r e d f o r f o u r i s s u e s ; f r o m t h e t w e n t y - e i g h t h i s s u e ( S p r i n g 1 9 4 5 ) t h e m a g a z i n e w a s n u m b e r e d a s i f i t h a d b e e n g i v e n v o l u m e s o f t w e l v e n u m b e r s s i n c e t h e s t a r t o f t h e r u n . T h e t i t l e w a s c h a n g e d f r o m " U n k n o w n " t o " U n k n o w n W o r l d s " w i t h t h e M a r c h 1 9 4 2 i s s u e . I n 1 9 4 8 , S t r e e t & S m i t h r e p r i n t e d s e v e r a l s t o r i e s f r o m " U n k n o w n " i n a b e d s h e e t - s i z e d m a g a z i n e f o r m a t , p r i c e d a t 2 5 c e n t s , w i t h t h e t i t l e " F r o m U n k n o w n W o r l d s " . T h i s w a s a n a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e r e w a s a m a r k e t f o r a r e v i v e d " U n k n o w n " . S t r e e t & S m i t h p r i n t e d 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 c o p i e s , a g a i n s t t h e a d v i c e o f J o h n C a m p b e l l , b u t a l t h o u g h i t s o l d b e t t e r t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l , t o o m a n y c o p i e s w e r e r e t u r n e d f o r t h e p u b l i s h e r t o b e w i l l i n g t o r e v i v e t h e m a g a z i n e . T h e i s s u e w a s r e p r i n t e d i n B r i t a i n i n 1 9 5 2 , r e d u c e d i n s i z e t o a n d c u t f r o m 1 3 0 p a g e s t o 1 2 4 ; i t w a s p r i c e d a t 2 / 6 ( t w o s h i l l i n g s a n d s i x p e n c e ) . P a r t o f t h e r u n w a s i s s u e d i n a h a r d c o v e r b i n d i n g a t a h i g h e r p r i c e . O n e s t o r y f r o m t h e U . S . v e r s i o n w a s o m i t t e d : " O n e M a n ' s H a r p " b y B a b e t t e R o s m o n d . T h r e e a n t h o l o g i e s o f s t o r i e s f r o m " U n k n o w n " w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s . " T h e U n k n o w n F i v e " i n c l u d e s f o u r s t o r i e s r e p r i n t e d f r o m " U n k n o w n " a n d t h e f i r s t p r i n t a p p e a r a n c e o f " A u t h o r ! A u t h o r ! " , b y I s a a c A s i m o v , w h i c h w a s s o l d t o " U n k n o w n " s h o r t l y b e f o r e S t r e e t & S m i t h s h u t i t d o w n . T w o a d d i t i o n a l " U n k n o w n " a n t h o l o g i e s w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e l a t e 1 9 8 0 s .

Influence

The article discusses the influential fantasy magazine "Unknown", which was launched in 1939 and ran for six years. Editor John W. Campbell Jr. brought a scientific approach to fantasy, demanding that writers treat fantastical elements logically and rigorously. The magazine featured a range of authors, including L. Ron Hubbard, Theodore Sturgeon, and Fritz Leiber, and published stories that blended fantasy with science fiction, horror, and humor. "Unknown" is credited with creating the modern fantasy genre and influencing later science fiction and fantasy publications.

you have read in the past that has made the very word anathema ... ["Unknown"] will offer fantasy of a quality so far different from that which has appeared in the past as to change your entire understanding of the term". The first issue, the following month, led with Russell's "Sinister Barrier", the novel that had persuaded Campbell to set his plans for a fantasy magazine into motion: the plot, involving aliens who own the human race, has been described by SF historian Mike Ashley as "a strange mixture of science fiction and occult fantasy". Campbell asked Russell for revisions to the story to emphasize the fantastic elements but still demanded that Russell work out the logical implications of his premises. This became a defining characteristic of the fiction published in "Unknown"; in Ashley's words, Campbell "brought the science fiction rationale to fantasy". The first issue also contained Horace L. Gold's "Trouble with Water", a comic fantasy about a modern New Yorker who offends a water gnome; in its whimsicality and naturalistic merging of a modern background with a classic fantasy trope, "Trouble with Water" was a better indication than "Sinister Barrier" of the direction "Unknown" would take. Campbell commented in a letter at the time that "Sinister Barrier", "Trouble with Water", and Where Angels Fear ... by Manly Wade Wellman were the only stories in the first issue that accurately reflected his goals for the magazine. Under Campbell's editorial supervision, the fantasy element in "Unknown" stories had to be treated rigorously. This naturally led to the appearance in "Unknown" of writers already comfortable with similar rigor in science fiction stories, and Campbell soon established a small group of writers as regular contributors, many of whom were also appearing in the pages of "Astounding". L. Ron Hubbard, Theodore Sturgeon, and L. Sprague de Camp were among the most prolific. Hubbard contributed eight lead novels including "Typewriter in the Sky", "Slaves of Sleep", and "Fear", described by Ashley as a "classic psychological thriller"; SF historian and critic Thomas Clareson describes all eight as "outstanding". De Camp, in collaboration with Fletcher Pratt, contributed three stories featuring Harold Shea, who finds himself in a world where magic operates by rigorous rules. The title of one of these, "The Mathematics of Magic", is, according to SF critic John adventurers in a sword and sorcery setting. Four more Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories appeared in "Unknown" in as many years, and Leiber's novel "Conjure Wife", about a man who discovers that all women are secretly witches, was the lead story in the April 1943 issue. The protagonist, a university professor, "is forced to abandon scepticism and discover the underlying equations of magic, via symbolic logic", in critic David Langford's description. Leiber also contributed "Smoke Ghost" in October 1941, described by Ashley as "arguably the first seriously modern ghost story". Another writer whose first story appeared in "Unknown" was James H. Schmitz, whose "Greenface" appeared in the August 1943 issue. Other notable stories that appeared in "Unknown" include Jack Williamson's "Darker Than You Think" (December 1940), which provides a scientific basis for a race of werewolves living undetected alongside human beings. Expanded into a novel in 1948, it remains Williamson's best-known fantasy, and SF historian Malcolm Edwards comments that the two protagonists' relationship is "depicted with a tortured (and still haunting) erotic frankness unusual in genre literature of the 1940s". In addition to the Harold Shea pieces, de Camp published several other well-received stories, including "The Wheels of If" (October 1940) and "Lest Darkness Fall" (December 1939), an alternate history story about a time-traveler who attempts to save the Roman Empire from the coming Dark Ages; Edwards and Clute comment that the story is "the most accomplished early excursion into history in magazine SF, and is regarded as a classic". Also highly regarded is Wellman's along with "Weird Tales", an important early influence on the fantasy genre. In the foreword to "From Unknown Worlds", in 1948, Campbell commented that fantasy before "Unknown" had been too much infused with "gloom and terror"; his approach in "Unknown" had been to assume that the "creatures of mythology and folklore" could be characters in an amusing tale as easily as they could be made part of a horror story. Horror stories, he said, had a place, but "horror injected with a sharp and poisoned needle is just as effective as when applied with the blunt-instrument technique of the so-called Gothic horror tale". Campbell insisted on the same rational approach to fantasy that he required of his science fiction writers, and in the words of Clareson, this led to the destruction of "not only the prevalent narrative tone but also most of the trappings that had dominated fantasy from "The Castle of Otranto" and "The Monk" through the nineteenth century to "Weird Tales"". "Unknown" quickly separated itself from "Weird Tales", whose fantasies still primarily aimed to produce fear or shock. The closest predecessor to "Unknown" was Thorne Smith, whose prohibition-era "Topper" stories also mixed fantasy with humor. Before "Unknown", fantasy had received little serious attention, though on occasion writers such as James Branch Cabell had achieved respectability. In Ashley's opinion, "Unknown" created the modern genre of fantasy, though commercial success for the genre had to wait until the 1970s. Clareson also suggests that "Unknown" influenced the science fiction that appeared in "Astounding" after "Unknown" folded. According to this view, stories such as Clifford Simak's "City" series would not have appeared without the destruction of genre boundaries that Campbell oversaw. Clareson further proposes that "Galaxy Science Fiction" and "The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction", two of the most important and successful science fiction and fantasy magazines, were direct descendants of "Unknown". "Unknown" is widely regarded as the finest fantasy magazine ever published: Ashley says, for example, that ""Unknown" published without doubt the greatest collection of fantasy stories produced in one magazine." Despite its lack of commercial success, "Unknown" is the most lamented of all science fiction and fantasy magazines; Lester del Rey describes it as having gained "a devotion from its readers that no other magazine can match". Edwards comments that "Unknown" "appeared during

Unknown (magazine)

I n M a y 1 9 2 3 , t h e f i r s t i s s u e o f " W e i r d T a l e s " a p p e a r e d , f r o m R u r a l P u b l i c a t i o n s i n C h i c a g o . " W e i r d T a l e s " w a s a p u l p m a g a z i n e t h a t s p e c i a l i z e d i n f a n t a s y s t o r i e s a n d m a t e r i a l t h a t n o o t h e r m a g a z i n e w o u l d a c c e p t . I t w a s n o t i n i t i a l l y s u c c e s s f u l , b u t b y t h e 1 9 3 0 s h a d e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f a n d w a s r e g u l a r l y p u b l i s h i n g s c i e n c e f i c t i o n ( S F ) a s w e l l a s f a n t a s y . " W e i r d T a l e s " w a s t h e f i r s t m a g a z i n e t o f o c u s s o l e l y o n f a n t a s y , a n d i t r e m a i n e d t h e p r e - e m i n e n t m a g a z i n e i n t h i s f i e l d f o r o v e r a d e c a d e . I n t h e m e a n t i m e , s c i e n c e f i c t i o n w a s s t a r t i n g t o f o r m a s e p a r a t e l y m a r k e t e d g e n r e , w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e i n 1 9 2 6 o f " A m a z i n g S t o r i e s " , a p u l p m a g a z i n e e d i t e d b y H u g o G e r n s b a c k . I n 1 9 3 0 p u l p p u b l i s h e r C l a y t o n P u b l i c a t i o n s l a u n c h e d " A s t o u n d i n g S t o r i e s o f S u p e r S c i e n c e " , b u t t h e c o m p a n y ' s b a n k r u p t c y i n 1 9 3 3 l e d t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e m a g a z i n e b y S t r e e t & S m i t h . T h e t i t l e w a s s h o r t e n e d t o " A s t o u n d i n g S t o r i e s " , a n d i t b e c a m e t h e l e a d i n g m a g a z i n e i n t h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n f i e l d o v e r t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s u n d e r t h e e d i t o r s h i p o f F . O r l i n T r e m a i n e . A t t h e e n d o f 1 9 3 7 , J o h n W . C a m p b e l l t o o k o v e r a s e d i t o r . B y 1 9 3 8 , C a m p b e l l w a s p l a n n i n g a f a n t a s y c o m p a n i o n t o " A s t o u n d i n g " : " W e i r d T a l e s " w a s s t i l l t h e l e a d e r i n t h e f a n t a s y g e n r e , t h o u g h c o m p e t i t o r s s u c h a s " S t r a n g e S t o r i e s " w e r e a l s o b e i n g l a u n c h e d . C a m p b e l l b e g a n a c q u i r i n g s t o r i e s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e n e w m a g a z i n e , w i t h o u t a d e f i n i t e l a u n c h d a t e i n m i n d . W h e n E r i c F r a n k R u s s e l l s e n t h i m t h e m a n u s c r i p t o f h i s n o v e l " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " , C a m p b e l l d e c i d e d i t w a s t i m e t o p u t h i s p l a n s i n t o a c t i o n . T h e f i r s t i s s u e o f " U n k n o w n " a p p e a r e d i n M a r c h 1 9 3 9 . I t w a s a m o n t h l y a t f i r s t , b u t p o o r s a l e s f o r c e d a s w i t c h t o a b i m o n t h l y s c h e d u l e b e g i n n i n g i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 4 1 . I n D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 , t h e s u b t i t l e " F a n t a s y F i c t i o n " w a s a d d e d , a n d i n O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 , t h e m a i n t i t l e w a s c h a n g e d t o " U n k n o w n W o r l d s " ; b o t h c h a n g e s w e r e i n t e n d e d t o m a k e t h e g e n r e o f t h e m a g a z i n e c l e a r e r t o p o t e n t i a l r e a d e r s . W h e n w a r t i m e p a p e r s h o r t a g e s b e c a m e s e v e r e i n l a t e 1 9 4 3 , C a m p b e l l c h o s e t o k e e p " A s t o u n d i n g " m o n t h l y a n d c a n c e l " U n k n o w n " , r a t h e r t h a n s w i t c h t h e f o r m e r t o a b i m o n t h l y s c h e d u l e a s w e l l . T h e l a s t i s s u e w a s d a t e d O c t o b e r 1 9 4 3 . C a m p b e l l ' s p l a n s f o r " U n k n o w n " w e r e l a i d o u t i n t h e F e b r u a r y 1 9 3 9 i s s u e o f " A s t o u n d i n g " , i n t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e n e w m a g a z i n e . H e a r g u e d t h a t " i t h a s b e e n t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e f a n t a s y t h a t y o u h a v e r e a d i n t h e p a s t t h a t h a s m a d e t h e v e r y w o r d a n a t h e m a . . . [ " U n k n o w n " ] w i l l o f f e r f a n t a s y o f a q u a l i t y s o f a r d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t w h i c h h a s a p p e a r e d i n t h e p a s t a s t o c h a n g e y o u r e n t i r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t e r m " . T h e f i r s t i s s u e , t h e f o l l o w i n g m o n t h , l e d w i t h R u s s e l l ' s " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " , t h e n o v e l t h a t h a d p e r s u a d e d C a m p b e l l t o s e t h i s p l a n s f o r a f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e i n t o m o t i o n : t h e p l o t , i n v o l v i n g a l i e n s w h o o w n t h e h u m a n r a c e , h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y S F h i s t o r i a n M i k e A s h l e y a s " a s t r a n g e m i x t u r e o f s c i e n c e f i c t i o n a n d o c c u l t f a n t a s y " . C a m p b e l l a s k e d R u s s e l l f o r r e v i s i o n s t o t h e s t o r y t o e m p h a s i z e t h e f a n t a s t i c e l e m e n t s b u t s t i l l d e m a n d e d t h a t R u s s e l l w o r k o u t t h e l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s p r e m i s e s . T h i s b e c a m e a d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e f i c t i o n p u b l i s h e d i n " U n k n o w n " ; i n A s h l e y ' s w o r d s , C a m p b e l l " b r o u g h t t h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n r a t i o n a l e t o f a n t a s y " . T h e f i r s t i s s u e a l s o c o n t a i n e d H o r a c e L . G o l d ' s " T r o u b l e w i t h W a t e r " , a c o m i c f a n t a s y a b o u t a m o d e r n N e w Y o r k e r w h o o f f e n d s a w a t e r g n o m e ; i n i t s w h i m s i c a l i t y a n d n a t u r a l i s t i c m e r g i n g o f a m o d e r n b a c k g r o u n d w i t h a c l a s s i c f a n t a s y t r o p e , " T r o u b l e w i t h W a t e r " w a s a b e t t e r i n d i c a t i o n t h a n " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " o f t h e d i r e c t i o n " U n k n o w n " w o u l d t a k e . C a m p b e l l c o m m e n t e d i n a l e t t e r a t t h e t i m e t h a t " S i n i s t e r B a r r i e r " , " T r o u b l e w i t h W a t e r " , a n d W h e r e A n g e l s F e a r . . . b y M a n l y W a d e W e l l m a n w e r e t h e o n l y s t o r i e s i n t h e f i r s t i s s u e t h a t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t e d h i s g o a l s f o r t h e m a g a z i n e . U n d e r C a m p b e l l ' s e d i t o r i a l s u p e r v i s i o n , t h e f a n t a s y e l e m e n t i n " U n k n o w n " s t o r i e s h a d t o b e t r e a t e d r i g o r o u s l y . T h i s n a t u r a l l y l e d t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e i n " U n k n o w n " o f w r i t e r s a l r e a d y c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h s i m i l a r r i g o r i n s c i e n c e f i c t i o n s t o r i e s , a n d C a m p b e l l s o o n e s t a b l i s h e d a s m a l l g r o u p o f w r i t e r s a s r e g u l a r c o n t r i b u t o r s , m a n y o f w h o m w e r e a l s o a p p e a r i n g i n t h e p a g e s o f " A s t o u n d i n g " . L . R o n H u b b a r d , T h e o d o r e S t u r g e o n , a n d L . S p r a g u e d e C a m p w e r e a m o n g t h e m o s t p r o l i f i c . H u b b a r d c o n t r i b u t e d e i g h t l e a d n o v e l s i n c l u d i n g " T y p e w r i t e r i n t h e S k y " , " S l a v e s o f S l e e p " , a n d " F e a r " , d e s c r i b e d b y A s h l e y a s a " c l a s s i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h r i l l e r " ; S F h i s t o r i a n a n d c r i t i c T h o m a s C l a r e s o n d e s c r i b e s a l l e i g h t a s " o u t s t a n d i n g " . D e C a m p , i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h F l e t c h e r P r a t t , c o n t r i b u t e d t h r e e s t o r i e s f e a t u r i n g H a r o l d S h e a , w h o f i n d s h i m s e l f i n a w o r l d w h e r e m a g i c o p e r a t e s b y r i g o r o u s r u l e s . T h e t i t l e o f o n e o f t h e s e , " T h e M a t h e m a t i c s o f M a g i c " , i s , a c c o r d i n g t o S F c r i t i c J o h n C l u t e , " p e r f e c t l y e x p r e s s i v e o f t h e t e r m s u n d e r w h i c h m a g i c f o u n d e a s y m e n t i o n i n " U n k n o w n " " . O t h e r " A s t o u n d i n g " w r i t e r s w h o w r o t e f o r " U n k n o w n " i n c l u d e d R o b e r t A . H e i n l e i n , w h o s e " T h e D e v i l M a k e s t h e L a w " ( r e p r i n t e d a s " M a g i c , I n c . " ) d e p i c t s a w o r l d w h e r e m a g i c i s a p a r t o f e v e r y d a y l i f e . H e i n l e i n a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d " T h e U n p l e a s a n t P r o f e s s i o n o f J o n a t h a n H o a g " a n d " T h e y " , d e s c r i b e d b y A s h l e y a s " p e r h a p s t h e u l t i m a t e s o l i p s i s t f a n t a s y " . A . E . v a n V o g t , a f r e q u e n t " A s t o u n d i n g " c o n t r i b u t o r , a p p e a r e d i n t h e f i n a l i s s u e w i t h " T h e B o o k o f P t a t h " ( l a t e r e x p a n d e d i n t o a n o v e l ) . I s a a c A s i m o v , d e s p i t e m u l t i p l e a t t e m p t s t o w r i t e f o r " U n k n o w n " , n e v e r a p p e a r e d i n t h e m a g a z i n e . O n h i s s i x t h a t t e m p t , h e s o l d " A u t h o r ! A u t h o r ! " t o C a m p b e l l , b u t t h e m a g a z i n e w a s c a n c e l e d b e f o r e i t c o u l d a p p e a r . I t e v e n t u a l l y a p p e a r e d i n t h e a n t h o l o g y " T h e U n k n o w n F i v e " . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e w r i t e r s o f " U n k n o w n " a n d " A s t o u n d i n g " , t h e r e w a s a g o o d d e a l o f o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e i r r e a d e r s h i p s : A s i m o v r e c o r d s t h a t d u r i n g t h e w a r , h e r e a d o n l y t h e s e t w o m a g a z i n e s . S F h i s t o r i a n P a u l C a r t e r h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e s p e c t r u m o f f a n t a s t i c f i c t i o n f r o m " W e i r d T a l e s " t h r o u g h " U n k n o w n " t o " A s t o u n d i n g " w a s f a r l e s s c l e a n l y s e p a r a t e d t h a n i s s o m e t i m e s a s s u m e d : m a n y s t o r i e s i n t h e e a r l y s c i e n c e f i c t i o n m a g a z i n e s s u c h a s " W o n d e r S t o r i e s " w e r e m o r e l i k e t h e w o r k s o f E d g a r A l l a n P o e t h a n t h e y w e r e t a l e s o f s c i e n t i f i c i m a g i n a t i o n . F r i t z L e i b e r ' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d s t o r y w a s " T w o S o u g h t A d v e n t u r e " , w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n t h e A u g u s t 1 9 3 9 i s s u e o f " U n k n o w n " ; t h i s w a s t h e f i r s t s t o r y i n h i s l o n g - r u n n i n g F a f h r d a n d t h e G r a y M o u s e r s e r i e s a b o u t a p a i r o f a d v e n t u r e r s i n a s w o r d a n d s o r c e r y s e t t i n g . F o u r m o r e F a f h r d a n d t h e G r a y M o u s e r s t o r i e s a p p e a r e d i n " U n k n o w n " i n a s m a n y y e a r s , a n d L e i b e r ' s n o v e l " C o n j u r e W i f e " , a b o u t a m a n w h o d i s c o v e r s t h a t a l l w o m e n a r e s e c r e t l y w i t c h e s , w a s t h e l e a d s t o r y i n t h e A p r i l 1 9 4 3 i s s u e . T h e p r o t a g o n i s t , a u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r , " i s f o r c e d t o a b a n d o n s c e p t i c i s m a n d d i s c o v e r t h e u n d e r l y i n g e q u a t i o n s o f m a g i c , v i a s y m b o l i c l o g i c " , i n c r i t i c D a v i d L a n g f o r d ' s d e s c r i p t i o n . L e i b e r a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d " S m o k e G h o s t " i n O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 , d e s c r i b e d b y A s h l e y a s " a r g u a b l y t h e f i r s t s e r i o u s l y m o d e r n g h o s t s t o r y " . A n o t h e r w r i t e r w h o s e f i r s t s t o r y a p p e a r e d i n " U n k n o w n " w a s J a m e s H . S c h m i t z , w h o s e " G r e e n f a c e " a p p e a r e d i n t h e A u g u s t 1 9 4 3 i s s u e . O t h e r n o t a b l e s t o r i e s t h a t a p p e a r e d i n " U n k n o w n " i n c l u d e J a c k W i l l i a m s o n ' s " D a r k e r T h a n Y o u T h i n k " ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 ) , w h i c h p r o v i d e s a s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s f o r a r a c e o f w e r e w o l v e s l i v i n g u n d e t e c t e d a l o n g s i d e h u m a n b e i n g s . E x p a n d e d i n t o a n o v e l i n 1 9 4 8 , i t r e m a i n s W i l l i a m s o n ' s b e s t - k n o w n f a n t a s y , a n d S F h i s t o r i a n M a l c o l m E d w a r d s c o m m e n t s t h a t t h e t w o p r o t a g o n i s t s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p i s " d e p i c t e d w i t h a t o r t u r e d ( a n d s t i l l h a u n t i n g ) e r o t i c f r a n k n e s s u n u s u a l i n g e n r e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e 1 9 4 0 s " . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e H a r o l d S h e a p i e c e s , d e C a m p p u b l i s h e d s e v e r a l o t h e r w e l l - r e c e i v e d s t o r i e s , i n c l u d i n g " T h e W h e e l s o f I f " ( O c t o b e r 1 9 4 0 ) a n d " L e s t D a r k n e s s F a l l " ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 9 ) , a n a l t e r n a t e h i s t o r y s t o r y a b o u t a t i m e - t r a v e l e r w h o a t t e m p t s t o s a v e t h e R o m a n E m p i r e f r o m t h e c o m i n g D a r k A g e s ; E d w a r d s a n d C l u t e c o m m e n t t h a t t h e s t o r y i s " t h e m o s t a c c o m p l i s h e d e a r l y e x c u r s i o n i n t o h i s t o r y i n m a g a z i n e S F , a n d i s r e g a r d e d a s a c l a s s i c " . A l s o h i g h l y r e g a r d e d i s W e l l m a n ' s " W h e n I t W a s M o o n l i g h t " ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 ) , a s t o r y a b o u t P o e . T h e f i r s t s i x t e e n i s s u e s o f " U n k n o w n " h a d c o v e r p a i n t i n g s , b u t f r o m J u l y 1 9 4 0 t h e c o v e r s t y l e w a s c h a n g e d t o a t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s , w i t h a s m a l l i n k d r a w i n g u s u a l l y a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e s u m m a r y o f e a c h s t o r y , i n a n a t t e m p t t o m a k e t h e m a g a z i n e a p p e a r m o r e d i g n i f i e d . T h e c o v e r a r t c a m e a l m o s t e n t i r e l y f r o m a r t i s t s w h o d i d n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o m a n y s c i e n c e f i c t i o n o r f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e s : s i x o f t h e s i x t e e n p a i n t i n g s w e r e b y H . W . S c o t t ; M a n u e l I s l i p , M o d e s t S t e i n , G r a v e s G l a d n e y , a n d E d d C a r t i e r p r o v i d e d t h e o t h e r s . C a r t i e r w a s t h e o n l y o n e o f t h e s e w h o r e g u l a r l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o S F a n d f a n t a s y p e r i o d i c a l s ; h e p a i n t e d f o u r o f " U n k n o w n " s l a s t s i x c o v e r s b e f o r e t h e c h a n g e t o a t e x t - h e a v y d e s i g n . " U n k n o w n " w a s , a l o n g w i t h " W e i r d T a l e s " , a n i m p o r t a n t e a r l y i n f l u e n c e o n t h e f a n t a s y g e n r e . I n t h e f o r e w o r d t o " F r o m U n k n o w n W o r l d s " , i n 1 9 4 8 , C a m p b e l l c o m m e n t e d t h a t f a n t a s y b e f o r e " U n k n o w n " h a d b e e n t o o m u c h i n f u s e d w i t h " g l o o m a n d t e r r o r " ; h i s a p p r o a c h i n " U n k n o w n " h a d b e e n t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e " c r e a t u r e s o f m y t h o l o g y a n d f o l k l o r e " c o u l d b e c h a r a c t e r s i n a n a m u s i n g t a l e a s e a s i l y a s t h e y c o u l d b e m a d e p a r t o f a h o r r o r s t o r y . H o r r o r s t o r i e s , h e s a i d , h a d a p l a c e , b u t " h o r r o r i n j e c t e d w i t h a s h a r p a n d p o i s o n e d n e e d l e i s j u s t a s e f f e c t i v e a s w h e n a p p l i e d w i t h t h e b l u n t - i n s t r u m e n t t e c h n i q u e o f t h e s o - c a l l e d G o t h i c h o r r o r t a l e " . C a m p b e l l i n s i s t e d o n t h e s a m e r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o f a n t a s y t h a t h e r e q u i r e d o f h i s s c i e n c e f i c t i o n w r i t e r s , a n d i n t h e w o r d s o f C l a r e s o n , t h i s l e d t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f " n o t o n l y t h e p r e v a l e n t n a r r a t i v e t o n e b u t a l s o m o s t o f t h e t r a p p i n g s t h a t h a d d o m i n a t e d f a n t a s y f r o m " T h e C a s t l e o f O t r a n t o " a n d " T h e M o n k " t h r o u g h t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o " W e i r d T a l e s " " . " U n k n o w n " q u i c k l y s e p a r a t e d i t s e l f f r o m " W e i r d T a l e s " , w h o s e f a n t a s i e s s t i l l p r i m a r i l y a i m e d t o p r o d u c e f e a r o r s h o c k . T h e c l o s e s t p r e d e c e s s o r t o " U n k n o w n " w a s T h o r n e S m i t h , w h o s e p r o h i b i t i o n - e r a " T o p p e r " s t o r i e s a l s o m i x e d f a n t a s y w i t h h u m o r . B e f o r e " U n k n o w n " , f a n t a s y h a d r e c e i v e d l i t t l e s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n , t h o u g h o n o c c a s i o n w r i t e r s s u c h a s J a m e s B r a n c h C a b e l l h a d a c h i e v e d r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . I n A s h l e y ' s o p i n i o n , " U n k n o w n " c r e a t e d t h e m o d e r n g e n r e o f f a n t a s y , t h o u g h c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s f o r t h e g e n r e h a d t o w a i t u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 0 s . C l a r e s o n a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t " U n k n o w n " i n f l u e n c e d t h e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n t h a t a p p e a r e d i n " A s t o u n d i n g " a f t e r " U n k n o w n " f o l d e d . A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s v i e w , s t o r i e s s u c h a s C l i f f o r d S i m a k ' s " C i t y " s e r i e s w o u l d n o t h a v e a p p e a r e d w i t h o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f g e n r e b o u n d a r i e s t h a t C a m p b e l l o v e r s a w . C l a r e s o n f u r t h e r p r o p o s e s t h a t " G a l a x y S c i e n c e F i c t i o n " a n d " T h e M a g a z i n e o f F a n t a s y & S c i e n c e F i c t i o n " , t w o o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d s u c c e s s f u l s c i e n c e f i c t i o n a n d f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e s , w e r e d i r e c t d e s c e n d a n t s o f " U n k n o w n " . " U n k n o w n " i s w i d e l y r e g a r d e d a s t h e f i n e s t f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e e v e r p u b l i s h e d : A s h l e y s a y s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t " " U n k n o w n " p u b l i s h e d w i t h o u t d o u b t t h e g r e a t e s t c o l l e c t i o n o f f a n t a s y s t o r i e s p r o d u c e d i n o n e m a g a z i n e . " D e s p i t e i t s l a c k o f c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s , " U n k n o w n " i s t h e m o s t l a m e n t e d o f a l l s c i e n c e f i c t i o n a n d f a n t a s y m a g a z i n e s ; L e s t e r d e l R e y d e s c r i b e s i t a s h a v i n g g a i n e d " a d e v o t i o n f r o m i t s r e a d e r s t h a t n o o t h e r m a g a z i n e c a n m a t c h " . E d w a r d s c o m m e n t s t h a t " U n k n o w n " " a p p e a r e d d u r i n g C a m p b e l l ' s p e a k y e a r s a s a n e d i t o r ; i t s r e p u t a t i o n m a y s t a n d a s h i g h a s i t d o e s p a r t l y b e c a u s e i t d i e d w h i l e s t i l l a t i t s b e s t " . " U n k n o w n " w a s e d i t e d b y J o h n W . C a m p b e l l a n d p u b l i s h e d b y S t r e e t & S m i t h P u b l i c a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t i t s r u n . I t w a s p u l p - s i z e d f r o m i t s l a u n c h t h r o u g h A u g u s t 1 9 4 1 , a n d t h e n b e d s h e e t - s i z e d f r o m O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 t o A p r i l 1 9 4 3 . T h e l a s t t h r e e i s s u e s w e r e p u l p - s i z e d a g a i n . S t r e e t & S m i t h h a d p l a n n e d t o s w i t c h i t t o d i g e s t s i z e w i t h t h e D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 3 i s s u e , b u t i t w a s c a n c e l e d b e f o r e t h a t i s s u e a p p e a r e d . T h e p r i c e b e g a n a t 2 0 c e n t s a n d r o s e t o 2 5 c e n t s w i t h t h e c h a n g e t o b e d s h e e t s i z e ; i t r e m a i n e d a t 2 5 c e n t s w h e n t h e s i z e c h a n g e d b a c k t o p u l p . I t h a d 1 6 4 p a g e s w h e n p u l p - s i z e d a n d 1 3 0 p a g e s w h i l e i t w a s b e d s h e e t - s i z e d . I t b e g a n a s a m o n t h l y a n d s w i t c h e d t o b i m o n t h l y f r o m D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 o n . T h e v o l u m e n u m b e r i n g w a s r e g u l a r , w i t h s i x v o l u m e s o f s i x n u m b e r s a n d a f i n a l v o l u m e o f t h r e e n u m b e r s . T h e t i t l e b e g a n a s s i m p l y " U n k n o w n " . I n D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 " F a n t a s y F i c t i o n " w a s a d d e d a s a s u b t i t l e , a n d f r o m t h e O c t o b e r 1 9 4 1 i s s u e t h e t i t l e b e c a m e " U n k n o w n W o r l d s " . T h e f i r s t s i x U . S . i s s u e s w e r e a v a i l a b l e d i r e c t l y i n t h e U K , b u t t h e r e a f t e r a n a b r i d g e d B r i t i s h r e p r i n t e d i t i o n w a s i s s u e d b y A t l a s P u b l i c a t i o n s , b e g i n n i n g i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 3 9 . I t w a s p u l p - s i z e d , a n d p r i c e d a t 9 d ( n i n e p e n c e ) t h r o u g h o u t . I t a p p e a r e d o n a r e g u l a r m o n t h l y s c h e d u l e u n t i l D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 0 , a f t e r w h i c h t h e s c h e d u l e b e c a m e q u i t e i r r e g u l a r , w i t h t w o o r t h r e e i s s u e s a p p e a r i n g e a c h y e a r u n t i l 1 9 4 9 . T h e v o l u m e n u m b e r i n g i n i t i a l l y f o l l o w e d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g U . S . e d i t i o n s , w i t h s o m e o m i t t e d n u m b e r s i n 1 9 4 2 a n d 1 9 4 3 , a n d t h e n d i s a p p e a r e d f o r f o u r i s s u e s ; f r o m t h e t w e n t y - e i g h t h i s s u e ( S p r i n g 1 9 4 5 ) t h e m a g a z i n e w a s n u m b e r e d a s i f i t h a d b e e n g i v e n v o l u m e s o f t w e l v e n u m b e r s s i n c e t h e s t a r t o f t h e r u n . T h e t i t l e w a s c h a n g e d f r o m " U n k n o w n " t o " U n k n o w n W o r l d s " w i t h t h e M a r c h 1 9 4 2 i s s u e . I n 1 9 4 8 , S t r e e t & S m i t h r e p r i n t e d s e v e r a l s t o r i e s f r o m " U n k n o w n " i n a b e d s h e e t - s i z e d m a g a z i n e f o r m a t , p r i c e d a t 2 5 c e n t s , w i t h t h e t i t l e " F r o m U n k n o w n W o r l d s " . T h i s w a s a n a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e r e w a s a m a r k e t f o r a r e v i v e d " U n k n o w n " . S t r e e t & S m i t h p r i n t e d 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 c o p i e s , a g a i n s t t h e a d v i c e o f J o h n C a m p b e l l , b u t a l t h o u g h i t s o l d b e t t e r t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l , t o o m a n y c o p i e s w e r e r e t u r n e d f o r t h e p u b l i s h e r t o b e w i l l i n g t o r e v i v e t h e m a g a z i n e . T h e i s s u e w a s r e p r i n t e d i n B r i t a i n i n 1 9 5 2 , r e d u c e d i n s i z e t o a n d c u t f r o m 1 3 0 p a g e s t o 1 2 4 ; i t w a s p r i c e d a t 2 / 6 ( t w o s h i l l i n g s a n d s i x p e n c e ) . P a r t o f t h e r u n w a s i s s u e d i n a h a r d c o v e r b i n d i n g a t a h i g h e r p r i c e . O n e s t o r y f r o m t h e U . S . v e r s i o n w a s o m i t t e d : " O n e M a n ' s H a r p " b y B a b e t t e R o s m o n d . T h r e e a n t h o l o g i e s o f s t o r i e s f r o m " U n k n o w n " w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s . " T h e U n k n o w n F i v e " i n c l u d e s f o u r s t o r i e s r e p r i n t e d f r o m " U n k n o w n " a n d t h e f i r s t p r i n t a p p e a r a n c e o f " A u t h o r ! A u t h o r ! " , b y I s a a c A s i m o v , w h i c h w a s s o l d t o " U n k n o w n " s h o r t l y b e f o r e S t r e e t & S m i t h s h u t i t d o w n . T w o a d d i t i o n a l " U n k n o w n " a n t h o l o g i e s w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h e l a t e 1 9 8 0 s .

Bibliographic details

The magazine "Unknown" was launched in March 1939 by Street & Smith Publications, edited by John W. Campbell. Initially a monthly, it switched to a bimonthly schedule in February 1941 due to poor sales. The subtitle "Fantasy Fiction" was added in December 1940, and the title changed to "Unknown Worlds" in October 1941. Due to wartime paper shortages, the magazine was cancelled in October 1943. During its run, "Unknown" featured rigorous fantasy stories with a scientific basis, including works by authors such as L. Ron Hubbard, Fritz Leiber, and Manly Wade Wellman. The magazine's reputation remains high, and it is considered one of the best fantasy magazines ever published.

in March 1939. It was a monthly at first, but poor sales forced a switch to a bimonthly schedule beginning in February 1941. In December 1940, the subtitle "Fantasy Fiction" was added, and in October 1941, the main title was changed to "Unknown Worlds"; both changes were intended to make the genre of the magazine clearer to potential readers. When wartime paper shortages became severe in late 1943, Campbell chose to keep "Astounding" monthly and cancel "Unknown", rather than switch the former to a bimonthly schedule as well. The last issue was dated October 1943. Campbell's plans for "Unknown" were laid out in the February 1939 issue of "Astounding", in the announcement of the new magazine. He argued that "it has been the quality of the fantasy that you have read in the past that has made the very word anathema ... ["Unknown"] will offer fantasy of a quality so far different from that which has appeared in the past as to change your entire understanding of the term". The first issue, the following month, led with Russell's "Sinister Barrier", the novel that had persuaded Campbell to set his plans for a fantasy magazine into motion: the plot, involving aliens who own the human race, has been described by SF historian Mike Ashley as "a strange mixture of science fiction and occult fantasy". Campbell asked Russell for revisions to the story to emphasize the fantastic elements but still demanded that Russell work out the logical implications of his premises. This became a defining characteristic of the fiction published in "Unknown"; in Ashley's words, Campbell "brought the science fiction rationale to fantasy". The first issue also contained Horace L. Gold's "Trouble with Water", a comic fantasy about a modern New Yorker who offends a water gnome; in its whimsicality and naturalistic merging of a modern background with a classic fantasy trope, "Trouble with Water" was a better indication than "Sinister Barrier" of the direction "Unknown" would take. Campbell commented in a letter at the time that "Sinister Barrier", "Trouble with Water", and Where Angels Fear ... by Manly Wade Wellman were the only stories in the first issue that accurately reflected his goals for the magazine. Under Campbell's editorial supervision, the fantasy element in "Unknown" stories had to be treated rigorously. This naturally led to provides a scientific basis for a race of werewolves living undetected alongside human beings. Expanded into a novel in 1948, it remains Williamson's best-known fantasy, and SF historian Malcolm Edwards comments that the two protagonists' relationship is "depicted with a tortured (and still haunting) erotic frankness unusual in genre literature of the 1940s". In addition to the Harold Shea pieces, de Camp published several other well-received stories, including "The Wheels of If" (October 1940) and "Lest Darkness Fall" (December 1939), an alternate history story about a time-traveler who attempts to save the Roman Empire from the coming Dark Ages; Edwards and Clute comment that the story is "the most accomplished early excursion into history in magazine SF, and is regarded as a classic". Also highly regarded is Wellman's Campbell's peak years as an editor; its reputation may stand as high as it does partly because it died while still at its best". "Unknown" was edited by John W. Campbell and published by Street & Smith Publications throughout its run. It was pulp-sized from its launch through August 1941, and then bedsheet-sized from October 1941 to April 1943. The last three issues were pulp-sized again. Street & Smith had planned to switch it to digest size with the December 1943 issue, but it was canceled before that issue appeared. The price began at 20 cents and rose to 25 cents with the change to bedsheet size; it remained at 25 cents when the size changed back to pulp. It had 164 pages when pulp-sized and 130 pages while it was bedsheet-sized. It began as a monthly and switched to bimonthly from December 1940 on. The volume numbering was regular, with six volumes of six numbers and a final volume of three numbers. The title began as simply "Unknown". In December 1940 "Fantasy Fiction" was added as a subtitle, and from the October 1941 issue the title became "Unknown Worlds". The first six U.S. issues were available directly in the UK, but thereafter an abridged British reprint edition was issued by Atlas Publications, beginning in September 1939. It was pulp-sized, and priced at 9d (nine pence) throughout. It appeared on a regular monthly schedule until December 1940, after which the schedule became quite irregular, with two or three issues appearing each year until 1949. The volume numbering initially followed the corresponding U.S. editions, with some omitted numbers in 1942 and 1943, and then disappeared for four issues; from the twenty-eighth issue (Spring 1945) the magazine was numbered as if it had been given volumes of twelve numbers since the start of the run. The title was changed from "Unknown" to "Unknown Worlds" with the March 1942 issue. In 1948, Street & Smith reprinted several stories from "Unknown" in a bedsheet-sized magazine format, priced at 25 cents, with the title "From Unknown Worlds". This was an attempt to determine if there was a market for a revived "Unknown". Street & Smith printed 300,000 copies, against the advice of John Campbell, but although it sold better than the original, too many copies were returned for the publisher to be willing to revive the magazine. The issue was reprinted in Britain in 1952, reduced in size to and cut from 130 pages to 124; it was priced at 2/6 (two shillings and six pence). Part of the run was issued in a hardcover binding at a higher price. One story from the U.S. version was omitted: "One Man's Harp" by Babette Rosmond. Three anthologies of stories from "Unknown" were published in the early 1960s. "The Unknown Five" includes four stories reprinted from "Unknown" and the first print appearance of "Author! Author!", by Isaac Asimov, which was sold to "Unknown" shortly before Street & Smith shut it down. Two additional "Unknown" anthologies were published in the late 1980s.

Sue Myrick

M y r i c k w a s b o r n i n 1 9 4 1 i n T i f f i n , O h i o . S h e g r a d u a t e d f r o m P o r t C l i n t o n H i g h S c h o o l i n P o r t C l i n t o n , O t t a w a C o u n t y , O h i o . S h e a t t e n d e d H e i d e l b e r g U n i v e r s i t y i n T i f f i n , S e n e c a C o u n t y , O h i o b e t w e e n 1 9 5 9 a n d 1 9 6 0 . P r i o r t o g o i n g i n t o p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s a n d a d v e r t i s i n g , s h e w a s a S u n d a y S c h o o l T e a c h e r . S h e i s t h e f o r m e r P r e s i d e n t a n d C E O o f M y r i c k A d v e r t i s i n g a n d P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s a n d M y r i c k E n t e r p r i s e s . M y r i c k r a n f o r a s e a t o n t h e C h a r l o t t e C i t y C o u n c i l u n s u c c e s s f u l l y i n 1 9 8 1 . I n 1 9 8 3 , s h e w a s e l e c t e d t o a n A t - L a r g e D i s t r i c t o f t h e C i t y C o u n c i l a n d s e r v e d u n t i l 1 9 8 5 . I n 1 9 8 7 , s h e w a s e l e c t e d a s t h e f i r s t f e m a l e M a y o r o f C h a r l o t t e , N o r t h C a r o l i n a . I n 1 9 8 9 , w h e n S u e M y r i c k w a s r u n n i n g f o r r e - e l e c t i o n a s m a y o r o f C h a r l o t t e , N C , s h e c o n f e s s e d t o h a v i n g h a d a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h e r h u s b a n d i n 1 9 7 3 w h i l e h e w a s s t i l l m a r r i e d t o h i s f o r m e r w i f e . ( S h e w e n t o n t o w i n t h e e l e c t i o n . ) I n 1 9 9 2 , s h e r a n f o r t h e n o m i n a t i o n f o r a U . S . S e n a t e s e a t , h e l d b y i n c u m b e n t D e m o c r a t i c U . S . S e n a t o r T e r r y S a n f o r d . T h e R e p u b l i c a n p r i m a r y w a s w o n b y L a u c h F a i r c l o t h , w h o d e f e a t e d M y r i c k a n d f o r m e r U . S . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e W a l t e r J o h n s t o n 4 8 % – 3 0 % – 1 7 % . I n 1 9 9 4 , M y r i c k w a s e l e c t e d t o t h e H o u s e , s u c c e e d i n g f i v e - t e r m i n c u m b e n t A l e x M c M i l l a n . M y r i c k w a s o v e r w h e l m i n g l y e l e c t e d t o h e r s i x t h c o n s e c u t i v e t e r m i n t h e 2 0 0 4 C o n g r e s s i o n a l e l e c t i o n s , e a r n i n g 7 0 % o f t h e p o p u l a r v o t e a n d d e f e a t i n g D e m o c r a t J a c k F l y n n . S i m i l a r l y , s h e d e f e a t e d D e m o c r a t W i l l i a m G l a s s i n 2 0 0 6 w i t h a l m o s t 6 7 % o f t h e v o t e . T w o C h a r l o t t e - a r e a D e m o c r a t s a n n o u n c e d c h a l l e n g e s t o M y r i c k i n 2 0 0 8 – H a r r y T a y l o r a n d R o s s O v e r b y . M y r i c k d e f e a t e d T a y l o r w i t h a l m o s t 6 3 % o f t h e v o t e . O n F e b r u a r y 7 , 2 0 1 2 , s h e a n n o u n c e d t h a t s h e w a s r e t i r i n g f r o m C o n g r e s s . I d e o l o g y M y r i c k w a s o n e o f t h e m o s t c o n s e r v a t i v e m e m b e r s o f t h e H o u s e . S h e c h a i r e d t h e R e p u b l i c a n S t u d y C o m m i t t e e , a g r o u p o f H o u s e c o n s e r v a t i v e s , i n t h e 1 0 8 t h C o n g r e s s . B e i n g a c a n c e r s u r v i v o r h e r s e l f , s h e h a s b e e n o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g a d v o c a t e s t o f i n d a c u r e f o r b r e a s t c a n c e r . W h i l e i n C o n g r e s s s h e i n t r o d u c e d a b i l l t o p r o v i d e t r e a t m e n t f o r w o m e n o n M e d i c a i d d i a g n o s e d w i t h b r e a s t c a n c e r - t h e b i l l p a s s e d a n d w a s s i g n e d i n t o l a w - p r e v i o u s l y w o m e n d i a g n o s e d u n d e r M e d i c a i d h a d n o t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s . M y r i c k w a s o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g R e p u b l i c a n o p p o n e n t s o f a n a b o r t i v e 2 0 0 6 s a l e o f o p e r a t i o n s a t s i x m a j o r A m e r i c a n p o r t s a l o n g t h e E a s t C o a s t t o D u b a i P o r t s W o r l d , a s t a t e - o w n e d c o m p a n y f r o m t h e U n i t e d A r a b E m i r a t e s . I n a F e b r u a r y 2 2 , 2 0 0 6 , l e t t e r t o P r e s i d e n t B u s h , M y r i c k w r o t e : " I n r e g a r d s t o s e l l i n g A m e r i c a n p o r t s t o t h e U n i t e d A r a b E m i r a t e s , n o t j u s t N O — b u t H E L L N O ! " . S u e i s a w i f e a n d a m o t h e r o f t w o c h i l d r e n a n d t h r e e s t e p - c h i l d r e n . S h e a n d h e r h u s b a n d , E d M y r i c k , h a v e 1 2 g r a n d c h i l d r e n a n d 7 g r e a t g r a n d c h i l d r e n . H e r s e c o n d s o n , D a n F o r e s t , w a s e l e c t e d L i e u t e n a n t G o v e r n o r o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a i n 2 0 1 2 .

U.S. House of Representatives

There is no information about the U.S. House of Representatives in this text.

Myrick was born in 1941 in Tiffin, Ohio. She graduated from Port Clinton High School in Port Clinton, Ottawa County, Ohio. She attended Heidelberg University in Tiffin, Seneca County, Ohio between 1959 and 1960. Prior to going into public relations and advertising, she was a Sunday School Teacher. She is the former President and CEO of Myrick Advertising and Public Relations and Myrick Enterprises. Myrick ran for a seat on the Charlotte City Council unsuccessfully in 1981. In 1983, she was elected to an At-Large District of the City Council and served until 1985. In 1987, she was elected as the first female Mayor of Charlotte, North Carolina. In 1989, when Sue Myrick was running for re-election as mayor of Charlotte, NC, she confessed to having had a relationship with her husband in 1973 while he was still married to his former wife. (She went on to win the election.) In 1992, she ran for the nomination for a U.S. Senate seat, held by incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Terry Sanford. The Republican primary was won by Lauch Faircloth, who defeated Myrick and former U.S. Representative Walter Johnston 48%–30%–17%. In 1994, Myrick was elected to the House, succeeding five-term incumbent Alex McMillan. Myrick was overwhelmingly elected to her sixth consecutive term in the 2004 Congressional elections, earning 70% of the popular vote and defeating Democrat Jack Flynn. Similarly, she defeated Democrat William Glass in 2006 with almost 67% of the vote. Two Charlotte-area Democrats announced challenges to Myrick in 2008 – Harry Taylor and Ross Overby. Myrick defeated Taylor with almost 63% of the vote. On February 7, 2012, she announced that she was retiring from Congress. Ideology Myrick was one of the most conservative members of the House. She chaired the Republican Study Committee, a group of House conservatives, in the 108th Congress. Being a cancer survivor herself, she has been one of the leading advocates to find a cure for breast cancer. While in Congress she introduced a bill to provide treatment for women on Medicaid diagnosed with breast cancer - the bill passed and was signed into law - previously women diagnosed under Medicaid had no treatment options. Myrick was one of the leading Republican opponents of an abortive 2006 sale of operations at six major American ports along the East Coast to Dubai Ports World, a state-owned company from the United Arab Emirates. In a February 22, 2006, letter to President Bush, Myrick wrote: "In regards to selling American ports to the United Arab Emirates, not just NO—but HELL NO!". Sue is a wife and a mother of two children and three step-children. She and her husband, Ed Myrick, have 12 grandchildren and 7 great grandchildren. Her second son, Dan Forest, was elected Lieutenant Governor of North Carolina in 2012.

Sue Myrick

M y r i c k w a s b o r n i n 1 9 4 1 i n T i f f i n , O h i o . S h e g r a d u a t e d f r o m P o r t C l i n t o n H i g h S c h o o l i n P o r t C l i n t o n , O t t a w a C o u n t y , O h i o . S h e a t t e n d e d H e i d e l b e r g U n i v e r s i t y i n T i f f i n , S e n e c a C o u n t y , O h i o b e t w e e n 1 9 5 9 a n d 1 9 6 0 . P r i o r t o g o i n g i n t o p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s a n d a d v e r t i s i n g , s h e w a s a S u n d a y S c h o o l T e a c h e r . S h e i s t h e f o r m e r P r e s i d e n t a n d C E O o f M y r i c k A d v e r t i s i n g a n d P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s a n d M y r i c k E n t e r p r i s e s . M y r i c k r a n f o r a s e a t o n t h e C h a r l o t t e C i t y C o u n c i l u n s u c c e s s f u l l y i n 1 9 8 1 . I n 1 9 8 3 , s h e w a s e l e c t e d t o a n A t - L a r g e D i s t r i c t o f t h e C i t y C o u n c i l a n d s e r v e d u n t i l 1 9 8 5 . I n 1 9 8 7 , s h e w a s e l e c t e d a s t h e f i r s t f e m a l e M a y o r o f C h a r l o t t e , N o r t h C a r o l i n a . I n 1 9 8 9 , w h e n S u e M y r i c k w a s r u n n i n g f o r r e - e l e c t i o n a s m a y o r o f C h a r l o t t e , N C , s h e c o n f e s s e d t o h a v i n g h a d a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h e r h u s b a n d i n 1 9 7 3 w h i l e h e w a s s t i l l m a r r i e d t o h i s f o r m e r w i f e . ( S h e w e n t o n t o w i n t h e e l e c t i o n . ) I n 1 9 9 2 , s h e r a n f o r t h e n o m i n a t i o n f o r a U . S . S e n a t e s e a t , h e l d b y i n c u m b e n t D e m o c r a t i c U . S . S e n a t o r T e r r y S a n f o r d . T h e R e p u b l i c a n p r i m a r y w a s w o n b y L a u c h F a i r c l o t h , w h o d e f e a t e d M y r i c k a n d f o r m e r U . S . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e W a l t e r J o h n s t o n 4 8 % – 3 0 % – 1 7 % . I n 1 9 9 4 , M y r i c k w a s e l e c t e d t o t h e H o u s e , s u c c e e d i n g f i v e - t e r m i n c u m b e n t A l e x M c M i l l a n . M y r i c k w a s o v e r w h e l m i n g l y e l e c t e d t o h e r s i x t h c o n s e c u t i v e t e r m i n t h e 2 0 0 4 C o n g r e s s i o n a l e l e c t i o n s , e a r n i n g 7 0 % o f t h e p o p u l a r v o t e a n d d e f e a t i n g D e m o c r a t J a c k F l y n n . S i m i l a r l y , s h e d e f e a t e d D e m o c r a t W i l l i a m G l a s s i n 2 0 0 6 w i t h a l m o s t 6 7 % o f t h e v o t e . T w o C h a r l o t t e - a r e a D e m o c r a t s a n n o u n c e d c h a l l e n g e s t o M y r i c k i n 2 0 0 8 – H a r r y T a y l o r a n d R o s s O v e r b y . M y r i c k d e f e a t e d T a y l o r w i t h a l m o s t 6 3 % o f t h e v o t e . O n F e b r u a r y 7 , 2 0 1 2 , s h e a n n o u n c e d t h a t s h e w a s r e t i r i n g f r o m C o n g r e s s . I d e o l o g y M y r i c k w a s o n e o f t h e m o s t c o n s e r v a t i v e m e m b e r s o f t h e H o u s e . S h e c h a i r e d t h e R e p u b l i c a n S t u d y C o m m i t t e e , a g r o u p o f H o u s e c o n s e r v a t i v e s , i n t h e 1 0 8 t h C o n g r e s s . B e i n g a c a n c e r s u r v i v o r h e r s e l f , s h e h a s b e e n o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g a d v o c a t e s t o f i n d a c u r e f o r b r e a s t c a n c e r . W h i l e i n C o n g r e s s s h e i n t r o d u c e d a b i l l t o p r o v i d e t r e a t m e n t f o r w o m e n o n M e d i c a i d d i a g n o s e d w i t h b r e a s t c a n c e r - t h e b i l l p a s s e d a n d w a s s i g n e d i n t o l a w - p r e v i o u s l y w o m e n d i a g n o s e d u n d e r M e d i c a i d h a d n o t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s . M y r i c k w a s o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g R e p u b l i c a n o p p o n e n t s o f a n a b o r t i v e 2 0 0 6 s a l e o f o p e r a t i o n s a t s i x m a j o r A m e r i c a n p o r t s a l o n g t h e E a s t C o a s t t o D u b a i P o r t s W o r l d , a s t a t e - o w n e d c o m p a n y f r o m t h e U n i t e d A r a b E m i r a t e s . I n a F e b r u a r y 2 2 , 2 0 0 6 , l e t t e r t o P r e s i d e n t B u s h , M y r i c k w r o t e : " I n r e g a r d s t o s e l l i n g A m e r i c a n p o r t s t o t h e U n i t e d A r a b E m i r a t e s , n o t j u s t N O — b u t H E L L N O ! " . S u e i s a w i f e a n d a m o t h e r o f t w o c h i l d r e n a n d t h r e e s t e p - c h i l d r e n . S h e a n d h e r h u s b a n d , E d M y r i c k , h a v e 1 2 g r a n d c h i l d r e n a n d 7 g r e a t g r a n d c h i l d r e n . H e r s e c o n d s o n , D a n F o r e s t , w a s e l e c t e d L i e u t e n a n t G o v e r n o r o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a i n 2 0 1 2 .

U.S. House of Representatives ; Elections

Sue Myrick, born in 1941, served as the first female Mayor of Charlotte, North Carolina, before being elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1994. She represented North Carolina's 9th congressional district for nine terms, becoming one of the most conservative members of the House. During her tenure, she advocated for breast cancer research and opposed the sale of American ports to the UAE. She retired from Congress in 2012.

Myrick was born in 1941 in Tiffin, Ohio. She graduated from Port Clinton High School in Port Clinton, Ottawa County, Ohio. She attended Heidelberg University in Tiffin, Seneca County, Ohio between 1959 and 1960. Prior to going into public relations and advertising, she was a Sunday School Teacher. She is the former President and CEO of Myrick Advertising and Public Relations and Myrick Enterprises. Myrick ran for a seat on the Charlotte City Council unsuccessfully in 1981. In 1983, she was elected to an At-Large District of the City Council and served until 1985. In 1987, she was elected as the first female Mayor of Charlotte, North Carolina. In 1989, when Sue Myrick was running for re-election as mayor of Charlotte, NC, she confessed to having had a relationship with her husband in 1973 while he was still married to his former wife. (She went on to win the election.) In 1992, she ran for the nomination for a U.S. Senate seat, held by incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Terry Sanford. The Republican primary was won by Lauch Faircloth, who defeated Myrick and former U.S. Representative Walter Johnston 48%–30%–17%. In 1994, Myrick was elected to the House, succeeding five-term incumbent Alex McMillan. Myrick was overwhelmingly elected to her sixth consecutive term in the 2004 Congressional elections, earning 70% of the popular vote and defeating Democrat Jack Flynn. Similarly, she defeated Democrat William Glass in 2006 with almost 67% of the vote. Two Charlotte-area Democrats announced challenges to Myrick in 2008 – Harry Taylor and Ross Overby. Myrick defeated Taylor with almost 63% of the vote. On February 7, 2012, she announced that she was retiring from Congress. Ideology Myrick was one of the most conservative members of the House. She chaired the Republican Study Committee, a group of House conservatives, in the 108th Congress. Being a cancer survivor herself, she has been one of the leading advocates to find a cure for breast cancer. While in Congress she introduced a bill to provide treatment for women on Medicaid diagnosed with breast cancer - the bill passed and was signed into law - previously women diagnosed under Medicaid had no treatment options. Myrick was one of the leading Republican opponents of an abortive 2006 sale of operations at six major American ports along the East Coast to Dubai Ports World, a state-owned company from the United Arab Emirates. In a February 22, 2006, letter to President Bush, Myrick wrote: "In regards to selling American ports to the United Arab Emirates, not just NO—but HELL NO!". Sue is a wife and a mother of two children and three step-children. She and her husband, Ed Myrick, have 12 grandchildren and 7 great grandchildren. Her second son, Dan Forest, was elected Lieutenant Governor of North Carolina in 2012.

Clifford Sifton

S i f t o n w a s b o r n i n M i d d l e s e x C o u n t y , C a n a d a W e s t ( n o w O n t a r i o ) . S i f t o n ' s f a t h e r , J o h n W r i g h t S i f t o n , w a s a c o n t r a c t o r a n d b u s i n e s s m a n w h o m o v e d w i t h h i s f a m i l y t o M a n i t o b a w h e n S i f t o n w a s a b o y . S i f t o n t r a i n e d a s a l a w y e r a n d g r a d u a t e d f r o m V i c t o r i a U n i v e r s i t y i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o , w h e r e h e w a s t h e f o u n d i n g m a n a g e r o f " A c t a V i c t o r i a n a " . S i f t o n w o r k e d o n h i s f a t h e r ' s p o l i t i c a l c a m p a i g n s b e f o r e b e i n g h i m s e l f e l e c t e d t o t h e l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l y o f M a n i t o b a i n 1 8 8 8 . S i f t o n s e r v e d i n t h e c a b i n e t o f T h o m a s G r e e n w a y f r o m 1 8 9 1 t o 1 8 9 6 a s a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l a n d P r o v i n c i a l L a n d s C o m m i s s i o n e r . H e p l a y e d a r o l e i n n e g o t i a t i n g t h e L a u r i e r - G r e e n w a y C o m p r o m i s e , w h i c h t e m p o r a r i l y r e s o l v e d t h e M a n i t o b a S c h o o l s Q u e s t i o n . I n 1 8 9 6 , S i f t o n w a s f i r s t e l e c t e d a M e m b e r o f P a r l i a m e n t a f t e r b e i n g a c c l a i m e d i n a b y - e l e c t i o n i n B r a n d o n . H e w a s r e - e l e c t e d i n t h e 1 9 0 0 C a n a d i a n f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n a g a i n s t a s t r o n g c h a l l e n g e f r o m f o r m e r M a n i t o b a p r e m i e r H u g h J o h n M a c d o n a l d . S i f t o n w o u l d b e r e - e l e c t e d t w o m o r e t i m e s , i n 1 9 0 4 a n d 1 9 0 8 . S i f t o n w a s a p p o i n t e d M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r u n d e r L a u r i e r a n d i m p l e m e n t e d a v i g o r o u s i m m i g r a t i o n p o l i c y t o e n c o u r a g e p e o p l e t o s e t t l e a n d p o p u l a t e t h e W e s t . S i f t o n e s t a b l i s h e d c o l o n i a l o f f i c e s i n E u r o p e a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . H e e n t i c e d p e o p l e t o c o m e t o w e s t e r n C a n a d a . W h i l e m a n y o f t h e i m m i g r a n t s c a m e f r o m B r i t a i n a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e r e w a s a l s o , t o C a n a d a , a l a r g e i n f l u x o f U k r a i n i a n s , S c a n d i n a v i a n s , D o u k h o b o r s , a n d o t h e r g r o u p s f r o m t h e A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n E m p i r e . H e f a m o u s l y d e f e n d e d t h e " s t a l w a r t p e a s a n t s i n s h e e p - s k i n c o a t s " w h o w e r e t u r n i n g s o m e o f t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t p a r t s o f t h e w e s t e r n p l a i n s i n t o p r o d u c t i v e f a r m s . B e t w e e n 1 8 9 1 a n d 1 9 1 4 , m o r e t h a n t h r e e m i l l i o n p e o p l e c a m e t o C a n a d a , l a r g e l y f r o m c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e , f o l l o w i n g t h e p a t h o f t h e n e w l y c o n s t r u c t e d t r a n s c o n t i n e n t a l r a i l w a y . I n t h e s a m e p e r i o d , m i n i n g i n d u s t r i e s w e r e b e g u n i n t h e K l o n d i k e a n d t h e C a n a d i a n S h i e l d . A f t e r p r e s i d i n g o v e r t h e c r e a t i o n o f A l b e r t a a n d S a s k a t c h e w a n i n 1 9 0 5 , S i f t o n r e s i g n e d f r o m c a b i n e t f o l l o w i n g a d i s p u t e w i t h L a u r i e r o v e r r e l i g i o u s e d u c a t i o n . E s p e c i a l l y l a t e r i n h i s l i f e , S i f t o n b a t t l e d i n c r e a s i n g d e a f n e s s , w h i c h p r e c l u d e d a n y f u r t h e r p o t e n t i a l p o l i t i c a l a d v a n c e s . S i f t o n r e t i r e d f r o m p o l i t i c s i n 1 9 1 1 b u t c r u s a d e d a g a i n s t t h e g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y o f r e c i p r o c i t y , b e c a u s e h e b e l i e v e d t h a t i n c r e a s e d e c o n o m i c i n t e g r a t i o n b e t w e e n C a n a d a a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d r e s u l t i n C a n a d a b e i n g t a k e n o v e r b y t h e A m e r i c a n s . S i f t o n d i e d i n 1 9 2 9 i n N e w Y o r k C i t y , w h e r e h e h a d b e e n v i s i t i n g a h e a r t s p e c i a l i s t . H e l e f t a f o r t u n e e s t i m a t e d a t $ 3 . 2   m i l l i o n , e q u i v a l e n t t o a b o u t $ i n p r e s e n t - d a y t e r m i n o l o g y . S i f t o n i s b u r i e d a t M o u n t P l e a s a n t C e m e t e r y , T o r o n t o . S i f t o n , t h e n a y o u n g l a w y e r , w a s m a r r i e d i n W i n n i p e g , M a n i t o b a , o n A u g u s t 1 8 , 1 8 8 4 , t o E l i z a b e t h A r m a n e l l a B u r r o w s . S h e w a s t h e d a u g h t e r o f H e n r y J a m e s B u r r o w s a n d h i s w i f e , S a r a h S p a r k s . E l i z a b e t h w a s b o r n i n O t t a w a , O n t a r i o , a n d e d u c a t e d a t t h e O t t a w a L a d i e s ' C o l l e g e . T h e c o u p l e h a d f i v e s o n s . S h e f o u n d e d a n d p r e s i d e d o v e r t h e W o m a n ' s C h r i s t i a n T e m p e r a n c e U n i o n ( W C T U ) i n B r a n d o n , M a n i t o b a . H i s b r o t h e r - i n - l a w T h e o d o r e A r t h u r B u r r o w s w o u l d a l s o s e r v e a s a L i b e r a l M P i n t h e L a u r i e r g o v e r n m e n t , a n d h e w a s l a t e r a p p o i n t e d t h e t e n t h L i e u t e n a n t G o v e r n o r o f M a n i t o b a . H i s b r o t h e r A r t h u r S i f t o n s e r v e d a s t h e s e c o n d P r e m i e r o f A l b e r t a . T h e r e i s a C l i f f o r d S i f t o n f o n d s a t L i b r a r y a n d A r c h i v e s C a n a d a .

Political career

Clifford Sifton was a Canadian politician who served in the legislative assembly of Manitoba and as a Member of Parliament. He held various cabinet positions, including Attorney General and Minister of the Interior, and played a key role in negotiating the Laurier-Greenway Compromise. Sifton implemented an immigration policy that encouraged settlement in Western Canada, resulting in over three million new arrivals between 1891 and 1914. He resigned from cabinet in 1905 due to a dispute with Prime Minister Laurier and later crusaded against reciprocity with the US.

Sifton was born in Middlesex County, Canada West (now Ontario). Sifton's father, John Wright Sifton, was a contractor and businessman who moved with his family to Manitoba when Sifton was a boy. Sifton trained as a lawyer and graduated from Victoria University in the University of Toronto, where he was the founding manager of "Acta Victoriana". Sifton worked on his father's political campaigns before being himself elected to the legislative assembly of Manitoba in 1888. Sifton served in the cabinet of Thomas Greenway from 1891 to 1896 as attorney general and Provincial Lands Commissioner. He played a role in negotiating the Laurier-Greenway Compromise, which temporarily resolved the Manitoba Schools Question. In 1896, Sifton was first elected a Member of Parliament after being acclaimed in a by-election in Brandon. He was re-elected in the 1900 Canadian federal election against a strong challenge from former Manitoba premier Hugh John Macdonald. Sifton would be re-elected two more times, in 1904 and 1908. Sifton was appointed Minister of the Interior under Laurier and implemented a vigorous immigration policy to encourage people to settle and populate the West. Sifton established colonial offices in Europe and the United States. He enticed people to come to western Canada. While many of the immigrants came from Britain and the United States, there was also, to Canada, a large influx of Ukrainians, Scandinavians, Doukhobors, and other groups from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He famously defended the "stalwart peasants in sheep-skin coats" who were turning some of the most difficult parts of the western plains into productive farms. Between 1891 and 1914, more than three million people came to Canada, largely from continental Europe, following the path of the newly constructed transcontinental railway. In the same period, mining industries were begun in the Klondike and the Canadian Shield. After presiding over the creation of Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1905, Sifton resigned from cabinet following a dispute with Laurier over religious education. Especially later in his life, Sifton battled increasing deafness, which precluded any further potential political advances. Sifton retired from politics in 1911 but crusaded against the government policy of reciprocity, because he believed that increased economic integration between Canada and the United States would result in Canada being taken over by the Americans. Sifton died in 1929 in New York City, where he had been visiting a heart specialist. He left a fortune estimated at $3.2 million, equivalent to about $ in present-day terminology. Sifton is buried at Mount Pleasant Cemetery, Toronto. Sifton, then a young lawyer, was married in Winnipeg, Manitoba, on August 18, 1884, to Elizabeth Armanella Burrows. She was the daughter of Henry James Burrows and his wife, Sarah Sparks. Elizabeth was born in Ottawa, Ontario, and educated at the Ottawa Ladies' College. The couple had five sons. She founded and presided over the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) in Brandon, Manitoba. His brother-in-law Theodore Arthur Burrows would also serve as a Liberal MP in the Laurier government, and he was later appointed the tenth Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba. His brother Arthur Sifton served as the second Premier of Alberta. There is a Clifford Sifton fonds at Library and Archives Canada.

Clifford Sifton

S i f t o n w a s b o r n i n M i d d l e s e x C o u n t y , C a n a d a W e s t ( n o w O n t a r i o ) . S i f t o n ' s f a t h e r , J o h n W r i g h t S i f t o n , w a s a c o n t r a c t o r a n d b u s i n e s s m a n w h o m o v e d w i t h h i s f a m i l y t o M a n i t o b a w h e n S i f t o n w a s a b o y . S i f t o n t r a i n e d a s a l a w y e r a n d g r a d u a t e d f r o m V i c t o r i a U n i v e r s i t y i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o , w h e r e h e w a s t h e f o u n d i n g m a n a g e r o f " A c t a V i c t o r i a n a " . S i f t o n w o r k e d o n h i s f a t h e r ' s p o l i t i c a l c a m p a i g n s b e f o r e b e i n g h i m s e l f e l e c t e d t o t h e l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l y o f M a n i t o b a i n 1 8 8 8 . S i f t o n s e r v e d i n t h e c a b i n e t o f T h o m a s G r e e n w a y f r o m 1 8 9 1 t o 1 8 9 6 a s a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l a n d P r o v i n c i a l L a n d s C o m m i s s i o n e r . H e p l a y e d a r o l e i n n e g o t i a t i n g t h e L a u r i e r - G r e e n w a y C o m p r o m i s e , w h i c h t e m p o r a r i l y r e s o l v e d t h e M a n i t o b a S c h o o l s Q u e s t i o n . I n 1 8 9 6 , S i f t o n w a s f i r s t e l e c t e d a M e m b e r o f P a r l i a m e n t a f t e r b e i n g a c c l a i m e d i n a b y - e l e c t i o n i n B r a n d o n . H e w a s r e - e l e c t e d i n t h e 1 9 0 0 C a n a d i a n f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n a g a i n s t a s t r o n g c h a l l e n g e f r o m f o r m e r M a n i t o b a p r e m i e r H u g h J o h n M a c d o n a l d . S i f t o n w o u l d b e r e - e l e c t e d t w o m o r e t i m e s , i n 1 9 0 4 a n d 1 9 0 8 . S i f t o n w a s a p p o i n t e d M i n i s t e r o f t h e I n t e r i o r u n d e r L a u r i e r a n d i m p l e m e n t e d a v i g o r o u s i m m i g r a t i o n p o l i c y t o e n c o u r a g e p e o p l e t o s e t t l e a n d p o p u l a t e t h e W e s t . S i f t o n e s t a b l i s h e d c o l o n i a l o f f i c e s i n E u r o p e a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . H e e n t i c e d p e o p l e t o c o m e t o w e s t e r n C a n a d a . W h i l e m a n y o f t h e i m m i g r a n t s c a m e f r o m B r i t a i n a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e r e w a s a l s o , t o C a n a d a , a l a r g e i n f l u x o f U k r a i n i a n s , S c a n d i n a v i a n s , D o u k h o b o r s , a n d o t h e r g r o u p s f r o m t h e A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n E m p i r e . H e f a m o u s l y d e f e n d e d t h e " s t a l w a r t p e a s a n t s i n s h e e p - s k i n c o a t s " w h o w e r e t u r n i n g s o m e o f t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t p a r t s o f t h e w e s t e r n p l a i n s i n t o p r o d u c t i v e f a r m s . B e t w e e n 1 8 9 1 a n d 1 9 1 4 , m o r e t h a n t h r e e m i l l i o n p e o p l e c a m e t o C a n a d a , l a r g e l y f r o m c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e , f o l l o w i n g t h e p a t h o f t h e n e w l y c o n s t r u c t e d t r a n s c o n t i n e n t a l r a i l w a y . I n t h e s a m e p e r i o d , m i n i n g i n d u s t r i e s w e r e b e g u n i n t h e K l o n d i k e a n d t h e C a n a d i a n S h i e l d . A f t e r p r e s i d i n g o v e r t h e c r e a t i o n o f A l b e r t a a n d S a s k a t c h e w a n i n 1 9 0 5 , S i f t o n r e s i g n e d f r o m c a b i n e t f o l l o w i n g a d i s p u t e w i t h L a u r i e r o v e r r e l i g i o u s e d u c a t i o n . E s p e c i a l l y l a t e r i n h i s l i f e , S i f t o n b a t t l e d i n c r e a s i n g d e a f n e s s , w h i c h p r e c l u d e d a n y f u r t h e r p o t e n t i a l p o l i t i c a l a d v a n c e s . S i f t o n r e t i r e d f r o m p o l i t i c s i n 1 9 1 1 b u t c r u s a d e d a g a i n s t t h e g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y o f r e c i p r o c i t y , b e c a u s e h e b e l i e v e d t h a t i n c r e a s e d e c o n o m i c i n t e g r a t i o n b e t w e e n C a n a d a a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d r e s u l t i n C a n a d a b e i n g t a k e n o v e r b y t h e A m e r i c a n s . S i f t o n d i e d i n 1 9 2 9 i n N e w Y o r k C i t y , w h e r e h e h a d b e e n v i s i t i n g a h e a r t s p e c i a l i s t . H e l e f t a f o r t u n e e s t i m a t e d a t $ 3 . 2   m i l l i o n , e q u i v a l e n t t o a b o u t $ i n p r e s e n t - d a y t e r m i n o l o g y . S i f t o n i s b u r i e d a t M o u n t P l e a s a n t C e m e t e r y , T o r o n t o . S i f t o n , t h e n a y o u n g l a w y e r , w a s m a r r i e d i n W i n n i p e g , M a n i t o b a , o n A u g u s t 1 8 , 1 8 8 4 , t o E l i z a b e t h A r m a n e l l a B u r r o w s . S h e w a s t h e d a u g h t e r o f H e n r y J a m e s B u r r o w s a n d h i s w i f e , S a r a h S p a r k s . E l i z a b e t h w a s b o r n i n O t t a w a , O n t a r i o , a n d e d u c a t e d a t t h e O t t a w a L a d i e s ' C o l l e g e . T h e c o u p l e h a d f i v e s o n s . S h e f o u n d e d a n d p r e s i d e d o v e r t h e W o m a n ' s C h r i s t i a n T e m p e r a n c e U n i o n ( W C T U ) i n B r a n d o n , M a n i t o b a . H i s b r o t h e r - i n - l a w T h e o d o r e A r t h u r B u r r o w s w o u l d a l s o s e r v e a s a L i b e r a l M P i n t h e L a u r i e r g o v e r n m e n t , a n d h e w a s l a t e r a p p o i n t e d t h e t e n t h L i e u t e n a n t G o v e r n o r o f M a n i t o b a . H i s b r o t h e r A r t h u r S i f t o n s e r v e d a s t h e s e c o n d P r e m i e r o f A l b e r t a . T h e r e i s a C l i f f o r d S i f t o n f o n d s a t L i b r a r y a n d A r c h i v e s C a n a d a .

Political career ; Federal politics: Minister of the Interior

Clifford Sifton was a Canadian politician who served as Minister of the Interior under Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier. Born in Ontario, Sifton moved to Manitoba with his family and became involved in politics, serving in the provincial legislature and later being elected to the House of Commons. As Minister of the Interior, Sifton implemented an aggressive immigration policy, encouraging settlers to move to Western Canada and establishing colonial offices in Europe and the US. During his tenure, over three million people immigrated to Canada, contributing to the development of the country's mining industries and the creation of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Sifton resigned from cabinet in 1905 due to disagreements with Laurier over religious education and later campaigned against reciprocity with the US.

Sifton was born in Middlesex County, Canada West (now Ontario). Sifton's father, John Wright Sifton, was a contractor and businessman who moved with his family to Manitoba when Sifton was a boy. Sifton trained as a lawyer and graduated from Victoria University in the University of Toronto, where he was the founding manager of "Acta Victoriana". Sifton worked on his father's political campaigns before being himself elected to the legislative assembly of Manitoba in 1888. Sifton served in the cabinet of Thomas Greenway from 1891 to 1896 as attorney general and Provincial Lands Commissioner. He played a role in negotiating the Laurier-Greenway Compromise, which temporarily resolved the Manitoba Schools Question. In 1896, Sifton was first elected a Member of Parliament after being acclaimed in a by-election in Brandon. He was re-elected in the 1900 Canadian federal election against a strong challenge from former Manitoba premier Hugh John Macdonald. Sifton would be re-elected two more times, in 1904 and 1908. Sifton was appointed Minister of the Interior under Laurier and implemented a vigorous immigration policy to encourage people to settle and populate the West. Sifton established colonial offices in Europe and the United States. He enticed people to come to western Canada. While many of the immigrants came from Britain and the United States, there was also, to Canada, a large influx of Ukrainians, Scandinavians, Doukhobors, and other groups from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He famously defended the "stalwart peasants in sheep-skin coats" who were turning some of the most difficult parts of the western plains into productive farms. Between 1891 and 1914, more than three million people came to Canada, largely from continental Europe, following the path of the newly constructed transcontinental railway. In the same period, mining industries were begun in the Klondike and the Canadian Shield. After presiding over the creation of Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1905, Sifton resigned from cabinet following a dispute with Laurier over religious education. Especially later in his life, Sifton battled increasing deafness, which precluded any further potential political advances. Sifton retired from politics in 1911 but crusaded against the government policy of reciprocity, because he believed that increased economic integration between Canada and the United States would result in Canada being taken over by the Americans. Sifton died in 1929 in New York City, where he had been visiting a heart specialist. He left a fortune estimated at $3.2 million, equivalent to about $ in present-day terminology. Sifton is buried at Mount Pleasant Cemetery, Toronto. Sifton, then a young lawyer, was married in Winnipeg, Manitoba, on August 18, 1884, to Elizabeth Armanella Burrows. She was the daughter of Henry James Burrows and his wife, Sarah Sparks. Elizabeth was born in Ottawa, Ontario, and educated at the Ottawa Ladies' College. The couple had five sons. She founded and presided over the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) in Brandon, Manitoba. His brother-in-law Theodore Arthur Burrows would also serve as a Liberal MP in the Laurier government, and he was later appointed the tenth Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba. His brother Arthur Sifton served as the second Premier of Alberta. There is a Clifford Sifton fonds at Library and Archives Canada.

Tony Harris (artist)

H a r r i s b e g a n h i s c o m i c s c a r e e r i n 1 9 8 9 . I n i t i a l l y , h e f l i t t e d f r o m a s s i g n m e n t t o a s s i g n m e n t a n d w o r k e d o n T - s h i r t s a n d a d s t o p a y t h e b i l l s d u r i n g d r y s p e l l s i n h i s c o m i c s w o r k . H e r o s e t o p r o m i n e n c e i n 1 9 9 4 w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f D C c o m i c s ' " S t a r m a n " . S u m m a r i z i n g h i s c a r e e r u p t o t h i s p o i n t , h e r e m a r k e d " W h e n y o u j u m p a r o u n d a s a f r e e l a n c e r , i t ' s e a s y t o h a v e y o u r a t t e n t i o n s p a n d w i n d l e d o w n t o t h a t o f a g n a t . W h e n I g o t " S t a r m a n " , I h a d t o b u c k l e d o w n a n d j u s t g e t s e r i o u s a b o u t t h e w o r k . " C o - c r e a t e d w i t h J a m e s R o b i n s o n , " S t a r m a n " l e d t h e t w o t o c r i t i c a l a c c l a i m a n d e v e n t u a l l y a n E i s n e r A w a r d f o r t h e " S a n d a n d S t a r s " s t o r y a r c . A f t e r f o u r a n d a h a l f y e a r s o n " S t a r m a n " , H a r r i s l e f t t o p u r s u e o t h e r p r o j e c t s b u t r e m a i n e d t h e c o v e r a r t i s t o n f o r a n o t h e r y e a r a n d a h a l f . D u r i n g t h i s t i m e h e w a s a l s o o n e o f t h e o r i g i n a l m e m b e r s o f A t l a n t a ' s G a i j i n S t u d i o s . H e p e n c i l l e d t h e s e r i e s " E x M a c h i n a " w i t h B r i a n K . V a u g h a n , p u b l i s h e d b y W i l d s t o r m f r o m 2 0 0 4 t o 2 0 1 0 , a n d " W a r H e r o e s " w i t h M a r k M i l l a r , p u b l i s h e d b y I m a g e C o m i c s , w h i c h h a s o n l y h a d t h r e e i s s u e s p u b l i s h e d a s o f 2 0 1 3 . I n A p r i l 2 0 1 0 , F o l l o w i n g t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f " E x M a c h i n a " , H a r r i s a n n o u n c e d t h a t h e a n d B . C l a y M o o r e w o u l d p r o d u c e a s e r i e s c a l l e d " T h e F u r t h e r A d v e n t u r e s o f t h e W h i s t l i n g S k u l l " , t h i s w a s l a t e r t u r n e d i n t o J S A L i b e r t y F i l e s : T h e W h i s t l i n g S k u l l , t y i n g i t i n t o t h e e a r l i e r J S A L i b e r t y F i l e s s t o r i e s h e d i d , a n d t h e f i r s t i s s u e s a w p r i n t i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 2 . C o n c u r r e n t l y w i t h t h i s , h e l a u n c h e d a n e w s e r i e s w i t h S t e v e N i l e s , " C h i n M u s i c " , i n A p r i l 2 0 1 3 , t h e n a n e w c r e a t o r - o w n e d s e r i e s , " R o u n d e y e : F o r L o v e " . I n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s h e m o v e d o n t o f o r m J o l l y R o g e r S t u d i o , i n M a c o n , G e o r g i a . O t h e r w o r k s i n c l u d e k e y f r a m e a n i m a t i o n a n d s t o r y b o a r d s f o r C h e v r o l e t c o m m e r c i a l , i l l u s t r a t i o n f o r C a r t o o n N e t w o r k , p r o d u c t d e s i g n a n d i l l u s t r a t i o n f o r U n i v e r s a l ' s " T h e M u m m y " . I n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 2 , H a r r i s p o s t e d a c o n t r o v e r s i a l e s s a y a b o u t f e m a l e c o s p l a y e r s o n h i s F a c e b o o k p a g e , w h i c h d r e w c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s f r o m s o m e o f h i s f a n s , b u t c r i t i c i s m f r o m o t h e r s f o r b e i n g s e x i s t . I n A p r i l o f 2 0 1 3 , H a r r i s w a s p a i d b y C o m i c B o o k S t o r e O w n e r M i k e M c D a n i e l o f H e r o e s a n d V i l l a i n s i n W a r n e r R o b i n s , G e o r g i a , f o r a c o m m i s s i o n t o h o n o r B e r t C h r i s t m a n , a G o l d e n A g e c o m i c b o o k c r e a t o r w h o d i e d i n W o r l d W a r I I . D e s p i t e r e p e a t e d i n q u i r e s b y M c D a n i e l o n t h e s t a t u s o f t h e c o m m i s s i o n , H a r r i s h a s n o t c o m p l e t e d t h e w o r k a n d M c D a n i e l r e m a i n s n o t r e f u n d e d . M c D a n i e l w e n t p u b l i c o n h i s s t o r e ' s F a c e b o o k p a g e i n J u n e o f 2 0 1 9 w i t h t h e i s s u e . e x t e r n a l _ l i n k _ 1 I n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 9 , H a r r i s h a d f a i l e d t o d e l i v e r a $ 1 2 0 0 c o m m i s s i o n t o f a n S e t h T a l l e y . T a l l e y h a d p a i d f o r t h e c o m m i s s i o n s e v e n y e a r s p r i o r . T a l l e y h a d r e a c h e d o u t t o H a r r i s ' s a g e n t , w h o r e p o r t e d t h a t H a r r i s h a d n o t w o r k e d o n t h e m . C o m i c n e w s w e b s i t e " B l e e d i n g C o o l " r e a c h e d o u t t o H a r r i s , w h o p r o v i d e d v i s u a l e v i d e n c e o f t h e c o m m i s s i o n , b u t t h e n r e p o r t e d h e w o u l d b e d e s t r o y i n g t h e p i e c e r a t h e r t h a n f i n i s h i n g i t . A f t e r B l e e d i n g C o o l r a n a n a r t i c l e o n t h e m a t t e r , T a l l e y w a s r e p a i d v i a t h e C a s h A p p . e x t e r n a l _ l i n k _ 2 H a r r i s m a k e s e x t e n s i v e u s e o f m o d e l s a n d p h o t o r e f e r e n c e i n h i s w o r k , a n d c o m p o s e s p a n e l s f e a t u r i n g m u l t i p l e c h a r a c t e r s w i t h m o d e l s h e u s e s t o r e p r e s e n t s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r s . " E x M a c h i n a : T h e F i r s t H u n d r e d D a y s " , t h e f i r s t c o l l e c t e d t r a d e p a p e r b a c k o f t h a t s e r i e s , f e a t u r e d a " C a s t o f C h a r a c t e r s " p a g e s h o w i n g t h e 1 2 m o d e l s t h a t s t a r r e d a s t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h a t s t o r y l i n e , f o l l o w e d b y a g a l l e r y s h o w i n g h o w s e v e r a l e x c e r p t e d p a g e s f r o m t h a t s t o r y p r o g r e s s e d f r o m p h o t o t o p e n c i l a r t t o i n k s t o c o l o r s .

Career

Tony Harris started his comics career in 1989, working on various assignments and projects before gaining prominence with the critically acclaimed series "Starman" in 1994. He co-created the series with James Robinson and won an Eisner Award for their work on the "Sand and Stars" story arc. Harris continued to work on various projects, including "Ex Machina" and "War Heroes", and formed his own studio, Jolly Roger Studio. However, he has faced controversy over his treatment of female cosplayers and has been accused of failing to complete commissioned work.

Harris began his comics career in 1989. Initially, he flitted from assignment to assignment and worked on T-shirts and ads to pay the bills during dry spells in his comics work. He rose to prominence in 1994 with the publication of DC comics' "Starman". Summarizing his career up to this point, he remarked "When you jump around as a freelancer, it's easy to have your attention span dwindle down to that of a gnat. When I got "Starman", I had to buckle down and just get serious about the work." Co-created with James Robinson, "Starman" led the two to critical acclaim and eventually an Eisner Award for the "Sand and Stars" story arc. After four and a half years on "Starman", Harris left to pursue other projects but remained the cover artist on for another year and a half. During this time he was also one of the original members of Atlanta's Gaijin Studios. He pencilled the series "Ex Machina" with Brian K. Vaughan, published by Wildstorm from 2004 to 2010, and "War Heroes" with Mark Millar, published by Image Comics, which has only had three issues published as of 2013. In April 2010, Following the completion of "Ex Machina", Harris announced that he and B. Clay Moore would produce a series called "The Further Adventures of the Whistling Skull", this was later turned into JSA Liberty Files: The Whistling Skull, tying it into the earlier JSA Liberty Files stories he did, and the first issue saw print in December 2012. Concurrently with this, he launched a new series with Steve Niles, "Chin Music", in April 2013, then a new creator-owned series, "Roundeye: For Love". In the late 1990s he moved on to form Jolly Roger Studio, in Macon, Georgia. Other works include keyframe animation and storyboards for Chevrolet commercial, illustration for Cartoon Network, product design and illustration for Universal's "The Mummy". In November 2012, Harris posted a controversial essay about female cosplayers on his Facebook page, which drew congratulations from some of his fans, but criticism from others for being sexist. In April of 2013, Harris was paid by Comic Book Store Owner Mike McDaniel of Heroes and Villains in Warner Robins, Georgia, for a commission to honor Bert Christman, a Golden Age comic book creator who died in World War II. Despite repeated inquires by McDaniel on the status of the commission, Harris has not completed the work and McDaniel remains not refunded. McDaniel went public on his store's Facebook page in June of 2019 with the issue. external_link_1 In October 2019, Harris had failed to deliver a $1200 commission to fan Seth Talley. Talley had paid for the commission seven years prior. Talley had reached out to Harris's agent, who reported that Harris had not worked on them. Comic news website "Bleeding Cool" reached out to Harris, who provided visual evidence of the commission, but then reported he would be destroying the piece rather than finishing it. After Bleeding Cool ran an article on the matter, Talley was repaid via the CashApp. external_link_2 Harris makes extensive use of models and photo reference in his work, and composes panels featuring multiple characters with models he uses to represent specific characters. "Ex Machina: The First Hundred Days", the first collected trade paperback of that series, featured a "Cast of Characters" page showing the 12 models that starred as the characters in that storyline, followed by a gallery showing how several excerpted pages from that story progressed from photo to pencil art to inks to colors.

KETC

T h e s t a t i o n f i r s t s i g n e d o n t h e a i r o n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 , 1 9 5 4 . I t w a s t h e f i r s t c o m m u n i t y - l i c e n s e d e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e s t a t i o n ' s f i r s t g e n e r a l m a n a g e r w a s C h a r l e s G u g g e n h e i m , w h o h i r e d t h e t e c h n i c a l s t a f f a n d f i r s t g r o u p o f p r o d u c e r / d i r e c t o r / w r i t e r s , f i v e i n a l l . W h i l e w a i t i n g f o r t h e b r o a d c a s t i n g t o w e r t o b e c o m p l e t e d , a n u m b e r o f p r o g r a m s w e r e r e c o r d e d u s i n g k i n e s c o p e r e c o r d i n g t e c h n o l o g y ( t h e s a m e a s u s e d f o r " T h e H o n e y m o o n e r s " ) . O n c e o n t h e a i r , t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r o f a w a r d - w i n n i n g p r o g r a m s p r o d u c e d b y M a y o S i m o n , B i l l H a r t z e l l , R a n L i n c o l n a n d G u g g e n h e i m . T h e y i n c l u d e d t h e f i r s t l i v e b r o a d c a s t o f t h e S t . L o u i s C i t y C o u n c i l . A n o t h e r f e a t u r e d t h e " S t . L o u i s P o s t - D i s p a t c h " n a t u r e c o l u m n i s t L e o n a r d H a l l o f P o s s u m T r o t F a r m . A m o n g t h e t a p e d p r o g r a m s e r i e s w a s a p i o n e e r i n g s c i e n c e p r o g r a m i n t e n d e d f o r s i x t h g r a d e r s t o s e e i n t h e i r c l a s s r o o m s , " S c i e n c e i n S i g h t " , p r o d u c e d b y M a r t i n L . S c h n e i d e r . F i l m m a k i n g w a s e n c o u r a g e d , a n d w i t h L e n H a l l ' s c o l l a b o r a t i o n a d o c u m e n t a r y f i l m a b o u t t h e r a r e b e a u t y o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y u n p r o t e c t e d C u r r e n t R i v e r w a s p r o d u c e d . I t w a s l a t e r u s e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l A u d u b o n S o c i e t y i n t h e s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t t o m a k e C u r r e n t R i v e r t h e f i r s t N a t i o n a l S c e n i c R i v e r u n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e . S o o n a f t e r t h e s t a t i o n w e n t l i v e , i t s e m p h a s i s o n c u r r e n t a f f a i r s a n d l o c a l p o l i t i c s , f o s t e r e d b y G u g g e n h e i m , r a t t l e d t h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s . F o l l o w i n g a p u b l i c c o n t r o v e r s y , c o v e r e d b y t h e " P o s t - D i s p a t c h " , a n d u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e w e l l - c o n n e c t e d l o c a l p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s f i r m F l e i s h m a n a n d H i l l a r d ( n o w F l e i s h m a n H i l l a r d ) , G u g g e n h e i m w a s r e p l a c e d b y M a r t i n Q u i g l e y , w h o h a d n o e x p e r i e n c e i n b r o a d c a s t i n g . A f e w m o n t h s l a t e r , S h e l b y S t o r c k w a s h i r e d . A n e x p e r i e n c e d b r o a d c a s t e r r e c o m m e n d e d b y G u g g e n h e i m , h e e m c e e d t h e s t a t i o n ' s f i r s t e v e n i n g o f b r o a d c a s t i n g . K E T C o r i g i n a l l y b r o a d c a s t f r o m t e m p o r a r y s t u d i o s i n M c M i l l a n H a l l o n t h e c a m p u s o f W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y i n S t . L o u i s , w i t h t r a n s m i t t i n g f a c i l i t i e s a t o p t h e f o r m e r B o a t m e n ' s B a n k B u i l d i n g ( n o w t h e M a r q u e t t e B u i l d i n g ) i n d o w n t o w n S t . L o u i s . I n 1 9 5 5 , i t m o v e d t o t h e J u l i u s a n d F r e d a B a e r M e m o r i a l B u i l d i n g , a l s o o n t h e W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s . I t w a s t h e f i r s t f a c i l i t y s p e c i f i c a l l y b u i l t f o r a n e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n . I t a c t i v a t e d i t s c u r r e n t t o w e r i n S o u t h C o u n t y i n 1 9 7 0 , a l l o w i n g i t t o b e g i n c o l o r b r o a d c a s t s a y e a r l a t e r . I n 1 9 9 8 , t h e s t a t i o n m o v e d i t s s t u d i o s f r o m t h e W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s t o t h e D a n a B r o w n C o m m u n i c a t i o n s C e n t e r i n t h e G r a n d C e n t e r d i s t r i c t . D u r i n g t h e 2 0 0 4 e l e c t i o n s , K E T C p a r t n e r e d w i t h a r e a N B C a f f i l i a t e K S D K ( c h a n n e l 5 ) t o p r o v i d e S t . L o u i s a n s w i t h c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d u p - t o - d a t e l o c a l a n d n a t i o n a l e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s . T h i s p a r t n e r s h i p w a s f i r s t u t i l i z e d t o s i m u l c a s t a g u b e r n a t o r i a l d e b a t e b e t w e e n R e p u b l i c a n c a n d i d a t e M i s s o u r i S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e M a t t B l u n t a n d D e m o c r a t i c c a n d i d a t e S t a t e A u d i t o r C l a i r e M c C a s k i l l . O n e l e c t i o n n i g h t ( N o v e m b e r 9 ) , K S D K a i r e d N B C ' s p r i m e t i m e e l e c t i o n c o v e r a g e w i t h T o m B r o k a w a n d T i m R u s s e r t a s w e l l a s s e g m e n t s o f l o c a l r e s u l t s . K E T C , m e a n w h i l e , r a n t h r e e h o u r s o f l o c a l e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s h o s t e d b y K S D K a n c h o r s M i k e B u s h a n d K a r e n F o s s . V i e w e r s c o u l d a l s o w a t c h e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s o n l i n e o n t h e w e b s i t e s o f b o t h s t a t i o n s . T h e s u c c e s s f u l K E T C / K S D K p a r t n e r s h i p w a s u s e d a g a i n i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 5 w h e n , a l o n g w i t h r a d i o p a r t n e r s K Y K Y ( 9 8 . 1 F M ) a n d K E Z K - F M ( 1 0 2 . 5 F M ) , a t e l e t h o n f o r H u r r i c a n e K a t r i n a r e l i e f w a s s i m u l c a s t t h a t r a i s e d m o r e t h a n $ 5 m i l l i o n . T h e t e l e t h o n f e a t u r e d a n a p p e a r a n c e b y A f f t o n n a t i v e J o h n G o o d m a n , w h o n o w c a l l s N e w O r l e a n s h o m e a n d w h o s e f a m i l y w e n t m i s s i n g f o r a t i m e d u r i n g t h e s t o r m ' s p e a k . K e n n e t t n a t i v e S h e r y l C r o w a n d h e r t h e n f i a n c é L a n c e A r m s t r o n g u r g e d v i e w e r s t o c a l l w h e n t h e y w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d b y p h o n e f r o m t h e r e g i o n . I n M a y 2 0 0 8 , E ! c o n t r a c t e d w i t h K E T C t o f i l m t w o e p i s o d e s o f t h e c a b l e n e t w o r k ' s w e e k l y p o p c u l t u r e s e r i e s " T h e S o u p " a t t h e K E T C s t u d i o s t o a c c o m m o d a t e h o s t J o e l M c H a l e ' s f i l m i n g o f " T h e I n f o r m a n t ! " i n t h e S t . L o u i s a r e a . A f t e r b e i n g k n o w n f o r m o s t o f i t s h i s t o r y a s " K E T C 9 , " t h e s t a t i o n r e b r a n d e d i t s e l f a s " T h e N i n e N e t w o r k " i n 2 0 1 0 . O n O c t o b e r 1 3 , 2 0 1 0 , t h e s t a t i o n p a r t n e r e d w i t h t h e " S t . L o u i s B e a c o n " , a n o n l i n e - o n l y , n o n - p r o f i t n e w s p u b l i c a t i o n , t o f o r m t h e P u b l i c I n s i g h t N e t w o r k , a c i t i z e n j o u r n a l i s m i n i t i a t i v e c r e a t e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h A m e r i c a n P u b l i c M e d i a . O n J a n u a r y 1 0 , 2 0 2 1 , t h e s t a t i o n r e b r a n d e d a s N i n e P B S , a d o p t i n g t h e c u r r e n t P B S c o r p o r a t e l o g o . T h e s t a t i o n ' s d i g i t a l s i g n a l i s m u l t i p l e x e d : K E T C s h u t d o w n i t s a n a l o g s i g n a l , o v e r V H F c h a n n e l 9 , o n J u n e 1 2 , 2 0 0 9 , t h e o f f i c i a l d a t e i n w h i c h f u l l - p o w e r t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t r a n s i t i o n e d f r o m a n a l o g t o d i g i t a l b r o a d c a s t s u n d e r f e d e r a l m a n d a t e . T h e s t a t i o n ' s d i g i t a l s i g n a l c o n t i n u e d t o b r o a d c a s t s o n i t s p r e - t r a n s i t i o n U H F c h a n n e l 3 9 . T h r o u g h t h e u s e o f P S I P , d i g i t a l t e l e v i s i o n r e c e i v e r s d i s p l a y t h e s t a t i o n ' s v i r t u a l c h a n n e l a s i t s f o r m e r V H F a n a l o g c h a n n e l 9 . K E T C i s k n o w n a m o n g v i e w e r s i n S t . L o u i s f o r p r e e m p t i n g P B S p r o g r a m s t o a i r l i b r a r y p r o g r a m c o n t e n t o r l e s s c o n t r o v e r s i a l p l e d g e d r i v e p r o g r a m s , s u c h a s W Q E D - p r o d u c e d d o o - w o p s p e c i a l s , u s i n g t h e d e f a u l t n e t w o r k f e e d i n l a t e n i g h t t o p r e m i e r e t h o s e P B S p r o g r a m s i n s t e a d , t h o u g h S t . L o u i s h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a d s t a t i o n s , c o m m e r c i a l a n d n o n - c o m m e r c i a l , p r e e m p t p r o g r a m m i n g f r o m t h e i r n e t w o r k s d u e t o c o n t e n t . K E T C h a s g i v e n s o m e l e e w a y a s f a r a s s o m e p r e e m p t i o n s , s u c h a s a c a s e w h e r e " S t . L o u i s P o s t - D i s p a t c h " c o l u m n i s t E r i c M i n k w r o t e a n e d i t o r i a l c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t t h e s t a t i o n ' s s c h e d u l i n g o f a p l e d g e d r i v e i c e s k a t i n g s h o w i n s t e a d o f a P B S d o c u m e n t a r y o n t h e S e p t e m b e r 1 1 a t t a c k s ; K E T C a n n o u n c e d t h e n e x t d a y t h a t i t w o u l d i n s t e a d a i r t h e 9 / 1 1 d o c u m e n t a r y a s n a t i o n a l l y s c h e d u l e d . S o m e o f t h e p r o g r a m s p r o d u c e d b y K E T C f o r n a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n c l u d e s e l e c t e d e p i s o d e s o f " I n s i d e / O u t " . T h e s t a t i o n a l s o p r o d u c e d " T h e L e t t e r P e o p l e " , a n i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m a b o u t r e a d i n g , w h i c h w a s s e e n o n m a n y P B S a n d e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s i n t h e m i d - 1 9 7 0 s , a s w e l l a s " A T i m e f o r C h a m p i o n s " , a n h o u r - l o n g d o c u m e n t a r y c h r o n i c l i n g t h e S a i n t L o u i s U n i v e r s i t y s o c c e r d y n a s t y o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s ; a n d " H o m e l a n d " , a m i n i s e r i e s e x a m i n i n g t h e t o p i c o f i m m i g r a t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

History

KETC-TV, also known as Nine PBS, is a PBS member station located in St. Louis, Missouri. Founded in 1954, it was the first community-licensed educational television station in the US. Initially broadcasting from temporary studios at Washington University, it later moved to a purpose-built facility on campus before relocating to the Dana Brown Communications Center in 1998. Over the years, KETC has produced several notable programs, including documentaries, children's shows, and public affairs programs. It has also partnered with other organizations, such as the St. Louis Beacon and KSDK, to provide comprehensive election coverage and hurricane relief efforts. Today, KETC continues to serve the St. Louis community with a range of programming, including PBS staples and locally produced content.

The station first signed on the air on September 20, 1954. It was the first community-licensed educational television station in the United States. The station's first general manager was Charles Guggenheim, who hired the technical staff and first group of producer/director/writers, five in all. While waiting for the broadcasting tower to be completed, a number of programs were recorded using kinescope recording technology (the same as used for "The Honeymooners"). Once on the air, there were a number of award-winning programs produced by Mayo Simon, Bill Hartzell, Ran Lincoln and Guggenheim. They included the first live broadcast of the St. Louis City Council. Another featured the "St. Louis Post-Dispatch" nature columnist Leonard Hall of Possum Trot Farm. Among the taped program series was a pioneering science program intended for sixth graders to see in their classrooms, "Science in Sight", produced by Martin L. Schneider. Film making was encouraged, and with Len Hall's collaboration a documentary film about the rare beauty of the relatively unprotected Current River was produced. It was later used by the National Audubon Society in the successful effort to make Current River the first National Scenic River under the protection of the National Park Service. Soon after the station went live, its emphasis on current affairs and local politics, fostered by Guggenheim, rattled the political leaders. Following a public controversy, covered by the "Post-Dispatch", and under the influence of the well-connected local public relations firm Fleishman and Hillard (now FleishmanHillard), Guggenheim was replaced by Martin Quigley, who had no experience in broadcasting. A few months later, Shelby Storck was hired. An experienced broadcaster recommended by Guggenheim, he emceed the station's first evening of broadcasting. KETC originally broadcast from temporary studios in McMillan Hall on the campus of Washington University in St. Louis, with transmitting facilities atop the former Boatmen's Bank Building (now the Marquette Building) in downtown St. Louis. In 1955, it moved to the Julius and Freda Baer Memorial Building, also on the Washington University campus. It was the first facility specifically built for an educational television station. It activated its current tower in South County in 1970, allowing it to begin color broadcasts a year later. In 1998, the station moved its studios from the Washington University campus to the Dana Brown Communications Center in the Grand Center district. During the 2004 elections, KETC partnered with area NBC affiliate KSDK (channel 5) to provide St. Louisans with comprehensive and up-to-date local and national election results. This partnership was first utilized to simulcast a gubernatorial debate between Republican candidate Missouri Secretary of State Matt Blunt and Democratic candidate State Auditor Claire McCaskill. On election night (November 9), KSDK aired NBC's prime time election coverage with Tom Brokaw and Tim Russert as well as segments of local results. KETC, meanwhile, ran three hours of local election results hosted by KSDK anchors Mike Bush and Karen Foss. Viewers could also watch election results online on the websites of both stations. The successful KETC/KSDK partnership was used again in September 2005 when, along with radio partners KYKY (98.1 FM) and KEZK-FM (102.5 FM), a telethon for Hurricane Katrina relief was simulcast that raised more than $5 million. The telethon featured an appearance by Affton native John Goodman, who now calls New Orleans home and whose family went missing for a time during the storm's peak. Kennett native Sheryl Crow and her then fiancé Lance Armstrong urged viewers to call when they were interviewed by phone from the region. In May 2008, E! contracted with KETC to film two episodes of the cable network's weekly pop culture series "The Soup" at the KETC studios to accommodate host Joel McHale's filming of "The Informant!" in the St. Louis area. After being known for most of its history as "KETC 9," the station rebranded itself as "The Nine Network" in 2010. On October 13, 2010, the station partnered with the "St. Louis Beacon", an online-only, non-profit news publication, to form the Public Insight Network, a citizen journalism initiative created in conjunction with American Public Media. On January 10, 2021, the station rebranded as Nine PBS, adopting the current PBS corporate logo. The station's digital signal is multiplexed: KETC shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 9, on June 12, 2009, the official date in which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal continued to broadcasts on its pre-transition UHF channel 39. Through the use of PSIP, digital television receivers display the station's virtual channel as its former VHF analog channel 9. KETC is known among viewers in St. Louis for preempting PBS programs to air library program content or less controversial pledge drive programs, such as WQED-produced doo-wop specials, using the default network feed in late night to premiere those PBS programs instead, though St. Louis has traditionally had stations, commercial and non-commercial, preempt programming from their networks due to content. KETC has given some leeway as far as some preemptions, such as a case where "St. Louis Post-Dispatch" columnist Eric Mink wrote an editorial complaining about the station's scheduling of a pledge drive ice skating show instead of a PBS documentary on the September 11 attacks; KETC announced the next day that it would instead air the 9/11 documentary as nationally scheduled. Some of the programs produced by KETC for national distribution include selected episodes of "Inside/Out". The station also produced "The Letter People", an instructional program about reading, which was seen on many PBS and educational television stations in the mid-1970s, as well as "A Time for Champions", an hour-long documentary chronicling the Saint Louis University soccer dynasty of the 1960s and 1970s; and "Homeland", a miniseries examining the topic of immigration in the United States.

KETC

T h e s t a t i o n f i r s t s i g n e d o n t h e a i r o n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 , 1 9 5 4 . I t w a s t h e f i r s t c o m m u n i t y - l i c e n s e d e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e s t a t i o n ' s f i r s t g e n e r a l m a n a g e r w a s C h a r l e s G u g g e n h e i m , w h o h i r e d t h e t e c h n i c a l s t a f f a n d f i r s t g r o u p o f p r o d u c e r / d i r e c t o r / w r i t e r s , f i v e i n a l l . W h i l e w a i t i n g f o r t h e b r o a d c a s t i n g t o w e r t o b e c o m p l e t e d , a n u m b e r o f p r o g r a m s w e r e r e c o r d e d u s i n g k i n e s c o p e r e c o r d i n g t e c h n o l o g y ( t h e s a m e a s u s e d f o r " T h e H o n e y m o o n e r s " ) . O n c e o n t h e a i r , t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r o f a w a r d - w i n n i n g p r o g r a m s p r o d u c e d b y M a y o S i m o n , B i l l H a r t z e l l , R a n L i n c o l n a n d G u g g e n h e i m . T h e y i n c l u d e d t h e f i r s t l i v e b r o a d c a s t o f t h e S t . L o u i s C i t y C o u n c i l . A n o t h e r f e a t u r e d t h e " S t . L o u i s P o s t - D i s p a t c h " n a t u r e c o l u m n i s t L e o n a r d H a l l o f P o s s u m T r o t F a r m . A m o n g t h e t a p e d p r o g r a m s e r i e s w a s a p i o n e e r i n g s c i e n c e p r o g r a m i n t e n d e d f o r s i x t h g r a d e r s t o s e e i n t h e i r c l a s s r o o m s , " S c i e n c e i n S i g h t " , p r o d u c e d b y M a r t i n L . S c h n e i d e r . F i l m m a k i n g w a s e n c o u r a g e d , a n d w i t h L e n H a l l ' s c o l l a b o r a t i o n a d o c u m e n t a r y f i l m a b o u t t h e r a r e b e a u t y o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y u n p r o t e c t e d C u r r e n t R i v e r w a s p r o d u c e d . I t w a s l a t e r u s e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l A u d u b o n S o c i e t y i n t h e s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t t o m a k e C u r r e n t R i v e r t h e f i r s t N a t i o n a l S c e n i c R i v e r u n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e . S o o n a f t e r t h e s t a t i o n w e n t l i v e , i t s e m p h a s i s o n c u r r e n t a f f a i r s a n d l o c a l p o l i t i c s , f o s t e r e d b y G u g g e n h e i m , r a t t l e d t h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s . F o l l o w i n g a p u b l i c c o n t r o v e r s y , c o v e r e d b y t h e " P o s t - D i s p a t c h " , a n d u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e w e l l - c o n n e c t e d l o c a l p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s f i r m F l e i s h m a n a n d H i l l a r d ( n o w F l e i s h m a n H i l l a r d ) , G u g g e n h e i m w a s r e p l a c e d b y M a r t i n Q u i g l e y , w h o h a d n o e x p e r i e n c e i n b r o a d c a s t i n g . A f e w m o n t h s l a t e r , S h e l b y S t o r c k w a s h i r e d . A n e x p e r i e n c e d b r o a d c a s t e r r e c o m m e n d e d b y G u g g e n h e i m , h e e m c e e d t h e s t a t i o n ' s f i r s t e v e n i n g o f b r o a d c a s t i n g . K E T C o r i g i n a l l y b r o a d c a s t f r o m t e m p o r a r y s t u d i o s i n M c M i l l a n H a l l o n t h e c a m p u s o f W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y i n S t . L o u i s , w i t h t r a n s m i t t i n g f a c i l i t i e s a t o p t h e f o r m e r B o a t m e n ' s B a n k B u i l d i n g ( n o w t h e M a r q u e t t e B u i l d i n g ) i n d o w n t o w n S t . L o u i s . I n 1 9 5 5 , i t m o v e d t o t h e J u l i u s a n d F r e d a B a e r M e m o r i a l B u i l d i n g , a l s o o n t h e W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s . I t w a s t h e f i r s t f a c i l i t y s p e c i f i c a l l y b u i l t f o r a n e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n . I t a c t i v a t e d i t s c u r r e n t t o w e r i n S o u t h C o u n t y i n 1 9 7 0 , a l l o w i n g i t t o b e g i n c o l o r b r o a d c a s t s a y e a r l a t e r . I n 1 9 9 8 , t h e s t a t i o n m o v e d i t s s t u d i o s f r o m t h e W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s t o t h e D a n a B r o w n C o m m u n i c a t i o n s C e n t e r i n t h e G r a n d C e n t e r d i s t r i c t . D u r i n g t h e 2 0 0 4 e l e c t i o n s , K E T C p a r t n e r e d w i t h a r e a N B C a f f i l i a t e K S D K ( c h a n n e l 5 ) t o p r o v i d e S t . L o u i s a n s w i t h c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d u p - t o - d a t e l o c a l a n d n a t i o n a l e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s . T h i s p a r t n e r s h i p w a s f i r s t u t i l i z e d t o s i m u l c a s t a g u b e r n a t o r i a l d e b a t e b e t w e e n R e p u b l i c a n c a n d i d a t e M i s s o u r i S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e M a t t B l u n t a n d D e m o c r a t i c c a n d i d a t e S t a t e A u d i t o r C l a i r e M c C a s k i l l . O n e l e c t i o n n i g h t ( N o v e m b e r 9 ) , K S D K a i r e d N B C ' s p r i m e t i m e e l e c t i o n c o v e r a g e w i t h T o m B r o k a w a n d T i m R u s s e r t a s w e l l a s s e g m e n t s o f l o c a l r e s u l t s . K E T C , m e a n w h i l e , r a n t h r e e h o u r s o f l o c a l e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s h o s t e d b y K S D K a n c h o r s M i k e B u s h a n d K a r e n F o s s . V i e w e r s c o u l d a l s o w a t c h e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s o n l i n e o n t h e w e b s i t e s o f b o t h s t a t i o n s . T h e s u c c e s s f u l K E T C / K S D K p a r t n e r s h i p w a s u s e d a g a i n i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 5 w h e n , a l o n g w i t h r a d i o p a r t n e r s K Y K Y ( 9 8 . 1 F M ) a n d K E Z K - F M ( 1 0 2 . 5 F M ) , a t e l e t h o n f o r H u r r i c a n e K a t r i n a r e l i e f w a s s i m u l c a s t t h a t r a i s e d m o r e t h a n $ 5 m i l l i o n . T h e t e l e t h o n f e a t u r e d a n a p p e a r a n c e b y A f f t o n n a t i v e J o h n G o o d m a n , w h o n o w c a l l s N e w O r l e a n s h o m e a n d w h o s e f a m i l y w e n t m i s s i n g f o r a t i m e d u r i n g t h e s t o r m ' s p e a k . K e n n e t t n a t i v e S h e r y l C r o w a n d h e r t h e n f i a n c é L a n c e A r m s t r o n g u r g e d v i e w e r s t o c a l l w h e n t h e y w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d b y p h o n e f r o m t h e r e g i o n . I n M a y 2 0 0 8 , E ! c o n t r a c t e d w i t h K E T C t o f i l m t w o e p i s o d e s o f t h e c a b l e n e t w o r k ' s w e e k l y p o p c u l t u r e s e r i e s " T h e S o u p " a t t h e K E T C s t u d i o s t o a c c o m m o d a t e h o s t J o e l M c H a l e ' s f i l m i n g o f " T h e I n f o r m a n t ! " i n t h e S t . L o u i s a r e a . A f t e r b e i n g k n o w n f o r m o s t o f i t s h i s t o r y a s " K E T C 9 , " t h e s t a t i o n r e b r a n d e d i t s e l f a s " T h e N i n e N e t w o r k " i n 2 0 1 0 . O n O c t o b e r 1 3 , 2 0 1 0 , t h e s t a t i o n p a r t n e r e d w i t h t h e " S t . L o u i s B e a c o n " , a n o n l i n e - o n l y , n o n - p r o f i t n e w s p u b l i c a t i o n , t o f o r m t h e P u b l i c I n s i g h t N e t w o r k , a c i t i z e n j o u r n a l i s m i n i t i a t i v e c r e a t e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h A m e r i c a n P u b l i c M e d i a . O n J a n u a r y 1 0 , 2 0 2 1 , t h e s t a t i o n r e b r a n d e d a s N i n e P B S , a d o p t i n g t h e c u r r e n t P B S c o r p o r a t e l o g o . T h e s t a t i o n ' s d i g i t a l s i g n a l i s m u l t i p l e x e d : K E T C s h u t d o w n i t s a n a l o g s i g n a l , o v e r V H F c h a n n e l 9 , o n J u n e 1 2 , 2 0 0 9 , t h e o f f i c i a l d a t e i n w h i c h f u l l - p o w e r t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t r a n s i t i o n e d f r o m a n a l o g t o d i g i t a l b r o a d c a s t s u n d e r f e d e r a l m a n d a t e . T h e s t a t i o n ' s d i g i t a l s i g n a l c o n t i n u e d t o b r o a d c a s t s o n i t s p r e - t r a n s i t i o n U H F c h a n n e l 3 9 . T h r o u g h t h e u s e o f P S I P , d i g i t a l t e l e v i s i o n r e c e i v e r s d i s p l a y t h e s t a t i o n ' s v i r t u a l c h a n n e l a s i t s f o r m e r V H F a n a l o g c h a n n e l 9 . K E T C i s k n o w n a m o n g v i e w e r s i n S t . L o u i s f o r p r e e m p t i n g P B S p r o g r a m s t o a i r l i b r a r y p r o g r a m c o n t e n t o r l e s s c o n t r o v e r s i a l p l e d g e d r i v e p r o g r a m s , s u c h a s W Q E D - p r o d u c e d d o o - w o p s p e c i a l s , u s i n g t h e d e f a u l t n e t w o r k f e e d i n l a t e n i g h t t o p r e m i e r e t h o s e P B S p r o g r a m s i n s t e a d , t h o u g h S t . L o u i s h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a d s t a t i o n s , c o m m e r c i a l a n d n o n - c o m m e r c i a l , p r e e m p t p r o g r a m m i n g f r o m t h e i r n e t w o r k s d u e t o c o n t e n t . K E T C h a s g i v e n s o m e l e e w a y a s f a r a s s o m e p r e e m p t i o n s , s u c h a s a c a s e w h e r e " S t . L o u i s P o s t - D i s p a t c h " c o l u m n i s t E r i c M i n k w r o t e a n e d i t o r i a l c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t t h e s t a t i o n ' s s c h e d u l i n g o f a p l e d g e d r i v e i c e s k a t i n g s h o w i n s t e a d o f a P B S d o c u m e n t a r y o n t h e S e p t e m b e r 1 1 a t t a c k s ; K E T C a n n o u n c e d t h e n e x t d a y t h a t i t w o u l d i n s t e a d a i r t h e 9 / 1 1 d o c u m e n t a r y a s n a t i o n a l l y s c h e d u l e d . S o m e o f t h e p r o g r a m s p r o d u c e d b y K E T C f o r n a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n c l u d e s e l e c t e d e p i s o d e s o f " I n s i d e / O u t " . T h e s t a t i o n a l s o p r o d u c e d " T h e L e t t e r P e o p l e " , a n i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m a b o u t r e a d i n g , w h i c h w a s s e e n o n m a n y P B S a n d e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s i n t h e m i d - 1 9 7 0 s , a s w e l l a s " A T i m e f o r C h a m p i o n s " , a n h o u r - l o n g d o c u m e n t a r y c h r o n i c l i n g t h e S a i n t L o u i s U n i v e r s i t y s o c c e r d y n a s t y o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s ; a n d " H o m e l a n d " , a m i n i s e r i e s e x a m i n i n g t h e t o p i c o f i m m i g r a t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

Digital television

KETC, also known as Nine PBS, is a public television station based in St. Louis, Missouri. Founded in 1954, it was the first community-licensed educational television station in the US. Over the years, it has produced various award-winning programs, including documentaries, science shows, and children's educational content. The station has undergone several changes, including rebranding and partnerships with other media outlets. Today, it continues to provide high-quality programming to the St. Louis community, while also producing content for national distribution.

The station first signed on the air on September 20, 1954. It was the first community-licensed educational television station in the United States. The station's first general manager was Charles Guggenheim, who hired the technical staff and first group of producer/director/writers, five in all. While waiting for the broadcasting tower to be completed, a number of programs were recorded using kinescope recording technology (the same as used for "The Honeymooners"). Once on the air, there were a number of award-winning programs produced by Mayo Simon, Bill Hartzell, Ran Lincoln and Guggenheim. They included the first live broadcast of the St. Louis City Council. Another featured the "St. Louis Post-Dispatch" nature columnist Leonard Hall of Possum Trot Farm. Among the taped program series was a pioneering science program intended for sixth graders to see in their classrooms, "Science in Sight", produced by Martin L. Schneider. Film making was encouraged, and with Len Hall's collaboration a documentary film about the rare beauty of the relatively unprotected Current River was produced. It was later used by the National Audubon Society in the successful effort to make Current River the first National Scenic River under the protection of the National Park Service. Soon after the station went live, its emphasis on current affairs and local politics, fostered by Guggenheim, rattled the political leaders. Following a public controversy, covered by the "Post-Dispatch", and under the influence of the well-connected local public relations firm Fleishman and Hillard (now FleishmanHillard), Guggenheim was replaced by Martin Quigley, who had no experience in broadcasting. A few months later, Shelby Storck was hired. An experienced broadcaster recommended by Guggenheim, he emceed the station's first evening of broadcasting. KETC originally broadcast from temporary studios in McMillan Hall on the campus of Washington University in St. Louis, with transmitting facilities atop the former Boatmen's Bank Building (now the Marquette Building) in downtown St. Louis. In 1955, it moved to the Julius and Freda Baer Memorial Building, also on the Washington University campus. It was the first facility specifically built for an educational television station. It activated its current tower in South County in 1970, allowing it to begin color broadcasts a year later. In 1998, the station moved its studios from the Washington University campus to the Dana Brown Communications Center in the Grand Center district. During the 2004 elections, KETC partnered with area NBC affiliate KSDK (channel 5) to provide St. Louisans with comprehensive and up-to-date local and national election results. This partnership was first utilized to simulcast a gubernatorial debate between Republican candidate Missouri Secretary of State Matt Blunt and Democratic candidate State Auditor Claire McCaskill. On election night (November 9), KSDK aired NBC's prime time election coverage with Tom Brokaw and Tim Russert as well as segments of local results. KETC, meanwhile, ran three hours of local election results hosted by KSDK anchors Mike Bush and Karen Foss. Viewers could also watch election results online on the websites of both stations. The successful KETC/KSDK partnership was used again in September 2005 when, along with radio partners KYKY (98.1 FM) and KEZK-FM (102.5 FM), a telethon for Hurricane Katrina relief was simulcast that raised more than $5 million. The telethon featured an appearance by Affton native John Goodman, who now calls New Orleans home and whose family went missing for a time during the storm's peak. Kennett native Sheryl Crow and her then fiancé Lance Armstrong urged viewers to call when they were interviewed by phone from the region. In May 2008, E! contracted with KETC to film two episodes of the cable network's weekly pop culture series "The Soup" at the KETC studios to accommodate host Joel McHale's filming of "The Informant!" in the St. Louis area. After being known for most of its history as "KETC 9," the station rebranded itself as "The Nine Network" in 2010. On October 13, 2010, the station partnered with the "St. Louis Beacon", an online-only, non-profit news publication, to form the Public Insight Network, a citizen journalism initiative created in conjunction with American Public Media. On January 10, 2021, the station rebranded as Nine PBS, adopting the current PBS corporate logo. The station's digital signal is multiplexed: KETC shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 9, on June 12, 2009, the official date in which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal continued to broadcasts on its pre-transition UHF channel 39. Through the use of PSIP, digital television receivers display the station's virtual channel as its former VHF analog channel 9. KETC is known among viewers in St. Louis for preempting PBS programs to air library program content or less controversial pledge drive programs, such as WQED-produced doo-wop specials, using the default network feed in late night to premiere those PBS programs instead, though St. Louis has traditionally had stations, commercial and non-commercial, preempt programming from their networks due to content. KETC has given some leeway as far as some preemptions, such as a case where "St. Louis Post-Dispatch" columnist Eric Mink wrote an editorial complaining about the station's scheduling of a pledge drive ice skating show instead of a PBS documentary on the September 11 attacks; KETC announced the next day that it would instead air the 9/11 documentary as nationally scheduled. Some of the programs produced by KETC for national distribution include selected episodes of "Inside/Out". The station also produced "The Letter People", an instructional program about reading, which was seen on many PBS and educational television stations in the mid-1970s, as well as "A Time for Champions", an hour-long documentary chronicling the Saint Louis University soccer dynasty of the 1960s and 1970s; and "Homeland", a miniseries examining the topic of immigration in the United States.

KETC

T h e s t a t i o n f i r s t s i g n e d o n t h e a i r o n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 , 1 9 5 4 . I t w a s t h e f i r s t c o m m u n i t y - l i c e n s e d e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e s t a t i o n ' s f i r s t g e n e r a l m a n a g e r w a s C h a r l e s G u g g e n h e i m , w h o h i r e d t h e t e c h n i c a l s t a f f a n d f i r s t g r o u p o f p r o d u c e r / d i r e c t o r / w r i t e r s , f i v e i n a l l . W h i l e w a i t i n g f o r t h e b r o a d c a s t i n g t o w e r t o b e c o m p l e t e d , a n u m b e r o f p r o g r a m s w e r e r e c o r d e d u s i n g k i n e s c o p e r e c o r d i n g t e c h n o l o g y ( t h e s a m e a s u s e d f o r " T h e H o n e y m o o n e r s " ) . O n c e o n t h e a i r , t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r o f a w a r d - w i n n i n g p r o g r a m s p r o d u c e d b y M a y o S i m o n , B i l l H a r t z e l l , R a n L i n c o l n a n d G u g g e n h e i m . T h e y i n c l u d e d t h e f i r s t l i v e b r o a d c a s t o f t h e S t . L o u i s C i t y C o u n c i l . A n o t h e r f e a t u r e d t h e " S t . L o u i s P o s t - D i s p a t c h " n a t u r e c o l u m n i s t L e o n a r d H a l l o f P o s s u m T r o t F a r m . A m o n g t h e t a p e d p r o g r a m s e r i e s w a s a p i o n e e r i n g s c i e n c e p r o g r a m i n t e n d e d f o r s i x t h g r a d e r s t o s e e i n t h e i r c l a s s r o o m s , " S c i e n c e i n S i g h t " , p r o d u c e d b y M a r t i n L . S c h n e i d e r . F i l m m a k i n g w a s e n c o u r a g e d , a n d w i t h L e n H a l l ' s c o l l a b o r a t i o n a d o c u m e n t a r y f i l m a b o u t t h e r a r e b e a u t y o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y u n p r o t e c t e d C u r r e n t R i v e r w a s p r o d u c e d . I t w a s l a t e r u s e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l A u d u b o n S o c i e t y i n t h e s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t t o m a k e C u r r e n t R i v e r t h e f i r s t N a t i o n a l S c e n i c R i v e r u n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e . S o o n a f t e r t h e s t a t i o n w e n t l i v e , i t s e m p h a s i s o n c u r r e n t a f f a i r s a n d l o c a l p o l i t i c s , f o s t e r e d b y G u g g e n h e i m , r a t t l e d t h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s . F o l l o w i n g a p u b l i c c o n t r o v e r s y , c o v e r e d b y t h e " P o s t - D i s p a t c h " , a n d u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e w e l l - c o n n e c t e d l o c a l p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s f i r m F l e i s h m a n a n d H i l l a r d ( n o w F l e i s h m a n H i l l a r d ) , G u g g e n h e i m w a s r e p l a c e d b y M a r t i n Q u i g l e y , w h o h a d n o e x p e r i e n c e i n b r o a d c a s t i n g . A f e w m o n t h s l a t e r , S h e l b y S t o r c k w a s h i r e d . A n e x p e r i e n c e d b r o a d c a s t e r r e c o m m e n d e d b y G u g g e n h e i m , h e e m c e e d t h e s t a t i o n ' s f i r s t e v e n i n g o f b r o a d c a s t i n g . K E T C o r i g i n a l l y b r o a d c a s t f r o m t e m p o r a r y s t u d i o s i n M c M i l l a n H a l l o n t h e c a m p u s o f W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y i n S t . L o u i s , w i t h t r a n s m i t t i n g f a c i l i t i e s a t o p t h e f o r m e r B o a t m e n ' s B a n k B u i l d i n g ( n o w t h e M a r q u e t t e B u i l d i n g ) i n d o w n t o w n S t . L o u i s . I n 1 9 5 5 , i t m o v e d t o t h e J u l i u s a n d F r e d a B a e r M e m o r i a l B u i l d i n g , a l s o o n t h e W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s . I t w a s t h e f i r s t f a c i l i t y s p e c i f i c a l l y b u i l t f o r a n e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n . I t a c t i v a t e d i t s c u r r e n t t o w e r i n S o u t h C o u n t y i n 1 9 7 0 , a l l o w i n g i t t o b e g i n c o l o r b r o a d c a s t s a y e a r l a t e r . I n 1 9 9 8 , t h e s t a t i o n m o v e d i t s s t u d i o s f r o m t h e W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s t o t h e D a n a B r o w n C o m m u n i c a t i o n s C e n t e r i n t h e G r a n d C e n t e r d i s t r i c t . D u r i n g t h e 2 0 0 4 e l e c t i o n s , K E T C p a r t n e r e d w i t h a r e a N B C a f f i l i a t e K S D K ( c h a n n e l 5 ) t o p r o v i d e S t . L o u i s a n s w i t h c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d u p - t o - d a t e l o c a l a n d n a t i o n a l e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s . T h i s p a r t n e r s h i p w a s f i r s t u t i l i z e d t o s i m u l c a s t a g u b e r n a t o r i a l d e b a t e b e t w e e n R e p u b l i c a n c a n d i d a t e M i s s o u r i S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e M a t t B l u n t a n d D e m o c r a t i c c a n d i d a t e S t a t e A u d i t o r C l a i r e M c C a s k i l l . O n e l e c t i o n n i g h t ( N o v e m b e r 9 ) , K S D K a i r e d N B C ' s p r i m e t i m e e l e c t i o n c o v e r a g e w i t h T o m B r o k a w a n d T i m R u s s e r t a s w e l l a s s e g m e n t s o f l o c a l r e s u l t s . K E T C , m e a n w h i l e , r a n t h r e e h o u r s o f l o c a l e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s h o s t e d b y K S D K a n c h o r s M i k e B u s h a n d K a r e n F o s s . V i e w e r s c o u l d a l s o w a t c h e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s o n l i n e o n t h e w e b s i t e s o f b o t h s t a t i o n s . T h e s u c c e s s f u l K E T C / K S D K p a r t n e r s h i p w a s u s e d a g a i n i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 5 w h e n , a l o n g w i t h r a d i o p a r t n e r s K Y K Y ( 9 8 . 1 F M ) a n d K E Z K - F M ( 1 0 2 . 5 F M ) , a t e l e t h o n f o r H u r r i c a n e K a t r i n a r e l i e f w a s s i m u l c a s t t h a t r a i s e d m o r e t h a n $ 5 m i l l i o n . T h e t e l e t h o n f e a t u r e d a n a p p e a r a n c e b y A f f t o n n a t i v e J o h n G o o d m a n , w h o n o w c a l l s N e w O r l e a n s h o m e a n d w h o s e f a m i l y w e n t m i s s i n g f o r a t i m e d u r i n g t h e s t o r m ' s p e a k . K e n n e t t n a t i v e S h e r y l C r o w a n d h e r t h e n f i a n c é L a n c e A r m s t r o n g u r g e d v i e w e r s t o c a l l w h e n t h e y w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d b y p h o n e f r o m t h e r e g i o n . I n M a y 2 0 0 8 , E ! c o n t r a c t e d w i t h K E T C t o f i l m t w o e p i s o d e s o f t h e c a b l e n e t w o r k ' s w e e k l y p o p c u l t u r e s e r i e s " T h e S o u p " a t t h e K E T C s t u d i o s t o a c c o m m o d a t e h o s t J o e l M c H a l e ' s f i l m i n g o f " T h e I n f o r m a n t ! " i n t h e S t . L o u i s a r e a . A f t e r b e i n g k n o w n f o r m o s t o f i t s h i s t o r y a s " K E T C 9 , " t h e s t a t i o n r e b r a n d e d i t s e l f a s " T h e N i n e N e t w o r k " i n 2 0 1 0 . O n O c t o b e r 1 3 , 2 0 1 0 , t h e s t a t i o n p a r t n e r e d w i t h t h e " S t . L o u i s B e a c o n " , a n o n l i n e - o n l y , n o n - p r o f i t n e w s p u b l i c a t i o n , t o f o r m t h e P u b l i c I n s i g h t N e t w o r k , a c i t i z e n j o u r n a l i s m i n i t i a t i v e c r e a t e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h A m e r i c a n P u b l i c M e d i a . O n J a n u a r y 1 0 , 2 0 2 1 , t h e s t a t i o n r e b r a n d e d a s N i n e P B S , a d o p t i n g t h e c u r r e n t P B S c o r p o r a t e l o g o . T h e s t a t i o n ' s d i g i t a l s i g n a l i s m u l t i p l e x e d : K E T C s h u t d o w n i t s a n a l o g s i g n a l , o v e r V H F c h a n n e l 9 , o n J u n e 1 2 , 2 0 0 9 , t h e o f f i c i a l d a t e i n w h i c h f u l l - p o w e r t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t r a n s i t i o n e d f r o m a n a l o g t o d i g i t a l b r o a d c a s t s u n d e r f e d e r a l m a n d a t e . T h e s t a t i o n ' s d i g i t a l s i g n a l c o n t i n u e d t o b r o a d c a s t s o n i t s p r e - t r a n s i t i o n U H F c h a n n e l 3 9 . T h r o u g h t h e u s e o f P S I P , d i g i t a l t e l e v i s i o n r e c e i v e r s d i s p l a y t h e s t a t i o n ' s v i r t u a l c h a n n e l a s i t s f o r m e r V H F a n a l o g c h a n n e l 9 . K E T C i s k n o w n a m o n g v i e w e r s i n S t . L o u i s f o r p r e e m p t i n g P B S p r o g r a m s t o a i r l i b r a r y p r o g r a m c o n t e n t o r l e s s c o n t r o v e r s i a l p l e d g e d r i v e p r o g r a m s , s u c h a s W Q E D - p r o d u c e d d o o - w o p s p e c i a l s , u s i n g t h e d e f a u l t n e t w o r k f e e d i n l a t e n i g h t t o p r e m i e r e t h o s e P B S p r o g r a m s i n s t e a d , t h o u g h S t . L o u i s h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a d s t a t i o n s , c o m m e r c i a l a n d n o n - c o m m e r c i a l , p r e e m p t p r o g r a m m i n g f r o m t h e i r n e t w o r k s d u e t o c o n t e n t . K E T C h a s g i v e n s o m e l e e w a y a s f a r a s s o m e p r e e m p t i o n s , s u c h a s a c a s e w h e r e " S t . L o u i s P o s t - D i s p a t c h " c o l u m n i s t E r i c M i n k w r o t e a n e d i t o r i a l c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t t h e s t a t i o n ' s s c h e d u l i n g o f a p l e d g e d r i v e i c e s k a t i n g s h o w i n s t e a d o f a P B S d o c u m e n t a r y o n t h e S e p t e m b e r 1 1 a t t a c k s ; K E T C a n n o u n c e d t h e n e x t d a y t h a t i t w o u l d i n s t e a d a i r t h e 9 / 1 1 d o c u m e n t a r y a s n a t i o n a l l y s c h e d u l e d . S o m e o f t h e p r o g r a m s p r o d u c e d b y K E T C f o r n a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n c l u d e s e l e c t e d e p i s o d e s o f " I n s i d e / O u t " . T h e s t a t i o n a l s o p r o d u c e d " T h e L e t t e r P e o p l e " , a n i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m a b o u t r e a d i n g , w h i c h w a s s e e n o n m a n y P B S a n d e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s i n t h e m i d - 1 9 7 0 s , a s w e l l a s " A T i m e f o r C h a m p i o n s " , a n h o u r - l o n g d o c u m e n t a r y c h r o n i c l i n g t h e S a i n t L o u i s U n i v e r s i t y s o c c e r d y n a s t y o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s ; a n d " H o m e l a n d " , a m i n i s e r i e s e x a m i n i n g t h e t o p i c o f i m m i g r a t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

Digital television ; Analog-to-digital conversion

KETC-TV, also known as Nine PBS, is a public television station serving St. Louis, Missouri. Founded in 1954, it was the first community-licensed educational TV station in the US. Initially broadcasting from temporary studios at Washington University, it later moved to a purpose-built facility on campus before relocating to the Dana Brown Communications Center in 1998. Over the years, KETC has produced various programs for national distribution, including documentaries and instructional shows. In 2009, it transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts, and in 2010, it rebranded as "The Nine Network." In 2021, it adopted the PBS corporate logo and became known as Nine PBS.

The station first signed on the air on September 20, 1954. It was the first community-licensed educational television station in the United States. The station's first general manager was Charles Guggenheim, who hired the technical staff and first group of producer/director/writers, five in all. While waiting for the broadcasting tower to be completed, a number of programs were recorded using kinescope recording technology (the same as used for "The Honeymooners"). Once on the air, there were a number of award-winning programs produced by Mayo Simon, Bill Hartzell, Ran Lincoln and Guggenheim. They included the first live broadcast of the St. Louis City Council. Another featured the "St. Louis Post-Dispatch" nature columnist Leonard Hall of Possum Trot Farm. Among the taped program series was a pioneering science program intended for sixth graders to see in their classrooms, "Science in Sight", produced by Martin L. Schneider. Film making was encouraged, and with Len Hall's collaboration a documentary film about the rare beauty of the relatively unprotected Current River was produced. It was later used by the National Audubon Society in the successful effort to make Current River the first National Scenic River under the protection of the National Park Service. Soon after the station went live, its emphasis on current affairs and local politics, fostered by Guggenheim, rattled the political leaders. Following a public controversy, covered by the "Post-Dispatch", and under the influence of the well-connected local public relations firm Fleishman and Hillard (now FleishmanHillard), Guggenheim was replaced by Martin Quigley, who had no experience in broadcasting. A few months later, Shelby Storck was hired. An experienced broadcaster recommended by Guggenheim, he emceed the station's first evening of broadcasting. KETC originally broadcast from temporary studios in McMillan Hall on the campus of Washington University in St. Louis, with transmitting facilities atop the former Boatmen's Bank Building (now the Marquette Building) in downtown St. Louis. In 1955, it moved to the Julius and Freda Baer Memorial Building, also on the Washington University campus. It was the first facility specifically built for an educational television station. It activated its current tower in South County in 1970, allowing it to begin color broadcasts a year later. In 1998, the station moved its studios from the Washington University campus to the Dana Brown Communications Center in the Grand Center district. During the 2004 elections, KETC partnered with area NBC affiliate KSDK (channel 5) to provide St. Louisans with comprehensive and up-to-date local and national election results. This partnership was first utilized to simulcast a gubernatorial debate between Republican candidate Missouri Secretary of State Matt Blunt and Democratic candidate State Auditor Claire McCaskill. On election night (November 9), KSDK aired NBC's prime time election coverage with Tom Brokaw and Tim Russert as well as segments of local results. KETC, meanwhile, ran three hours of local election results hosted by KSDK anchors Mike Bush and Karen Foss. Viewers could also watch election results online on the websites of both stations. The successful KETC/KSDK partnership was used again in September 2005 when, along with radio partners KYKY (98.1 FM) and KEZK-FM (102.5 FM), a telethon for Hurricane Katrina relief was simulcast that raised more than $5 million. The telethon featured an appearance by Affton native John Goodman, who now calls New Orleans home and whose family went missing for a time during the storm's peak. Kennett native Sheryl Crow and her then fiancé Lance Armstrong urged viewers to call when they were interviewed by phone from the region. In May 2008, E! contracted with KETC to film two episodes of the cable network's weekly pop culture series "The Soup" at the KETC studios to accommodate host Joel McHale's filming of "The Informant!" in the St. Louis area. After being known for most of its history as "KETC 9," the station rebranded itself as "The Nine Network" in 2010. On October 13, 2010, the station partnered with the "St. Louis Beacon", an online-only, non-profit news publication, to form the Public Insight Network, a citizen journalism initiative created in conjunction with American Public Media. On January 10, 2021, the station rebranded as Nine PBS, adopting the current PBS corporate logo. The station's digital signal is multiplexed: KETC shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 9, on June 12, 2009, the official date in which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal continued to broadcasts on its pre-transition UHF channel 39. Through the use of PSIP, digital television receivers display the station's virtual channel as its former VHF analog channel 9. KETC is known among viewers in St. Louis for preempting PBS programs to air library program content or less controversial pledge drive programs, such as WQED-produced doo-wop specials, using the default network feed in late night to premiere those PBS programs instead, though St. Louis has traditionally had stations, commercial and non-commercial, preempt programming from their networks due to content. KETC has given some leeway as far as some preemptions, such as a case where "St. Louis Post-Dispatch" columnist Eric Mink wrote an editorial complaining about the station's scheduling of a pledge drive ice skating show instead of a PBS documentary on the September 11 attacks; KETC announced the next day that it would instead air the 9/11 documentary as nationally scheduled. Some of the programs produced by KETC for national distribution include selected episodes of "Inside/Out". The station also produced "The Letter People", an instructional program about reading, which was seen on many PBS and educational television stations in the mid-1970s, as well as "A Time for Champions", an hour-long documentary chronicling the Saint Louis University soccer dynasty of the 1960s and 1970s; and "Homeland", a miniseries examining the topic of immigration in the United States.

Patrice Brisebois

B r i s e b o i s w a s d r a f t e d b y t h e M o n t r e a l C a n a d i e n s i n t h e s e c o n d r o u n d , 3 0 t h o v e r a l l , o f t h e 1 9 8 9 N H L E n t r y D r a f t . H e p l a y e d j u n i o r h o c k e y f o r t h e L a v a l T i t a n a n d D r u m m o n d v i l l e V o l t i g e u r s o f t h e Q u e b e c M a j o r J u n i o r H o c k e y L e a g u e ( Q M J H L ) , a n d f o r t h e F r e d e r i c t o n C a n a d i e n s o f t h e A m e r i c a n H o c k e y L e a g u e ( A H L ) d u r i n g h i s f i r s t y e a r o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i c e h o c k e y . B r i s e b o i s ' s j u n i o r c a r e e r w a s a n u n q u a l i f i e d s u c c e s s . I n 1 9 9 0 – 9 1 , h e c a p t u r e d t h e E m i l e B o u c h a r d T r o p h y a w a r d e d t o t h e b e s t d e f e n c e m e n i n t h e Q M J H L , w a s n a m e d t o t h e Q M J H L A l l - S t a r t e a m , a n d t o o k h o m e t h e a w a r d f o r t h e C a n a d i a n H o c k e y L e a g u e ( C H L ) ' s B e s t D e f e n c e m e n . H e h a s p l a y e d f o r t h e C a n a d i e n s f o r 1 4 s e a s o n s , w i n n i n g o n e S t a n l e y C u p w i t h t h e f r a n c h i s e d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 2 – 9 3 s e a s o n . B y 1 9 9 9 , B r i s e b o i s h a d b e c o m e a s t a p l e o f t h e H a b s d e f e n c e , s p e c i f i c a l l y a s t h e i r p o w e r p l a y a n c h o r . B r i s e b o i s w a s r e w a r d e d f o r h i s s t r o n g p l a y w i t h a h e f t y $ 1 2 m i l l i o n / 3 y e a r s c o n t r a c t . B r i s e b o i s l a t e r f e l l o u t w i t h t h e M o n t r e a l f a n s . W i t h h i s h e f t y c o n t r a c t c a m e m a n y e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d t h e g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s w a s t h a t B r i s e b o i s w a s n o t e a r n i n g h i s s a l a r y . H i s d e f e n s i v e v u l n e r a b i l i t y a s a r i s k - t a k i n g o f f e n s i v e d e f e n c e m a n b e c a m e a t o p i c o f c o n t e n t i o n . A s a f r e e a g e n t f o l l o w i n g t h e N H L l o c k o u t i n 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 , B r i s e b o i s l e f t t h e C a n a d i e n s t o s i g n w i t h t h e C o l o r a d o A v a l a n c h e i n a t w o - y e a r d e a l o n A u g u s t 3 , 2 0 0 5 . A w a y f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s p r e s s u r e s , B r i s e b o i s t h e n e n j o y e d a c a r e e r y e a r s t a t i s t i c a l l y s c o r i n g a c a r e e r - h i g h 3 8 p o i n t s w i t h t h e A v a l a n c h e i n t h e 2 0 0 5 – 0 6 s e a s o n . O n A u g u s t 3 , 2 0 0 7 , B r i s e b o i s , a g a i n a f r e e a g e n t , r e t u r n e d t o t h e M o n t r e a l C a n a d i e n s , a c c e p t i n g a o n e - y e a r i n c e n t i v e - l a d e n d e a l f o r t h e 2 0 0 7 – 0 8 s e a s o n . A t t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0 0 8 s e a s o n t h e H a b s e x t e n d e d B r i s e b o i s t o f u r t h e r o n e - y e a r d e a l . B r i s e b o i s p l a y e d h i s 1 0 0 0 t h C a r e e r N H L g a m e f o r t h e M o n t r e a l C a n a d i e n s o n M a r c h 1 4 , 2 0 0 9 a t t h e B e l l C e n t r e a g a i n s t t h e N e w J e r s e y D e v i l s . T h i s f e a t w a s e c l i p s e d t h a t n i g h t b e c a u s e M a r t i n B r o d e u r r e a c h e d P a t r i c k R o y ' s 5 5 1 v i c t o r i e s . H o w e v e r , h e w a s a w a r d e d a p r i z e f r o m t h e v i c e - p r e s i d e n t o f t h e N H L a s w e l l a s a s i l v e r s t i c k g i v e n t o h i m b y H e n r i R i c h a r d . O n S e p t e m b e r 2 4 , 2 0 0 9 , B r i s e b o i s a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t a f t e r a n 1 8 - y e a r c a r e e r i n t h e N a t i o n a l H o c k e y L e a g u e . O n t h e s a m e d a y , h e a l s o r e c e i v e d t h e J e a n - B é l i v e a u T r o p h y a w a r d e d a n n u a l l y t o a C a n a d i e n s p l a y e r f o r h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . B r i s e b o i s r a n k s t h i r d a l l - t i m e i n g a m e s p l a y e d f o r t h e C a n a d i e n s a s a d e f e n c e m a n , l a c i n g u p 8 9 6 t i m e s . B r i s e b o i s w a s n o t s i g n e d f o r t h e 2 0 0 9 – 2 0 1 0 N H L s e a s o n . H e d e c i d e d t o b u y a N A S C A R C a n a d a c a r a n d r a c e i n t w o N A S C A R C a n a d a r a c e s i n A u g u s t 2 0 0 9 . B r i s e b o i s e n t e r e d t h e N A S C A R C a n a d i a n T i r e S e r i e s ' 2 0 0 9 G P 3 R 1 0 0 a t C i r c u i t T r o i s - R i v i è r e s , a n d p u l l e d o u t b e f o r e t h e e n d d u e t o h e a t e x h a u s t i o n . B r i s e b o i s q u a l i f i e d i n 1 5 t h f o r t h e N A P A A u t o p r o 1 0 0 a t C i r c u i t G i l l e s V i l l e n e u v e , a s u p p o r t r a c e f o r t h e N A S C A R N a t i o n w i d e S e r i e s ' N A P A A u t o P a r t s 2 0 0 . H e f i n i s h e d i n 1 2 t h p l a c e . O n J u n e 1 3 , 2 0 1 2 t h e M o n t r e a l C a n a d i e n s a n n o u n c e d t h a t B r i s e b o i s h a d j o i n e d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a s D i r e c t o r o f P l a y e r D e v e l o p m e n t . O n J u l y 1 7 , 2 0 1 4 , B r i s e b o i s s t e p p e d d o w n f r o m h i s p o s i t i o n a s D i r e c t o r o f P l a y e r D e v e l o p m e n t , c i t i n g f a m i l y r e a s o n s .

NHL playing career

Patrice Brisebois played 18 seasons in the NHL, primarily with the Montreal Canadiens, winning one Stanley Cup in 1992-93. He played 14 seasons with the Canadiens, serving as their power play anchor and earning a hefty contract in 1999. After falling out with Montreal fans, he signed with the Colorado Avalanche in 2005 and enjoyed a career year in 2005-06. He returned to the Canadiens in 2007 and played three more seasons, reaching 1,000 career games in 2009. He retired in 2009 and went on to pursue other interests, including NASCAR racing.

Brisebois was drafted by the Montreal Canadiens in the second round, 30th overall, of the 1989 NHL Entry Draft. He played junior hockey for the Laval Titan and Drummondville Voltigeurs of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL), and for the Fredericton Canadiens of the American Hockey League (AHL) during his first year of professional ice hockey. Brisebois's junior career was an unqualified success. In 1990–91, he captured the Emile Bouchard Trophy awarded to the best defencemen in the QMJHL, was named to the QMJHL All-Star team, and took home the award for the Canadian Hockey League (CHL)'s Best Defencemen. He has played for the Canadiens for 14 seasons, winning one Stanley Cup with the franchise during the 1992–93 season. By 1999, Brisebois had become a staple of the Habs defence, specifically as their power play anchor. Brisebois was rewarded for his strong play with a hefty $12 million/3 years contract. Brisebois later fell out with the Montreal fans. With his hefty contract came many expectations and the general consensus was that Brisebois was not earning his salary. His defensive vulnerability as a risk-taking offensive defenceman became a topic of contention. As a free agent following the NHL lockout in 2004–05, Brisebois left the Canadiens to sign with the Colorado Avalanche in a two-year deal on August 3, 2005. Away from the previous pressures, Brisebois then enjoyed a career year statistically scoring a career-high 38 points with the Avalanche in the 2005–06 season. On August 3, 2007, Brisebois, again a free agent, returned to the Montreal Canadiens, accepting a one-year incentive-laden deal for the 2007–08 season. At the end of the 2008 season the Habs extended Brisebois to further one-year deal. Brisebois played his 1000th Career NHL game for the Montreal Canadiens on March 14, 2009 at the Bell Centre against the New Jersey Devils. This feat was eclipsed that night because Martin Brodeur reached Patrick Roy's 551 victories. However, he was awarded a prize from the vice-president of the NHL as well as a silver stick given to him by Henri Richard. On September 24, 2009, Brisebois announced his retirement after an 18-year career in the National Hockey League. On the same day, he also received the Jean-Béliveau Trophy awarded annually to a Canadiens player for his contribution in the community. Brisebois ranks third all-time in games played for the Canadiens as a defenceman, lacing up 896 times. Brisebois was not signed for the 2009–2010 NHL season. He decided to buy a NASCAR Canada car and race in two NASCAR Canada races in August 2009. Brisebois entered the NASCAR Canadian Tire Series' 2009 GP3R 100 at Circuit Trois-Rivières, and pulled out before the end due to heat exhaustion. Brisebois qualified in 15th for the NAPA Autopro 100 at Circuit Gilles Villeneuve, a support race for the NASCAR Nationwide Series' NAPA Auto Parts 200. He finished in 12th place. On June 13, 2012 the Montreal Canadiens announced that Brisebois had joined the organization as Director of Player Development. On July 17, 2014, Brisebois stepped down from his position as Director of Player Development, citing family reasons.

Patrice Brisebois

B r i s e b o i s w a s d r a f t e d b y t h e M o n t r e a l C a n a d i e n s i n t h e s e c o n d r o u n d , 3 0 t h o v e r a l l , o f t h e 1 9 8 9 N H L E n t r y D r a f t . H e p l a y e d j u n i o r h o c k e y f o r t h e L a v a l T i t a n a n d D r u m m o n d v i l l e V o l t i g e u r s o f t h e Q u e b e c M a j o r J u n i o r H o c k e y L e a g u e ( Q M J H L ) , a n d f o r t h e F r e d e r i c t o n C a n a d i e n s o f t h e A m e r i c a n H o c k e y L e a g u e ( A H L ) d u r i n g h i s f i r s t y e a r o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i c e h o c k e y . B r i s e b o i s ' s j u n i o r c a r e e r w a s a n u n q u a l i f i e d s u c c e s s . I n 1 9 9 0 – 9 1 , h e c a p t u r e d t h e E m i l e B o u c h a r d T r o p h y a w a r d e d t o t h e b e s t d e f e n c e m e n i n t h e Q M J H L , w a s n a m e d t o t h e Q M J H L A l l - S t a r t e a m , a n d t o o k h o m e t h e a w a r d f o r t h e C a n a d i a n H o c k e y L e a g u e ( C H L ) ' s B e s t D e f e n c e m e n . H e h a s p l a y e d f o r t h e C a n a d i e n s f o r 1 4 s e a s o n s , w i n n i n g o n e S t a n l e y C u p w i t h t h e f r a n c h i s e d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 2 – 9 3 s e a s o n . B y 1 9 9 9 , B r i s e b o i s h a d b e c o m e a s t a p l e o f t h e H a b s d e f e n c e , s p e c i f i c a l l y a s t h e i r p o w e r p l a y a n c h o r . B r i s e b o i s w a s r e w a r d e d f o r h i s s t r o n g p l a y w i t h a h e f t y $ 1 2 m i l l i o n / 3 y e a r s c o n t r a c t . B r i s e b o i s l a t e r f e l l o u t w i t h t h e M o n t r e a l f a n s . W i t h h i s h e f t y c o n t r a c t c a m e m a n y e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d t h e g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s w a s t h a t B r i s e b o i s w a s n o t e a r n i n g h i s s a l a r y . H i s d e f e n s i v e v u l n e r a b i l i t y a s a r i s k - t a k i n g o f f e n s i v e d e f e n c e m a n b e c a m e a t o p i c o f c o n t e n t i o n . A s a f r e e a g e n t f o l l o w i n g t h e N H L l o c k o u t i n 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 , B r i s e b o i s l e f t t h e C a n a d i e n s t o s i g n w i t h t h e C o l o r a d o A v a l a n c h e i n a t w o - y e a r d e a l o n A u g u s t 3 , 2 0 0 5 . A w a y f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s p r e s s u r e s , B r i s e b o i s t h e n e n j o y e d a c a r e e r y e a r s t a t i s t i c a l l y s c o r i n g a c a r e e r - h i g h 3 8 p o i n t s w i t h t h e A v a l a n c h e i n t h e 2 0 0 5 – 0 6 s e a s o n . O n A u g u s t 3 , 2 0 0 7 , B r i s e b o i s , a g a i n a f r e e a g e n t , r e t u r n e d t o t h e M o n t r e a l C a n a d i e n s , a c c e p t i n g a o n e - y e a r i n c e n t i v e - l a d e n d e a l f o r t h e 2 0 0 7 – 0 8 s e a s o n . A t t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0 0 8 s e a s o n t h e H a b s e x t e n d e d B r i s e b o i s t o f u r t h e r o n e - y e a r d e a l . B r i s e b o i s p l a y e d h i s 1 0 0 0 t h C a r e e r N H L g a m e f o r t h e M o n t r e a l C a n a d i e n s o n M a r c h 1 4 , 2 0 0 9 a t t h e B e l l C e n t r e a g a i n s t t h e N e w J e r s e y D e v i l s . T h i s f e a t w a s e c l i p s e d t h a t n i g h t b e c a u s e M a r t i n B r o d e u r r e a c h e d P a t r i c k R o y ' s 5 5 1 v i c t o r i e s . H o w e v e r , h e w a s a w a r d e d a p r i z e f r o m t h e v i c e - p r e s i d e n t o f t h e N H L a s w e l l a s a s i l v e r s t i c k g i v e n t o h i m b y H e n r i R i c h a r d . O n S e p t e m b e r 2 4 , 2 0 0 9 , B r i s e b o i s a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t a f t e r a n 1 8 - y e a r c a r e e r i n t h e N a t i o n a l H o c k e y L e a g u e . O n t h e s a m e d a y , h e a l s o r e c e i v e d t h e J e a n - B é l i v e a u T r o p h y a w a r d e d a n n u a l l y t o a C a n a d i e n s p l a y e r f o r h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . B r i s e b o i s r a n k s t h i r d a l l - t i m e i n g a m e s p l a y e d f o r t h e C a n a d i e n s a s a d e f e n c e m a n , l a c i n g u p 8 9 6 t i m e s . B r i s e b o i s w a s n o t s i g n e d f o r t h e 2 0 0 9 – 2 0 1 0 N H L s e a s o n . H e d e c i d e d t o b u y a N A S C A R C a n a d a c a r a n d r a c e i n t w o N A S C A R C a n a d a r a c e s i n A u g u s t 2 0 0 9 . B r i s e b o i s e n t e r e d t h e N A S C A R C a n a d i a n T i r e S e r i e s ' 2 0 0 9 G P 3 R 1 0 0 a t C i r c u i t T r o i s - R i v i è r e s , a n d p u l l e d o u t b e f o r e t h e e n d d u e t o h e a t e x h a u s t i o n . B r i s e b o i s q u a l i f i e d i n 1 5 t h f o r t h e N A P A A u t o p r o 1 0 0 a t C i r c u i t G i l l e s V i l l e n e u v e , a s u p p o r t r a c e f o r t h e N A S C A R N a t i o n w i d e S e r i e s ' N A P A A u t o P a r t s 2 0 0 . H e f i n i s h e d i n 1 2 t h p l a c e . O n J u n e 1 3 , 2 0 1 2 t h e M o n t r e a l C a n a d i e n s a n n o u n c e d t h a t B r i s e b o i s h a d j o i n e d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a s D i r e c t o r o f P l a y e r D e v e l o p m e n t . O n J u l y 1 7 , 2 0 1 4 , B r i s e b o i s s t e p p e d d o w n f r o m h i s p o s i t i o n a s D i r e c t o r o f P l a y e r D e v e l o p m e n t , c i t i n g f a m i l y r e a s o n s .

Front office career

Patrice Brisebois had a successful front office career after retiring from playing in the NHL. He served as the Director of Player Development for the Montreal Canadiens from 2012-2014, stepping down due to family reasons.

Brisebois was drafted by the Montreal Canadiens in the second round, 30th overall, of the 1989 NHL Entry Draft. He played junior hockey for the Laval Titan and Drummondville Voltigeurs of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL), and for the Fredericton Canadiens of the American Hockey League (AHL) during his first year of professional ice hockey. Brisebois's junior career was an unqualified success. In 1990–91, he captured the Emile Bouchard Trophy awarded to the best defencemen in the QMJHL, was named to the QMJHL All-Star team, and took home the award for the Canadian Hockey League (CHL)'s Best Defencemen. He has played for the Canadiens for 14 seasons, winning one Stanley Cup with the franchise during the 1992–93 season. By 1999, Brisebois had become a staple of the Habs defence, specifically as their power play anchor. Brisebois was rewarded for his strong play with a hefty $12 million/3 years contract. Brisebois later fell out with the Montreal fans. With his hefty contract came many expectations and the general consensus was that Brisebois was not earning his salary. His defensive vulnerability as a risk-taking offensive defenceman became a topic of contention. As a free agent following the NHL lockout in 2004–05, Brisebois left the Canadiens to sign with the Colorado Avalanche in a two-year deal on August 3, 2005. Away from the previous pressures, Brisebois then enjoyed a career year statistically scoring a career-high 38 points with the Avalanche in the 2005–06 season. On August 3, 2007, Brisebois, again a free agent, returned to the Montreal Canadiens, accepting a one-year incentive-laden deal for the 2007–08 season. At the end of the 2008 season the Habs extended Brisebois to further one-year deal. Brisebois played his 1000th Career NHL game for the Montreal Canadiens on March 14, 2009 at the Bell Centre against the New Jersey Devils. This feat was eclipsed that night because Martin Brodeur reached Patrick Roy's 551 victories. However, he was awarded a prize from the vice-president of the NHL as well as a silver stick given to him by Henri Richard. On September 24, 2009, Brisebois announced his retirement after an 18-year career in the National Hockey League. On the same day, he also received the Jean-Béliveau Trophy awarded annually to a Canadiens player for his contribution in the community. Brisebois ranks third all-time in games played for the Canadiens as a defenceman, lacing up 896 times. Brisebois was not signed for the 2009–2010 NHL season. He decided to buy a NASCAR Canada car and race in two NASCAR Canada races in August 2009. Brisebois entered the NASCAR Canadian Tire Series' 2009 GP3R 100 at Circuit Trois-Rivières, and pulled out before the end due to heat exhaustion. Brisebois qualified in 15th for the NAPA Autopro 100 at Circuit Gilles Villeneuve, a support race for the NASCAR Nationwide Series' NAPA Auto Parts 200. He finished in 12th place. On June 13, 2012 the Montreal Canadiens announced that Brisebois had joined the organization as Director of Player Development. On July 17, 2014, Brisebois stepped down from his position as Director of Player Development, citing family reasons.

Andrew Brunette

B r u n e t t e g r e w u p i n t h e s m a l l c o m m u n i t y o f V a l l e y E a s t , O n t a r i o , j u s t o u t s i d e S u d b u r y . H e p l a y e d m u c h o f h i s m i n o r h o c k e y c a r e e r w i t h t h e R a y s i d e - B a l f o u r S a b r e c a t s o f t h e N o r t h e r n O n t a r i o H o c k e y A s s o c i a t i o n ( N O H A ) . A f t e r a s o l i d M i d g e t s e a s o n i n 1 9 8 9 – 9 0 , B r u n e t t e w a s s e l e c t e d i n t h e s e v e n t h r o u n d o f t h e 1 9 9 0 O n t a r i o H o c k e y L e a g u e ( O H L ) P r i o r i t y S e l e c t i o n b y t h e O w e n S o u n d P l a t e r s . H e w a s a n O H L t e a m m a t e o f f u t u r e N H L e r s K i r k M a l t b y , S c o t t W a l k e r , K e v i n W e e k e s , a n d J a m i e S t o r r . B r u n e t t e p l a y e d f o r t h e P l a t e r s f o r t h r e e s e a s o n s b e t w e e n 1 9 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 3 a n d s c o r e d 2 9 5 p o i n t s i n 1 9 5 g a m e s , w i n n i n g t h e E d d i e P o w e r s M e m o r i a l T r o p h y ( t h e l e a g u e s c o r i n g t i t l e ) i n 1 9 9 3 . H e w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y d r a f t e d b y t h e W a s h i n g t o n C a p i t a l s i n t h e s e v e n t h r o u n d , 1 7 4 t h o v e r a l l , i n t h e 1 9 9 3 N H L E n t r y D r a f t . A f t e r b e i n g d r a f t e d , h e p l a y e d f o r t h e H a m p t o n R o a d s A d m i r a l s i n t h e E C H L b e f o r e m o v i n g t o t h e A m e r i c a n H o c k e y L e a g u e ( A H L ) , w h e r e h e p l a y e d f o r t w o m o r e t e a m s t h a t s e a s o n : P r o v i d e n c e B r u i n s a n d P o r t l a n d P i r a t e s . B r u n e t t e s t a y e d w i t h t h e P i r a t e s u n t i l 1 9 9 8 , b u t w a s c a l l e d u p b y t h e C a p i t a l s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e 1 9 9 5 – 9 6 s e a s o n a n d p l a y e d 1 1 N H L g a m e s . O v e r t h e f o l l o w i n g f e w s e a s o n s , h e p l a y e d 5 1 m o r e g a m e s f o r W a s h i n g t o n b e f o r e b e i n g s e l e c t e d i n t h e 1 9 9 8 N H L E x p a n s i o n D r a f t b y t h e N a s h v i l l e P r e d a t o r s . N o t a b l y , h e s c o r e d t h e P r e d a t o r s ' f i r s t e v e r g o a l . A f t e r p l a y i n g i n t h e i n a u g u r a l 1 9 9 8 – 9 9 s e a s o n f o r t h e P r e d a t o r s , h e m o v e d t o t h e n e w l y c r e a t e d A t l a n t a T h r a s h e r s a n d p l a y e d t w o s e a s o n s t h e r e b e f o r e m o v i n g t o t h e M i n n e s o t a W i l d i n t h e 2 0 0 1 – 0 2 N H L s e a s o n . B r u n e t t e s c o r e d t h e w i n n i n g g o a l i n o v e r t i m e o f G a m e 7 o f t h e W e s t e r n C o n f e r e n c e Q u a r t e r f i n a l s a g a i n s t t h e C o l o r a d o A v a l a n c h e o n A p r i l 2 2 , 2 0 0 3 , t h e f i n a l g a m e o f A v a l a n c h e g o a l t e n d e r P a t r i c k R o y ' s c a r e e r . B r u n e t t e s t a y e d w i t h t h e W i l d u n t i l 2 0 0 4 a n d s i g n e d a s a f r e e a g e n t f o r t h e C o l o r a d o A v a l a n c h e a f t e r t h e 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 l o c k o u t . H e s c o r e d t h e s e r i e s - c l i n c h i n g g o a l f o r t h e A v a l a n c h e o n A p r i l 3 0 , 2 0 0 6 , a g a i n s t t h e D a l l a s S t a r s i n G a m e 5 o f t h e 2 0 0 6 W e s t e r n C o n f e r e n c e Q u a r t e r f i n a l s . T h e 2 0 0 6 – 0 7 w a s h i s b e s t i n d i v i d u a l s e a s o n , a v e r a g i n g o v e r a p o i n t p e r g a m e f o r h i s f i r s t t i m e i n t h e N H L , p l a y i n g o n a l i n e w i t h s u p e r s t a r c e n t r e J o e S a k i c . B r u n e t t e s c o r e d h i s 5 0 0 t h N H L c a r e e r p o i n t o n O c t o b e r 2 6 , 2 0 0 7 , a g a i n s t t h e C a l g a r y F l a m e s . H e p l a y e d t h r e e c o n s e c u t i v e f u l l 8 2 - g a m e s e a s o n s w i t h t h e A v a l a n c h e . B r u n e t t e s i g n e d a t h r e e - y e a r , $ 7   m i l l i o n c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e M i n n e s o t a W i l d o n J u l y 1 , 2 0 0 8 , t o b e g i n a s e c o n d s t i n t w i t h t h e c l u b . O n O c t o b e r 9 , h e w a s n a m e d a n a l t e r n a t e c a p t a i n a l o n g s i d e M i k k o K o i v u . B r u n e t t e w a s h i g h l y r e g a r d e d f o r h i s p h y s i c a l d u r a b i l i t y a n d c o n s i s t e n c y , q u a l i t i e s w h i c h a l l o w e d h i m t o p l a y i n 5 0 9 c o n s e c u t i v e g a m e s w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o s i t o u t d u e t o i n j u r y f r o m 2 0 0 2 t o 2 0 0 9 . H o w e v e r , h e w a s d i a g n o s e d w i t h a t o r n A C L i n h i s r i g h t k n e e b u t i n s i s t e d o n f i n i s h i n g t h e 2 0 0 8 – 0 9 s e a s o n b e f o r e h a v i n g s u r g e r y i n t h e o f f - s e a s o n . O n J u l y 1 , 2 0 1 1 , B r u n e t t e s i g n e d a o n e - y e a r , $ 2   m i l l i o n w i t h t h e C h i c a g o B l a c k h a w k s . D u r i n g t h e 2 0 1 1 – 1 2 s e a s o n , B r u n e t t e , i n a r e d u c e d r o l e , r e c o r d e d a c a r e e r - l o w i n p o i n t s w i t h 2 7 i n 7 8 g a m e s . W i t h t h e 2 0 1 2 – 1 3 N H L l o c k o u t a n d l i m i t e d N H L i n t e r e s t a s a f r e e a g e n t u p o n t h e r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e s h o r t e n e d 2 0 1 2 – 1 3 s e a s o n , o n F e b r u a r y 1 3 , 2 0 1 3 , B r u n e t t e a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m h i s p l a y i n g c a r e e r a n d t h a t h e w o u l d r e j o i n t h e M i n n e s o t a W i l d o r g a n i z a t i o n a s i t s h o c k e y o p e r a t i o n s a d v i s o r . B r u n e t t e w a s a n a s s i s t a n t c o a c h o f t h e N H L ' s M i n n e s o t a W i l d f o r t w o s e a s o n s f r o m t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 s e a s o n a n d s e r v e d a s t h e W i l d ' s a s s i s t a n t g e n e r a l m a n a g e r u n t i l t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e 2 0 1 8 – 1 9 s e a s o n . O n J u n e 4 , 2 0 1 9 , h e j o i n e d t h e F l o r i d a P a n t h e r s a s a n a s s i s t a n t c o a c h o n h e a d c o a c h J o e l Q u e n n e v i l l e ' s s t a f f . O n O c t o b e r 2 9 , 2 0 2 1 , B r u n e t t e w a s n a m e d t h e i n t e r i m h e a d c o a c h o f t h e P a n t h e r s a f t e r h e a d c o a c h Q u e n n e v i l l e r e s i g n e d o n O c t o b e r 2 8 .

Playing career

Andrew Brunette had a successful playing career spanning over 16 years. He played for several teams including the Washington Capitals, Nashville Predators, Atlanta Thrashers, Minnesota Wild, Colorado Avalanche, and Chicago Blackhawks. Brunette scored over 500 points in his NHL career, including notable goals such as the first-ever goal for the Nashville Predators and the series-clinching goal against the Dallas Stars. He was known for his physical durability and consistency, playing in 509 consecutive games without injury. Brunette retired from playing in 2013 and went on to become an assistant coach and assistant general manager for the Minnesota Wild before joining the Florida Panthers as an assistant coach and eventually becoming their interim head coach.

Brunette grew up in the small community of Valley East, Ontario, just outside Sudbury. He played much of his minor hockey career with the Rayside-Balfour Sabrecats of the Northern Ontario Hockey Association (NOHA). After a solid Midget season in 1989–90, Brunette was selected in the seventh round of the 1990 Ontario Hockey League (OHL) Priority Selection by the Owen Sound Platers. He was an OHL teammate of future NHLers Kirk Maltby, Scott Walker, Kevin Weekes, and Jamie Storr. Brunette played for the Platers for three seasons between 1990 and 1993 and scored 295 points in 195 games, winning the Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (the league scoring title) in 1993. He was subsequently drafted by the Washington Capitals in the seventh round, 174th overall, in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft. After being drafted, he played for the Hampton Roads Admirals in the ECHL before moving to the American Hockey League (AHL), where he played for two more teams that season: Providence Bruins and Portland Pirates. Brunette stayed with the Pirates until 1998, but was called up by the Capitals for the first time in the 1995–96 season and played 11 NHL games. Over the following few seasons, he played 51 more games for Washington before being selected in the 1998 NHL Expansion Draft by the Nashville Predators. Notably, he scored the Predators' first ever goal. After playing in the inaugural 1998–99 season for the Predators, he moved to the newly created Atlanta Thrashers and played two seasons there before moving to the Minnesota Wild in the 2001–02 NHL season. Brunette scored the winning goal in overtime of Game 7 of the Western Conference Quarterfinals against the Colorado Avalanche on April 22, 2003, the final game of Avalanche goaltender Patrick Roy's career. Brunette stayed with the Wild until 2004 and signed as a free agent for the Colorado Avalanche after the 2004–05 lockout. He scored the series-clinching goal for the Avalanche on April 30, 2006, against the Dallas Stars in Game 5 of the 2006 Western Conference Quarterfinals. The 2006–07 was his best individual season, averaging over a point per game for his first time in the NHL, playing on a line with superstar centre Joe Sakic. Brunette scored his 500th NHL career point on October 26, 2007, against the Calgary Flames. He played three consecutive full 82-game seasons with the Avalanche. Brunette signed a three-year, $7 million contract with the Minnesota Wild on July 1, 2008, to begin a second stint with the club. On October 9, he was named an alternate captain alongside Mikko Koivu. Brunette was highly regarded for his physical durability and consistency, qualities which allowed him to play in 509 consecutive games without having to sit out due to injury from 2002 to 2009. However, he was diagnosed with a torn ACL in his right knee but insisted on finishing the 2008–09 season before having surgery in the off-season. On July 1, 2011, Brunette signed a one-year, $2 million with the Chicago Blackhawks. During the 2011–12 season, Brunette, in a reduced role, recorded a career-low in points with 27 in 78 games. With the 2012–13 NHL lockout and limited NHL interest as a free agent upon the resumption of the shortened 2012–13 season, on February 13, 2013, Brunette announced his retirement from his playing career and that he would rejoin the Minnesota Wild organization as its hockey operations advisor. Brunette was an assistant coach of the NHL's Minnesota Wild for two seasons from the 2014–15 season and served as the Wild's assistant general manager until the conclusion of the 2018–19 season. On June 4, 2019, he joined the Florida Panthers as an assistant coach on head coach Joel Quenneville's staff. On October 29, 2021, Brunette was named the interim head coach of the Panthers after head coach Quenneville resigned on October 28.

Andrew Brunette

B r u n e t t e g r e w u p i n t h e s m a l l c o m m u n i t y o f V a l l e y E a s t , O n t a r i o , j u s t o u t s i d e S u d b u r y . H e p l a y e d m u c h o f h i s m i n o r h o c k e y c a r e e r w i t h t h e R a y s i d e - B a l f o u r S a b r e c a t s o f t h e N o r t h e r n O n t a r i o H o c k e y A s s o c i a t i o n ( N O H A ) . A f t e r a s o l i d M i d g e t s e a s o n i n 1 9 8 9 – 9 0 , B r u n e t t e w a s s e l e c t e d i n t h e s e v e n t h r o u n d o f t h e 1 9 9 0 O n t a r i o H o c k e y L e a g u e ( O H L ) P r i o r i t y S e l e c t i o n b y t h e O w e n S o u n d P l a t e r s . H e w a s a n O H L t e a m m a t e o f f u t u r e N H L e r s K i r k M a l t b y , S c o t t W a l k e r , K e v i n W e e k e s , a n d J a m i e S t o r r . B r u n e t t e p l a y e d f o r t h e P l a t e r s f o r t h r e e s e a s o n s b e t w e e n 1 9 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 3 a n d s c o r e d 2 9 5 p o i n t s i n 1 9 5 g a m e s , w i n n i n g t h e E d d i e P o w e r s M e m o r i a l T r o p h y ( t h e l e a g u e s c o r i n g t i t l e ) i n 1 9 9 3 . H e w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y d r a f t e d b y t h e W a s h i n g t o n C a p i t a l s i n t h e s e v e n t h r o u n d , 1 7 4 t h o v e r a l l , i n t h e 1 9 9 3 N H L E n t r y D r a f t . A f t e r b e i n g d r a f t e d , h e p l a y e d f o r t h e H a m p t o n R o a d s A d m i r a l s i n t h e E C H L b e f o r e m o v i n g t o t h e A m e r i c a n H o c k e y L e a g u e ( A H L ) , w h e r e h e p l a y e d f o r t w o m o r e t e a m s t h a t s e a s o n : P r o v i d e n c e B r u i n s a n d P o r t l a n d P i r a t e s . B r u n e t t e s t a y e d w i t h t h e P i r a t e s u n t i l 1 9 9 8 , b u t w a s c a l l e d u p b y t h e C a p i t a l s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e 1 9 9 5 – 9 6 s e a s o n a n d p l a y e d 1 1 N H L g a m e s . O v e r t h e f o l l o w i n g f e w s e a s o n s , h e p l a y e d 5 1 m o r e g a m e s f o r W a s h i n g t o n b e f o r e b e i n g s e l e c t e d i n t h e 1 9 9 8 N H L E x p a n s i o n D r a f t b y t h e N a s h v i l l e P r e d a t o r s . N o t a b l y , h e s c o r e d t h e P r e d a t o r s ' f i r s t e v e r g o a l . A f t e r p l a y i n g i n t h e i n a u g u r a l 1 9 9 8 – 9 9 s e a s o n f o r t h e P r e d a t o r s , h e m o v e d t o t h e n e w l y c r e a t e d A t l a n t a T h r a s h e r s a n d p l a y e d t w o s e a s o n s t h e r e b e f o r e m o v i n g t o t h e M i n n e s o t a W i l d i n t h e 2 0 0 1 – 0 2 N H L s e a s o n . B r u n e t t e s c o r e d t h e w i n n i n g g o a l i n o v e r t i m e o f G a m e 7 o f t h e W e s t e r n C o n f e r e n c e Q u a r t e r f i n a l s a g a i n s t t h e C o l o r a d o A v a l a n c h e o n A p r i l 2 2 , 2 0 0 3 , t h e f i n a l g a m e o f A v a l a n c h e g o a l t e n d e r P a t r i c k R o y ' s c a r e e r . B r u n e t t e s t a y e d w i t h t h e W i l d u n t i l 2 0 0 4 a n d s i g n e d a s a f r e e a g e n t f o r t h e C o l o r a d o A v a l a n c h e a f t e r t h e 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 l o c k o u t . H e s c o r e d t h e s e r i e s - c l i n c h i n g g o a l f o r t h e A v a l a n c h e o n A p r i l 3 0 , 2 0 0 6 , a g a i n s t t h e D a l l a s S t a r s i n G a m e 5 o f t h e 2 0 0 6 W e s t e r n C o n f e r e n c e Q u a r t e r f i n a l s . T h e 2 0 0 6 – 0 7 w a s h i s b e s t i n d i v i d u a l s e a s o n , a v e r a g i n g o v e r a p o i n t p e r g a m e f o r h i s f i r s t t i m e i n t h e N H L , p l a y i n g o n a l i n e w i t h s u p e r s t a r c e n t r e J o e S a k i c . B r u n e t t e s c o r e d h i s 5 0 0 t h N H L c a r e e r p o i n t o n O c t o b e r 2 6 , 2 0 0 7 , a g a i n s t t h e C a l g a r y F l a m e s . H e p l a y e d t h r e e c o n s e c u t i v e f u l l 8 2 - g a m e s e a s o n s w i t h t h e A v a l a n c h e . B r u n e t t e s i g n e d a t h r e e - y e a r , $ 7   m i l l i o n c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e M i n n e s o t a W i l d o n J u l y 1 , 2 0 0 8 , t o b e g i n a s e c o n d s t i n t w i t h t h e c l u b . O n O c t o b e r 9 , h e w a s n a m e d a n a l t e r n a t e c a p t a i n a l o n g s i d e M i k k o K o i v u . B r u n e t t e w a s h i g h l y r e g a r d e d f o r h i s p h y s i c a l d u r a b i l i t y a n d c o n s i s t e n c y , q u a l i t i e s w h i c h a l l o w e d h i m t o p l a y i n 5 0 9 c o n s e c u t i v e g a m e s w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o s i t o u t d u e t o i n j u r y f r o m 2 0 0 2 t o 2 0 0 9 . H o w e v e r , h e w a s d i a g n o s e d w i t h a t o r n A C L i n h i s r i g h t k n e e b u t i n s i s t e d o n f i n i s h i n g t h e 2 0 0 8 – 0 9 s e a s o n b e f o r e h a v i n g s u r g e r y i n t h e o f f - s e a s o n . O n J u l y 1 , 2 0 1 1 , B r u n e t t e s i g n e d a o n e - y e a r , $ 2   m i l l i o n w i t h t h e C h i c a g o B l a c k h a w k s . D u r i n g t h e 2 0 1 1 – 1 2 s e a s o n , B r u n e t t e , i n a r e d u c e d r o l e , r e c o r d e d a c a r e e r - l o w i n p o i n t s w i t h 2 7 i n 7 8 g a m e s . W i t h t h e 2 0 1 2 – 1 3 N H L l o c k o u t a n d l i m i t e d N H L i n t e r e s t a s a f r e e a g e n t u p o n t h e r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e s h o r t e n e d 2 0 1 2 – 1 3 s e a s o n , o n F e b r u a r y 1 3 , 2 0 1 3 , B r u n e t t e a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m h i s p l a y i n g c a r e e r a n d t h a t h e w o u l d r e j o i n t h e M i n n e s o t a W i l d o r g a n i z a t i o n a s i t s h o c k e y o p e r a t i o n s a d v i s o r . B r u n e t t e w a s a n a s s i s t a n t c o a c h o f t h e N H L ' s M i n n e s o t a W i l d f o r t w o s e a s o n s f r o m t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 s e a s o n a n d s e r v e d a s t h e W i l d ' s a s s i s t a n t g e n e r a l m a n a g e r u n t i l t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e 2 0 1 8 – 1 9 s e a s o n . O n J u n e 4 , 2 0 1 9 , h e j o i n e d t h e F l o r i d a P a n t h e r s a s a n a s s i s t a n t c o a c h o n h e a d c o a c h J o e l Q u e n n e v i l l e ' s s t a f f . O n O c t o b e r 2 9 , 2 0 2 1 , B r u n e t t e w a s n a m e d t h e i n t e r i m h e a d c o a c h o f t h e P a n t h e r s a f t e r h e a d c o a c h Q u e n n e v i l l e r e s i g n e d o n O c t o b e r 2 8 .

Coaching career

Andrew Brunette had a successful coaching career, serving as an assistant coach for the Minnesota Wild from 2014-2016 and then as the team's assistant general manager until 2019. He later became an assistant coach for the Florida Panthers under head coach Joel Quenneville. In 2021, Brunette took over as the interim head coach of the Panthers after Quenneville's resignation.

Brunette grew up in the small community of Valley East, Ontario, just outside Sudbury. He played much of his minor hockey career with the Rayside-Balfour Sabrecats of the Northern Ontario Hockey Association (NOHA). After a solid Midget season in 1989–90, Brunette was selected in the seventh round of the 1990 Ontario Hockey League (OHL) Priority Selection by the Owen Sound Platers. He was an OHL teammate of future NHLers Kirk Maltby, Scott Walker, Kevin Weekes, and Jamie Storr. Brunette played for the Platers for three seasons between 1990 and 1993 and scored 295 points in 195 games, winning the Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy (the league scoring title) in 1993. He was subsequently drafted by the Washington Capitals in the seventh round, 174th overall, in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft. After being drafted, he played for the Hampton Roads Admirals in the ECHL before moving to the American Hockey League (AHL), where he played for two more teams that season: Providence Bruins and Portland Pirates. Brunette stayed with the Pirates until 1998, but was called up by the Capitals for the first time in the 1995–96 season and played 11 NHL games. Over the following few seasons, he played 51 more games for Washington before being selected in the 1998 NHL Expansion Draft by the Nashville Predators. Notably, he scored the Predators' first ever goal. After playing in the inaugural 1998–99 season for the Predators, he moved to the newly created Atlanta Thrashers and played two seasons there before moving to the Minnesota Wild in the 2001–02 NHL season. Brunette scored the winning goal in overtime of Game 7 of the Western Conference Quarterfinals against the Colorado Avalanche on April 22, 2003, the final game of Avalanche goaltender Patrick Roy's career. Brunette stayed with the Wild until 2004 and signed as a free agent for the Colorado Avalanche after the 2004–05 lockout. He scored the series-clinching goal for the Avalanche on April 30, 2006, against the Dallas Stars in Game 5 of the 2006 Western Conference Quarterfinals. The 2006–07 was his best individual season, averaging over a point per game for his first time in the NHL, playing on a line with superstar centre Joe Sakic. Brunette scored his 500th NHL career point on October 26, 2007, against the Calgary Flames. He played three consecutive full 82-game seasons with the Avalanche. Brunette signed a three-year, $7 million contract with the Minnesota Wild on July 1, 2008, to begin a second stint with the club. On October 9, he was named an alternate captain alongside Mikko Koivu. Brunette was highly regarded for his physical durability and consistency, qualities which allowed him to play in 509 consecutive games without having to sit out due to injury from 2002 to 2009. However, he was diagnosed with a torn ACL in his right knee but insisted on finishing the 2008–09 season before having surgery in the off-season. On July 1, 2011, Brunette signed a one-year, $2 million with the Chicago Blackhawks. During the 2011–12 season, Brunette, in a reduced role, recorded a career-low in points with 27 in 78 games. With the 2012–13 NHL lockout and limited NHL interest as a free agent upon the resumption of the shortened 2012–13 season, on February 13, 2013, Brunette announced his retirement from his playing career and that he would rejoin the Minnesota Wild organization as its hockey operations advisor. Brunette was an assistant coach of the NHL's Minnesota Wild for two seasons from the 2014–15 season and served as the Wild's assistant general manager until the conclusion of the 2018–19 season. On June 4, 2019, he joined the Florida Panthers as an assistant coach on head coach Joel Quenneville's staff. On October 29, 2021, Brunette was named the interim head coach of the Panthers after head coach Quenneville resigned on October 28.

HOPE-X

T h e o r i g i n a l H O P E p r o j e c t c a l l e d f o r t h e b u i l d i n g o f a s u b - s c a l e o r b i t a l p r o t o t y p e k n o w n a s H O P E - X , f o r H - 2 O r b i t i n g P l a n e , E x p e r i m e n t a l . T h i s w o u l d b e u s e d f o r f l i g h t t e s t i n g a n d s y s t e m s v a l i d a t i o n , b e f o r e m o v i n g o n t o t h e l a r g e r H O P E , w h i c h u s e d m a n y o f t h e s a m e p a r t s a n d g e n e r a l d e s i g n i n a 4 - m a n d e s i g n . A s t h e n a m e i m p l i e s , b o t h w o u l d b e l a u n c h e d o n J a p a n ' s n e w H - 2 l a u n c h e r , t h e f u l l - s c a l e H O P E r e q u i r i n g s u b s t a n t i a l u p g r a d e s i n p e r f o r m a n c e . A t t h e t i m e , J a p a n w a s a n u p - a n d - c o m i n g i n d u s t r i a l p o w e r h o u s e , a n d t h e i r s p a c e p r o g r a m w a s m o v i n g f r o m s u c c e s s t o s u c c e s s . T h e r e w a s l i t t l e d o u b t , a n d a l i t t l e t r e p i d a t i o n , t h a t H O P E w o u l d b e s u c c e s s f u l . A s p a r t o f t h e o v e r a l l J a p a n e s e s p a c e p r o g r a m , t e s t i n g f o r t e c h n o l o g i e s t h a t w o u l d b e u s e d o n H O P E a n d o t h e r p r o j e c t s w a s w e l l a d v a n c e d . I n F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 4 t h e f i r s t t e s t f l i g h t o f t h e n e w H - 2 l a u n c h e r w a s u s e d t o a l s o l a u n c h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l O R E X b a l l i s t i c r e - e n t r y v e h i c l e , w h i c h t e s t e d v a r i o u s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s y s t e m s , h e a t i n g p r o f i l e s a n d h e a t s h i e l d i n g c o m p o n e n t s . A n o t h e r p r o j e c t , H Y F L E X , f o l l o w e d i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 6 . H y f l e x w a s i n t e n d e d t o t e s t t h e c a r b o n - c a r b o n h e a t s h i e l d i n g t i l e s t h a t w e r e i n t e n d e d t o b e u s e d o n H O P E , a s w e l l a s h a v i n g t h e s a m e b o d y s h a p i n g i n o r d e r t o g a t h e r d a t a o n h y p e r s o n i c l i f t i n g . H Y F L E X w a s s u c c e s s f u l , b u t s a n k i n t h e P a c i f i c a f t e r s p l a s h d o w n b e f o r e i t c o u l d b e r e c o v e r e d . A n o t h e r t e s t p r o j e c t , A L F L E X f o l l o w e d H Y F L E X i n 1 9 9 6 . I n 1 9 9 7 , w e l l i n t o t h e s t u d y , i t w a s d e c i d e d t h a t H O P E - X s h o u l d b e m o d i f i e d i n t o a n u n m a n n e d c a r g o v e h i c l e w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f a u t o m a t e d a p p r o a c h a n d d o c k i n g s y s t e m s , a n d a c a r g o b a y w i t h d o o r s s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e o n t h e U . S . S p a c e S h u t t l e . I t w a s b e l i e v e d t h i s w o u l d r e s u l t i n a " q u i c k a n d d i r t y " c a r g o s u p p l y s y s t e m f o r I S S , w h i c h w a s s u f f e r i n g f r o m c o n t i n u e d d e l a y s d u e t o p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e S h u t t l e p r o g r a m . I t w a s e s t i m a t e d t h a t s u c h a c o n v e r s i o n c o u l d b e c o m p l e t e d f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l U S $ 2 9 2   m i l l i o n , l e s s e x p e n s i v e t h a n d e s i g n i n g a c o m p l e t e l y n e w b a l l i s t i c c a r g o v e h i c l e f o r t h e H - 2 l a u n c h e r , a n d m u c h l e s s e x p e n s i v e t h a t t h e e s t i m a t e d U S $ 2 . 9   b i l l i o n n e e d e d t o c o m p l e t e t h e f u l l - s i z e d H O P E . E v e n t h e s m a l l H O P E - X l a u n c h e d o n u n m o d i f i e d H - 2 A r o c k e t s w o u l d d e l i v e r a u s e f u l t o I S S , a b o u t t h e s a m e a s t h e P r o g r e s s s p a c e c r a f t ' s a p p r o x i m a t e . H O P E - X w a s a b o u t l o n g w i t h a w i n g s p a n . I n 1 9 9 8 , t h e H - 2 s u f f e r e d f r o m a s t r i n g o f f a i l u r e s . A   r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e s p a c e p r o g r a m f o l l o w e d , a n d b u d g e t c o n s t r a i n t s l a t e r f o r c e d a r e d u c t i o n i n o v e r a l l f u n d i n g b y U S $ 6 9 0 m i l l i o n t o U S $ 4 . 2 2   b i l l i o n f o r t h e f i v e - y e a r s p e n d i n g p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1 9 9 8 a n d 2 0 0 2 . T h i s w o u l d f o r c e a d e l a y i n t h e t i m e l i n e f o r t h e H O P E - X , w i t h i t s f i r s t f l i g h t i n 2 0 0 3 . B y t h i s t i m e N A S D A h a d s p e n t o n l y U S $ 3 0 5   m i l l i o n s i n c e t h e p r o j e c t w a s a p p r o v e d i n 1 9 8 8 , r e f l e c t i n g t h e s t a t u s a s a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t . T h e n e x t y e a r t h e H - 2 p r o j e c t w a s c a n c e l l e d o u t r i g h t , p r o c e e d i n g w i t h t h e s i m p l i f i e d a n d l i g h t e r H - 2 A a l o n e . H u g h e s p u l l e d o u t o f t h e H - 2 A p r o j e c t a t a b o u t t h i s t i m e ; t h e y h a d i n i t i a l l y p u r c h a s e d t e n l a u n c h e s o n t h e s y s t e m a n d i t w a s c o n s i d e r e d a m a j o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u c c e s s f o r N A S D A . H O P E c o n t i n u e d t o s o l d i e r o n . I n 2 0 0 0 , a n a g r e e m e n t w a s s i g n e d t o l a n d t h e r e t u r n i n g v e h i c l e a t A e o n A i r s t r i p o n C h r i s t m a s I s l a n d i n K i r i b a t i . T h e H i g h S p e e d F l i g h t D e m o n s t r a t i o n p r o j e c t c o n s i s t e d o f 2 5 % s c a l e m o d e l s o f H O P E - X t o t e s t n a v i g a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s a n d f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A s t h e 2 0 0 3 d e a d l i n e a p p r o a c h e d a n u m b e r o f d e b a t e s b r o k e o u t a b o u t t h e l a u n c h e r p r o f i l e , w i t h m a n y a r g u i n g t h a t t h e H - 2 s h o u l d b e r e p l a c e d w i t h a j e t - p o w e r e d c a r g o a i r c r a f t f o r a n a i r - s t a r t . T h e f i r s t f l i g h t w a s p u s h e d b a c k f u r t h e r t o 2 0 0 4 . B e f o r e t h i s m i l e s t o n e w a s r e a c h e d a m a j o r r e - o r g a n i z a t i o n o f N A S D A t o o k p l a c e i n o r d e r t o a d d r e s s i t s o b v i o u s o v e r c o m m i t m e n t i n l i g h t o f J a p a n ' s e c o n o m i c s t a g n a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y n o w t h a t t h e r e w e r e d e m a n d s f o r a c r a s h p r o g r a m t o d e v e l o p s p y s a t e l l i t e s i n o r d e r t o t r a c k N o r t h K o r e a n n u c l e a r e f f o r t s . J A X A w a s f o r m e d , a n d H O P E w a s c a n c e l l e d i n 2 0 0 3 .

History

The HOPE project aimed to build a reusable orbital plane using Japan's H-2 launcher. Initially, a smaller prototype, HOPE-X, was planned for flight testing and systems validation. However, the project faced numerous setbacks, including failures of the H-2 launcher, budget constraints, and changes in priorities. Despite efforts to modify HOPE-X into an unmanned cargo vehicle, the project was eventually canceled in 2003 due to Japan's economic stagnation and shifting priorities towards developing spy satellites.

The original HOPE project called for the building of a sub-scale orbital prototype known as HOPE-X, for H-2 Orbiting Plane, Experimental. This would be used for flight testing and systems validation, before moving onto the larger HOPE, which used many of the same parts and general design in a 4-man design. As the name implies, both would be launched on Japan's new H-2 launcher, the full-scale HOPE requiring substantial upgrades in performance. At the time, Japan was an up-and-coming industrial powerhouse, and their space program was moving from success to success. There was little doubt, and a little trepidation, that HOPE would be successful. As part of the overall Japanese space program, testing for technologies that would be used on HOPE and other projects was well advanced. In February 1994 the first test flight of the new H-2 launcher was used to also launch the experimental OREX ballistic re-entry vehicle, which tested various communications systems, heating profiles and heat shielding components. Another project, HYFLEX, followed in February 1996. Hyflex was intended to test the carbon-carbon heat shielding tiles that were intended to be used on HOPE, as well as having the same body shaping in order to gather data on hypersonic lifting. HYFLEX was successful, but sank in the Pacific after splashdown before it could be recovered. Another test project, ALFLEX followed HYFLEX in 1996. In 1997, well into the study, it was decided that HOPE-X should be modified into an unmanned cargo vehicle with the addition of automated approach and docking systems, and a cargo bay with doors similar to the one on the U.S. Space Shuttle. It was believed this would result in a "quick and dirty" cargo supply system for ISS, which was suffering from continued delays due to problems with the Shuttle program. It was estimated that such a conversion could be completed for an additional US$292 million, less expensive than designing a completely new ballistic cargo vehicle for the H-2 launcher, and much less expensive that the estimated US$2.9 billion needed to complete the full-sized HOPE. Even the small HOPE-X launched on unmodified H-2A rockets would deliver a useful to ISS, about the same as the Progress spacecraft's approximate . HOPE-X was about long with a wingspan. In 1998, the H-2 suffered from a string of failures. A re-evaluation of the entire space program followed, and budget constraints later forced a reduction in overall funding by US$690 million to US$4.22 billion for the five-year spending period between 1998 and 2002. This would force a delay in the timeline for the HOPE-X, with its first flight in 2003. By this time NASDA had spent only US$305 million since the project was approved in 1988, reflecting the status as a research project. The next year the H-2 project was cancelled outright, proceeding with the simplified and lighter H-2A alone. Hughes pulled out of the H-2A project at about this time; they had initially purchased ten launches on the system and it was considered a major international success for NASDA. HOPE continued to soldier on. In 2000, an agreement was signed to land the returning vehicle at Aeon Airstrip on Christmas Island in Kiribati. The High Speed Flight Demonstration project consisted of 25% scale models of HOPE-X to test navigation technologies and flight characteristics. As the 2003 deadline approached a number of debates broke out about the launcher profile, with many arguing that the H-2 should be replaced with a jet-powered cargo aircraft for an air-start. The first flight was pushed back further to 2004. Before this milestone was reached a major re-organization of NASDA took place in order to address its obvious overcommitment in light of Japan's economic stagnation, especially now that there were demands for a crash program to develop spy satellites in order to track North Korean nuclear efforts. JAXA was formed, and HOPE was cancelled in 2003.

HOPE-X

T h e o r i g i n a l H O P E p r o j e c t c a l l e d f o r t h e b u i l d i n g o f a s u b - s c a l e o r b i t a l p r o t o t y p e k n o w n a s H O P E - X , f o r H - 2 O r b i t i n g P l a n e , E x p e r i m e n t a l . T h i s w o u l d b e u s e d f o r f l i g h t t e s t i n g a n d s y s t e m s v a l i d a t i o n , b e f o r e m o v i n g o n t o t h e l a r g e r H O P E , w h i c h u s e d m a n y o f t h e s a m e p a r t s a n d g e n e r a l d e s i g n i n a 4 - m a n d e s i g n . A s t h e n a m e i m p l i e s , b o t h w o u l d b e l a u n c h e d o n J a p a n ' s n e w H - 2 l a u n c h e r , t h e f u l l - s c a l e H O P E r e q u i r i n g s u b s t a n t i a l u p g r a d e s i n p e r f o r m a n c e . A t t h e t i m e , J a p a n w a s a n u p - a n d - c o m i n g i n d u s t r i a l p o w e r h o u s e , a n d t h e i r s p a c e p r o g r a m w a s m o v i n g f r o m s u c c e s s t o s u c c e s s . T h e r e w a s l i t t l e d o u b t , a n d a l i t t l e t r e p i d a t i o n , t h a t H O P E w o u l d b e s u c c e s s f u l . A s p a r t o f t h e o v e r a l l J a p a n e s e s p a c e p r o g r a m , t e s t i n g f o r t e c h n o l o g i e s t h a t w o u l d b e u s e d o n H O P E a n d o t h e r p r o j e c t s w a s w e l l a d v a n c e d . I n F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 4 t h e f i r s t t e s t f l i g h t o f t h e n e w H - 2 l a u n c h e r w a s u s e d t o a l s o l a u n c h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l O R E X b a l l i s t i c r e - e n t r y v e h i c l e , w h i c h t e s t e d v a r i o u s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s y s t e m s , h e a t i n g p r o f i l e s a n d h e a t s h i e l d i n g c o m p o n e n t s . A n o t h e r p r o j e c t , H Y F L E X , f o l l o w e d i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 6 . H y f l e x w a s i n t e n d e d t o t e s t t h e c a r b o n - c a r b o n h e a t s h i e l d i n g t i l e s t h a t w e r e i n t e n d e d t o b e u s e d o n H O P E , a s w e l l a s h a v i n g t h e s a m e b o d y s h a p i n g i n o r d e r t o g a t h e r d a t a o n h y p e r s o n i c l i f t i n g . H Y F L E X w a s s u c c e s s f u l , b u t s a n k i n t h e P a c i f i c a f t e r s p l a s h d o w n b e f o r e i t c o u l d b e r e c o v e r e d . A n o t h e r t e s t p r o j e c t , A L F L E X f o l l o w e d H Y F L E X i n 1 9 9 6 . I n 1 9 9 7 , w e l l i n t o t h e s t u d y , i t w a s d e c i d e d t h a t H O P E - X s h o u l d b e m o d i f i e d i n t o a n u n m a n n e d c a r g o v e h i c l e w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f a u t o m a t e d a p p r o a c h a n d d o c k i n g s y s t e m s , a n d a c a r g o b a y w i t h d o o r s s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e o n t h e U . S . S p a c e S h u t t l e . I t w a s b e l i e v e d t h i s w o u l d r e s u l t i n a " q u i c k a n d d i r t y " c a r g o s u p p l y s y s t e m f o r I S S , w h i c h w a s s u f f e r i n g f r o m c o n t i n u e d d e l a y s d u e t o p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e S h u t t l e p r o g r a m . I t w a s e s t i m a t e d t h a t s u c h a c o n v e r s i o n c o u l d b e c o m p l e t e d f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l U S $ 2 9 2   m i l l i o n , l e s s e x p e n s i v e t h a n d e s i g n i n g a c o m p l e t e l y n e w b a l l i s t i c c a r g o v e h i c l e f o r t h e H - 2 l a u n c h e r , a n d m u c h l e s s e x p e n s i v e t h a t t h e e s t i m a t e d U S $ 2 . 9   b i l l i o n n e e d e d t o c o m p l e t e t h e f u l l - s i z e d H O P E . E v e n t h e s m a l l H O P E - X l a u n c h e d o n u n m o d i f i e d H - 2 A r o c k e t s w o u l d d e l i v e r a u s e f u l t o I S S , a b o u t t h e s a m e a s t h e P r o g r e s s s p a c e c r a f t ' s a p p r o x i m a t e . H O P E - X w a s a b o u t l o n g w i t h a w i n g s p a n . I n 1 9 9 8 , t h e H - 2 s u f f e r e d f r o m a s t r i n g o f f a i l u r e s . A   r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e s p a c e p r o g r a m f o l l o w e d , a n d b u d g e t c o n s t r a i n t s l a t e r f o r c e d a r e d u c t i o n i n o v e r a l l f u n d i n g b y U S $ 6 9 0 m i l l i o n t o U S $ 4 . 2 2   b i l l i o n f o r t h e f i v e - y e a r s p e n d i n g p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1 9 9 8 a n d 2 0 0 2 . T h i s w o u l d f o r c e a d e l a y i n t h e t i m e l i n e f o r t h e H O P E - X , w i t h i t s f i r s t f l i g h t i n 2 0 0 3 . B y t h i s t i m e N A S D A h a d s p e n t o n l y U S $ 3 0 5   m i l l i o n s i n c e t h e p r o j e c t w a s a p p r o v e d i n 1 9 8 8 , r e f l e c t i n g t h e s t a t u s a s a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t . T h e n e x t y e a r t h e H - 2 p r o j e c t w a s c a n c e l l e d o u t r i g h t , p r o c e e d i n g w i t h t h e s i m p l i f i e d a n d l i g h t e r H - 2 A a l o n e . H u g h e s p u l l e d o u t o f t h e H - 2 A p r o j e c t a t a b o u t t h i s t i m e ; t h e y h a d i n i t i a l l y p u r c h a s e d t e n l a u n c h e s o n t h e s y s t e m a n d i t w a s c o n s i d e r e d a m a j o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u c c e s s f o r N A S D A . H O P E c o n t i n u e d t o s o l d i e r o n . I n 2 0 0 0 , a n a g r e e m e n t w a s s i g n e d t o l a n d t h e r e t u r n i n g v e h i c l e a t A e o n A i r s t r i p o n C h r i s t m a s I s l a n d i n K i r i b a t i . T h e H i g h S p e e d F l i g h t D e m o n s t r a t i o n p r o j e c t c o n s i s t e d o f 2 5 % s c a l e m o d e l s o f H O P E - X t o t e s t n a v i g a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s a n d f l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A s t h e 2 0 0 3 d e a d l i n e a p p r o a c h e d a n u m b e r o f d e b a t e s b r o k e o u t a b o u t t h e l a u n c h e r p r o f i l e , w i t h m a n y a r g u i n g t h a t t h e H - 2 s h o u l d b e r e p l a c e d w i t h a j e t - p o w e r e d c a r g o a i r c r a f t f o r a n a i r - s t a r t . T h e f i r s t f l i g h t w a s p u s h e d b a c k f u r t h e r t o 2 0 0 4 . B e f o r e t h i s m i l e s t o n e w a s r e a c h e d a m a j o r r e - o r g a n i z a t i o n o f N A S D A t o o k p l a c e i n o r d e r t o a d d r e s s i t s o b v i o u s o v e r c o m m i t m e n t i n l i g h t o f J a p a n ' s e c o n o m i c s t a g n a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y n o w t h a t t h e r e w e r e d e m a n d s f o r a c r a s h p r o g r a m t o d e v e l o p s p y s a t e l l i t e s i n o r d e r t o t r a c k N o r t h K o r e a n n u c l e a r e f f o r t s . J A X A w a s f o r m e d , a n d H O P E w a s c a n c e l l e d i n 2 0 0 3 .

History ; Project conclusion

The HOPE project was initiated in 1988 with the goal of creating a reusable spacecraft capable of carrying four people. The project underwent several changes, including the development of a smaller prototype, HOPE-X, which was intended to be launched on Japan's H-2 launcher. However, the project faced numerous setbacks, including the failure of the H-2 launcher and budget constraints. Despite efforts to revive the project, HOPE was ultimately canceled in 2003 due to Japan's economic stagnation and shifting priorities towards developing spy satellites.

The original HOPE project called for the building of a sub-scale orbital prototype known as HOPE-X, for H-2 Orbiting Plane, Experimental. This would be used for flight testing and systems validation, before moving onto the larger HOPE, which used many of the same parts and general design in a 4-man design. As the name implies, both would be launched on Japan's new H-2 launcher, the full-scale HOPE requiring substantial upgrades in performance. At the time, Japan was an up-and-coming industrial powerhouse, and their space program was moving from success to success. There was little doubt, and a little trepidation, that HOPE would be successful. As part of the overall Japanese space program, testing for technologies that would be used on HOPE and other projects was well advanced. In February 1994 the first test flight of the new H-2 launcher was used to also launch the experimental OREX ballistic re-entry vehicle, which tested various communications systems, heating profiles and heat shielding components. Another project, HYFLEX, followed in February 1996. Hyflex was intended to test the carbon-carbon heat shielding tiles that were intended to be used on HOPE, as well as having the same body shaping in order to gather data on hypersonic lifting. HYFLEX was successful, but sank in the Pacific after splashdown before it could be recovered. Another test project, ALFLEX followed HYFLEX in 1996. In 1997, well into the study, it was decided that HOPE-X should be modified into an unmanned cargo vehicle with the addition of automated approach and docking systems, and a cargo bay with doors similar to the one on the U.S. Space Shuttle. It was believed this would result in a "quick and dirty" cargo supply system for ISS, which was suffering from continued delays due to problems with the Shuttle program. It was estimated that such a conversion could be completed for an additional US$292 million, less expensive than designing a completely new ballistic cargo vehicle for the H-2 launcher, and much less expensive that the estimated US$2.9 billion needed to complete the full-sized HOPE. Even the small HOPE-X launched on unmodified H-2A rockets would deliver a useful to ISS, about the same as the Progress spacecraft's approximate . HOPE-X was about long with a wingspan. In 1998, the H-2 suffered from a string of failures. A re-evaluation of the entire space program followed, and budget constraints later forced a reduction in overall funding by US$690 million to US$4.22 billion for the five-year spending period between 1998 and 2002. This would force a delay in the timeline for the HOPE-X, with its first flight in 2003. By this time NASDA had spent only US$305 million since the project was approved in 1988, reflecting the status as a research project. The next year the H-2 project was cancelled outright, proceeding with the simplified and lighter H-2A alone. Hughes pulled out of the H-2A project at about this time; they had initially purchased ten launches on the system and it was considered a major international success for NASDA. HOPE continued to soldier on. In 2000, an agreement was signed to land the returning vehicle at Aeon Airstrip on Christmas Island in Kiribati. The High Speed Flight Demonstration project consisted of 25% scale models of HOPE-X to test navigation technologies and flight characteristics. As the 2003 deadline approached a number of debates broke out about the launcher profile, with many arguing that the H-2 should be replaced with a jet-powered cargo aircraft for an air-start. The first flight was pushed back further to 2004. Before this milestone was reached a major re-organization of NASDA took place in order to address its obvious overcommitment in light of Japan's economic stagnation, especially now that there were demands for a crash program to develop spy satellites in order to track North Korean nuclear efforts. JAXA was formed, and HOPE was cancelled in 2003.

Robert Key (cricketer)

B o r n i n E a s t D u l w i c h , L o n d o n , t o p a r e n t s T r e v o r a n d L y n n , K e y w a s r a i s e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y s p o r t i n g f a m i l y : h i s m o t h e r p l a y e d f o r K e n t ' s l a d i e s c r i c k e t s i d e , h i s f a t h e r p l a y e d c l u b c r i c k e t i n D e r b y a n d h i s s i s t e r E l i z a b e t h p l a y e d f o r h e r j u n i o r s c h o o l s i d e , w h e r e s h e o n c e t o o k a h a t - t r i c k . K e y h i m s e l f w a s a k e e n a l l - r o u n d s p o r t s m a n ; h e a l s o p l a y e d t e n n i s f o r K e n t . H e a t t e n d e d W o r s l e y B r i d g e P r i m a r y S c h o o l w h e r e t h e s c h o o l w o n b o t h t h e B r o m l e y a r e a a n d K e n t c r i c k e t C u p s . H i s p e r f o r m a n c e s l e d t o h i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e c o u n t y u n d e r - e l e v e n s , b e f o r e A l a n E a l h a m , c o a c h o f K e n t C o u n t y C r i c k e t C l u b ' s y o u t h s i d e s , b e c a m e h i s m e n t o r . L a t e r h e a t t e n d e d C o l f e ' s S c h o o l i n L e e , L o n d o n , a n d L a n g l e y P a r k S c h o o l f o r B o y s i n B e c k e n h a m , w h e r e h e p a s s e d t e n G C S E s . K e y h a s o f t e n b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r h i s w e i g h t , a n d a t o n e s t a g e e a r l y i n h i s c a r e e r w e i g h e d 1 6 s t o n e b e f o r e A l e c S t e w a r t t o l d h i m t o " b u c k h i s i d e a s u p " . K e y h i m s e l f s a i d o f t h e m a t t e r : " I ' l l n e v e r b e t h e m o s t a t h l e t i c - l o o k i n g b l o k e , b u t I ' m a h e l l o f a l o t f i t t e r t h a n I w a s a t 1 9 o r 2 0 . " K e y i s m a r r i e d t o F l e u r , w i t h w h o m h e h a s t w o c h i l d r e n . K e y p l a y e d h i s f i r s t m a t c h e s f o r K e n t ' s s e c o n d e l e v e n i n 1 9 9 5 , a t t h e a g e o f s i x t e e n . H e r e m a i n e d a r e g u l a r i n t h e s e c o n d t e a m t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 9 6 s e a s o n a n d f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 1 9 9 7 s e a s o n , b y w h i c h t i m e h e h a d h i t h i s f i r s t t w o c e n t u r i e s f o r a K e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i d e ; a n u n b e a t e n 1 4 6 a g a i n s t E s s e x ' s s e c o n d t e a m , a n d a n u n b e a t e n 1 3 9 a g a i n s t G l a m o r g a n ' s s e c o n d s . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m t h o s e p e r f o r m a n c e s , K e y j o i n e d t h e E n g l a n d U n d e r - 1 7 s q u a d f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Y o u t h T o u r n a m e n t , w h i c h w a s b e i n g h e l d i n B e r m u d a . K e y ' s g r o w i n g r e p u t a t i o n a s a b a t s m a n w a s g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d b y h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h i s t o u r n a m e n t , w h e r e h e f i n i s h e d w i t h t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t b a t t i n g a v e r a g e o f a n y o n e a t t h e t o u r n a m e n t , s c o r i n g 1 8 4 r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f 4 8 . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s h e l p e d E n g l a n d w i n t h e t o u r n a m e n t b y a s i n g l e p o i n t f r o m I r e l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 7 s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d f o r t w o m a t c h e s w i t h K e n t ' s s e c o n d t e a m , b e f o r e j o i n i n g u p w i t h E n g l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 9 s f o r a y o u t h T e s t s e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e ' s u n d e r - 1 9 s . I n t h e t h r e e T e s t s e r i e s , K e y m a d e t w o h a l f - c e n t u r i e s , e a r n i n g h i m s e l f a p l a c e i n t h e s q u a d f o r t h e 1 9 9 8 U n d e r - 1 9 C r i c k e t W o r l d C u p i n S o u t h A f r i c a . B a t t i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t , K e y s c o r e d a t o t a l o f 2 0 6   r u n s a s E n g l a n d w o n t h e t o u r n a m e n t , w i t h h i s b e s t p e r f o r m a n c e c o m i n g i n t h e d e f e a t t o I n d i a , w h e r e K e y s c o r e d 5 7 . F o l l o w i n g a f i r s t - c l a s s d e b u t a g a i n s t M i d d l e s e x a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 9 8 s e a s o n , i n w h i c h K e y s c o r e d 1 5 , h e p r o c e e d e d t o p l a y a n e a r - c o m p l e t e s e a s o n . H e s c o r e d h i s f i r s t f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r y a g a i n s t D u r h a m , s c o r i n g 1 0 1 i n a n i n n i n g s v i c t o r y . H e a d d e d a s e c o n d c e n t u r y ( 1 1 5 ) a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e , b e f o r e r e j o i n i n g t h e E n g l a n d u n d e r - 1 9 s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n u n d e r - 1 9 s . H e s t r u g g l e d i n t h e o n e - d a y s e r i e s , s c o r i n g j u s t 3 6   r u n s i n t h r e e m a t c h e s , b u t f i n i s h e d a s t h e t o p r u n - s c o r e r i n t h e y o u t h T e s t s ; w i t h 3 7 7 a t a n a v e r a g e o f 6 2 . 8 3 . T h e 1 9 9 9 s e a s o n b e g a n f o r K e y w i t h a c a l l u p t o E n g l a n d A ' s t o u r o f Z i m b a b w e t h r o u g h J a n u a r y a n d F e b r u a r y . H e s t r u g g l e d f o r r u n s t h r o u g h o u t h i s f i v e m a t c h e s o n t h e t o u r , f a i l i n g t o p a s s 2 6 i n a n y i n n i n g s . I n a l l , K e y m a n a g e d o n e c e n t u r y i n t h e c a l e n d a r y e a r , 1 2 5 a g a i n s t S o m e r s e t , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e y e a r w i t h 1 , 3 0 9   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h e 2 0 0 0 s e a s o n p r o v e d e v e n m o r e d i s a p p o i n t i n g , w i t h j u s t 7 0 0   r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f l e s s t h a n 2 0 . T h e 2 0 0 1 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y ' s f o r m i m p r o v e , w i t h h i m s c o r i n g f o u r f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r i e s ; i n c l u d i n g o n e a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g P a k i s t a n i s . H i s h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e s e a s o n a n d c a r e e r t o d a t e w o u l d c o m e i n t h e f i n a l g a m e — h e s c o r e d 1 3 2 i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d m a t c h a g a i n s t L a n c a s h i r e . H i s s c o r i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e a s o n p e r s u a d e d t h e n a t i o n a l s e l e c t o r s t o i n c l u d e h i m i n t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y , w h i c h w e n t o n a w i n t e r t o u r o f A u s t r a l i a , w h e r e h e s h o w e d h i s a b i l i t y w i t h a n i n n i n g s o f 1 7 7 a g a i n s t t h e s i d e ' s A u s t r a l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s g o o d f o r m i n t o 2 0 0 2 , w h e r e h i s r u n - s c o r i n g e a r n e d h i m a n i n v i t a t i o n t o p l a y f o r t h e M a r y l e b o n e C r i c k e t C l u b a g a i n s t t h e S r i L a n k a n s . H e s c o r e d 7 7 i n a d r a w n m a t c h , a n d w o u l d l a t e r t h a t s e a s o n m a k e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t a g a i n s t I n d i a . H o w e v e r , f o l l o w i n g h i s T e s t d e b u t , h e o n l y p a s s e d 5 0 o n o n e f u r t h e r o c c a s i o n t h a t y e a r . H e w o u l d m a i n t a i n h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , d e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g o n e i n n i n g s o f n o t e — 1 2 9 a g a i n s t t h e C a m b r i d g e s t u d e n t s . H o w e v e r , a f t e r b e i n g d r o p p e d f r o m t h e s i d e , K e y ' s f o r m s e e m e d t o i m p r o v e : h e s c o r e d 1 4 0 a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e t o s e t u p a K e n t v i c t o r y , a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y s c o r e d a r o u n d 4 0   r u n s p e r i n n i n g s f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s e a s o n . T h e 2 0 0 4 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y h i t t o p f o r m f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , s c o r i n g a t o t a l o f 2 , 4 8 6   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h i s t o t a l i n c l u d e d a " m a j e s t i c " u n b e a t e n 1 1 8 i n t h e o p e n i n g g a m e o f t h e s e a s o n a g a i n s t G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e , d u r i n g w h i c h K e y d i d n o t o f f e r a s i n g l e c h a n c e t h r o u g h o u t . H e r e a c h e d t h e t h o u s a n d r u n m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e s e a s o n o n 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d s i n c e 1 9 7 8 , a n d w e n t o n a r u n t h a t i n c l u d e d f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H e w a s t h e n r e c a l l e d t o t h e E n g l a n d s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , a n d K e y p l a y e d t w o k e y i n n i n g s : 2 2 1 a t L o r d ' s , a n d h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s 9 3 n o t o u t t o w i n t h e t h i r d T e s t f o r E n g l a n d . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e r i e s K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e d o m e s t i c s c e n e , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e s e a s o n w i t h t w o f u r t h e r t o n s ; 1 3 1 a g a i n s t b o t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a n d M i d d l e s e x . F o l l o w i n g t h e w i n t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e r i e s i n S o u t h A f r i c a , K e y r e t u r n e d t o d o m e s t i c a c t i o n w i t h K e n t . W h i l e n o t h a v i n g a s s u c c e s s f u l a s e a s o n a s i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r , h e s t i l l s c o r e d o v e r 1 , 5 0 0   r u n s . T h i s i n c l u d e d t w o c e n t u r i e s i n t h e s a m e m a t c h a g a i n s t S u r r e y , d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d o f w h i c h h e s h a r e d a c o u n t y t h i r d - w i c k e t r e c o r d p a r t n e r s h i p o f 3 2 3 w i t h M a r t i n v a n J a a r s v e l d . A t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n , K e y w a s n a m e d t h e n e w c o u n t y c a p t a i n f o l l o w i n g t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f D a v i d F u l t o n , a r o l e h e t o o k o n i n o r d e r t o h e l p h i s c h a n c e s o f r e g a i n i n g a p l a c e i n t h e E n g l a n d s i d e . H i s f i r s t s e a s o n a s c a p t a i n s a w h i s f o r m s l i d e , a s K e n t ' s c h a i r m a n o f c r i c k e t G r a h a m J o h n s o n r e l a t e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n : " H i s c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e t e a m h a s p r o b a b l y i m p a c t e d o n h i s o w n f o r m " . N o n e t h e l e s s , h e w a s g i v e n t h e c a p t a i n c y o f t h e E n g l a n d A t e a m i n t h e i r f i x t u r e a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n , a n d l e d K e n t t o f i f t h p l a c e i n t h e t o p t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p . T h e f o l l o w i n g s e a s o n s a w K e y l e a d K e n t t o s i l v e r w a r e , w h i l s t r e t u r n i n g t o s o m e o f h i s b e s t f o r m . H e s t r u c k a t o t a l o f e i g h t c e n t u r i e s , a n d a m a s s e d a t o t a l o f 2 , 2 6 7 r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s , w h i l s t a l s o l e a d i n g K e n t t o t h e f i n a l s d a y o f t h e 2 0 0 7 T w e n t y 2 0 C u p , i n w h i c h K e n t d e f e a t e d S u s s e x a n d G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e t o c l a i m t h e t r o p h y . H o w e v e r , K e y w a s l a t e r f o u n d g u i l t y o f " s e r i o u s d i s s e n t " f o l l o w i n g h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l d i s m i s s a l i n t h e f i n a l . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s r u n - s c o r i n g i n t o 2 0 0 8 , w h e r e h e s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 1 7 8 a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g N e w Z e a l a n d e r s t o " l i f t h i m s e l f f i r m l y i n t o t h e T e s t r e c k o n i n g " . F o l l o w i n g M i c h a e l V a u g h a n ' s r e s i g n a t i o n a s E n g l a n d c a p t a i n , K e y w a s t o u t e d b y t h e s o m e i n t h e m e d i a a s a p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e j o b . H o w e v e r , t h e s e a s o n e n d e d b a d l y f o r K e y , a s u n d e r h i s c a p t a i n c y K e n t w e r e r e l e g a t e d t o t h e s e c o n d t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , w i t h K e y a l s o b e i n g f i n e d £ 1 , 2 5 0 f o r c o m m e n t s h e m a d e o v e r a n E C B p i t c h p a n e l d e c i s i o n i n A u g u s t . K e y t o o k h i s f i r s t w i c k e t i n f i r s t - c l a s s c r i c k e t o n t h e f i n a l d a y o f K e n t ' s d r a w w i t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e 2 0 0 9 s e a s o n . H e w e n t o n t o s c o r e 1 , 2 0 9 r u n s t h a t s e a s o n , w i t h f o u r c e n t u r i e s i n c l u d i n g a c a r e e r - b e s t 2 7 0 H e a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m t h e g a m e o n 1 8 A p r i l 2 0 1 6 , c i t i n g h i s d e s i r e t o n o t " h i n d e r y o u n g e r p l a y e r s [ c o m i n g t h r o u g h ] " a n d f o c u s o n c o a c h i n g a n d h i s r o l e w i t h S k y S p o r t s a s a t e l e v i s i o n p u n d i t . K e y m a d e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t i n t h e s e c o n d T e s t a g a i n s t I n d i a i n 2 0 0 2 , a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r M a r c u s T r e s c o t h i c k , w h o h a d b r o k e n h i s t h u m b . C h a i r m a n o f s e l e c t o r s D a v i d G r a v e n e y s a i d K e y w a s s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f h i s " o u t s t a n d i n g f o r m f o r K e n t a f t e r a t t e n d i n g t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y " o v e r t h e w i n t e r . O p e n i n g t h e b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , K e y m a d e 1 7 r u n s i n h i s o n l y i n n i n g s b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y A s h i s h N e h r a . R e t a i n e d i n t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t , K e y m a n a g e d s c o r e s o f 3 0 a n d 3 4 a s E n g l a n d s u c c u m b e d t o a n i n n i n g s d e f e a t . H o w e v e r , h i s p e r f o r m a n c e w a s m a r r e d b y h i m d r o p p i n g t h r e e c a t c h e s . K e y w a s d r o p p e d f r o m t h e f o u r t h a n d f i n a l T e s t , w i t h T r e s c o t h i c k r e p l a c i n g h i m h a v i n g b e e n r u s h e d b a c k f r o m i n j u r y . A f t e r s u c c e s s i n d o m e s t i c c r i c k e t a n d p r o m i s e s h o w n i n h i s T e s t a p p e a r a n c e s p r e v i o u s l y , K e y w a s s e l e c t e d a s p a r t o f t h e s q u a d t o p l a y A u s t r a l i a . D e s p i t e p l a y i n g w e l l i n a l i m i t e d o v e r s m a t c h a g a i n s t a n A C B C h a i r m a n ' s X I ; h i t t i n g 6 8 , h e w a s n o t s e l e c t e d t o p l a y i n t h e f i r s t T e s t , i n s t e a d a c t i n g a s t w e l f t h m a n . H e e n d e d u p f i e l d i n g t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n h e w o u l d h a v e i m a g i n e d , a f t e r S i m o n J o n e s r u p t u r e d k n e e l i g a m e n t s w h i l e f i e l d i n g , a n d t o o k n o f u r t h e r p a r t i n t h e m a t c h . B r o u g h t b a c k i n t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e s e c o n d T e s t f o r t h e i n j u r e d J o h n C r a w l e y , K e y m a d e a s o l i t a r y r u n i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b a t t i n g a t n u m b e r t h r e e , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f S h a n e W a r n e j u s t a f t e r t h e l u n c h b r e a k . R e l e g a t e d t o n u m b e r f i v e i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r a n d N a s s e r H u s s a i n b a t t i n g a h e a d o f h i m , h e a g a i n m a d e j u s t o n e b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f A n d y B i c h e l . K e y f a r e d b e t t e r i n t h e t h i r d m a t c h , p l a y e d a t t h e W A C A G r o u n d i n P e r t h . O n a p i t c h w i t h " e x c e p t i o n a l b o u n c e a n d p a c e " , K e y w a s t h e o n l y E n g l i s h b a t s m a n t o k e e p h i s w i c k e t i n t a c t f o r a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d , b a t t i n g p a s s i v e l y f o r 4 7 , t h e h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e i n n i n g s . H e t h e n c a u g h t B r e t t L e e a t t h i r d m a n i n A u s t r a l i a ' s o n l y i n n i n g s , b e f o r e o f f e r i n g H u s s a i n " s t o u t s u p p o r t " i n m a k i n g 2 3 s e c o n d t i m e a r o u n d . E n g l a n d l o s t t h e T e s t m a t c h b y a n i n n i n g s a n d 4 8 r u n s , a r e s u l t t h a t e n s u r e d t h a t A u s t r a l i a r e t a i n e d t h e A s h e s . F o l l o w i n g a b r e a k f o r t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e V B S e r i e s o f O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l s , E n g l a n d m o v e d t o M e l b o u r n e f o r t h e f o u r t h T e s t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r K e y , h e f e l l f o r a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , t r a p p e d l e g b e f o r e w i c k e t ( l b w ) s e c o n d b a l l b y f a s t b o w l e r B r e t t L e e . W i t h E n g l a n d f o l l o w i n g o n , K e y m a d e a m a i d e n h a l f - c e n t u r y t o e n s u r e A u s t r a l i a h a d t o b a t a g a i n . H e e v e n t u a l l y f e l l j u s t a f t e r t h e n e w b a l l w a s t a k e n , c a u g h t a t s e c o n d s l i p f o r 5 2 . T h e f i n a l T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e S y d n e y C r i c k e t G r o u n d , s a w E n g l a n d a t t e m p t i n g t o a v o i d a s e r i e s w h i t e w a s h . K e y s c o r e d t h r e e r u n s i n E n g l a n d ' s f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e f a l l i n g l b w t o a n i n n o c u o u s h a l f - v o l l e y f r o m S t e v e W a u g h , p l a y i n g i n h i s l a s t A s h e s T e s t . H e s c o r e d 1 4 i n h i s f i n a l i n n i n g s o f t h e t o u r , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t a t m i d w i c k e t , h o w e v e r E n g l a n d h a d n e a r l y 3 5 0 r u n s o n t h e b o a r d b y t h a t s t a g e a n d w e r e o n t r a c k t o c o m p l e t e a c o n s o l a t o r y v i c t o r y . T h e 2 0 0 4 e d i t i o n o f t h e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s ' A l m a n a c k r e c o r d e d t h a t K e y h a d " j u s t i f i e d h i s s e l e c t i o n a h e a d o f a n o l d e r p l a y e r , l i k e M a r k R a m p r a k a s h , b u t d i d n o t c e m e n t h i s p l a c e " . D e s p i t e a l o w - s c o r i n g s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 3 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n , i n w h i c h h e p a s s e d 4 0 o n l y o n c e i n h i s f i r s t s e v e n i n n i n g s o f t h e s e a s o n , h e k e p t h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e f o r t h e v i s i t o f t h e t o u r i n g Z i m b a b w e a n s . B a t t i n g a t n u m b e r f i v e i n b o t h T e s t s , K e y f a i l e d t o m a k e m u c h o f a n i m p a c t , s c o r i n g 1 8 r u n s i n t h e f i r s t m a t c h a n d f o u r i n t h e s e c o n d . H e h a d r e a s o n t o f e e l a g g r i e v e d a t h i s f i r s t T e s t d i s m i s s a l — u m p i r e S t e v e B u c k n o r g a v e h i m o u t c a u g h t b e h i n d , d e s p i t e K e y n o t h i t t i n g t h e b a l l . H i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( O D I ) s q u a d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e a n d S o u t h A f r i c a o w e d m o r e t o t h e l a c k o f a v a i l a b l e p l a y e r s t h a n h i s o w n f o r m ; h e h a d o n l y p a s s e d 4 0 o n o n e o c c a s i o n g o i n g i n t o t h e s e r i e s . K e y m a d e h i s O D I d e b u t a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e i n t h e o p e n i n g m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; h e s c o r e d 1 1 b e f o r e f a l l i n g t o t h e l e f t - a r m s p i n o f R a y P r i c e . K e y o n l y p l a y e d o n e m o r e m a t c h i n t h e s e r i e s ; a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a h e f e l l f o r a g o l d e n d u c k t a k i n g a " w i l d s w i n g " a t t h e f i r s t b a l l h e r e c e i v e d f r o m M a k h a y a N t i n i . F o l l o w i n g E n g l a n d ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n t o t h e f i n a l o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t , K e y w a s r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e s q u a d " t o h a v e s o m e m a t c h - p r a c t i c e i n t h e l o n g e r f o r m o f t h e g a m e a h e a d o f t h e T e s t s e r i e s " a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a . H o w e v e r , K e y d i d n o t m a k e a n a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e s e r i e s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e T e s t m a t c h s i d e a f t e r a n e x c e l l e n t s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 4 s e a s o n . H e r e a c h e d 1 , 0 0 0   r u n s f o r t h e s e a s o n b y 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d f o r 1 6 y e a r s , a n d h a d a r u n o f f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H o w e v e r , h i s l i m i t e d - o v e r s f o r m w a s n o t a s g o o d — h e p a s s e d f i f t y o n l y o n c e a l l s e a s o n . D e s p i t e t h i s , h e w a s c a l l e d i n t o t h e s q u a d f o r t h e N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a n d N e w Z e a l a n d . K e y ' s s e r i e s b e g a n w i t h t h e f i f t h m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a t H e a d i n g l e y . W i t h E n g l a n d c h a s i n g 1 6 0 t o w i n , K e y c a m e i n a t 5 5 f o r o n e , b u t s c o r e d j u s t s i x b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y D w a y n e B r a v o . H i s o n l y o t h e r a p p e a r a n c e c a m e a g a i n s t N e w Z e a l a n d t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e g r o u p s t a g e — K e y s c o r e d 1 8 a n d w a s p l a y i n g w e l l b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t b e h i n d . H i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e w a s e n s u r e d a f t e r M a r k B u t c h e r p u l l e d o u t , h a v i n g b e e n h i t f r o m b e h i n d i n h i s c a r a n d s u s t a i n i n g a w h i p l a s h i n j u r y . K e y t o o k t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , m o v i n g t o w a r d a m a i d e n T e s t c e n t u r y w i t h w h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s " p o w e r f u l d r i v i n g a n d p u l l i n g " . H e w a s d r o p p e d t w i c e — C h r i s G a y l e p a r r i e d a n o p p o r t u n i t y w i t h K e y o n 1 6 , w h i l e D e v o n S m i t h f a i l e d t o d i s m i s s h i m w h e n o n 5 8 . K e y m a i n t a i n e d h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t , e v e n a f t e r m e e t i n g t h e Q u e e n i n a p r e s e n t a t i o n d u r i n g t h e t e a i n t e r v a l . H e b r o u g h t u p h i s c e n t u r y w i t h a b o u n d a r y o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f F i d e l E d w a r d s , a n d b y t h e e n d o f t h e f i r s t d a y h a d r e a c h e d 1 6 7 n o t o u t . H e c o n t i n u e d p o s i t i v e l y o n t h e s e c o n d d a y , a n d b r o u g h t u p h i s m a i d e n d o u b l e c e n t u r y w i t h f o u r t h r o u g h s q u a r e l e g o f f P e d r o C o l l i n s . H e w a s e v e n t u a l l y d i s m i s s e d w h e n h e " s l a s h e d a w i d e b a l l t o B r i a n L a r a a t b a c k w a r d p o i n t " , h a v i n g m a d e 2 2 1 . I n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , h e w a s r u n o u t b y h i s c a p t a i n M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , w h o w e n t o n t o s c o r e h i s s e c o n d c e n t u r y o f t h e m a t c h . T h e s e c o n d T e s t s a w K e y s t r u g g l i n g i n t h e c o r r i d o r o f u n c e r t a i n t y , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h i g h l i g h t e d b y C o l l i n s , w h o b e a t t h e b a t o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s b e f o r e f i n d i n g t h e e d g e t o d i s m i s s h i m . H i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s l a s t e d j u s t s e v e n b a l l s b e f o r e K e y " c h i p p e d a s i m p l e c a t c h t o m i d - o n " , h a v i n g s c o r e d j u s t f o u r . K e y ' s m o s t v a l u a b l e i n n i n g s , a c c o r d i n g t o " W i s d e n " , c a m e i n t h e t h i r d T e s t . D e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g s i x r u n s i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , K e y c a m e t o t h e c r e a s e f o r h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s w i t h E n g l a n d r e q u i r i n g a n o t h e r 2 1 6   r u n s t o t a k e a 3 – 0 l e a d i n t h e s e r i e s . I n i t i a l l y b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , a n d t h e n w i t h A n d r e w F l i n t o f f , K e y s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 9 3 t o g u i d e E n g l a n d t o t h e i r t a r g e t , w h i c h w a s a r e c o r d f o u r t h i n n i n g s t o t a l t o w i n a n O l d T r a f f o r d T e s t . H i s s e r i e s c a m e t o a n e n d w h e n h e s c o r e d t e n r u n s , i n E n g l a n d ' s t e n - w i c k e t v i c t o r y i n t h e f i n a l T e s t . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h e s e r i e s a n d h i s d o m e s t i c f o r m e a r n e d h i m r e c o g n i t i o n — h e w a s n a m e d a s o n e o f t h e f i v e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s o f t h e Y e a r i n t h e 2 0 0 5 e d i t i o n . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s d u r i n g t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , K e y w a s t a k e n o n E n g l a n d ' s t o u r o f S o u t h A f r i c a o v e r t h e E n g l i s h c l o s e - s e a s o n . H o w e v e r , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r r e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o l l o w i n g i n j u r y , K e y l o s t h i s p l a c e . T h i s w a s d e s p i t e h i m s c o r i n g 8 7 i n a w a r m - u p g a m e a g a i n s t a N i c k y O p p e n h e i m e r X I , a m a t c h i n w h i c h B u t c h e r h a d s c o r e d j u s t s i x . R e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t a f t e r B u t c h e r h a d s u s t a i n e d a w r i s t i n j u r y , K e y m a d e a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e " d e f e n d i n g r e s o l u t e l y " i n a c c u m u l a t i n g 4 1 b e f o r e b e i n g s t u m p e d c h a r g i n g N i c k y B o j e . T h e f o u r t h T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e W a n d e r e r s , s a w K e y h i t 8 3 , i n a p a r t n e r s h i p o f 1 8 2 w i t h A n d r e w S t r a u s s t h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s i n c l u d i n g " h a r d - h i t t i n g s u p p o r t f r o m K e y " . H e a d d e d a f u r t h e r e i g h t e e n t o h i s m a t c h t a l l y i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , a c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h h e l p e d E n g l a n d t o a n e v e n t u a l v i c t o r y . K e y r e t u r n e d s i n g l e f i g u r e s c o r e s o f o n e a n d n i n e i n h i s t w o i n n i n g s i n t h e f i n a l T e s t , b e i n g d i s m i s s e d b y S h a u n P o l l o c k o n b o t h o c c a s i o n s i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d d r a w . K e y b r i e f l y r e t u r n e d t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r i c k e t f o r t h e 2 0 0 9 I C C W o r l d T w e n t y 2 0 c o m p e t i t i o n , p l a y i n g h i s o n l y T w e n t y 2 0 I n t e r n a t i o n a l m a t c h a g a i n s t t h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g t h e t o u r n a m e n t a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e i n j u r e d K e v i n P i e t e r s e n . H e s c o r e d 1 0 n o t o u t f r o m e i g h t b a l l s i n a m a t c h w h e r e t h e N e t h e r l a n d s s u c c e s s f u l l y c h a s e d t h e i r t a r g e t f r o m t h e f i n a l b a l l . R e c o r d s : T e s t c e n t u r i e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s :

Youth and early career

Robert Key was born in London to a sporting family and showed talent in multiple sports from a young age. He attended schools in London and Kent, where he excelled in cricket and eventually joined the Kent County Cricket Club's youth teams. Key's early career was marked by criticism of his weight, but he worked hard to improve his fitness. He represented England in youth tournaments, including the Under-19 Cricket World Cup, which England won. Key made his first-class debut in 1998 and went on to play for Kent and England A, struggling with form at times but ultimately establishing himself as a talented batsman.

Born in East Dulwich, London, to parents Trevor and Lynn, Key was raised in a particularly sporting family: his mother played for Kent's ladies cricket side, his father played club cricket in Derby and his sister Elizabeth played for her junior school side, where she once took a hat-trick. Key himself was a keen all-round sportsman; he also played tennis for Kent. He attended Worsley Bridge Primary School where the school won both the Bromley area and Kent cricket Cups. His performances led to his inclusion in the county under-elevens, before Alan Ealham, coach of Kent County Cricket Club's youth sides, became his mentor. Later he attended Colfe's School in Lee, London, and Langley Park School for Boys in Beckenham, where he passed ten GCSEs. Key has often been criticized for his weight, and at one stage early in his career weighed 16 stone before Alec Stewart told him to "buck his ideas up". Key himself said of the matter: "I'll never be the most athletic-looking bloke, but I'm a hell of a lot fitter than I was at 19 or 20. " Key is married to Fleur, with whom he has two children. Key played his first matches for Kent's second eleven in 1995, at the age of sixteen. He remained a regular in the second team throughout the 1996 season and first half of the 1997 season, by which time he had hit his first two centuries for a Kent representative side; an unbeaten 146 against Essex's second team, and an unbeaten 139 against Glamorgan's seconds. Following on from those performances, Key joined the England Under-17 squad for the International Youth Tournament, which was being held in Bermuda. Key's growing reputation as a batsman was greatly enhanced by his performances in this tournament, where he finished with the second highest batting average of anyone at the tournament, scoring 184 runs at an average of 48. Key's performances helped England win the tournament by a single point from Ireland's Under-17s. Key returned to England for two matches with Kent's second team, before joining up with England's Under-19s for a youth Test series against Zimbabwe's under-19s. In the three Test series, Key made two half-centuries, earning himself a place in the squad for the 1998 Under-19 Cricket World Cup in South Africa. Batting at the top of the order throughout, Key scored a total of 206 runs as England won the tournament, with his best performance coming in the defeat to India, where Key scored 57. Following a first-class debut against Middlesex at the beginning of the 1998 season, in which Key scored 15, he proceeded to play a near-complete season. He scored his first first-class century against Durham, scoring 101 in an innings victory. He added a second century (115) against Nottinghamshire, before rejoining the England under-19 squad for the series against Pakistan under-19s. He struggled in the one-day series, scoring just 36 runs in three matches, but finished as the top run-scorer in the youth Tests; with 377 at an average of 62.83. The 1999 season began for Key with a call up to England A's tour of Zimbabwe through January and February. He struggled for runs throughout his five matches on the tour, failing to pass 26 in any innings. In all, Key managed one century in the calendar year, 125 against Somerset, and finished the year with 1,309 runs in all competitions. The 2000 season proved even more disappointing, with just 700 runs at an average of less than 20. The 2001 English cricket season saw Key's form improve, with him scoring four first-class centuries; including one against the touring Pakistanis. His highest score of the season and career to date would come in the final game—he scored 132 in a rain-affected match against Lancashire. His scoring throughout the season persuaded the national selectors to include at the start of the 2009 season. He went on to score 1,209 runs that season, with four centuries including a career-best 270 He announced his retirement from the game on 18 April 2016, citing his desire to not "hinder younger players [coming through]" and focus on coaching and his role with Sky Sports as a television pundit. Key made his Test match debut in the second Test against India in 2002, as a replacement for Marcus Trescothick, who had broken his thumb. Chairman of selectors David Graveney said Key was selected because of his "outstanding form for Kent after attending the National Academy" over the winter. Opening the batting with Michael Vaughan, Key made 17 runs in his only innings before being bowled by Ashish Nehra. Retained played one more match in the series; against South Africa he fell for a golden duck taking a "wild swing" at the first ball he received from Makhaya Ntini. Following England's qualification into the final of the tournament, Key was released from the squad "to have some match-practice in the longer form of the game ahead of the Test series" against South Africa. However, Key did not make an appearance in the series. Key returned to the Test match side after an excellent start to the 2004 season. He reached 1,000 runs for the season by 2 June, the earliest date the milestone had been reached for 16 years, and had a run of five centuries in seven innings. However, his limited-overs form was not as good—he passed fifty only once all season. Despite this, he was called into the squad for the NatWest Series against the West Indies and New Zealand. Key's series began with the fifth match of the tournament; against the West Indies at Headingley. With England chasing 160 to win, Key came in at 55 for one, but scored just six before being bowled by Dwayne Bravo. His only other appearance came against New Zealand towards the end of the group stage—Key scored 18 and was playing well before being caught behind. His place in the Test side was ensured after Mark Butcher pulled out, having been hit from behind in his car and sustaining a whiplash injury. Key took the opportunity, moving toward a maiden Test century with what "Wisden" described

Robert Key (cricketer)

B o r n i n E a s t D u l w i c h , L o n d o n , t o p a r e n t s T r e v o r a n d L y n n , K e y w a s r a i s e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y s p o r t i n g f a m i l y : h i s m o t h e r p l a y e d f o r K e n t ' s l a d i e s c r i c k e t s i d e , h i s f a t h e r p l a y e d c l u b c r i c k e t i n D e r b y a n d h i s s i s t e r E l i z a b e t h p l a y e d f o r h e r j u n i o r s c h o o l s i d e , w h e r e s h e o n c e t o o k a h a t - t r i c k . K e y h i m s e l f w a s a k e e n a l l - r o u n d s p o r t s m a n ; h e a l s o p l a y e d t e n n i s f o r K e n t . H e a t t e n d e d W o r s l e y B r i d g e P r i m a r y S c h o o l w h e r e t h e s c h o o l w o n b o t h t h e B r o m l e y a r e a a n d K e n t c r i c k e t C u p s . H i s p e r f o r m a n c e s l e d t o h i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e c o u n t y u n d e r - e l e v e n s , b e f o r e A l a n E a l h a m , c o a c h o f K e n t C o u n t y C r i c k e t C l u b ' s y o u t h s i d e s , b e c a m e h i s m e n t o r . L a t e r h e a t t e n d e d C o l f e ' s S c h o o l i n L e e , L o n d o n , a n d L a n g l e y P a r k S c h o o l f o r B o y s i n B e c k e n h a m , w h e r e h e p a s s e d t e n G C S E s . K e y h a s o f t e n b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r h i s w e i g h t , a n d a t o n e s t a g e e a r l y i n h i s c a r e e r w e i g h e d 1 6 s t o n e b e f o r e A l e c S t e w a r t t o l d h i m t o " b u c k h i s i d e a s u p " . K e y h i m s e l f s a i d o f t h e m a t t e r : " I ' l l n e v e r b e t h e m o s t a t h l e t i c - l o o k i n g b l o k e , b u t I ' m a h e l l o f a l o t f i t t e r t h a n I w a s a t 1 9 o r 2 0 . " K e y i s m a r r i e d t o F l e u r , w i t h w h o m h e h a s t w o c h i l d r e n . K e y p l a y e d h i s f i r s t m a t c h e s f o r K e n t ' s s e c o n d e l e v e n i n 1 9 9 5 , a t t h e a g e o f s i x t e e n . H e r e m a i n e d a r e g u l a r i n t h e s e c o n d t e a m t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 9 6 s e a s o n a n d f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 1 9 9 7 s e a s o n , b y w h i c h t i m e h e h a d h i t h i s f i r s t t w o c e n t u r i e s f o r a K e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i d e ; a n u n b e a t e n 1 4 6 a g a i n s t E s s e x ' s s e c o n d t e a m , a n d a n u n b e a t e n 1 3 9 a g a i n s t G l a m o r g a n ' s s e c o n d s . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m t h o s e p e r f o r m a n c e s , K e y j o i n e d t h e E n g l a n d U n d e r - 1 7 s q u a d f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Y o u t h T o u r n a m e n t , w h i c h w a s b e i n g h e l d i n B e r m u d a . K e y ' s g r o w i n g r e p u t a t i o n a s a b a t s m a n w a s g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d b y h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h i s t o u r n a m e n t , w h e r e h e f i n i s h e d w i t h t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t b a t t i n g a v e r a g e o f a n y o n e a t t h e t o u r n a m e n t , s c o r i n g 1 8 4 r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f 4 8 . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s h e l p e d E n g l a n d w i n t h e t o u r n a m e n t b y a s i n g l e p o i n t f r o m I r e l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 7 s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d f o r t w o m a t c h e s w i t h K e n t ' s s e c o n d t e a m , b e f o r e j o i n i n g u p w i t h E n g l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 9 s f o r a y o u t h T e s t s e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e ' s u n d e r - 1 9 s . I n t h e t h r e e T e s t s e r i e s , K e y m a d e t w o h a l f - c e n t u r i e s , e a r n i n g h i m s e l f a p l a c e i n t h e s q u a d f o r t h e 1 9 9 8 U n d e r - 1 9 C r i c k e t W o r l d C u p i n S o u t h A f r i c a . B a t t i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t , K e y s c o r e d a t o t a l o f 2 0 6   r u n s a s E n g l a n d w o n t h e t o u r n a m e n t , w i t h h i s b e s t p e r f o r m a n c e c o m i n g i n t h e d e f e a t t o I n d i a , w h e r e K e y s c o r e d 5 7 . F o l l o w i n g a f i r s t - c l a s s d e b u t a g a i n s t M i d d l e s e x a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 9 8 s e a s o n , i n w h i c h K e y s c o r e d 1 5 , h e p r o c e e d e d t o p l a y a n e a r - c o m p l e t e s e a s o n . H e s c o r e d h i s f i r s t f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r y a g a i n s t D u r h a m , s c o r i n g 1 0 1 i n a n i n n i n g s v i c t o r y . H e a d d e d a s e c o n d c e n t u r y ( 1 1 5 ) a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e , b e f o r e r e j o i n i n g t h e E n g l a n d u n d e r - 1 9 s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n u n d e r - 1 9 s . H e s t r u g g l e d i n t h e o n e - d a y s e r i e s , s c o r i n g j u s t 3 6   r u n s i n t h r e e m a t c h e s , b u t f i n i s h e d a s t h e t o p r u n - s c o r e r i n t h e y o u t h T e s t s ; w i t h 3 7 7 a t a n a v e r a g e o f 6 2 . 8 3 . T h e 1 9 9 9 s e a s o n b e g a n f o r K e y w i t h a c a l l u p t o E n g l a n d A ' s t o u r o f Z i m b a b w e t h r o u g h J a n u a r y a n d F e b r u a r y . H e s t r u g g l e d f o r r u n s t h r o u g h o u t h i s f i v e m a t c h e s o n t h e t o u r , f a i l i n g t o p a s s 2 6 i n a n y i n n i n g s . I n a l l , K e y m a n a g e d o n e c e n t u r y i n t h e c a l e n d a r y e a r , 1 2 5 a g a i n s t S o m e r s e t , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e y e a r w i t h 1 , 3 0 9   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h e 2 0 0 0 s e a s o n p r o v e d e v e n m o r e d i s a p p o i n t i n g , w i t h j u s t 7 0 0   r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f l e s s t h a n 2 0 . T h e 2 0 0 1 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y ' s f o r m i m p r o v e , w i t h h i m s c o r i n g f o u r f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r i e s ; i n c l u d i n g o n e a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g P a k i s t a n i s . H i s h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e s e a s o n a n d c a r e e r t o d a t e w o u l d c o m e i n t h e f i n a l g a m e — h e s c o r e d 1 3 2 i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d m a t c h a g a i n s t L a n c a s h i r e . H i s s c o r i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e a s o n p e r s u a d e d t h e n a t i o n a l s e l e c t o r s t o i n c l u d e h i m i n t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y , w h i c h w e n t o n a w i n t e r t o u r o f A u s t r a l i a , w h e r e h e s h o w e d h i s a b i l i t y w i t h a n i n n i n g s o f 1 7 7 a g a i n s t t h e s i d e ' s A u s t r a l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s g o o d f o r m i n t o 2 0 0 2 , w h e r e h i s r u n - s c o r i n g e a r n e d h i m a n i n v i t a t i o n t o p l a y f o r t h e M a r y l e b o n e C r i c k e t C l u b a g a i n s t t h e S r i L a n k a n s . H e s c o r e d 7 7 i n a d r a w n m a t c h , a n d w o u l d l a t e r t h a t s e a s o n m a k e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t a g a i n s t I n d i a . H o w e v e r , f o l l o w i n g h i s T e s t d e b u t , h e o n l y p a s s e d 5 0 o n o n e f u r t h e r o c c a s i o n t h a t y e a r . H e w o u l d m a i n t a i n h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , d e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g o n e i n n i n g s o f n o t e — 1 2 9 a g a i n s t t h e C a m b r i d g e s t u d e n t s . H o w e v e r , a f t e r b e i n g d r o p p e d f r o m t h e s i d e , K e y ' s f o r m s e e m e d t o i m p r o v e : h e s c o r e d 1 4 0 a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e t o s e t u p a K e n t v i c t o r y , a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y s c o r e d a r o u n d 4 0   r u n s p e r i n n i n g s f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s e a s o n . T h e 2 0 0 4 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y h i t t o p f o r m f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , s c o r i n g a t o t a l o f 2 , 4 8 6   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h i s t o t a l i n c l u d e d a " m a j e s t i c " u n b e a t e n 1 1 8 i n t h e o p e n i n g g a m e o f t h e s e a s o n a g a i n s t G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e , d u r i n g w h i c h K e y d i d n o t o f f e r a s i n g l e c h a n c e t h r o u g h o u t . H e r e a c h e d t h e t h o u s a n d r u n m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e s e a s o n o n 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d s i n c e 1 9 7 8 , a n d w e n t o n a r u n t h a t i n c l u d e d f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H e w a s t h e n r e c a l l e d t o t h e E n g l a n d s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , a n d K e y p l a y e d t w o k e y i n n i n g s : 2 2 1 a t L o r d ' s , a n d h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s 9 3 n o t o u t t o w i n t h e t h i r d T e s t f o r E n g l a n d . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e r i e s K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e d o m e s t i c s c e n e , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e s e a s o n w i t h t w o f u r t h e r t o n s ; 1 3 1 a g a i n s t b o t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a n d M i d d l e s e x . F o l l o w i n g t h e w i n t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e r i e s i n S o u t h A f r i c a , K e y r e t u r n e d t o d o m e s t i c a c t i o n w i t h K e n t . W h i l e n o t h a v i n g a s s u c c e s s f u l a s e a s o n a s i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r , h e s t i l l s c o r e d o v e r 1 , 5 0 0   r u n s . T h i s i n c l u d e d t w o c e n t u r i e s i n t h e s a m e m a t c h a g a i n s t S u r r e y , d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d o f w h i c h h e s h a r e d a c o u n t y t h i r d - w i c k e t r e c o r d p a r t n e r s h i p o f 3 2 3 w i t h M a r t i n v a n J a a r s v e l d . A t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n , K e y w a s n a m e d t h e n e w c o u n t y c a p t a i n f o l l o w i n g t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f D a v i d F u l t o n , a r o l e h e t o o k o n i n o r d e r t o h e l p h i s c h a n c e s o f r e g a i n i n g a p l a c e i n t h e E n g l a n d s i d e . H i s f i r s t s e a s o n a s c a p t a i n s a w h i s f o r m s l i d e , a s K e n t ' s c h a i r m a n o f c r i c k e t G r a h a m J o h n s o n r e l a t e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n : " H i s c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e t e a m h a s p r o b a b l y i m p a c t e d o n h i s o w n f o r m " . N o n e t h e l e s s , h e w a s g i v e n t h e c a p t a i n c y o f t h e E n g l a n d A t e a m i n t h e i r f i x t u r e a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n , a n d l e d K e n t t o f i f t h p l a c e i n t h e t o p t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p . T h e f o l l o w i n g s e a s o n s a w K e y l e a d K e n t t o s i l v e r w a r e , w h i l s t r e t u r n i n g t o s o m e o f h i s b e s t f o r m . H e s t r u c k a t o t a l o f e i g h t c e n t u r i e s , a n d a m a s s e d a t o t a l o f 2 , 2 6 7 r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s , w h i l s t a l s o l e a d i n g K e n t t o t h e f i n a l s d a y o f t h e 2 0 0 7 T w e n t y 2 0 C u p , i n w h i c h K e n t d e f e a t e d S u s s e x a n d G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e t o c l a i m t h e t r o p h y . H o w e v e r , K e y w a s l a t e r f o u n d g u i l t y o f " s e r i o u s d i s s e n t " f o l l o w i n g h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l d i s m i s s a l i n t h e f i n a l . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s r u n - s c o r i n g i n t o 2 0 0 8 , w h e r e h e s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 1 7 8 a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g N e w Z e a l a n d e r s t o " l i f t h i m s e l f f i r m l y i n t o t h e T e s t r e c k o n i n g " . F o l l o w i n g M i c h a e l V a u g h a n ' s r e s i g n a t i o n a s E n g l a n d c a p t a i n , K e y w a s t o u t e d b y t h e s o m e i n t h e m e d i a a s a p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e j o b . H o w e v e r , t h e s e a s o n e n d e d b a d l y f o r K e y , a s u n d e r h i s c a p t a i n c y K e n t w e r e r e l e g a t e d t o t h e s e c o n d t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , w i t h K e y a l s o b e i n g f i n e d £ 1 , 2 5 0 f o r c o m m e n t s h e m a d e o v e r a n E C B p i t c h p a n e l d e c i s i o n i n A u g u s t . K e y t o o k h i s f i r s t w i c k e t i n f i r s t - c l a s s c r i c k e t o n t h e f i n a l d a y o f K e n t ' s d r a w w i t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e 2 0 0 9 s e a s o n . H e w e n t o n t o s c o r e 1 , 2 0 9 r u n s t h a t s e a s o n , w i t h f o u r c e n t u r i e s i n c l u d i n g a c a r e e r - b e s t 2 7 0 H e a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m t h e g a m e o n 1 8 A p r i l 2 0 1 6 , c i t i n g h i s d e s i r e t o n o t " h i n d e r y o u n g e r p l a y e r s [ c o m i n g t h r o u g h ] " a n d f o c u s o n c o a c h i n g a n d h i s r o l e w i t h S k y S p o r t s a s a t e l e v i s i o n p u n d i t . K e y m a d e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t i n t h e s e c o n d T e s t a g a i n s t I n d i a i n 2 0 0 2 , a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r M a r c u s T r e s c o t h i c k , w h o h a d b r o k e n h i s t h u m b . C h a i r m a n o f s e l e c t o r s D a v i d G r a v e n e y s a i d K e y w a s s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f h i s " o u t s t a n d i n g f o r m f o r K e n t a f t e r a t t e n d i n g t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y " o v e r t h e w i n t e r . O p e n i n g t h e b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , K e y m a d e 1 7 r u n s i n h i s o n l y i n n i n g s b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y A s h i s h N e h r a . R e t a i n e d i n t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t , K e y m a n a g e d s c o r e s o f 3 0 a n d 3 4 a s E n g l a n d s u c c u m b e d t o a n i n n i n g s d e f e a t . H o w e v e r , h i s p e r f o r m a n c e w a s m a r r e d b y h i m d r o p p i n g t h r e e c a t c h e s . K e y w a s d r o p p e d f r o m t h e f o u r t h a n d f i n a l T e s t , w i t h T r e s c o t h i c k r e p l a c i n g h i m h a v i n g b e e n r u s h e d b a c k f r o m i n j u r y . A f t e r s u c c e s s i n d o m e s t i c c r i c k e t a n d p r o m i s e s h o w n i n h i s T e s t a p p e a r a n c e s p r e v i o u s l y , K e y w a s s e l e c t e d a s p a r t o f t h e s q u a d t o p l a y A u s t r a l i a . D e s p i t e p l a y i n g w e l l i n a l i m i t e d o v e r s m a t c h a g a i n s t a n A C B C h a i r m a n ' s X I ; h i t t i n g 6 8 , h e w a s n o t s e l e c t e d t o p l a y i n t h e f i r s t T e s t , i n s t e a d a c t i n g a s t w e l f t h m a n . H e e n d e d u p f i e l d i n g t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n h e w o u l d h a v e i m a g i n e d , a f t e r S i m o n J o n e s r u p t u r e d k n e e l i g a m e n t s w h i l e f i e l d i n g , a n d t o o k n o f u r t h e r p a r t i n t h e m a t c h . B r o u g h t b a c k i n t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e s e c o n d T e s t f o r t h e i n j u r e d J o h n C r a w l e y , K e y m a d e a s o l i t a r y r u n i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b a t t i n g a t n u m b e r t h r e e , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f S h a n e W a r n e j u s t a f t e r t h e l u n c h b r e a k . R e l e g a t e d t o n u m b e r f i v e i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r a n d N a s s e r H u s s a i n b a t t i n g a h e a d o f h i m , h e a g a i n m a d e j u s t o n e b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f A n d y B i c h e l . K e y f a r e d b e t t e r i n t h e t h i r d m a t c h , p l a y e d a t t h e W A C A G r o u n d i n P e r t h . O n a p i t c h w i t h " e x c e p t i o n a l b o u n c e a n d p a c e " , K e y w a s t h e o n l y E n g l i s h b a t s m a n t o k e e p h i s w i c k e t i n t a c t f o r a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d , b a t t i n g p a s s i v e l y f o r 4 7 , t h e h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e i n n i n g s . H e t h e n c a u g h t B r e t t L e e a t t h i r d m a n i n A u s t r a l i a ' s o n l y i n n i n g s , b e f o r e o f f e r i n g H u s s a i n " s t o u t s u p p o r t " i n m a k i n g 2 3 s e c o n d t i m e a r o u n d . E n g l a n d l o s t t h e T e s t m a t c h b y a n i n n i n g s a n d 4 8 r u n s , a r e s u l t t h a t e n s u r e d t h a t A u s t r a l i a r e t a i n e d t h e A s h e s . F o l l o w i n g a b r e a k f o r t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e V B S e r i e s o f O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l s , E n g l a n d m o v e d t o M e l b o u r n e f o r t h e f o u r t h T e s t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r K e y , h e f e l l f o r a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , t r a p p e d l e g b e f o r e w i c k e t ( l b w ) s e c o n d b a l l b y f a s t b o w l e r B r e t t L e e . W i t h E n g l a n d f o l l o w i n g o n , K e y m a d e a m a i d e n h a l f - c e n t u r y t o e n s u r e A u s t r a l i a h a d t o b a t a g a i n . H e e v e n t u a l l y f e l l j u s t a f t e r t h e n e w b a l l w a s t a k e n , c a u g h t a t s e c o n d s l i p f o r 5 2 . T h e f i n a l T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e S y d n e y C r i c k e t G r o u n d , s a w E n g l a n d a t t e m p t i n g t o a v o i d a s e r i e s w h i t e w a s h . K e y s c o r e d t h r e e r u n s i n E n g l a n d ' s f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e f a l l i n g l b w t o a n i n n o c u o u s h a l f - v o l l e y f r o m S t e v e W a u g h , p l a y i n g i n h i s l a s t A s h e s T e s t . H e s c o r e d 1 4 i n h i s f i n a l i n n i n g s o f t h e t o u r , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t a t m i d w i c k e t , h o w e v e r E n g l a n d h a d n e a r l y 3 5 0 r u n s o n t h e b o a r d b y t h a t s t a g e a n d w e r e o n t r a c k t o c o m p l e t e a c o n s o l a t o r y v i c t o r y . T h e 2 0 0 4 e d i t i o n o f t h e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s ' A l m a n a c k r e c o r d e d t h a t K e y h a d " j u s t i f i e d h i s s e l e c t i o n a h e a d o f a n o l d e r p l a y e r , l i k e M a r k R a m p r a k a s h , b u t d i d n o t c e m e n t h i s p l a c e " . D e s p i t e a l o w - s c o r i n g s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 3 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n , i n w h i c h h e p a s s e d 4 0 o n l y o n c e i n h i s f i r s t s e v e n i n n i n g s o f t h e s e a s o n , h e k e p t h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e f o r t h e v i s i t o f t h e t o u r i n g Z i m b a b w e a n s . B a t t i n g a t n u m b e r f i v e i n b o t h T e s t s , K e y f a i l e d t o m a k e m u c h o f a n i m p a c t , s c o r i n g 1 8 r u n s i n t h e f i r s t m a t c h a n d f o u r i n t h e s e c o n d . H e h a d r e a s o n t o f e e l a g g r i e v e d a t h i s f i r s t T e s t d i s m i s s a l — u m p i r e S t e v e B u c k n o r g a v e h i m o u t c a u g h t b e h i n d , d e s p i t e K e y n o t h i t t i n g t h e b a l l . H i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( O D I ) s q u a d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e a n d S o u t h A f r i c a o w e d m o r e t o t h e l a c k o f a v a i l a b l e p l a y e r s t h a n h i s o w n f o r m ; h e h a d o n l y p a s s e d 4 0 o n o n e o c c a s i o n g o i n g i n t o t h e s e r i e s . K e y m a d e h i s O D I d e b u t a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e i n t h e o p e n i n g m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; h e s c o r e d 1 1 b e f o r e f a l l i n g t o t h e l e f t - a r m s p i n o f R a y P r i c e . K e y o n l y p l a y e d o n e m o r e m a t c h i n t h e s e r i e s ; a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a h e f e l l f o r a g o l d e n d u c k t a k i n g a " w i l d s w i n g " a t t h e f i r s t b a l l h e r e c e i v e d f r o m M a k h a y a N t i n i . F o l l o w i n g E n g l a n d ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n t o t h e f i n a l o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t , K e y w a s r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e s q u a d " t o h a v e s o m e m a t c h - p r a c t i c e i n t h e l o n g e r f o r m o f t h e g a m e a h e a d o f t h e T e s t s e r i e s " a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a . H o w e v e r , K e y d i d n o t m a k e a n a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e s e r i e s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e T e s t m a t c h s i d e a f t e r a n e x c e l l e n t s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 4 s e a s o n . H e r e a c h e d 1 , 0 0 0   r u n s f o r t h e s e a s o n b y 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d f o r 1 6 y e a r s , a n d h a d a r u n o f f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H o w e v e r , h i s l i m i t e d - o v e r s f o r m w a s n o t a s g o o d — h e p a s s e d f i f t y o n l y o n c e a l l s e a s o n . D e s p i t e t h i s , h e w a s c a l l e d i n t o t h e s q u a d f o r t h e N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a n d N e w Z e a l a n d . K e y ' s s e r i e s b e g a n w i t h t h e f i f t h m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a t H e a d i n g l e y . W i t h E n g l a n d c h a s i n g 1 6 0 t o w i n , K e y c a m e i n a t 5 5 f o r o n e , b u t s c o r e d j u s t s i x b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y D w a y n e B r a v o . H i s o n l y o t h e r a p p e a r a n c e c a m e a g a i n s t N e w Z e a l a n d t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e g r o u p s t a g e — K e y s c o r e d 1 8 a n d w a s p l a y i n g w e l l b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t b e h i n d . H i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e w a s e n s u r e d a f t e r M a r k B u t c h e r p u l l e d o u t , h a v i n g b e e n h i t f r o m b e h i n d i n h i s c a r a n d s u s t a i n i n g a w h i p l a s h i n j u r y . K e y t o o k t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , m o v i n g t o w a r d a m a i d e n T e s t c e n t u r y w i t h w h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s " p o w e r f u l d r i v i n g a n d p u l l i n g " . H e w a s d r o p p e d t w i c e — C h r i s G a y l e p a r r i e d a n o p p o r t u n i t y w i t h K e y o n 1 6 , w h i l e D e v o n S m i t h f a i l e d t o d i s m i s s h i m w h e n o n 5 8 . K e y m a i n t a i n e d h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t , e v e n a f t e r m e e t i n g t h e Q u e e n i n a p r e s e n t a t i o n d u r i n g t h e t e a i n t e r v a l . H e b r o u g h t u p h i s c e n t u r y w i t h a b o u n d a r y o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f F i d e l E d w a r d s , a n d b y t h e e n d o f t h e f i r s t d a y h a d r e a c h e d 1 6 7 n o t o u t . H e c o n t i n u e d p o s i t i v e l y o n t h e s e c o n d d a y , a n d b r o u g h t u p h i s m a i d e n d o u b l e c e n t u r y w i t h f o u r t h r o u g h s q u a r e l e g o f f P e d r o C o l l i n s . H e w a s e v e n t u a l l y d i s m i s s e d w h e n h e " s l a s h e d a w i d e b a l l t o B r i a n L a r a a t b a c k w a r d p o i n t " , h a v i n g m a d e 2 2 1 . I n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , h e w a s r u n o u t b y h i s c a p t a i n M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , w h o w e n t o n t o s c o r e h i s s e c o n d c e n t u r y o f t h e m a t c h . T h e s e c o n d T e s t s a w K e y s t r u g g l i n g i n t h e c o r r i d o r o f u n c e r t a i n t y , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h i g h l i g h t e d b y C o l l i n s , w h o b e a t t h e b a t o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s b e f o r e f i n d i n g t h e e d g e t o d i s m i s s h i m . H i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s l a s t e d j u s t s e v e n b a l l s b e f o r e K e y " c h i p p e d a s i m p l e c a t c h t o m i d - o n " , h a v i n g s c o r e d j u s t f o u r . K e y ' s m o s t v a l u a b l e i n n i n g s , a c c o r d i n g t o " W i s d e n " , c a m e i n t h e t h i r d T e s t . D e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g s i x r u n s i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , K e y c a m e t o t h e c r e a s e f o r h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s w i t h E n g l a n d r e q u i r i n g a n o t h e r 2 1 6   r u n s t o t a k e a 3 – 0 l e a d i n t h e s e r i e s . I n i t i a l l y b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , a n d t h e n w i t h A n d r e w F l i n t o f f , K e y s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 9 3 t o g u i d e E n g l a n d t o t h e i r t a r g e t , w h i c h w a s a r e c o r d f o u r t h i n n i n g s t o t a l t o w i n a n O l d T r a f f o r d T e s t . H i s s e r i e s c a m e t o a n e n d w h e n h e s c o r e d t e n r u n s , i n E n g l a n d ' s t e n - w i c k e t v i c t o r y i n t h e f i n a l T e s t . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h e s e r i e s a n d h i s d o m e s t i c f o r m e a r n e d h i m r e c o g n i t i o n — h e w a s n a m e d a s o n e o f t h e f i v e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s o f t h e Y e a r i n t h e 2 0 0 5 e d i t i o n . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s d u r i n g t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , K e y w a s t a k e n o n E n g l a n d ' s t o u r o f S o u t h A f r i c a o v e r t h e E n g l i s h c l o s e - s e a s o n . H o w e v e r , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r r e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o l l o w i n g i n j u r y , K e y l o s t h i s p l a c e . T h i s w a s d e s p i t e h i m s c o r i n g 8 7 i n a w a r m - u p g a m e a g a i n s t a N i c k y O p p e n h e i m e r X I , a m a t c h i n w h i c h B u t c h e r h a d s c o r e d j u s t s i x . R e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t a f t e r B u t c h e r h a d s u s t a i n e d a w r i s t i n j u r y , K e y m a d e a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e " d e f e n d i n g r e s o l u t e l y " i n a c c u m u l a t i n g 4 1 b e f o r e b e i n g s t u m p e d c h a r g i n g N i c k y B o j e . T h e f o u r t h T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e W a n d e r e r s , s a w K e y h i t 8 3 , i n a p a r t n e r s h i p o f 1 8 2 w i t h A n d r e w S t r a u s s t h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s i n c l u d i n g " h a r d - h i t t i n g s u p p o r t f r o m K e y " . H e a d d e d a f u r t h e r e i g h t e e n t o h i s m a t c h t a l l y i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , a c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h h e l p e d E n g l a n d t o a n e v e n t u a l v i c t o r y . K e y r e t u r n e d s i n g l e f i g u r e s c o r e s o f o n e a n d n i n e i n h i s t w o i n n i n g s i n t h e f i n a l T e s t , b e i n g d i s m i s s e d b y S h a u n P o l l o c k o n b o t h o c c a s i o n s i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d d r a w . K e y b r i e f l y r e t u r n e d t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r i c k e t f o r t h e 2 0 0 9 I C C W o r l d T w e n t y 2 0 c o m p e t i t i o n , p l a y i n g h i s o n l y T w e n t y 2 0 I n t e r n a t i o n a l m a t c h a g a i n s t t h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g t h e t o u r n a m e n t a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e i n j u r e d K e v i n P i e t e r s e n . H e s c o r e d 1 0 n o t o u t f r o m e i g h t b a l l s i n a m a t c h w h e r e t h e N e t h e r l a n d s s u c c e s s f u l l y c h a s e d t h e i r t a r g e t f r o m t h e f i n a l b a l l . R e c o r d s : T e s t c e n t u r i e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s :

Domestic career

Robert Key is an English former cricketer who played for Kent County Cricket Club. He made his first-class debut in 1998 and went on to play for England A and the full England team. Key was a prolific batsman, scoring over 18,000 runs in his career, including 43 centuries. He captained Kent to silverware in 2007 and was named the county's captain in 2005. Key retired from cricket in 2016, citing his desire to focus on coaching and his role as a television pundit.

Born in East Dulwich, London, to parents Trevor and Lynn, Key was raised in a particularly sporting family: his mother played for Kent's ladies cricket side, his father played club cricket in Derby and his sister Elizabeth played for her junior school side, where she once took a hat-trick. Key himself was a keen all-round sportsman; he also played tennis for Kent. He attended Worsley Bridge Primary School where the school won both the Bromley area and Kent cricket Cups. His performances led to his inclusion in the county under-elevens, before Alan Ealham, coach of Kent County Cricket Club's youth sides, became his mentor. Later he attended Colfe's School in Lee, London, and Langley Park School for Boys in Beckenham, where he passed ten GCSEs. Key has often been criticized for his weight, and at one stage early in his career weighed 16 stone before Alec Stewart told him to "buck his ideas up". Key himself said of the matter: "I'll never be the most athletic-looking bloke, but I'm a hell of a lot fitter than I was at 19 or 20. " Key is married to Fleur, with whom he has two children. Key played his first matches for Kent's second eleven in 1995, at the age of sixteen. He remained a regular in the second team throughout the 1996 season and first half of the 1997 season, by which time he had hit his first two centuries for a Kent representative side; an unbeaten 146 against Essex's second team, and an unbeaten 139 against the top of the order throughout, Key scored a total of 206 runs as England won the tournament, with his best performance coming in the defeat to India, where Key scored 57. Following a first-class debut against Middlesex at the beginning of the 1998 season, in which Key scored 15, he proceeded to play a near-complete season. He scored his first first-class century against Durham, scoring 101 in an innings victory. He added a second century (115) against Nottinghamshire, before rejoining the England under-19 squad for the series against Pakistan under-19s. He struggled in the one-day series, scoring just 36 runs in three matches, but finished as the top run-scorer in the youth Tests; with 377 at an average of 62.83. The 1999 season began for Key with a call up to England A's tour of Zimbabwe through January and February. He struggled for runs throughout his five matches on the tour, failing to pass 26 in any innings. In all, Key managed one century in the calendar year, 125 against Somerset, and finished the year with 1,309 runs in all competitions. The 2000 season proved even more disappointing, with just 700 runs at an average of less than 20. The 2001 English cricket season saw Key's form improve, with him scoring four first-class centuries; including one against the touring Pakistanis. His highest score of the season and career to date would come in the final game—he scored 132 in a rain-affected match against Lancashire. His scoring throughout the season persuaded the national selectors to include and his second innings 93 not out to win the third Test for England. Following the series Key returned to the domestic scene, and finished the season with two further tons; 131 against both Northamptonshire and Middlesex. Following the winter international series in South Africa, Key returned to domestic action with Kent. While not having as successful a season as in the previous year, he still scored over 1,500 runs. This included two centuries in the same match against Surrey, during the second of which he shared a county third-wicket record partnership of 323 with Martin van Jaarsveld. At the end of the season, Key was named the new county captain following the resignation of David Fulton, a role he took on in order to help his chances of regaining a place in the England side. His first season as captain saw his form slide, as Kent's chairman of cricket Graham Johnson related at the end of the season: "His commitment to the team has probably impacted on his own form". Nonetheless, he was given the captaincy of the England A team in their fixture against Pakistan, and led Kent to fifth place in the top tier of the County Championship. The following season saw Key lead Kent to silverware, whilst returning to some of his best form. He struck a total of eight centuries, and amassed a total of 2,267 runs in all competitions, whilst also leading Kent to the finals day of the 2007 Twenty20 Cup, in which Kent defeated Sussex and Gloucestershire to at the start of the 2009 season. He went on to score 1,209 runs that season, with four centuries including a career-best 270 He announced his retirement from the game on 18 April 2016, citing his desire to not "hinder younger players [coming through]" and focus on coaching and his role with Sky Sports as a television pundit. Key made his Test match debut in the second Test against India in 2002, as a replacement for Marcus Trescothick, who had broken his thumb. Chairman of selectors David Graveney said Key was selected because of his "outstanding form for Kent after attending the National Academy" over the winter. Opening the batting with Michael Vaughan, Key made 17 runs in his only innings before being bowled by Ashish Nehra. Retained as a replacement for the injured Kevin Pietersen. He scored 10 not out from eight balls in a match where the Netherlands successfully chased their target from the final ball. Records: Test centuries: Career performances: Career performances:

Robert Key (cricketer)

B o r n i n E a s t D u l w i c h , L o n d o n , t o p a r e n t s T r e v o r a n d L y n n , K e y w a s r a i s e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y s p o r t i n g f a m i l y : h i s m o t h e r p l a y e d f o r K e n t ' s l a d i e s c r i c k e t s i d e , h i s f a t h e r p l a y e d c l u b c r i c k e t i n D e r b y a n d h i s s i s t e r E l i z a b e t h p l a y e d f o r h e r j u n i o r s c h o o l s i d e , w h e r e s h e o n c e t o o k a h a t - t r i c k . K e y h i m s e l f w a s a k e e n a l l - r o u n d s p o r t s m a n ; h e a l s o p l a y e d t e n n i s f o r K e n t . H e a t t e n d e d W o r s l e y B r i d g e P r i m a r y S c h o o l w h e r e t h e s c h o o l w o n b o t h t h e B r o m l e y a r e a a n d K e n t c r i c k e t C u p s . H i s p e r f o r m a n c e s l e d t o h i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e c o u n t y u n d e r - e l e v e n s , b e f o r e A l a n E a l h a m , c o a c h o f K e n t C o u n t y C r i c k e t C l u b ' s y o u t h s i d e s , b e c a m e h i s m e n t o r . L a t e r h e a t t e n d e d C o l f e ' s S c h o o l i n L e e , L o n d o n , a n d L a n g l e y P a r k S c h o o l f o r B o y s i n B e c k e n h a m , w h e r e h e p a s s e d t e n G C S E s . K e y h a s o f t e n b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r h i s w e i g h t , a n d a t o n e s t a g e e a r l y i n h i s c a r e e r w e i g h e d 1 6 s t o n e b e f o r e A l e c S t e w a r t t o l d h i m t o " b u c k h i s i d e a s u p " . K e y h i m s e l f s a i d o f t h e m a t t e r : " I ' l l n e v e r b e t h e m o s t a t h l e t i c - l o o k i n g b l o k e , b u t I ' m a h e l l o f a l o t f i t t e r t h a n I w a s a t 1 9 o r 2 0 . " K e y i s m a r r i e d t o F l e u r , w i t h w h o m h e h a s t w o c h i l d r e n . K e y p l a y e d h i s f i r s t m a t c h e s f o r K e n t ' s s e c o n d e l e v e n i n 1 9 9 5 , a t t h e a g e o f s i x t e e n . H e r e m a i n e d a r e g u l a r i n t h e s e c o n d t e a m t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 9 6 s e a s o n a n d f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 1 9 9 7 s e a s o n , b y w h i c h t i m e h e h a d h i t h i s f i r s t t w o c e n t u r i e s f o r a K e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i d e ; a n u n b e a t e n 1 4 6 a g a i n s t E s s e x ' s s e c o n d t e a m , a n d a n u n b e a t e n 1 3 9 a g a i n s t G l a m o r g a n ' s s e c o n d s . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m t h o s e p e r f o r m a n c e s , K e y j o i n e d t h e E n g l a n d U n d e r - 1 7 s q u a d f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Y o u t h T o u r n a m e n t , w h i c h w a s b e i n g h e l d i n B e r m u d a . K e y ' s g r o w i n g r e p u t a t i o n a s a b a t s m a n w a s g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d b y h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h i s t o u r n a m e n t , w h e r e h e f i n i s h e d w i t h t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t b a t t i n g a v e r a g e o f a n y o n e a t t h e t o u r n a m e n t , s c o r i n g 1 8 4 r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f 4 8 . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s h e l p e d E n g l a n d w i n t h e t o u r n a m e n t b y a s i n g l e p o i n t f r o m I r e l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 7 s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d f o r t w o m a t c h e s w i t h K e n t ' s s e c o n d t e a m , b e f o r e j o i n i n g u p w i t h E n g l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 9 s f o r a y o u t h T e s t s e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e ' s u n d e r - 1 9 s . I n t h e t h r e e T e s t s e r i e s , K e y m a d e t w o h a l f - c e n t u r i e s , e a r n i n g h i m s e l f a p l a c e i n t h e s q u a d f o r t h e 1 9 9 8 U n d e r - 1 9 C r i c k e t W o r l d C u p i n S o u t h A f r i c a . B a t t i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t , K e y s c o r e d a t o t a l o f 2 0 6   r u n s a s E n g l a n d w o n t h e t o u r n a m e n t , w i t h h i s b e s t p e r f o r m a n c e c o m i n g i n t h e d e f e a t t o I n d i a , w h e r e K e y s c o r e d 5 7 . F o l l o w i n g a f i r s t - c l a s s d e b u t a g a i n s t M i d d l e s e x a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 9 8 s e a s o n , i n w h i c h K e y s c o r e d 1 5 , h e p r o c e e d e d t o p l a y a n e a r - c o m p l e t e s e a s o n . H e s c o r e d h i s f i r s t f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r y a g a i n s t D u r h a m , s c o r i n g 1 0 1 i n a n i n n i n g s v i c t o r y . H e a d d e d a s e c o n d c e n t u r y ( 1 1 5 ) a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e , b e f o r e r e j o i n i n g t h e E n g l a n d u n d e r - 1 9 s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n u n d e r - 1 9 s . H e s t r u g g l e d i n t h e o n e - d a y s e r i e s , s c o r i n g j u s t 3 6   r u n s i n t h r e e m a t c h e s , b u t f i n i s h e d a s t h e t o p r u n - s c o r e r i n t h e y o u t h T e s t s ; w i t h 3 7 7 a t a n a v e r a g e o f 6 2 . 8 3 . T h e 1 9 9 9 s e a s o n b e g a n f o r K e y w i t h a c a l l u p t o E n g l a n d A ' s t o u r o f Z i m b a b w e t h r o u g h J a n u a r y a n d F e b r u a r y . H e s t r u g g l e d f o r r u n s t h r o u g h o u t h i s f i v e m a t c h e s o n t h e t o u r , f a i l i n g t o p a s s 2 6 i n a n y i n n i n g s . I n a l l , K e y m a n a g e d o n e c e n t u r y i n t h e c a l e n d a r y e a r , 1 2 5 a g a i n s t S o m e r s e t , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e y e a r w i t h 1 , 3 0 9   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h e 2 0 0 0 s e a s o n p r o v e d e v e n m o r e d i s a p p o i n t i n g , w i t h j u s t 7 0 0   r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f l e s s t h a n 2 0 . T h e 2 0 0 1 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y ' s f o r m i m p r o v e , w i t h h i m s c o r i n g f o u r f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r i e s ; i n c l u d i n g o n e a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g P a k i s t a n i s . H i s h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e s e a s o n a n d c a r e e r t o d a t e w o u l d c o m e i n t h e f i n a l g a m e — h e s c o r e d 1 3 2 i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d m a t c h a g a i n s t L a n c a s h i r e . H i s s c o r i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e a s o n p e r s u a d e d t h e n a t i o n a l s e l e c t o r s t o i n c l u d e h i m i n t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y , w h i c h w e n t o n a w i n t e r t o u r o f A u s t r a l i a , w h e r e h e s h o w e d h i s a b i l i t y w i t h a n i n n i n g s o f 1 7 7 a g a i n s t t h e s i d e ' s A u s t r a l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s g o o d f o r m i n t o 2 0 0 2 , w h e r e h i s r u n - s c o r i n g e a r n e d h i m a n i n v i t a t i o n t o p l a y f o r t h e M a r y l e b o n e C r i c k e t C l u b a g a i n s t t h e S r i L a n k a n s . H e s c o r e d 7 7 i n a d r a w n m a t c h , a n d w o u l d l a t e r t h a t s e a s o n m a k e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t a g a i n s t I n d i a . H o w e v e r , f o l l o w i n g h i s T e s t d e b u t , h e o n l y p a s s e d 5 0 o n o n e f u r t h e r o c c a s i o n t h a t y e a r . H e w o u l d m a i n t a i n h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , d e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g o n e i n n i n g s o f n o t e — 1 2 9 a g a i n s t t h e C a m b r i d g e s t u d e n t s . H o w e v e r , a f t e r b e i n g d r o p p e d f r o m t h e s i d e , K e y ' s f o r m s e e m e d t o i m p r o v e : h e s c o r e d 1 4 0 a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e t o s e t u p a K e n t v i c t o r y , a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y s c o r e d a r o u n d 4 0   r u n s p e r i n n i n g s f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s e a s o n . T h e 2 0 0 4 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y h i t t o p f o r m f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , s c o r i n g a t o t a l o f 2 , 4 8 6   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h i s t o t a l i n c l u d e d a " m a j e s t i c " u n b e a t e n 1 1 8 i n t h e o p e n i n g g a m e o f t h e s e a s o n a g a i n s t G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e , d u r i n g w h i c h K e y d i d n o t o f f e r a s i n g l e c h a n c e t h r o u g h o u t . H e r e a c h e d t h e t h o u s a n d r u n m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e s e a s o n o n 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d s i n c e 1 9 7 8 , a n d w e n t o n a r u n t h a t i n c l u d e d f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H e w a s t h e n r e c a l l e d t o t h e E n g l a n d s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , a n d K e y p l a y e d t w o k e y i n n i n g s : 2 2 1 a t L o r d ' s , a n d h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s 9 3 n o t o u t t o w i n t h e t h i r d T e s t f o r E n g l a n d . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e r i e s K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e d o m e s t i c s c e n e , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e s e a s o n w i t h t w o f u r t h e r t o n s ; 1 3 1 a g a i n s t b o t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a n d M i d d l e s e x . F o l l o w i n g t h e w i n t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e r i e s i n S o u t h A f r i c a , K e y r e t u r n e d t o d o m e s t i c a c t i o n w i t h K e n t . W h i l e n o t h a v i n g a s s u c c e s s f u l a s e a s o n a s i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r , h e s t i l l s c o r e d o v e r 1 , 5 0 0   r u n s . T h i s i n c l u d e d t w o c e n t u r i e s i n t h e s a m e m a t c h a g a i n s t S u r r e y , d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d o f w h i c h h e s h a r e d a c o u n t y t h i r d - w i c k e t r e c o r d p a r t n e r s h i p o f 3 2 3 w i t h M a r t i n v a n J a a r s v e l d . A t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n , K e y w a s n a m e d t h e n e w c o u n t y c a p t a i n f o l l o w i n g t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f D a v i d F u l t o n , a r o l e h e t o o k o n i n o r d e r t o h e l p h i s c h a n c e s o f r e g a i n i n g a p l a c e i n t h e E n g l a n d s i d e . H i s f i r s t s e a s o n a s c a p t a i n s a w h i s f o r m s l i d e , a s K e n t ' s c h a i r m a n o f c r i c k e t G r a h a m J o h n s o n r e l a t e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n : " H i s c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e t e a m h a s p r o b a b l y i m p a c t e d o n h i s o w n f o r m " . N o n e t h e l e s s , h e w a s g i v e n t h e c a p t a i n c y o f t h e E n g l a n d A t e a m i n t h e i r f i x t u r e a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n , a n d l e d K e n t t o f i f t h p l a c e i n t h e t o p t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p . T h e f o l l o w i n g s e a s o n s a w K e y l e a d K e n t t o s i l v e r w a r e , w h i l s t r e t u r n i n g t o s o m e o f h i s b e s t f o r m . H e s t r u c k a t o t a l o f e i g h t c e n t u r i e s , a n d a m a s s e d a t o t a l o f 2 , 2 6 7 r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s , w h i l s t a l s o l e a d i n g K e n t t o t h e f i n a l s d a y o f t h e 2 0 0 7 T w e n t y 2 0 C u p , i n w h i c h K e n t d e f e a t e d S u s s e x a n d G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e t o c l a i m t h e t r o p h y . H o w e v e r , K e y w a s l a t e r f o u n d g u i l t y o f " s e r i o u s d i s s e n t " f o l l o w i n g h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l d i s m i s s a l i n t h e f i n a l . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s r u n - s c o r i n g i n t o 2 0 0 8 , w h e r e h e s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 1 7 8 a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g N e w Z e a l a n d e r s t o " l i f t h i m s e l f f i r m l y i n t o t h e T e s t r e c k o n i n g " . F o l l o w i n g M i c h a e l V a u g h a n ' s r e s i g n a t i o n a s E n g l a n d c a p t a i n , K e y w a s t o u t e d b y t h e s o m e i n t h e m e d i a a s a p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e j o b . H o w e v e r , t h e s e a s o n e n d e d b a d l y f o r K e y , a s u n d e r h i s c a p t a i n c y K e n t w e r e r e l e g a t e d t o t h e s e c o n d t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , w i t h K e y a l s o b e i n g f i n e d £ 1 , 2 5 0 f o r c o m m e n t s h e m a d e o v e r a n E C B p i t c h p a n e l d e c i s i o n i n A u g u s t . K e y t o o k h i s f i r s t w i c k e t i n f i r s t - c l a s s c r i c k e t o n t h e f i n a l d a y o f K e n t ' s d r a w w i t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e 2 0 0 9 s e a s o n . H e w e n t o n t o s c o r e 1 , 2 0 9 r u n s t h a t s e a s o n , w i t h f o u r c e n t u r i e s i n c l u d i n g a c a r e e r - b e s t 2 7 0 H e a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m t h e g a m e o n 1 8 A p r i l 2 0 1 6 , c i t i n g h i s d e s i r e t o n o t " h i n d e r y o u n g e r p l a y e r s [ c o m i n g t h r o u g h ] " a n d f o c u s o n c o a c h i n g a n d h i s r o l e w i t h S k y S p o r t s a s a t e l e v i s i o n p u n d i t . K e y m a d e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t i n t h e s e c o n d T e s t a g a i n s t I n d i a i n 2 0 0 2 , a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r M a r c u s T r e s c o t h i c k , w h o h a d b r o k e n h i s t h u m b . C h a i r m a n o f s e l e c t o r s D a v i d G r a v e n e y s a i d K e y w a s s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f h i s " o u t s t a n d i n g f o r m f o r K e n t a f t e r a t t e n d i n g t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y " o v e r t h e w i n t e r . O p e n i n g t h e b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , K e y m a d e 1 7 r u n s i n h i s o n l y i n n i n g s b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y A s h i s h N e h r a . R e t a i n e d i n t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t , K e y m a n a g e d s c o r e s o f 3 0 a n d 3 4 a s E n g l a n d s u c c u m b e d t o a n i n n i n g s d e f e a t . H o w e v e r , h i s p e r f o r m a n c e w a s m a r r e d b y h i m d r o p p i n g t h r e e c a t c h e s . K e y w a s d r o p p e d f r o m t h e f o u r t h a n d f i n a l T e s t , w i t h T r e s c o t h i c k r e p l a c i n g h i m h a v i n g b e e n r u s h e d b a c k f r o m i n j u r y . A f t e r s u c c e s s i n d o m e s t i c c r i c k e t a n d p r o m i s e s h o w n i n h i s T e s t a p p e a r a n c e s p r e v i o u s l y , K e y w a s s e l e c t e d a s p a r t o f t h e s q u a d t o p l a y A u s t r a l i a . D e s p i t e p l a y i n g w e l l i n a l i m i t e d o v e r s m a t c h a g a i n s t a n A C B C h a i r m a n ' s X I ; h i t t i n g 6 8 , h e w a s n o t s e l e c t e d t o p l a y i n t h e f i r s t T e s t , i n s t e a d a c t i n g a s t w e l f t h m a n . H e e n d e d u p f i e l d i n g t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n h e w o u l d h a v e i m a g i n e d , a f t e r S i m o n J o n e s r u p t u r e d k n e e l i g a m e n t s w h i l e f i e l d i n g , a n d t o o k n o f u r t h e r p a r t i n t h e m a t c h . B r o u g h t b a c k i n t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e s e c o n d T e s t f o r t h e i n j u r e d J o h n C r a w l e y , K e y m a d e a s o l i t a r y r u n i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b a t t i n g a t n u m b e r t h r e e , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f S h a n e W a r n e j u s t a f t e r t h e l u n c h b r e a k . R e l e g a t e d t o n u m b e r f i v e i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r a n d N a s s e r H u s s a i n b a t t i n g a h e a d o f h i m , h e a g a i n m a d e j u s t o n e b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f A n d y B i c h e l . K e y f a r e d b e t t e r i n t h e t h i r d m a t c h , p l a y e d a t t h e W A C A G r o u n d i n P e r t h . O n a p i t c h w i t h " e x c e p t i o n a l b o u n c e a n d p a c e " , K e y w a s t h e o n l y E n g l i s h b a t s m a n t o k e e p h i s w i c k e t i n t a c t f o r a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d , b a t t i n g p a s s i v e l y f o r 4 7 , t h e h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e i n n i n g s . H e t h e n c a u g h t B r e t t L e e a t t h i r d m a n i n A u s t r a l i a ' s o n l y i n n i n g s , b e f o r e o f f e r i n g H u s s a i n " s t o u t s u p p o r t " i n m a k i n g 2 3 s e c o n d t i m e a r o u n d . E n g l a n d l o s t t h e T e s t m a t c h b y a n i n n i n g s a n d 4 8 r u n s , a r e s u l t t h a t e n s u r e d t h a t A u s t r a l i a r e t a i n e d t h e A s h e s . F o l l o w i n g a b r e a k f o r t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e V B S e r i e s o f O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l s , E n g l a n d m o v e d t o M e l b o u r n e f o r t h e f o u r t h T e s t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r K e y , h e f e l l f o r a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , t r a p p e d l e g b e f o r e w i c k e t ( l b w ) s e c o n d b a l l b y f a s t b o w l e r B r e t t L e e . W i t h E n g l a n d f o l l o w i n g o n , K e y m a d e a m a i d e n h a l f - c e n t u r y t o e n s u r e A u s t r a l i a h a d t o b a t a g a i n . H e e v e n t u a l l y f e l l j u s t a f t e r t h e n e w b a l l w a s t a k e n , c a u g h t a t s e c o n d s l i p f o r 5 2 . T h e f i n a l T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e S y d n e y C r i c k e t G r o u n d , s a w E n g l a n d a t t e m p t i n g t o a v o i d a s e r i e s w h i t e w a s h . K e y s c o r e d t h r e e r u n s i n E n g l a n d ' s f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e f a l l i n g l b w t o a n i n n o c u o u s h a l f - v o l l e y f r o m S t e v e W a u g h , p l a y i n g i n h i s l a s t A s h e s T e s t . H e s c o r e d 1 4 i n h i s f i n a l i n n i n g s o f t h e t o u r , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t a t m i d w i c k e t , h o w e v e r E n g l a n d h a d n e a r l y 3 5 0 r u n s o n t h e b o a r d b y t h a t s t a g e a n d w e r e o n t r a c k t o c o m p l e t e a c o n s o l a t o r y v i c t o r y . T h e 2 0 0 4 e d i t i o n o f t h e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s ' A l m a n a c k r e c o r d e d t h a t K e y h a d " j u s t i f i e d h i s s e l e c t i o n a h e a d o f a n o l d e r p l a y e r , l i k e M a r k R a m p r a k a s h , b u t d i d n o t c e m e n t h i s p l a c e " . D e s p i t e a l o w - s c o r i n g s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 3 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n , i n w h i c h h e p a s s e d 4 0 o n l y o n c e i n h i s f i r s t s e v e n i n n i n g s o f t h e s e a s o n , h e k e p t h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e f o r t h e v i s i t o f t h e t o u r i n g Z i m b a b w e a n s . B a t t i n g a t n u m b e r f i v e i n b o t h T e s t s , K e y f a i l e d t o m a k e m u c h o f a n i m p a c t , s c o r i n g 1 8 r u n s i n t h e f i r s t m a t c h a n d f o u r i n t h e s e c o n d . H e h a d r e a s o n t o f e e l a g g r i e v e d a t h i s f i r s t T e s t d i s m i s s a l — u m p i r e S t e v e B u c k n o r g a v e h i m o u t c a u g h t b e h i n d , d e s p i t e K e y n o t h i t t i n g t h e b a l l . H i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( O D I ) s q u a d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e a n d S o u t h A f r i c a o w e d m o r e t o t h e l a c k o f a v a i l a b l e p l a y e r s t h a n h i s o w n f o r m ; h e h a d o n l y p a s s e d 4 0 o n o n e o c c a s i o n g o i n g i n t o t h e s e r i e s . K e y m a d e h i s O D I d e b u t a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e i n t h e o p e n i n g m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; h e s c o r e d 1 1 b e f o r e f a l l i n g t o t h e l e f t - a r m s p i n o f R a y P r i c e . K e y o n l y p l a y e d o n e m o r e m a t c h i n t h e s e r i e s ; a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a h e f e l l f o r a g o l d e n d u c k t a k i n g a " w i l d s w i n g " a t t h e f i r s t b a l l h e r e c e i v e d f r o m M a k h a y a N t i n i . F o l l o w i n g E n g l a n d ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n t o t h e f i n a l o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t , K e y w a s r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e s q u a d " t o h a v e s o m e m a t c h - p r a c t i c e i n t h e l o n g e r f o r m o f t h e g a m e a h e a d o f t h e T e s t s e r i e s " a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a . H o w e v e r , K e y d i d n o t m a k e a n a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e s e r i e s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e T e s t m a t c h s i d e a f t e r a n e x c e l l e n t s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 4 s e a s o n . H e r e a c h e d 1 , 0 0 0   r u n s f o r t h e s e a s o n b y 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d f o r 1 6 y e a r s , a n d h a d a r u n o f f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H o w e v e r , h i s l i m i t e d - o v e r s f o r m w a s n o t a s g o o d — h e p a s s e d f i f t y o n l y o n c e a l l s e a s o n . D e s p i t e t h i s , h e w a s c a l l e d i n t o t h e s q u a d f o r t h e N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a n d N e w Z e a l a n d . K e y ' s s e r i e s b e g a n w i t h t h e f i f t h m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a t H e a d i n g l e y . W i t h E n g l a n d c h a s i n g 1 6 0 t o w i n , K e y c a m e i n a t 5 5 f o r o n e , b u t s c o r e d j u s t s i x b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y D w a y n e B r a v o . H i s o n l y o t h e r a p p e a r a n c e c a m e a g a i n s t N e w Z e a l a n d t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e g r o u p s t a g e — K e y s c o r e d 1 8 a n d w a s p l a y i n g w e l l b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t b e h i n d . H i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e w a s e n s u r e d a f t e r M a r k B u t c h e r p u l l e d o u t , h a v i n g b e e n h i t f r o m b e h i n d i n h i s c a r a n d s u s t a i n i n g a w h i p l a s h i n j u r y . K e y t o o k t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , m o v i n g t o w a r d a m a i d e n T e s t c e n t u r y w i t h w h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s " p o w e r f u l d r i v i n g a n d p u l l i n g " . H e w a s d r o p p e d t w i c e — C h r i s G a y l e p a r r i e d a n o p p o r t u n i t y w i t h K e y o n 1 6 , w h i l e D e v o n S m i t h f a i l e d t o d i s m i s s h i m w h e n o n 5 8 . K e y m a i n t a i n e d h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t , e v e n a f t e r m e e t i n g t h e Q u e e n i n a p r e s e n t a t i o n d u r i n g t h e t e a i n t e r v a l . H e b r o u g h t u p h i s c e n t u r y w i t h a b o u n d a r y o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f F i d e l E d w a r d s , a n d b y t h e e n d o f t h e f i r s t d a y h a d r e a c h e d 1 6 7 n o t o u t . H e c o n t i n u e d p o s i t i v e l y o n t h e s e c o n d d a y , a n d b r o u g h t u p h i s m a i d e n d o u b l e c e n t u r y w i t h f o u r t h r o u g h s q u a r e l e g o f f P e d r o C o l l i n s . H e w a s e v e n t u a l l y d i s m i s s e d w h e n h e " s l a s h e d a w i d e b a l l t o B r i a n L a r a a t b a c k w a r d p o i n t " , h a v i n g m a d e 2 2 1 . I n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , h e w a s r u n o u t b y h i s c a p t a i n M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , w h o w e n t o n t o s c o r e h i s s e c o n d c e n t u r y o f t h e m a t c h . T h e s e c o n d T e s t s a w K e y s t r u g g l i n g i n t h e c o r r i d o r o f u n c e r t a i n t y , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h i g h l i g h t e d b y C o l l i n s , w h o b e a t t h e b a t o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s b e f o r e f i n d i n g t h e e d g e t o d i s m i s s h i m . H i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s l a s t e d j u s t s e v e n b a l l s b e f o r e K e y " c h i p p e d a s i m p l e c a t c h t o m i d - o n " , h a v i n g s c o r e d j u s t f o u r . K e y ' s m o s t v a l u a b l e i n n i n g s , a c c o r d i n g t o " W i s d e n " , c a m e i n t h e t h i r d T e s t . D e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g s i x r u n s i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , K e y c a m e t o t h e c r e a s e f o r h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s w i t h E n g l a n d r e q u i r i n g a n o t h e r 2 1 6   r u n s t o t a k e a 3 – 0 l e a d i n t h e s e r i e s . I n i t i a l l y b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , a n d t h e n w i t h A n d r e w F l i n t o f f , K e y s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 9 3 t o g u i d e E n g l a n d t o t h e i r t a r g e t , w h i c h w a s a r e c o r d f o u r t h i n n i n g s t o t a l t o w i n a n O l d T r a f f o r d T e s t . H i s s e r i e s c a m e t o a n e n d w h e n h e s c o r e d t e n r u n s , i n E n g l a n d ' s t e n - w i c k e t v i c t o r y i n t h e f i n a l T e s t . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h e s e r i e s a n d h i s d o m e s t i c f o r m e a r n e d h i m r e c o g n i t i o n — h e w a s n a m e d a s o n e o f t h e f i v e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s o f t h e Y e a r i n t h e 2 0 0 5 e d i t i o n . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s d u r i n g t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , K e y w a s t a k e n o n E n g l a n d ' s t o u r o f S o u t h A f r i c a o v e r t h e E n g l i s h c l o s e - s e a s o n . H o w e v e r , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r r e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o l l o w i n g i n j u r y , K e y l o s t h i s p l a c e . T h i s w a s d e s p i t e h i m s c o r i n g 8 7 i n a w a r m - u p g a m e a g a i n s t a N i c k y O p p e n h e i m e r X I , a m a t c h i n w h i c h B u t c h e r h a d s c o r e d j u s t s i x . R e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t a f t e r B u t c h e r h a d s u s t a i n e d a w r i s t i n j u r y , K e y m a d e a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e " d e f e n d i n g r e s o l u t e l y " i n a c c u m u l a t i n g 4 1 b e f o r e b e i n g s t u m p e d c h a r g i n g N i c k y B o j e . T h e f o u r t h T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e W a n d e r e r s , s a w K e y h i t 8 3 , i n a p a r t n e r s h i p o f 1 8 2 w i t h A n d r e w S t r a u s s t h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s i n c l u d i n g " h a r d - h i t t i n g s u p p o r t f r o m K e y " . H e a d d e d a f u r t h e r e i g h t e e n t o h i s m a t c h t a l l y i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , a c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h h e l p e d E n g l a n d t o a n e v e n t u a l v i c t o r y . K e y r e t u r n e d s i n g l e f i g u r e s c o r e s o f o n e a n d n i n e i n h i s t w o i n n i n g s i n t h e f i n a l T e s t , b e i n g d i s m i s s e d b y S h a u n P o l l o c k o n b o t h o c c a s i o n s i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d d r a w . K e y b r i e f l y r e t u r n e d t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r i c k e t f o r t h e 2 0 0 9 I C C W o r l d T w e n t y 2 0 c o m p e t i t i o n , p l a y i n g h i s o n l y T w e n t y 2 0 I n t e r n a t i o n a l m a t c h a g a i n s t t h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g t h e t o u r n a m e n t a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e i n j u r e d K e v i n P i e t e r s e n . H e s c o r e d 1 0 n o t o u t f r o m e i g h t b a l l s i n a m a t c h w h e r e t h e N e t h e r l a n d s s u c c e s s f u l l y c h a s e d t h e i r t a r g e t f r o m t h e f i n a l b a l l . R e c o r d s : T e s t c e n t u r i e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s :

International career

Robert Key is an English former cricketer who played for Kent County Cricket Club and the England national team. He made his Test debut in 2002 and played several matches for England until 2005. Key also represented England U-17 and U-19 teams, winning the 1998 Under-19 Cricket World Cup. He had a successful domestic career with Kent, serving as captain from 2006 to 2012. Key retired from professional cricket in 2016 and now works as a television pundit.

Glamorgan's seconds. Following on from those performances, Key joined the England Under-17 squad for the International Youth Tournament, which was being held in Bermuda. Key's growing reputation as a batsman was greatly enhanced by his performances in this tournament, where he finished with the second highest batting average of anyone at the tournament, scoring 184 runs at an average of 48. Key's performances helped England win the tournament by a single point from Ireland's Under-17s. Key returned to England for two matches with Kent's second team, before joining up with England's Under-19s for a youth Test series against Zimbabwe's under-19s. In the three Test series, Key made two half-centuries, earning himself a place in the squad for the 1998 Under-19 Cricket World Cup in South Africa. Batting at the top of the order throughout, Key scored a total of 206 runs as England won the tournament, with his best performance coming in the defeat to India, where Key scored 57. Following a first-class debut against Middlesex at the beginning of the 1998 season, in which Key scored 15, he proceeded to play a near-complete season. He scored his first first-class century against Durham, scoring 101 in an innings victory. He added a second century (115) against Nottinghamshire, before rejoining the England under-19 squad for the series against Pakistan under-19s. He struggled in the one-day series, scoring just 36 runs in three matches, but finished as the top run-scorer in the youth Tests; with 377 at an average of 62.83. The 1999 season began for Key with a call up to England A's tour of Zimbabwe through January and February. He struggled for runs throughout his five matches on the tour, failing to pass 26 in any innings. In all, Key managed one century in the calendar year, 125 against Somerset, and finished the year with 1,309 runs in all competitions. The 2000 season proved even more disappointing, with just 700 runs at an average of less than 20. The 2001 English cricket season saw Key's form improve, with him scoring four first-class centuries; including one against the touring Pakistanis. His highest score of the season and career to date would come in the final game—he scored 132 in a rain-affected match against Lancashire. His scoring throughout the season persuaded the national selectors to include and his second innings 93 not out to win the third Test for England. Following the series Key returned to the domestic scene, and finished the season with two further tons; 131 against both Northamptonshire and Middlesex. Following the winter international series in South Africa, Key returned to domestic action with Kent. While not having as successful a season as in the previous year, he still scored over 1,500 runs. This included two centuries in the same match against Surrey, during the second of which he shared a county third-wicket record partnership of 323 with Martin van Jaarsveld. At the end of the season, Key was named the new county captain following the resignation of David Fulton, a role he took on in order to help his chances at the start of the 2009 season. He went on to score 1,209 runs that season, with four centuries including a career-best 270 He announced his retirement from the game on 18 April 2016, citing his desire to not "hinder younger players [coming through]" and focus on coaching and his role with Sky Sports as a television pundit. Key made his Test match debut in the second Test against India in 2002, as a replacement for Marcus Trescothick, who had broken his thumb. Chairman of selectors David Graveney said Key was selected because of his "outstanding form for Kent after attending the National Academy" over the winter. Opening the batting with Michael Vaughan, Key made 17 runs in his only innings before being bowled by Ashish Nehra. Retained played one more match in the series; against South Africa he fell for a golden duck taking a "wild swing" at the first ball he received from Makhaya Ntini. Following England's qualification into the final of the tournament, Key was released from the squad "to have some match-practice in the longer form of the game ahead of the Test series" against South Africa. However, Key did not make an appearance in the series. Key returned to the Test match side after an excellent start to the 2004 season. He reached 1,000 runs for the season by 2 June, the earliest date the milestone had been reached for 16 years, and had a run of five centuries in seven innings. However, his limited-overs form was not as good—he passed sustained a wrist injury, Key made a duck in the first innings, before "defending resolutely" in accumulating 41 before being stumped charging Nicky Boje. The fourth Test, played at the Wanderers, saw Key hit 83, in a partnership of 182 with Andrew Strauss that "Wisden" described as including "hard-hitting support from Key". He added a further eighteen to his match tally in the second innings, a contribution which helped England to an eventual victory. Key returned single figure scores of one and nine in his two innings in the final Test, being dismissed by Shaun Pollock on both occasions in a rain-affected draw. Key briefly returned to international cricket for the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 competition, playing his only Twenty20 International match against the Netherlands during the tournament as a replacement for the injured Kevin Pietersen. He scored 10 not out from eight balls in a match where the Netherlands successfully chased their target from the final ball. Records: Test centuries: Career performances: Career performances:

Robert Key (cricketer)

B o r n i n E a s t D u l w i c h , L o n d o n , t o p a r e n t s T r e v o r a n d L y n n , K e y w a s r a i s e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y s p o r t i n g f a m i l y : h i s m o t h e r p l a y e d f o r K e n t ' s l a d i e s c r i c k e t s i d e , h i s f a t h e r p l a y e d c l u b c r i c k e t i n D e r b y a n d h i s s i s t e r E l i z a b e t h p l a y e d f o r h e r j u n i o r s c h o o l s i d e , w h e r e s h e o n c e t o o k a h a t - t r i c k . K e y h i m s e l f w a s a k e e n a l l - r o u n d s p o r t s m a n ; h e a l s o p l a y e d t e n n i s f o r K e n t . H e a t t e n d e d W o r s l e y B r i d g e P r i m a r y S c h o o l w h e r e t h e s c h o o l w o n b o t h t h e B r o m l e y a r e a a n d K e n t c r i c k e t C u p s . H i s p e r f o r m a n c e s l e d t o h i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e c o u n t y u n d e r - e l e v e n s , b e f o r e A l a n E a l h a m , c o a c h o f K e n t C o u n t y C r i c k e t C l u b ' s y o u t h s i d e s , b e c a m e h i s m e n t o r . L a t e r h e a t t e n d e d C o l f e ' s S c h o o l i n L e e , L o n d o n , a n d L a n g l e y P a r k S c h o o l f o r B o y s i n B e c k e n h a m , w h e r e h e p a s s e d t e n G C S E s . K e y h a s o f t e n b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r h i s w e i g h t , a n d a t o n e s t a g e e a r l y i n h i s c a r e e r w e i g h e d 1 6 s t o n e b e f o r e A l e c S t e w a r t t o l d h i m t o " b u c k h i s i d e a s u p " . K e y h i m s e l f s a i d o f t h e m a t t e r : " I ' l l n e v e r b e t h e m o s t a t h l e t i c - l o o k i n g b l o k e , b u t I ' m a h e l l o f a l o t f i t t e r t h a n I w a s a t 1 9 o r 2 0 . " K e y i s m a r r i e d t o F l e u r , w i t h w h o m h e h a s t w o c h i l d r e n . K e y p l a y e d h i s f i r s t m a t c h e s f o r K e n t ' s s e c o n d e l e v e n i n 1 9 9 5 , a t t h e a g e o f s i x t e e n . H e r e m a i n e d a r e g u l a r i n t h e s e c o n d t e a m t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 9 6 s e a s o n a n d f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 1 9 9 7 s e a s o n , b y w h i c h t i m e h e h a d h i t h i s f i r s t t w o c e n t u r i e s f o r a K e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i d e ; a n u n b e a t e n 1 4 6 a g a i n s t E s s e x ' s s e c o n d t e a m , a n d a n u n b e a t e n 1 3 9 a g a i n s t G l a m o r g a n ' s s e c o n d s . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m t h o s e p e r f o r m a n c e s , K e y j o i n e d t h e E n g l a n d U n d e r - 1 7 s q u a d f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Y o u t h T o u r n a m e n t , w h i c h w a s b e i n g h e l d i n B e r m u d a . K e y ' s g r o w i n g r e p u t a t i o n a s a b a t s m a n w a s g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d b y h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h i s t o u r n a m e n t , w h e r e h e f i n i s h e d w i t h t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t b a t t i n g a v e r a g e o f a n y o n e a t t h e t o u r n a m e n t , s c o r i n g 1 8 4 r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f 4 8 . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s h e l p e d E n g l a n d w i n t h e t o u r n a m e n t b y a s i n g l e p o i n t f r o m I r e l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 7 s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d f o r t w o m a t c h e s w i t h K e n t ' s s e c o n d t e a m , b e f o r e j o i n i n g u p w i t h E n g l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 9 s f o r a y o u t h T e s t s e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e ' s u n d e r - 1 9 s . I n t h e t h r e e T e s t s e r i e s , K e y m a d e t w o h a l f - c e n t u r i e s , e a r n i n g h i m s e l f a p l a c e i n t h e s q u a d f o r t h e 1 9 9 8 U n d e r - 1 9 C r i c k e t W o r l d C u p i n S o u t h A f r i c a . B a t t i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t , K e y s c o r e d a t o t a l o f 2 0 6   r u n s a s E n g l a n d w o n t h e t o u r n a m e n t , w i t h h i s b e s t p e r f o r m a n c e c o m i n g i n t h e d e f e a t t o I n d i a , w h e r e K e y s c o r e d 5 7 . F o l l o w i n g a f i r s t - c l a s s d e b u t a g a i n s t M i d d l e s e x a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 9 8 s e a s o n , i n w h i c h K e y s c o r e d 1 5 , h e p r o c e e d e d t o p l a y a n e a r - c o m p l e t e s e a s o n . H e s c o r e d h i s f i r s t f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r y a g a i n s t D u r h a m , s c o r i n g 1 0 1 i n a n i n n i n g s v i c t o r y . H e a d d e d a s e c o n d c e n t u r y ( 1 1 5 ) a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e , b e f o r e r e j o i n i n g t h e E n g l a n d u n d e r - 1 9 s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n u n d e r - 1 9 s . H e s t r u g g l e d i n t h e o n e - d a y s e r i e s , s c o r i n g j u s t 3 6   r u n s i n t h r e e m a t c h e s , b u t f i n i s h e d a s t h e t o p r u n - s c o r e r i n t h e y o u t h T e s t s ; w i t h 3 7 7 a t a n a v e r a g e o f 6 2 . 8 3 . T h e 1 9 9 9 s e a s o n b e g a n f o r K e y w i t h a c a l l u p t o E n g l a n d A ' s t o u r o f Z i m b a b w e t h r o u g h J a n u a r y a n d F e b r u a r y . H e s t r u g g l e d f o r r u n s t h r o u g h o u t h i s f i v e m a t c h e s o n t h e t o u r , f a i l i n g t o p a s s 2 6 i n a n y i n n i n g s . I n a l l , K e y m a n a g e d o n e c e n t u r y i n t h e c a l e n d a r y e a r , 1 2 5 a g a i n s t S o m e r s e t , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e y e a r w i t h 1 , 3 0 9   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h e 2 0 0 0 s e a s o n p r o v e d e v e n m o r e d i s a p p o i n t i n g , w i t h j u s t 7 0 0   r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f l e s s t h a n 2 0 . T h e 2 0 0 1 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y ' s f o r m i m p r o v e , w i t h h i m s c o r i n g f o u r f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r i e s ; i n c l u d i n g o n e a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g P a k i s t a n i s . H i s h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e s e a s o n a n d c a r e e r t o d a t e w o u l d c o m e i n t h e f i n a l g a m e — h e s c o r e d 1 3 2 i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d m a t c h a g a i n s t L a n c a s h i r e . H i s s c o r i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e a s o n p e r s u a d e d t h e n a t i o n a l s e l e c t o r s t o i n c l u d e h i m i n t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y , w h i c h w e n t o n a w i n t e r t o u r o f A u s t r a l i a , w h e r e h e s h o w e d h i s a b i l i t y w i t h a n i n n i n g s o f 1 7 7 a g a i n s t t h e s i d e ' s A u s t r a l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s g o o d f o r m i n t o 2 0 0 2 , w h e r e h i s r u n - s c o r i n g e a r n e d h i m a n i n v i t a t i o n t o p l a y f o r t h e M a r y l e b o n e C r i c k e t C l u b a g a i n s t t h e S r i L a n k a n s . H e s c o r e d 7 7 i n a d r a w n m a t c h , a n d w o u l d l a t e r t h a t s e a s o n m a k e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t a g a i n s t I n d i a . H o w e v e r , f o l l o w i n g h i s T e s t d e b u t , h e o n l y p a s s e d 5 0 o n o n e f u r t h e r o c c a s i o n t h a t y e a r . H e w o u l d m a i n t a i n h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , d e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g o n e i n n i n g s o f n o t e — 1 2 9 a g a i n s t t h e C a m b r i d g e s t u d e n t s . H o w e v e r , a f t e r b e i n g d r o p p e d f r o m t h e s i d e , K e y ' s f o r m s e e m e d t o i m p r o v e : h e s c o r e d 1 4 0 a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e t o s e t u p a K e n t v i c t o r y , a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y s c o r e d a r o u n d 4 0   r u n s p e r i n n i n g s f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s e a s o n . T h e 2 0 0 4 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y h i t t o p f o r m f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , s c o r i n g a t o t a l o f 2 , 4 8 6   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h i s t o t a l i n c l u d e d a " m a j e s t i c " u n b e a t e n 1 1 8 i n t h e o p e n i n g g a m e o f t h e s e a s o n a g a i n s t G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e , d u r i n g w h i c h K e y d i d n o t o f f e r a s i n g l e c h a n c e t h r o u g h o u t . H e r e a c h e d t h e t h o u s a n d r u n m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e s e a s o n o n 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d s i n c e 1 9 7 8 , a n d w e n t o n a r u n t h a t i n c l u d e d f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H e w a s t h e n r e c a l l e d t o t h e E n g l a n d s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , a n d K e y p l a y e d t w o k e y i n n i n g s : 2 2 1 a t L o r d ' s , a n d h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s 9 3 n o t o u t t o w i n t h e t h i r d T e s t f o r E n g l a n d . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e r i e s K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e d o m e s t i c s c e n e , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e s e a s o n w i t h t w o f u r t h e r t o n s ; 1 3 1 a g a i n s t b o t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a n d M i d d l e s e x . F o l l o w i n g t h e w i n t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e r i e s i n S o u t h A f r i c a , K e y r e t u r n e d t o d o m e s t i c a c t i o n w i t h K e n t . W h i l e n o t h a v i n g a s s u c c e s s f u l a s e a s o n a s i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r , h e s t i l l s c o r e d o v e r 1 , 5 0 0   r u n s . T h i s i n c l u d e d t w o c e n t u r i e s i n t h e s a m e m a t c h a g a i n s t S u r r e y , d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d o f w h i c h h e s h a r e d a c o u n t y t h i r d - w i c k e t r e c o r d p a r t n e r s h i p o f 3 2 3 w i t h M a r t i n v a n J a a r s v e l d . A t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n , K e y w a s n a m e d t h e n e w c o u n t y c a p t a i n f o l l o w i n g t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f D a v i d F u l t o n , a r o l e h e t o o k o n i n o r d e r t o h e l p h i s c h a n c e s o f r e g a i n i n g a p l a c e i n t h e E n g l a n d s i d e . H i s f i r s t s e a s o n a s c a p t a i n s a w h i s f o r m s l i d e , a s K e n t ' s c h a i r m a n o f c r i c k e t G r a h a m J o h n s o n r e l a t e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n : " H i s c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e t e a m h a s p r o b a b l y i m p a c t e d o n h i s o w n f o r m " . N o n e t h e l e s s , h e w a s g i v e n t h e c a p t a i n c y o f t h e E n g l a n d A t e a m i n t h e i r f i x t u r e a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n , a n d l e d K e n t t o f i f t h p l a c e i n t h e t o p t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p . T h e f o l l o w i n g s e a s o n s a w K e y l e a d K e n t t o s i l v e r w a r e , w h i l s t r e t u r n i n g t o s o m e o f h i s b e s t f o r m . H e s t r u c k a t o t a l o f e i g h t c e n t u r i e s , a n d a m a s s e d a t o t a l o f 2 , 2 6 7 r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s , w h i l s t a l s o l e a d i n g K e n t t o t h e f i n a l s d a y o f t h e 2 0 0 7 T w e n t y 2 0 C u p , i n w h i c h K e n t d e f e a t e d S u s s e x a n d G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e t o c l a i m t h e t r o p h y . H o w e v e r , K e y w a s l a t e r f o u n d g u i l t y o f " s e r i o u s d i s s e n t " f o l l o w i n g h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l d i s m i s s a l i n t h e f i n a l . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s r u n - s c o r i n g i n t o 2 0 0 8 , w h e r e h e s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 1 7 8 a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g N e w Z e a l a n d e r s t o " l i f t h i m s e l f f i r m l y i n t o t h e T e s t r e c k o n i n g " . F o l l o w i n g M i c h a e l V a u g h a n ' s r e s i g n a t i o n a s E n g l a n d c a p t a i n , K e y w a s t o u t e d b y t h e s o m e i n t h e m e d i a a s a p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e j o b . H o w e v e r , t h e s e a s o n e n d e d b a d l y f o r K e y , a s u n d e r h i s c a p t a i n c y K e n t w e r e r e l e g a t e d t o t h e s e c o n d t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , w i t h K e y a l s o b e i n g f i n e d £ 1 , 2 5 0 f o r c o m m e n t s h e m a d e o v e r a n E C B p i t c h p a n e l d e c i s i o n i n A u g u s t . K e y t o o k h i s f i r s t w i c k e t i n f i r s t - c l a s s c r i c k e t o n t h e f i n a l d a y o f K e n t ' s d r a w w i t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e 2 0 0 9 s e a s o n . H e w e n t o n t o s c o r e 1 , 2 0 9 r u n s t h a t s e a s o n , w i t h f o u r c e n t u r i e s i n c l u d i n g a c a r e e r - b e s t 2 7 0 H e a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m t h e g a m e o n 1 8 A p r i l 2 0 1 6 , c i t i n g h i s d e s i r e t o n o t " h i n d e r y o u n g e r p l a y e r s [ c o m i n g t h r o u g h ] " a n d f o c u s o n c o a c h i n g a n d h i s r o l e w i t h S k y S p o r t s a s a t e l e v i s i o n p u n d i t . K e y m a d e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t i n t h e s e c o n d T e s t a g a i n s t I n d i a i n 2 0 0 2 , a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r M a r c u s T r e s c o t h i c k , w h o h a d b r o k e n h i s t h u m b . C h a i r m a n o f s e l e c t o r s D a v i d G r a v e n e y s a i d K e y w a s s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f h i s " o u t s t a n d i n g f o r m f o r K e n t a f t e r a t t e n d i n g t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y " o v e r t h e w i n t e r . O p e n i n g t h e b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , K e y m a d e 1 7 r u n s i n h i s o n l y i n n i n g s b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y A s h i s h N e h r a . R e t a i n e d i n t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t , K e y m a n a g e d s c o r e s o f 3 0 a n d 3 4 a s E n g l a n d s u c c u m b e d t o a n i n n i n g s d e f e a t . H o w e v e r , h i s p e r f o r m a n c e w a s m a r r e d b y h i m d r o p p i n g t h r e e c a t c h e s . K e y w a s d r o p p e d f r o m t h e f o u r t h a n d f i n a l T e s t , w i t h T r e s c o t h i c k r e p l a c i n g h i m h a v i n g b e e n r u s h e d b a c k f r o m i n j u r y . A f t e r s u c c e s s i n d o m e s t i c c r i c k e t a n d p r o m i s e s h o w n i n h i s T e s t a p p e a r a n c e s p r e v i o u s l y , K e y w a s s e l e c t e d a s p a r t o f t h e s q u a d t o p l a y A u s t r a l i a . D e s p i t e p l a y i n g w e l l i n a l i m i t e d o v e r s m a t c h a g a i n s t a n A C B C h a i r m a n ' s X I ; h i t t i n g 6 8 , h e w a s n o t s e l e c t e d t o p l a y i n t h e f i r s t T e s t , i n s t e a d a c t i n g a s t w e l f t h m a n . H e e n d e d u p f i e l d i n g t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n h e w o u l d h a v e i m a g i n e d , a f t e r S i m o n J o n e s r u p t u r e d k n e e l i g a m e n t s w h i l e f i e l d i n g , a n d t o o k n o f u r t h e r p a r t i n t h e m a t c h . B r o u g h t b a c k i n t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e s e c o n d T e s t f o r t h e i n j u r e d J o h n C r a w l e y , K e y m a d e a s o l i t a r y r u n i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b a t t i n g a t n u m b e r t h r e e , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f S h a n e W a r n e j u s t a f t e r t h e l u n c h b r e a k . R e l e g a t e d t o n u m b e r f i v e i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r a n d N a s s e r H u s s a i n b a t t i n g a h e a d o f h i m , h e a g a i n m a d e j u s t o n e b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f A n d y B i c h e l . K e y f a r e d b e t t e r i n t h e t h i r d m a t c h , p l a y e d a t t h e W A C A G r o u n d i n P e r t h . O n a p i t c h w i t h " e x c e p t i o n a l b o u n c e a n d p a c e " , K e y w a s t h e o n l y E n g l i s h b a t s m a n t o k e e p h i s w i c k e t i n t a c t f o r a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d , b a t t i n g p a s s i v e l y f o r 4 7 , t h e h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e i n n i n g s . H e t h e n c a u g h t B r e t t L e e a t t h i r d m a n i n A u s t r a l i a ' s o n l y i n n i n g s , b e f o r e o f f e r i n g H u s s a i n " s t o u t s u p p o r t " i n m a k i n g 2 3 s e c o n d t i m e a r o u n d . E n g l a n d l o s t t h e T e s t m a t c h b y a n i n n i n g s a n d 4 8 r u n s , a r e s u l t t h a t e n s u r e d t h a t A u s t r a l i a r e t a i n e d t h e A s h e s . F o l l o w i n g a b r e a k f o r t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e V B S e r i e s o f O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l s , E n g l a n d m o v e d t o M e l b o u r n e f o r t h e f o u r t h T e s t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r K e y , h e f e l l f o r a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , t r a p p e d l e g b e f o r e w i c k e t ( l b w ) s e c o n d b a l l b y f a s t b o w l e r B r e t t L e e . W i t h E n g l a n d f o l l o w i n g o n , K e y m a d e a m a i d e n h a l f - c e n t u r y t o e n s u r e A u s t r a l i a h a d t o b a t a g a i n . H e e v e n t u a l l y f e l l j u s t a f t e r t h e n e w b a l l w a s t a k e n , c a u g h t a t s e c o n d s l i p f o r 5 2 . T h e f i n a l T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e S y d n e y C r i c k e t G r o u n d , s a w E n g l a n d a t t e m p t i n g t o a v o i d a s e r i e s w h i t e w a s h . K e y s c o r e d t h r e e r u n s i n E n g l a n d ' s f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e f a l l i n g l b w t o a n i n n o c u o u s h a l f - v o l l e y f r o m S t e v e W a u g h , p l a y i n g i n h i s l a s t A s h e s T e s t . H e s c o r e d 1 4 i n h i s f i n a l i n n i n g s o f t h e t o u r , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t a t m i d w i c k e t , h o w e v e r E n g l a n d h a d n e a r l y 3 5 0 r u n s o n t h e b o a r d b y t h a t s t a g e a n d w e r e o n t r a c k t o c o m p l e t e a c o n s o l a t o r y v i c t o r y . T h e 2 0 0 4 e d i t i o n o f t h e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s ' A l m a n a c k r e c o r d e d t h a t K e y h a d " j u s t i f i e d h i s s e l e c t i o n a h e a d o f a n o l d e r p l a y e r , l i k e M a r k R a m p r a k a s h , b u t d i d n o t c e m e n t h i s p l a c e " . D e s p i t e a l o w - s c o r i n g s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 3 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n , i n w h i c h h e p a s s e d 4 0 o n l y o n c e i n h i s f i r s t s e v e n i n n i n g s o f t h e s e a s o n , h e k e p t h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e f o r t h e v i s i t o f t h e t o u r i n g Z i m b a b w e a n s . B a t t i n g a t n u m b e r f i v e i n b o t h T e s t s , K e y f a i l e d t o m a k e m u c h o f a n i m p a c t , s c o r i n g 1 8 r u n s i n t h e f i r s t m a t c h a n d f o u r i n t h e s e c o n d . H e h a d r e a s o n t o f e e l a g g r i e v e d a t h i s f i r s t T e s t d i s m i s s a l — u m p i r e S t e v e B u c k n o r g a v e h i m o u t c a u g h t b e h i n d , d e s p i t e K e y n o t h i t t i n g t h e b a l l . H i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( O D I ) s q u a d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e a n d S o u t h A f r i c a o w e d m o r e t o t h e l a c k o f a v a i l a b l e p l a y e r s t h a n h i s o w n f o r m ; h e h a d o n l y p a s s e d 4 0 o n o n e o c c a s i o n g o i n g i n t o t h e s e r i e s . K e y m a d e h i s O D I d e b u t a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e i n t h e o p e n i n g m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; h e s c o r e d 1 1 b e f o r e f a l l i n g t o t h e l e f t - a r m s p i n o f R a y P r i c e . K e y o n l y p l a y e d o n e m o r e m a t c h i n t h e s e r i e s ; a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a h e f e l l f o r a g o l d e n d u c k t a k i n g a " w i l d s w i n g " a t t h e f i r s t b a l l h e r e c e i v e d f r o m M a k h a y a N t i n i . F o l l o w i n g E n g l a n d ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n t o t h e f i n a l o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t , K e y w a s r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e s q u a d " t o h a v e s o m e m a t c h - p r a c t i c e i n t h e l o n g e r f o r m o f t h e g a m e a h e a d o f t h e T e s t s e r i e s " a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a . H o w e v e r , K e y d i d n o t m a k e a n a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e s e r i e s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e T e s t m a t c h s i d e a f t e r a n e x c e l l e n t s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 4 s e a s o n . H e r e a c h e d 1 , 0 0 0   r u n s f o r t h e s e a s o n b y 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d f o r 1 6 y e a r s , a n d h a d a r u n o f f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H o w e v e r , h i s l i m i t e d - o v e r s f o r m w a s n o t a s g o o d — h e p a s s e d f i f t y o n l y o n c e a l l s e a s o n . D e s p i t e t h i s , h e w a s c a l l e d i n t o t h e s q u a d f o r t h e N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a n d N e w Z e a l a n d . K e y ' s s e r i e s b e g a n w i t h t h e f i f t h m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a t H e a d i n g l e y . W i t h E n g l a n d c h a s i n g 1 6 0 t o w i n , K e y c a m e i n a t 5 5 f o r o n e , b u t s c o r e d j u s t s i x b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y D w a y n e B r a v o . H i s o n l y o t h e r a p p e a r a n c e c a m e a g a i n s t N e w Z e a l a n d t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e g r o u p s t a g e — K e y s c o r e d 1 8 a n d w a s p l a y i n g w e l l b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t b e h i n d . H i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e w a s e n s u r e d a f t e r M a r k B u t c h e r p u l l e d o u t , h a v i n g b e e n h i t f r o m b e h i n d i n h i s c a r a n d s u s t a i n i n g a w h i p l a s h i n j u r y . K e y t o o k t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , m o v i n g t o w a r d a m a i d e n T e s t c e n t u r y w i t h w h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s " p o w e r f u l d r i v i n g a n d p u l l i n g " . H e w a s d r o p p e d t w i c e — C h r i s G a y l e p a r r i e d a n o p p o r t u n i t y w i t h K e y o n 1 6 , w h i l e D e v o n S m i t h f a i l e d t o d i s m i s s h i m w h e n o n 5 8 . K e y m a i n t a i n e d h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t , e v e n a f t e r m e e t i n g t h e Q u e e n i n a p r e s e n t a t i o n d u r i n g t h e t e a i n t e r v a l . H e b r o u g h t u p h i s c e n t u r y w i t h a b o u n d a r y o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f F i d e l E d w a r d s , a n d b y t h e e n d o f t h e f i r s t d a y h a d r e a c h e d 1 6 7 n o t o u t . H e c o n t i n u e d p o s i t i v e l y o n t h e s e c o n d d a y , a n d b r o u g h t u p h i s m a i d e n d o u b l e c e n t u r y w i t h f o u r t h r o u g h s q u a r e l e g o f f P e d r o C o l l i n s . H e w a s e v e n t u a l l y d i s m i s s e d w h e n h e " s l a s h e d a w i d e b a l l t o B r i a n L a r a a t b a c k w a r d p o i n t " , h a v i n g m a d e 2 2 1 . I n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , h e w a s r u n o u t b y h i s c a p t a i n M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , w h o w e n t o n t o s c o r e h i s s e c o n d c e n t u r y o f t h e m a t c h . T h e s e c o n d T e s t s a w K e y s t r u g g l i n g i n t h e c o r r i d o r o f u n c e r t a i n t y , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h i g h l i g h t e d b y C o l l i n s , w h o b e a t t h e b a t o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s b e f o r e f i n d i n g t h e e d g e t o d i s m i s s h i m . H i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s l a s t e d j u s t s e v e n b a l l s b e f o r e K e y " c h i p p e d a s i m p l e c a t c h t o m i d - o n " , h a v i n g s c o r e d j u s t f o u r . K e y ' s m o s t v a l u a b l e i n n i n g s , a c c o r d i n g t o " W i s d e n " , c a m e i n t h e t h i r d T e s t . D e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g s i x r u n s i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , K e y c a m e t o t h e c r e a s e f o r h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s w i t h E n g l a n d r e q u i r i n g a n o t h e r 2 1 6   r u n s t o t a k e a 3 – 0 l e a d i n t h e s e r i e s . I n i t i a l l y b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , a n d t h e n w i t h A n d r e w F l i n t o f f , K e y s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 9 3 t o g u i d e E n g l a n d t o t h e i r t a r g e t , w h i c h w a s a r e c o r d f o u r t h i n n i n g s t o t a l t o w i n a n O l d T r a f f o r d T e s t . H i s s e r i e s c a m e t o a n e n d w h e n h e s c o r e d t e n r u n s , i n E n g l a n d ' s t e n - w i c k e t v i c t o r y i n t h e f i n a l T e s t . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h e s e r i e s a n d h i s d o m e s t i c f o r m e a r n e d h i m r e c o g n i t i o n — h e w a s n a m e d a s o n e o f t h e f i v e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s o f t h e Y e a r i n t h e 2 0 0 5 e d i t i o n . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s d u r i n g t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , K e y w a s t a k e n o n E n g l a n d ' s t o u r o f S o u t h A f r i c a o v e r t h e E n g l i s h c l o s e - s e a s o n . H o w e v e r , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r r e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o l l o w i n g i n j u r y , K e y l o s t h i s p l a c e . T h i s w a s d e s p i t e h i m s c o r i n g 8 7 i n a w a r m - u p g a m e a g a i n s t a N i c k y O p p e n h e i m e r X I , a m a t c h i n w h i c h B u t c h e r h a d s c o r e d j u s t s i x . R e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t a f t e r B u t c h e r h a d s u s t a i n e d a w r i s t i n j u r y , K e y m a d e a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e " d e f e n d i n g r e s o l u t e l y " i n a c c u m u l a t i n g 4 1 b e f o r e b e i n g s t u m p e d c h a r g i n g N i c k y B o j e . T h e f o u r t h T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e W a n d e r e r s , s a w K e y h i t 8 3 , i n a p a r t n e r s h i p o f 1 8 2 w i t h A n d r e w S t r a u s s t h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s i n c l u d i n g " h a r d - h i t t i n g s u p p o r t f r o m K e y " . H e a d d e d a f u r t h e r e i g h t e e n t o h i s m a t c h t a l l y i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , a c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h h e l p e d E n g l a n d t o a n e v e n t u a l v i c t o r y . K e y r e t u r n e d s i n g l e f i g u r e s c o r e s o f o n e a n d n i n e i n h i s t w o i n n i n g s i n t h e f i n a l T e s t , b e i n g d i s m i s s e d b y S h a u n P o l l o c k o n b o t h o c c a s i o n s i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d d r a w . K e y b r i e f l y r e t u r n e d t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r i c k e t f o r t h e 2 0 0 9 I C C W o r l d T w e n t y 2 0 c o m p e t i t i o n , p l a y i n g h i s o n l y T w e n t y 2 0 I n t e r n a t i o n a l m a t c h a g a i n s t t h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g t h e t o u r n a m e n t a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e i n j u r e d K e v i n P i e t e r s e n . H e s c o r e d 1 0 n o t o u t f r o m e i g h t b a l l s i n a m a t c h w h e r e t h e N e t h e r l a n d s s u c c e s s f u l l y c h a s e d t h e i r t a r g e t f r o m t h e f i n a l b a l l . R e c o r d s : T e s t c e n t u r i e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s :

International career ; India in England, 2002

Robert Key is a former English cricketer who played for Kent County Cricket Club and the England national team. Born on May 2, 1979, Key started playing cricket at a young age and quickly rose through the ranks. He made his first-class debut for Kent in 1998 and went on to play for the England Under-19 team, helping them win the 1998 Under-19 Cricket World Cup. Key's impressive form earned him a call-up to the England A team and eventually the senior team, making his Test debut against India in 2002. Throughout his career, Key scored over 18,000 runs in first-class cricket, including 43 centuries, and captained Kent to several victories. He retired from professional cricket in 2016 and now works as a television pundit and coach.

Glamorgan's seconds. Following on from those performances, Key joined the England Under-17 squad for the International Youth Tournament, which was being held in Bermuda. Key's growing reputation as a batsman was greatly enhanced by his performances in this tournament, where he finished with the second highest batting average of anyone at the tournament, scoring 184 runs at an average of 48. Key's performances helped England win the tournament by a single point from Ireland's Under-17s. Key returned to England for two matches with Kent's second team, before joining up with England's Under-19s for a youth Test series against Zimbabwe's under-19s. In the three Test series, Key made two half-centuries, earning himself a place in the squad for the 1998 Under-19 Cricket World Cup in South Africa. Batting at the top of the order throughout, Key scored a total of 206 runs as England won the tournament, with his best performance coming in the defeat to India, where Key scored 57. Following a first-class debut against Middlesex at the beginning of the 1998 season, in which Key scored 15, he proceeded to play a near-complete season. He scored his first first-class century against Durham, scoring 101 in an innings victory. He added a second century (115) against Nottinghamshire, before rejoining the England under-19 squad for the series against Pakistan under-19s. He struggled in the one-day series, scoring just 36 runs in three matches, but finished as the top run-scorer in the youth Tests; with 377 at an average of 62.83. The 1999 season began for Key with a call up to England A's tour of Zimbabwe through January and February. He struggled for runs throughout his five matches on the tour, failing to pass 26 in any innings. In all, Key managed one century in the calendar year, 125 against Somerset, and finished the year with 1,309 runs in all competitions. The 2000 season proved even more disappointing, with just 700 runs at an average of less than 20. The 2001 English cricket season saw Key's form improve, with him scoring four first-class centuries; including one against the touring Pakistanis. His highest score of the season and career to date would come in the final game—he scored 132 in a rain-affected match against Lancashire. His scoring throughout the season persuaded the national selectors to include him in the National Academy, which went on a winter tour of Australia, where he showed his ability with an innings of 177 against the side's Australian counterparts. He continued his good form into 2002, where his run-scoring earned him an invitation to play for the Marylebone Cricket Club against the Sri Lankans. He scored 77 in a drawn match, and would later that season make his Test match debut against India. However, following his Test debut, he only passed 50 on one further occasion that year. He would maintain his place in the Test side against Zimbabwe the following year, despite only scoring one innings of note—129 against the Cambridge students. However, after being dropped from the side, Key's form seemed to improve: he scored 140 against Nottinghamshire to set up a Kent victory, and consistently scored around 40 runs per innings for the remainder of the season. The 2004 English cricket season saw Key hit top form for the first time, scoring a total of 2,486 runs in all competitions. This total included a "majestic" unbeaten 118 in the opening game of the season against Gloucestershire, during which Key did not offer a single chance throughout. He reached the thousand run milestone for the season on 2 June, the earliest date the milestone had been reached since 1978, and went on a run that included five centuries in seven innings. He was then recalled to the England squad for the series against the West Indies, and Key played two key innings: 221 at Lord's, and his second innings 93 not out to win the third Test for England. Following the series Key returned to the domestic scene, and finished the season with two further tons; 131 against both Northamptonshire and Middlesex. Following the winter international series in South Africa, Key returned to domestic action with Kent. While not having as successful a season as in the previous year, he still scored over 1,500 runs. This included two centuries in the same match against Surrey, during the second of which he shared a county third-wicket record partnership of 323 with Martin van Jaarsveld. At the end of the season, Key was named the new county captain following the resignation of David Fulton, a role he took on in order to help his chances of regaining a place in the England side. His first season as captain saw his form slide, as Kent's chairman of cricket Graham Johnson related at the end of the season: "His commitment to the team has probably impacted on his own form". Nonetheless, he was given the captaincy of the England A team in their fixture against Pakistan, and led Kent to fifth place in the top tier of the County Championship. The following season saw Key lead Kent to silverware, whilst returning to some of his best form. He struck a total of eight centuries, and amassed a total of 2,267 runs in all competitions, whilst also leading Kent to the finals day of the 2007 Twenty20 Cup, in which Kent defeated Sussex and Gloucestershire to at the start of the 2009 season. He went on to score 1,209 runs that season, with four centuries including a career-best 270 He announced his retirement from the game on 18 April 2016, citing his desire to not "hinder younger players [coming through]" and focus on coaching and his role with Sky Sports as a television pundit. Key made his Test match debut in the second Test against India in 2002, as a replacement for Marcus Trescothick, who had broken his thumb. Chairman of selectors David Graveney said Key was selected because of his "outstanding form for Kent after attending the National Academy" over the winter. Opening the batting with Michael Vaughan, Key made 17 runs in his only innings before being bowled by Ashish Nehra. Retained

Robert Key (cricketer)

B o r n i n E a s t D u l w i c h , L o n d o n , t o p a r e n t s T r e v o r a n d L y n n , K e y w a s r a i s e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y s p o r t i n g f a m i l y : h i s m o t h e r p l a y e d f o r K e n t ' s l a d i e s c r i c k e t s i d e , h i s f a t h e r p l a y e d c l u b c r i c k e t i n D e r b y a n d h i s s i s t e r E l i z a b e t h p l a y e d f o r h e r j u n i o r s c h o o l s i d e , w h e r e s h e o n c e t o o k a h a t - t r i c k . K e y h i m s e l f w a s a k e e n a l l - r o u n d s p o r t s m a n ; h e a l s o p l a y e d t e n n i s f o r K e n t . H e a t t e n d e d W o r s l e y B r i d g e P r i m a r y S c h o o l w h e r e t h e s c h o o l w o n b o t h t h e B r o m l e y a r e a a n d K e n t c r i c k e t C u p s . H i s p e r f o r m a n c e s l e d t o h i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e c o u n t y u n d e r - e l e v e n s , b e f o r e A l a n E a l h a m , c o a c h o f K e n t C o u n t y C r i c k e t C l u b ' s y o u t h s i d e s , b e c a m e h i s m e n t o r . L a t e r h e a t t e n d e d C o l f e ' s S c h o o l i n L e e , L o n d o n , a n d L a n g l e y P a r k S c h o o l f o r B o y s i n B e c k e n h a m , w h e r e h e p a s s e d t e n G C S E s . K e y h a s o f t e n b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r h i s w e i g h t , a n d a t o n e s t a g e e a r l y i n h i s c a r e e r w e i g h e d 1 6 s t o n e b e f o r e A l e c S t e w a r t t o l d h i m t o " b u c k h i s i d e a s u p " . K e y h i m s e l f s a i d o f t h e m a t t e r : " I ' l l n e v e r b e t h e m o s t a t h l e t i c - l o o k i n g b l o k e , b u t I ' m a h e l l o f a l o t f i t t e r t h a n I w a s a t 1 9 o r 2 0 . " K e y i s m a r r i e d t o F l e u r , w i t h w h o m h e h a s t w o c h i l d r e n . K e y p l a y e d h i s f i r s t m a t c h e s f o r K e n t ' s s e c o n d e l e v e n i n 1 9 9 5 , a t t h e a g e o f s i x t e e n . H e r e m a i n e d a r e g u l a r i n t h e s e c o n d t e a m t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 9 6 s e a s o n a n d f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 1 9 9 7 s e a s o n , b y w h i c h t i m e h e h a d h i t h i s f i r s t t w o c e n t u r i e s f o r a K e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i d e ; a n u n b e a t e n 1 4 6 a g a i n s t E s s e x ' s s e c o n d t e a m , a n d a n u n b e a t e n 1 3 9 a g a i n s t G l a m o r g a n ' s s e c o n d s . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m t h o s e p e r f o r m a n c e s , K e y j o i n e d t h e E n g l a n d U n d e r - 1 7 s q u a d f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Y o u t h T o u r n a m e n t , w h i c h w a s b e i n g h e l d i n B e r m u d a . K e y ' s g r o w i n g r e p u t a t i o n a s a b a t s m a n w a s g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d b y h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h i s t o u r n a m e n t , w h e r e h e f i n i s h e d w i t h t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t b a t t i n g a v e r a g e o f a n y o n e a t t h e t o u r n a m e n t , s c o r i n g 1 8 4 r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f 4 8 . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s h e l p e d E n g l a n d w i n t h e t o u r n a m e n t b y a s i n g l e p o i n t f r o m I r e l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 7 s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d f o r t w o m a t c h e s w i t h K e n t ' s s e c o n d t e a m , b e f o r e j o i n i n g u p w i t h E n g l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 9 s f o r a y o u t h T e s t s e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e ' s u n d e r - 1 9 s . I n t h e t h r e e T e s t s e r i e s , K e y m a d e t w o h a l f - c e n t u r i e s , e a r n i n g h i m s e l f a p l a c e i n t h e s q u a d f o r t h e 1 9 9 8 U n d e r - 1 9 C r i c k e t W o r l d C u p i n S o u t h A f r i c a . B a t t i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t , K e y s c o r e d a t o t a l o f 2 0 6   r u n s a s E n g l a n d w o n t h e t o u r n a m e n t , w i t h h i s b e s t p e r f o r m a n c e c o m i n g i n t h e d e f e a t t o I n d i a , w h e r e K e y s c o r e d 5 7 . F o l l o w i n g a f i r s t - c l a s s d e b u t a g a i n s t M i d d l e s e x a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 9 8 s e a s o n , i n w h i c h K e y s c o r e d 1 5 , h e p r o c e e d e d t o p l a y a n e a r - c o m p l e t e s e a s o n . H e s c o r e d h i s f i r s t f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r y a g a i n s t D u r h a m , s c o r i n g 1 0 1 i n a n i n n i n g s v i c t o r y . H e a d d e d a s e c o n d c e n t u r y ( 1 1 5 ) a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e , b e f o r e r e j o i n i n g t h e E n g l a n d u n d e r - 1 9 s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n u n d e r - 1 9 s . H e s t r u g g l e d i n t h e o n e - d a y s e r i e s , s c o r i n g j u s t 3 6   r u n s i n t h r e e m a t c h e s , b u t f i n i s h e d a s t h e t o p r u n - s c o r e r i n t h e y o u t h T e s t s ; w i t h 3 7 7 a t a n a v e r a g e o f 6 2 . 8 3 . T h e 1 9 9 9 s e a s o n b e g a n f o r K e y w i t h a c a l l u p t o E n g l a n d A ' s t o u r o f Z i m b a b w e t h r o u g h J a n u a r y a n d F e b r u a r y . H e s t r u g g l e d f o r r u n s t h r o u g h o u t h i s f i v e m a t c h e s o n t h e t o u r , f a i l i n g t o p a s s 2 6 i n a n y i n n i n g s . I n a l l , K e y m a n a g e d o n e c e n t u r y i n t h e c a l e n d a r y e a r , 1 2 5 a g a i n s t S o m e r s e t , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e y e a r w i t h 1 , 3 0 9   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h e 2 0 0 0 s e a s o n p r o v e d e v e n m o r e d i s a p p o i n t i n g , w i t h j u s t 7 0 0   r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f l e s s t h a n 2 0 . T h e 2 0 0 1 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y ' s f o r m i m p r o v e , w i t h h i m s c o r i n g f o u r f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r i e s ; i n c l u d i n g o n e a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g P a k i s t a n i s . H i s h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e s e a s o n a n d c a r e e r t o d a t e w o u l d c o m e i n t h e f i n a l g a m e — h e s c o r e d 1 3 2 i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d m a t c h a g a i n s t L a n c a s h i r e . H i s s c o r i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e a s o n p e r s u a d e d t h e n a t i o n a l s e l e c t o r s t o i n c l u d e h i m i n t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y , w h i c h w e n t o n a w i n t e r t o u r o f A u s t r a l i a , w h e r e h e s h o w e d h i s a b i l i t y w i t h a n i n n i n g s o f 1 7 7 a g a i n s t t h e s i d e ' s A u s t r a l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s g o o d f o r m i n t o 2 0 0 2 , w h e r e h i s r u n - s c o r i n g e a r n e d h i m a n i n v i t a t i o n t o p l a y f o r t h e M a r y l e b o n e C r i c k e t C l u b a g a i n s t t h e S r i L a n k a n s . H e s c o r e d 7 7 i n a d r a w n m a t c h , a n d w o u l d l a t e r t h a t s e a s o n m a k e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t a g a i n s t I n d i a . H o w e v e r , f o l l o w i n g h i s T e s t d e b u t , h e o n l y p a s s e d 5 0 o n o n e f u r t h e r o c c a s i o n t h a t y e a r . H e w o u l d m a i n t a i n h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , d e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g o n e i n n i n g s o f n o t e — 1 2 9 a g a i n s t t h e C a m b r i d g e s t u d e n t s . H o w e v e r , a f t e r b e i n g d r o p p e d f r o m t h e s i d e , K e y ' s f o r m s e e m e d t o i m p r o v e : h e s c o r e d 1 4 0 a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e t o s e t u p a K e n t v i c t o r y , a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y s c o r e d a r o u n d 4 0   r u n s p e r i n n i n g s f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s e a s o n . T h e 2 0 0 4 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y h i t t o p f o r m f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , s c o r i n g a t o t a l o f 2 , 4 8 6   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h i s t o t a l i n c l u d e d a " m a j e s t i c " u n b e a t e n 1 1 8 i n t h e o p e n i n g g a m e o f t h e s e a s o n a g a i n s t G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e , d u r i n g w h i c h K e y d i d n o t o f f e r a s i n g l e c h a n c e t h r o u g h o u t . H e r e a c h e d t h e t h o u s a n d r u n m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e s e a s o n o n 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d s i n c e 1 9 7 8 , a n d w e n t o n a r u n t h a t i n c l u d e d f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H e w a s t h e n r e c a l l e d t o t h e E n g l a n d s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , a n d K e y p l a y e d t w o k e y i n n i n g s : 2 2 1 a t L o r d ' s , a n d h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s 9 3 n o t o u t t o w i n t h e t h i r d T e s t f o r E n g l a n d . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e r i e s K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e d o m e s t i c s c e n e , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e s e a s o n w i t h t w o f u r t h e r t o n s ; 1 3 1 a g a i n s t b o t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a n d M i d d l e s e x . F o l l o w i n g t h e w i n t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e r i e s i n S o u t h A f r i c a , K e y r e t u r n e d t o d o m e s t i c a c t i o n w i t h K e n t . W h i l e n o t h a v i n g a s s u c c e s s f u l a s e a s o n a s i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r , h e s t i l l s c o r e d o v e r 1 , 5 0 0   r u n s . T h i s i n c l u d e d t w o c e n t u r i e s i n t h e s a m e m a t c h a g a i n s t S u r r e y , d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d o f w h i c h h e s h a r e d a c o u n t y t h i r d - w i c k e t r e c o r d p a r t n e r s h i p o f 3 2 3 w i t h M a r t i n v a n J a a r s v e l d . A t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n , K e y w a s n a m e d t h e n e w c o u n t y c a p t a i n f o l l o w i n g t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f D a v i d F u l t o n , a r o l e h e t o o k o n i n o r d e r t o h e l p h i s c h a n c e s o f r e g a i n i n g a p l a c e i n t h e E n g l a n d s i d e . H i s f i r s t s e a s o n a s c a p t a i n s a w h i s f o r m s l i d e , a s K e n t ' s c h a i r m a n o f c r i c k e t G r a h a m J o h n s o n r e l a t e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n : " H i s c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e t e a m h a s p r o b a b l y i m p a c t e d o n h i s o w n f o r m " . N o n e t h e l e s s , h e w a s g i v e n t h e c a p t a i n c y o f t h e E n g l a n d A t e a m i n t h e i r f i x t u r e a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n , a n d l e d K e n t t o f i f t h p l a c e i n t h e t o p t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p . T h e f o l l o w i n g s e a s o n s a w K e y l e a d K e n t t o s i l v e r w a r e , w h i l s t r e t u r n i n g t o s o m e o f h i s b e s t f o r m . H e s t r u c k a t o t a l o f e i g h t c e n t u r i e s , a n d a m a s s e d a t o t a l o f 2 , 2 6 7 r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s , w h i l s t a l s o l e a d i n g K e n t t o t h e f i n a l s d a y o f t h e 2 0 0 7 T w e n t y 2 0 C u p , i n w h i c h K e n t d e f e a t e d S u s s e x a n d G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e t o c l a i m t h e t r o p h y . H o w e v e r , K e y w a s l a t e r f o u n d g u i l t y o f " s e r i o u s d i s s e n t " f o l l o w i n g h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l d i s m i s s a l i n t h e f i n a l . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s r u n - s c o r i n g i n t o 2 0 0 8 , w h e r e h e s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 1 7 8 a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g N e w Z e a l a n d e r s t o " l i f t h i m s e l f f i r m l y i n t o t h e T e s t r e c k o n i n g " . F o l l o w i n g M i c h a e l V a u g h a n ' s r e s i g n a t i o n a s E n g l a n d c a p t a i n , K e y w a s t o u t e d b y t h e s o m e i n t h e m e d i a a s a p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e j o b . H o w e v e r , t h e s e a s o n e n d e d b a d l y f o r K e y , a s u n d e r h i s c a p t a i n c y K e n t w e r e r e l e g a t e d t o t h e s e c o n d t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , w i t h K e y a l s o b e i n g f i n e d £ 1 , 2 5 0 f o r c o m m e n t s h e m a d e o v e r a n E C B p i t c h p a n e l d e c i s i o n i n A u g u s t . K e y t o o k h i s f i r s t w i c k e t i n f i r s t - c l a s s c r i c k e t o n t h e f i n a l d a y o f K e n t ' s d r a w w i t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e 2 0 0 9 s e a s o n . H e w e n t o n t o s c o r e 1 , 2 0 9 r u n s t h a t s e a s o n , w i t h f o u r c e n t u r i e s i n c l u d i n g a c a r e e r - b e s t 2 7 0 H e a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m t h e g a m e o n 1 8 A p r i l 2 0 1 6 , c i t i n g h i s d e s i r e t o n o t " h i n d e r y o u n g e r p l a y e r s [ c o m i n g t h r o u g h ] " a n d f o c u s o n c o a c h i n g a n d h i s r o l e w i t h S k y S p o r t s a s a t e l e v i s i o n p u n d i t . K e y m a d e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t i n t h e s e c o n d T e s t a g a i n s t I n d i a i n 2 0 0 2 , a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r M a r c u s T r e s c o t h i c k , w h o h a d b r o k e n h i s t h u m b . C h a i r m a n o f s e l e c t o r s D a v i d G r a v e n e y s a i d K e y w a s s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f h i s " o u t s t a n d i n g f o r m f o r K e n t a f t e r a t t e n d i n g t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y " o v e r t h e w i n t e r . O p e n i n g t h e b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , K e y m a d e 1 7 r u n s i n h i s o n l y i n n i n g s b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y A s h i s h N e h r a . R e t a i n e d i n t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t , K e y m a n a g e d s c o r e s o f 3 0 a n d 3 4 a s E n g l a n d s u c c u m b e d t o a n i n n i n g s d e f e a t . H o w e v e r , h i s p e r f o r m a n c e w a s m a r r e d b y h i m d r o p p i n g t h r e e c a t c h e s . K e y w a s d r o p p e d f r o m t h e f o u r t h a n d f i n a l T e s t , w i t h T r e s c o t h i c k r e p l a c i n g h i m h a v i n g b e e n r u s h e d b a c k f r o m i n j u r y . A f t e r s u c c e s s i n d o m e s t i c c r i c k e t a n d p r o m i s e s h o w n i n h i s T e s t a p p e a r a n c e s p r e v i o u s l y , K e y w a s s e l e c t e d a s p a r t o f t h e s q u a d t o p l a y A u s t r a l i a . D e s p i t e p l a y i n g w e l l i n a l i m i t e d o v e r s m a t c h a g a i n s t a n A C B C h a i r m a n ' s X I ; h i t t i n g 6 8 , h e w a s n o t s e l e c t e d t o p l a y i n t h e f i r s t T e s t , i n s t e a d a c t i n g a s t w e l f t h m a n . H e e n d e d u p f i e l d i n g t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n h e w o u l d h a v e i m a g i n e d , a f t e r S i m o n J o n e s r u p t u r e d k n e e l i g a m e n t s w h i l e f i e l d i n g , a n d t o o k n o f u r t h e r p a r t i n t h e m a t c h . B r o u g h t b a c k i n t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e s e c o n d T e s t f o r t h e i n j u r e d J o h n C r a w l e y , K e y m a d e a s o l i t a r y r u n i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b a t t i n g a t n u m b e r t h r e e , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f S h a n e W a r n e j u s t a f t e r t h e l u n c h b r e a k . R e l e g a t e d t o n u m b e r f i v e i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r a n d N a s s e r H u s s a i n b a t t i n g a h e a d o f h i m , h e a g a i n m a d e j u s t o n e b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f A n d y B i c h e l . K e y f a r e d b e t t e r i n t h e t h i r d m a t c h , p l a y e d a t t h e W A C A G r o u n d i n P e r t h . O n a p i t c h w i t h " e x c e p t i o n a l b o u n c e a n d p a c e " , K e y w a s t h e o n l y E n g l i s h b a t s m a n t o k e e p h i s w i c k e t i n t a c t f o r a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d , b a t t i n g p a s s i v e l y f o r 4 7 , t h e h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e i n n i n g s . H e t h e n c a u g h t B r e t t L e e a t t h i r d m a n i n A u s t r a l i a ' s o n l y i n n i n g s , b e f o r e o f f e r i n g H u s s a i n " s t o u t s u p p o r t " i n m a k i n g 2 3 s e c o n d t i m e a r o u n d . E n g l a n d l o s t t h e T e s t m a t c h b y a n i n n i n g s a n d 4 8 r u n s , a r e s u l t t h a t e n s u r e d t h a t A u s t r a l i a r e t a i n e d t h e A s h e s . F o l l o w i n g a b r e a k f o r t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e V B S e r i e s o f O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l s , E n g l a n d m o v e d t o M e l b o u r n e f o r t h e f o u r t h T e s t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r K e y , h e f e l l f o r a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , t r a p p e d l e g b e f o r e w i c k e t ( l b w ) s e c o n d b a l l b y f a s t b o w l e r B r e t t L e e . W i t h E n g l a n d f o l l o w i n g o n , K e y m a d e a m a i d e n h a l f - c e n t u r y t o e n s u r e A u s t r a l i a h a d t o b a t a g a i n . H e e v e n t u a l l y f e l l j u s t a f t e r t h e n e w b a l l w a s t a k e n , c a u g h t a t s e c o n d s l i p f o r 5 2 . T h e f i n a l T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e S y d n e y C r i c k e t G r o u n d , s a w E n g l a n d a t t e m p t i n g t o a v o i d a s e r i e s w h i t e w a s h . K e y s c o r e d t h r e e r u n s i n E n g l a n d ' s f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e f a l l i n g l b w t o a n i n n o c u o u s h a l f - v o l l e y f r o m S t e v e W a u g h , p l a y i n g i n h i s l a s t A s h e s T e s t . H e s c o r e d 1 4 i n h i s f i n a l i n n i n g s o f t h e t o u r , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t a t m i d w i c k e t , h o w e v e r E n g l a n d h a d n e a r l y 3 5 0 r u n s o n t h e b o a r d b y t h a t s t a g e a n d w e r e o n t r a c k t o c o m p l e t e a c o n s o l a t o r y v i c t o r y . T h e 2 0 0 4 e d i t i o n o f t h e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s ' A l m a n a c k r e c o r d e d t h a t K e y h a d " j u s t i f i e d h i s s e l e c t i o n a h e a d o f a n o l d e r p l a y e r , l i k e M a r k R a m p r a k a s h , b u t d i d n o t c e m e n t h i s p l a c e " . D e s p i t e a l o w - s c o r i n g s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 3 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n , i n w h i c h h e p a s s e d 4 0 o n l y o n c e i n h i s f i r s t s e v e n i n n i n g s o f t h e s e a s o n , h e k e p t h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e f o r t h e v i s i t o f t h e t o u r i n g Z i m b a b w e a n s . B a t t i n g a t n u m b e r f i v e i n b o t h T e s t s , K e y f a i l e d t o m a k e m u c h o f a n i m p a c t , s c o r i n g 1 8 r u n s i n t h e f i r s t m a t c h a n d f o u r i n t h e s e c o n d . H e h a d r e a s o n t o f e e l a g g r i e v e d a t h i s f i r s t T e s t d i s m i s s a l — u m p i r e S t e v e B u c k n o r g a v e h i m o u t c a u g h t b e h i n d , d e s p i t e K e y n o t h i t t i n g t h e b a l l . H i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( O D I ) s q u a d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e a n d S o u t h A f r i c a o w e d m o r e t o t h e l a c k o f a v a i l a b l e p l a y e r s t h a n h i s o w n f o r m ; h e h a d o n l y p a s s e d 4 0 o n o n e o c c a s i o n g o i n g i n t o t h e s e r i e s . K e y m a d e h i s O D I d e b u t a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e i n t h e o p e n i n g m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; h e s c o r e d 1 1 b e f o r e f a l l i n g t o t h e l e f t - a r m s p i n o f R a y P r i c e . K e y o n l y p l a y e d o n e m o r e m a t c h i n t h e s e r i e s ; a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a h e f e l l f o r a g o l d e n d u c k t a k i n g a " w i l d s w i n g " a t t h e f i r s t b a l l h e r e c e i v e d f r o m M a k h a y a N t i n i . F o l l o w i n g E n g l a n d ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n t o t h e f i n a l o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t , K e y w a s r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e s q u a d " t o h a v e s o m e m a t c h - p r a c t i c e i n t h e l o n g e r f o r m o f t h e g a m e a h e a d o f t h e T e s t s e r i e s " a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a . H o w e v e r , K e y d i d n o t m a k e a n a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e s e r i e s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e T e s t m a t c h s i d e a f t e r a n e x c e l l e n t s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 4 s e a s o n . H e r e a c h e d 1 , 0 0 0   r u n s f o r t h e s e a s o n b y 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d f o r 1 6 y e a r s , a n d h a d a r u n o f f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H o w e v e r , h i s l i m i t e d - o v e r s f o r m w a s n o t a s g o o d — h e p a s s e d f i f t y o n l y o n c e a l l s e a s o n . D e s p i t e t h i s , h e w a s c a l l e d i n t o t h e s q u a d f o r t h e N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a n d N e w Z e a l a n d . K e y ' s s e r i e s b e g a n w i t h t h e f i f t h m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a t H e a d i n g l e y . W i t h E n g l a n d c h a s i n g 1 6 0 t o w i n , K e y c a m e i n a t 5 5 f o r o n e , b u t s c o r e d j u s t s i x b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y D w a y n e B r a v o . H i s o n l y o t h e r a p p e a r a n c e c a m e a g a i n s t N e w Z e a l a n d t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e g r o u p s t a g e — K e y s c o r e d 1 8 a n d w a s p l a y i n g w e l l b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t b e h i n d . H i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e w a s e n s u r e d a f t e r M a r k B u t c h e r p u l l e d o u t , h a v i n g b e e n h i t f r o m b e h i n d i n h i s c a r a n d s u s t a i n i n g a w h i p l a s h i n j u r y . K e y t o o k t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , m o v i n g t o w a r d a m a i d e n T e s t c e n t u r y w i t h w h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s " p o w e r f u l d r i v i n g a n d p u l l i n g " . H e w a s d r o p p e d t w i c e — C h r i s G a y l e p a r r i e d a n o p p o r t u n i t y w i t h K e y o n 1 6 , w h i l e D e v o n S m i t h f a i l e d t o d i s m i s s h i m w h e n o n 5 8 . K e y m a i n t a i n e d h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t , e v e n a f t e r m e e t i n g t h e Q u e e n i n a p r e s e n t a t i o n d u r i n g t h e t e a i n t e r v a l . H e b r o u g h t u p h i s c e n t u r y w i t h a b o u n d a r y o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f F i d e l E d w a r d s , a n d b y t h e e n d o f t h e f i r s t d a y h a d r e a c h e d 1 6 7 n o t o u t . H e c o n t i n u e d p o s i t i v e l y o n t h e s e c o n d d a y , a n d b r o u g h t u p h i s m a i d e n d o u b l e c e n t u r y w i t h f o u r t h r o u g h s q u a r e l e g o f f P e d r o C o l l i n s . H e w a s e v e n t u a l l y d i s m i s s e d w h e n h e " s l a s h e d a w i d e b a l l t o B r i a n L a r a a t b a c k w a r d p o i n t " , h a v i n g m a d e 2 2 1 . I n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , h e w a s r u n o u t b y h i s c a p t a i n M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , w h o w e n t o n t o s c o r e h i s s e c o n d c e n t u r y o f t h e m a t c h . T h e s e c o n d T e s t s a w K e y s t r u g g l i n g i n t h e c o r r i d o r o f u n c e r t a i n t y , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h i g h l i g h t e d b y C o l l i n s , w h o b e a t t h e b a t o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s b e f o r e f i n d i n g t h e e d g e t o d i s m i s s h i m . H i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s l a s t e d j u s t s e v e n b a l l s b e f o r e K e y " c h i p p e d a s i m p l e c a t c h t o m i d - o n " , h a v i n g s c o r e d j u s t f o u r . K e y ' s m o s t v a l u a b l e i n n i n g s , a c c o r d i n g t o " W i s d e n " , c a m e i n t h e t h i r d T e s t . D e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g s i x r u n s i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , K e y c a m e t o t h e c r e a s e f o r h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s w i t h E n g l a n d r e q u i r i n g a n o t h e r 2 1 6   r u n s t o t a k e a 3 – 0 l e a d i n t h e s e r i e s . I n i t i a l l y b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , a n d t h e n w i t h A n d r e w F l i n t o f f , K e y s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 9 3 t o g u i d e E n g l a n d t o t h e i r t a r g e t , w h i c h w a s a r e c o r d f o u r t h i n n i n g s t o t a l t o w i n a n O l d T r a f f o r d T e s t . H i s s e r i e s c a m e t o a n e n d w h e n h e s c o r e d t e n r u n s , i n E n g l a n d ' s t e n - w i c k e t v i c t o r y i n t h e f i n a l T e s t . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h e s e r i e s a n d h i s d o m e s t i c f o r m e a r n e d h i m r e c o g n i t i o n — h e w a s n a m e d a s o n e o f t h e f i v e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s o f t h e Y e a r i n t h e 2 0 0 5 e d i t i o n . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s d u r i n g t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , K e y w a s t a k e n o n E n g l a n d ' s t o u r o f S o u t h A f r i c a o v e r t h e E n g l i s h c l o s e - s e a s o n . H o w e v e r , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r r e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o l l o w i n g i n j u r y , K e y l o s t h i s p l a c e . T h i s w a s d e s p i t e h i m s c o r i n g 8 7 i n a w a r m - u p g a m e a g a i n s t a N i c k y O p p e n h e i m e r X I , a m a t c h i n w h i c h B u t c h e r h a d s c o r e d j u s t s i x . R e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t a f t e r B u t c h e r h a d s u s t a i n e d a w r i s t i n j u r y , K e y m a d e a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e " d e f e n d i n g r e s o l u t e l y " i n a c c u m u l a t i n g 4 1 b e f o r e b e i n g s t u m p e d c h a r g i n g N i c k y B o j e . T h e f o u r t h T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e W a n d e r e r s , s a w K e y h i t 8 3 , i n a p a r t n e r s h i p o f 1 8 2 w i t h A n d r e w S t r a u s s t h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s i n c l u d i n g " h a r d - h i t t i n g s u p p o r t f r o m K e y " . H e a d d e d a f u r t h e r e i g h t e e n t o h i s m a t c h t a l l y i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , a c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h h e l p e d E n g l a n d t o a n e v e n t u a l v i c t o r y . K e y r e t u r n e d s i n g l e f i g u r e s c o r e s o f o n e a n d n i n e i n h i s t w o i n n i n g s i n t h e f i n a l T e s t , b e i n g d i s m i s s e d b y S h a u n P o l l o c k o n b o t h o c c a s i o n s i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d d r a w . K e y b r i e f l y r e t u r n e d t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r i c k e t f o r t h e 2 0 0 9 I C C W o r l d T w e n t y 2 0 c o m p e t i t i o n , p l a y i n g h i s o n l y T w e n t y 2 0 I n t e r n a t i o n a l m a t c h a g a i n s t t h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g t h e t o u r n a m e n t a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e i n j u r e d K e v i n P i e t e r s e n . H e s c o r e d 1 0 n o t o u t f r o m e i g h t b a l l s i n a m a t c h w h e r e t h e N e t h e r l a n d s s u c c e s s f u l l y c h a s e d t h e i r t a r g e t f r o m t h e f i n a l b a l l . R e c o r d s : T e s t c e n t u r i e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s :

International career ; England in Australia, 2002–03

Robert Key is an English cricketer who has played for Kent County Cricket Club and the England national team. He made his first-class debut in 1998 and quickly established himself as a talented young batsman. Key represented England at various youth levels before making his Test debut in 2002. He played in several Tests for England, including the 2002-03 Ashes series in Australia, but struggled to establish himself as a regular member of the team. Key has also captained Kent County Cricket Club and has been involved in various charity initiatives.

Glamorgan's seconds. Following on from those performances, Key joined the England Under-17 squad for the International Youth Tournament, which was being held in Bermuda. Key's growing reputation as a batsman was greatly enhanced by his performances in this tournament, where he finished with the second highest batting average of anyone at the tournament, scoring 184 runs at an average of 48. Key's performances helped England win the tournament by a single point from Ireland's Under-17s. Key returned to England for two matches with Kent's second team, before joining up with England's Under-19s for a youth Test series against Zimbabwe's under-19s. In the three Test series, Key made two half-centuries, earning himself a place in the squad for the 1998 Under-19 Cricket World Cup in South Africa. Batting at a call up to England A's tour of Zimbabwe through January and February. He struggled for runs throughout his five matches on the tour, failing to pass 26 in any innings. In all, Key managed one century in the calendar year, 125 against Somerset, and finished the year with 1,309 runs in all competitions. The 2000 season proved even more disappointing, with just 700 runs at an average of less than 20. The 2001 English cricket season saw Key's form improve, with him scoring four first-class centuries; including one against the touring Pakistanis. His highest score of the season and career to date would come in the final game—he scored 132 in a rain-affected match against Lancashire. His scoring throughout the season persuaded the national selectors to include him in the National Academy, which went on a winter tour of Australia, where he showed his ability with an innings of 177 against the side's Australian counterparts. He continued his good form into 2002, where his run-scoring earned him an invitation to play for the Marylebone Cricket Club against the Sri Lankans. He scored 77 in a drawn match, and would later that season make his Test match debut against India. However, following his Test debut, he only passed 50 on one further occasion that year. He would maintain his place in the Test side against Zimbabwe the following year, despite only scoring one innings of note—129 against the Cambridge students. However, after being dropped from the side, Key's form seemed to improve: he scored 140 against and his second innings 93 not out to win the third Test for England. Following the series Key returned to the domestic scene, and finished the season with two further tons; 131 against both Northamptonshire and Middlesex. Following the winter international series in South Africa, Key returned to domestic action with Kent. While not having as successful a season as in the previous year, he still scored over 1,500 runs. This included two centuries in the same match against Surrey, during the second of which he shared a county third-wicket record partnership of 323 with Martin van Jaarsveld. At the end of the season, Key was named the new county captain following the resignation of David Fulton, a role he took on in order to help his chances in the side for the third Test, Key managed scores of 30 and 34 as England succumbed to an innings defeat. However, his performance was marred by him dropping three catches. Key was dropped from the fourth and final Test, with Trescothick replacing him having been rushed back from injury. After success in domestic cricket and promise shown in his Test appearances previously, Key was selected as part of the squad to play Australia. Despite playing well in a limited overs match against an ACB Chairman's XI; hitting 68, he was not selected to play in the first Test, instead acting as twelfth man. He ended up fielding to a greater extent than he would have imagined, after Simon Jones ruptured knee ligaments while fielding, and took no further part in the match. Brought back into the side for the second Test for the injured John Crawley, Key made a solitary run in the first innings, batting at number three, before being caught off the bowling of Shane Warne just after the lunch break. Relegated to number five in the second innings, with Mark Butcher and Nasser Hussain batting ahead of him, he again made just one before being caught off Andy Bichel. Key fared better in the third match, played at the WACA Ground in Perth. On a pitch with "exceptional bounce and pace", Key was the only English batsman to keep his wicket intact for a prolonged period, batting passively for 47, the highest score of the innings. He then caught Brett Lee at third man in Australia's only innings, before offering Hussain "stout support" in making 23 second time around. England lost the Test match by an innings and 48 runs, a result that ensured that Australia retained the Ashes. Following a break for the first part of the VB Series of One Day Internationals, England moved to Melbourne for the fourth Test. Unfortunately for Key, he fell for a duck in the first innings, trapped leg before wicket (lbw) second ball by fast bowler Brett Lee. With England following on, Key made a maiden half-century to ensure Australia had to bat again. He eventually fell just after the new ball was taken, caught at second slip for 52. The final Test, played at the Sydney Cricket Ground, saw England attempting to avoid a series whitewash. Key scored three runs in England's first innings, before falling lbw to an innocuous half-volley from Steve Waugh, playing in his last Ashes Test. He scored 14 in his final innings of the tour, before being caught at midwicket, however England had nearly 350 runs on the board by that stage and were on track to complete a consolatory victory. The 2004 edition of the Wisden Cricketers' Almanack recorded that Key had "justified his selection ahead of an older player, like Mark Ramprakash, but did not cement his place". Despite a low-scoring start to the 2003 English cricket season, in which he passed 40 only once in his first seven innings of the season, he kept his place in the Test side for

Robert Key (cricketer)

B o r n i n E a s t D u l w i c h , L o n d o n , t o p a r e n t s T r e v o r a n d L y n n , K e y w a s r a i s e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y s p o r t i n g f a m i l y : h i s m o t h e r p l a y e d f o r K e n t ' s l a d i e s c r i c k e t s i d e , h i s f a t h e r p l a y e d c l u b c r i c k e t i n D e r b y a n d h i s s i s t e r E l i z a b e t h p l a y e d f o r h e r j u n i o r s c h o o l s i d e , w h e r e s h e o n c e t o o k a h a t - t r i c k . K e y h i m s e l f w a s a k e e n a l l - r o u n d s p o r t s m a n ; h e a l s o p l a y e d t e n n i s f o r K e n t . H e a t t e n d e d W o r s l e y B r i d g e P r i m a r y S c h o o l w h e r e t h e s c h o o l w o n b o t h t h e B r o m l e y a r e a a n d K e n t c r i c k e t C u p s . H i s p e r f o r m a n c e s l e d t o h i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e c o u n t y u n d e r - e l e v e n s , b e f o r e A l a n E a l h a m , c o a c h o f K e n t C o u n t y C r i c k e t C l u b ' s y o u t h s i d e s , b e c a m e h i s m e n t o r . L a t e r h e a t t e n d e d C o l f e ' s S c h o o l i n L e e , L o n d o n , a n d L a n g l e y P a r k S c h o o l f o r B o y s i n B e c k e n h a m , w h e r e h e p a s s e d t e n G C S E s . K e y h a s o f t e n b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r h i s w e i g h t , a n d a t o n e s t a g e e a r l y i n h i s c a r e e r w e i g h e d 1 6 s t o n e b e f o r e A l e c S t e w a r t t o l d h i m t o " b u c k h i s i d e a s u p " . K e y h i m s e l f s a i d o f t h e m a t t e r : " I ' l l n e v e r b e t h e m o s t a t h l e t i c - l o o k i n g b l o k e , b u t I ' m a h e l l o f a l o t f i t t e r t h a n I w a s a t 1 9 o r 2 0 . " K e y i s m a r r i e d t o F l e u r , w i t h w h o m h e h a s t w o c h i l d r e n . K e y p l a y e d h i s f i r s t m a t c h e s f o r K e n t ' s s e c o n d e l e v e n i n 1 9 9 5 , a t t h e a g e o f s i x t e e n . H e r e m a i n e d a r e g u l a r i n t h e s e c o n d t e a m t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 9 6 s e a s o n a n d f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 1 9 9 7 s e a s o n , b y w h i c h t i m e h e h a d h i t h i s f i r s t t w o c e n t u r i e s f o r a K e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i d e ; a n u n b e a t e n 1 4 6 a g a i n s t E s s e x ' s s e c o n d t e a m , a n d a n u n b e a t e n 1 3 9 a g a i n s t G l a m o r g a n ' s s e c o n d s . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m t h o s e p e r f o r m a n c e s , K e y j o i n e d t h e E n g l a n d U n d e r - 1 7 s q u a d f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Y o u t h T o u r n a m e n t , w h i c h w a s b e i n g h e l d i n B e r m u d a . K e y ' s g r o w i n g r e p u t a t i o n a s a b a t s m a n w a s g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d b y h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h i s t o u r n a m e n t , w h e r e h e f i n i s h e d w i t h t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t b a t t i n g a v e r a g e o f a n y o n e a t t h e t o u r n a m e n t , s c o r i n g 1 8 4 r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f 4 8 . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s h e l p e d E n g l a n d w i n t h e t o u r n a m e n t b y a s i n g l e p o i n t f r o m I r e l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 7 s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d f o r t w o m a t c h e s w i t h K e n t ' s s e c o n d t e a m , b e f o r e j o i n i n g u p w i t h E n g l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 9 s f o r a y o u t h T e s t s e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e ' s u n d e r - 1 9 s . I n t h e t h r e e T e s t s e r i e s , K e y m a d e t w o h a l f - c e n t u r i e s , e a r n i n g h i m s e l f a p l a c e i n t h e s q u a d f o r t h e 1 9 9 8 U n d e r - 1 9 C r i c k e t W o r l d C u p i n S o u t h A f r i c a . B a t t i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t , K e y s c o r e d a t o t a l o f 2 0 6   r u n s a s E n g l a n d w o n t h e t o u r n a m e n t , w i t h h i s b e s t p e r f o r m a n c e c o m i n g i n t h e d e f e a t t o I n d i a , w h e r e K e y s c o r e d 5 7 . F o l l o w i n g a f i r s t - c l a s s d e b u t a g a i n s t M i d d l e s e x a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 9 8 s e a s o n , i n w h i c h K e y s c o r e d 1 5 , h e p r o c e e d e d t o p l a y a n e a r - c o m p l e t e s e a s o n . H e s c o r e d h i s f i r s t f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r y a g a i n s t D u r h a m , s c o r i n g 1 0 1 i n a n i n n i n g s v i c t o r y . H e a d d e d a s e c o n d c e n t u r y ( 1 1 5 ) a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e , b e f o r e r e j o i n i n g t h e E n g l a n d u n d e r - 1 9 s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n u n d e r - 1 9 s . H e s t r u g g l e d i n t h e o n e - d a y s e r i e s , s c o r i n g j u s t 3 6   r u n s i n t h r e e m a t c h e s , b u t f i n i s h e d a s t h e t o p r u n - s c o r e r i n t h e y o u t h T e s t s ; w i t h 3 7 7 a t a n a v e r a g e o f 6 2 . 8 3 . T h e 1 9 9 9 s e a s o n b e g a n f o r K e y w i t h a c a l l u p t o E n g l a n d A ' s t o u r o f Z i m b a b w e t h r o u g h J a n u a r y a n d F e b r u a r y . H e s t r u g g l e d f o r r u n s t h r o u g h o u t h i s f i v e m a t c h e s o n t h e t o u r , f a i l i n g t o p a s s 2 6 i n a n y i n n i n g s . I n a l l , K e y m a n a g e d o n e c e n t u r y i n t h e c a l e n d a r y e a r , 1 2 5 a g a i n s t S o m e r s e t , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e y e a r w i t h 1 , 3 0 9   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h e 2 0 0 0 s e a s o n p r o v e d e v e n m o r e d i s a p p o i n t i n g , w i t h j u s t 7 0 0   r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f l e s s t h a n 2 0 . T h e 2 0 0 1 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y ' s f o r m i m p r o v e , w i t h h i m s c o r i n g f o u r f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r i e s ; i n c l u d i n g o n e a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g P a k i s t a n i s . H i s h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e s e a s o n a n d c a r e e r t o d a t e w o u l d c o m e i n t h e f i n a l g a m e — h e s c o r e d 1 3 2 i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d m a t c h a g a i n s t L a n c a s h i r e . H i s s c o r i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e a s o n p e r s u a d e d t h e n a t i o n a l s e l e c t o r s t o i n c l u d e h i m i n t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y , w h i c h w e n t o n a w i n t e r t o u r o f A u s t r a l i a , w h e r e h e s h o w e d h i s a b i l i t y w i t h a n i n n i n g s o f 1 7 7 a g a i n s t t h e s i d e ' s A u s t r a l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s g o o d f o r m i n t o 2 0 0 2 , w h e r e h i s r u n - s c o r i n g e a r n e d h i m a n i n v i t a t i o n t o p l a y f o r t h e M a r y l e b o n e C r i c k e t C l u b a g a i n s t t h e S r i L a n k a n s . H e s c o r e d 7 7 i n a d r a w n m a t c h , a n d w o u l d l a t e r t h a t s e a s o n m a k e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t a g a i n s t I n d i a . H o w e v e r , f o l l o w i n g h i s T e s t d e b u t , h e o n l y p a s s e d 5 0 o n o n e f u r t h e r o c c a s i o n t h a t y e a r . H e w o u l d m a i n t a i n h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , d e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g o n e i n n i n g s o f n o t e — 1 2 9 a g a i n s t t h e C a m b r i d g e s t u d e n t s . H o w e v e r , a f t e r b e i n g d r o p p e d f r o m t h e s i d e , K e y ' s f o r m s e e m e d t o i m p r o v e : h e s c o r e d 1 4 0 a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e t o s e t u p a K e n t v i c t o r y , a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y s c o r e d a r o u n d 4 0   r u n s p e r i n n i n g s f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s e a s o n . T h e 2 0 0 4 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y h i t t o p f o r m f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , s c o r i n g a t o t a l o f 2 , 4 8 6   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h i s t o t a l i n c l u d e d a " m a j e s t i c " u n b e a t e n 1 1 8 i n t h e o p e n i n g g a m e o f t h e s e a s o n a g a i n s t G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e , d u r i n g w h i c h K e y d i d n o t o f f e r a s i n g l e c h a n c e t h r o u g h o u t . H e r e a c h e d t h e t h o u s a n d r u n m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e s e a s o n o n 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d s i n c e 1 9 7 8 , a n d w e n t o n a r u n t h a t i n c l u d e d f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H e w a s t h e n r e c a l l e d t o t h e E n g l a n d s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , a n d K e y p l a y e d t w o k e y i n n i n g s : 2 2 1 a t L o r d ' s , a n d h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s 9 3 n o t o u t t o w i n t h e t h i r d T e s t f o r E n g l a n d . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e r i e s K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e d o m e s t i c s c e n e , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e s e a s o n w i t h t w o f u r t h e r t o n s ; 1 3 1 a g a i n s t b o t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a n d M i d d l e s e x . F o l l o w i n g t h e w i n t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e r i e s i n S o u t h A f r i c a , K e y r e t u r n e d t o d o m e s t i c a c t i o n w i t h K e n t . W h i l e n o t h a v i n g a s s u c c e s s f u l a s e a s o n a s i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r , h e s t i l l s c o r e d o v e r 1 , 5 0 0   r u n s . T h i s i n c l u d e d t w o c e n t u r i e s i n t h e s a m e m a t c h a g a i n s t S u r r e y , d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d o f w h i c h h e s h a r e d a c o u n t y t h i r d - w i c k e t r e c o r d p a r t n e r s h i p o f 3 2 3 w i t h M a r t i n v a n J a a r s v e l d . A t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n , K e y w a s n a m e d t h e n e w c o u n t y c a p t a i n f o l l o w i n g t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f D a v i d F u l t o n , a r o l e h e t o o k o n i n o r d e r t o h e l p h i s c h a n c e s o f r e g a i n i n g a p l a c e i n t h e E n g l a n d s i d e . H i s f i r s t s e a s o n a s c a p t a i n s a w h i s f o r m s l i d e , a s K e n t ' s c h a i r m a n o f c r i c k e t G r a h a m J o h n s o n r e l a t e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n : " H i s c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e t e a m h a s p r o b a b l y i m p a c t e d o n h i s o w n f o r m " . N o n e t h e l e s s , h e w a s g i v e n t h e c a p t a i n c y o f t h e E n g l a n d A t e a m i n t h e i r f i x t u r e a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n , a n d l e d K e n t t o f i f t h p l a c e i n t h e t o p t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p . T h e f o l l o w i n g s e a s o n s a w K e y l e a d K e n t t o s i l v e r w a r e , w h i l s t r e t u r n i n g t o s o m e o f h i s b e s t f o r m . H e s t r u c k a t o t a l o f e i g h t c e n t u r i e s , a n d a m a s s e d a t o t a l o f 2 , 2 6 7 r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s , w h i l s t a l s o l e a d i n g K e n t t o t h e f i n a l s d a y o f t h e 2 0 0 7 T w e n t y 2 0 C u p , i n w h i c h K e n t d e f e a t e d S u s s e x a n d G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e t o c l a i m t h e t r o p h y . H o w e v e r , K e y w a s l a t e r f o u n d g u i l t y o f " s e r i o u s d i s s e n t " f o l l o w i n g h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l d i s m i s s a l i n t h e f i n a l . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s r u n - s c o r i n g i n t o 2 0 0 8 , w h e r e h e s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 1 7 8 a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g N e w Z e a l a n d e r s t o " l i f t h i m s e l f f i r m l y i n t o t h e T e s t r e c k o n i n g " . F o l l o w i n g M i c h a e l V a u g h a n ' s r e s i g n a t i o n a s E n g l a n d c a p t a i n , K e y w a s t o u t e d b y t h e s o m e i n t h e m e d i a a s a p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e j o b . H o w e v e r , t h e s e a s o n e n d e d b a d l y f o r K e y , a s u n d e r h i s c a p t a i n c y K e n t w e r e r e l e g a t e d t o t h e s e c o n d t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , w i t h K e y a l s o b e i n g f i n e d £ 1 , 2 5 0 f o r c o m m e n t s h e m a d e o v e r a n E C B p i t c h p a n e l d e c i s i o n i n A u g u s t . K e y t o o k h i s f i r s t w i c k e t i n f i r s t - c l a s s c r i c k e t o n t h e f i n a l d a y o f K e n t ' s d r a w w i t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e 2 0 0 9 s e a s o n . H e w e n t o n t o s c o r e 1 , 2 0 9 r u n s t h a t s e a s o n , w i t h f o u r c e n t u r i e s i n c l u d i n g a c a r e e r - b e s t 2 7 0 H e a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m t h e g a m e o n 1 8 A p r i l 2 0 1 6 , c i t i n g h i s d e s i r e t o n o t " h i n d e r y o u n g e r p l a y e r s [ c o m i n g t h r o u g h ] " a n d f o c u s o n c o a c h i n g a n d h i s r o l e w i t h S k y S p o r t s a s a t e l e v i s i o n p u n d i t . K e y m a d e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t i n t h e s e c o n d T e s t a g a i n s t I n d i a i n 2 0 0 2 , a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r M a r c u s T r e s c o t h i c k , w h o h a d b r o k e n h i s t h u m b . C h a i r m a n o f s e l e c t o r s D a v i d G r a v e n e y s a i d K e y w a s s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f h i s " o u t s t a n d i n g f o r m f o r K e n t a f t e r a t t e n d i n g t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y " o v e r t h e w i n t e r . O p e n i n g t h e b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , K e y m a d e 1 7 r u n s i n h i s o n l y i n n i n g s b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y A s h i s h N e h r a . R e t a i n e d i n t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t , K e y m a n a g e d s c o r e s o f 3 0 a n d 3 4 a s E n g l a n d s u c c u m b e d t o a n i n n i n g s d e f e a t . H o w e v e r , h i s p e r f o r m a n c e w a s m a r r e d b y h i m d r o p p i n g t h r e e c a t c h e s . K e y w a s d r o p p e d f r o m t h e f o u r t h a n d f i n a l T e s t , w i t h T r e s c o t h i c k r e p l a c i n g h i m h a v i n g b e e n r u s h e d b a c k f r o m i n j u r y . A f t e r s u c c e s s i n d o m e s t i c c r i c k e t a n d p r o m i s e s h o w n i n h i s T e s t a p p e a r a n c e s p r e v i o u s l y , K e y w a s s e l e c t e d a s p a r t o f t h e s q u a d t o p l a y A u s t r a l i a . D e s p i t e p l a y i n g w e l l i n a l i m i t e d o v e r s m a t c h a g a i n s t a n A C B C h a i r m a n ' s X I ; h i t t i n g 6 8 , h e w a s n o t s e l e c t e d t o p l a y i n t h e f i r s t T e s t , i n s t e a d a c t i n g a s t w e l f t h m a n . H e e n d e d u p f i e l d i n g t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n h e w o u l d h a v e i m a g i n e d , a f t e r S i m o n J o n e s r u p t u r e d k n e e l i g a m e n t s w h i l e f i e l d i n g , a n d t o o k n o f u r t h e r p a r t i n t h e m a t c h . B r o u g h t b a c k i n t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e s e c o n d T e s t f o r t h e i n j u r e d J o h n C r a w l e y , K e y m a d e a s o l i t a r y r u n i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b a t t i n g a t n u m b e r t h r e e , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f S h a n e W a r n e j u s t a f t e r t h e l u n c h b r e a k . R e l e g a t e d t o n u m b e r f i v e i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r a n d N a s s e r H u s s a i n b a t t i n g a h e a d o f h i m , h e a g a i n m a d e j u s t o n e b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f A n d y B i c h e l . K e y f a r e d b e t t e r i n t h e t h i r d m a t c h , p l a y e d a t t h e W A C A G r o u n d i n P e r t h . O n a p i t c h w i t h " e x c e p t i o n a l b o u n c e a n d p a c e " , K e y w a s t h e o n l y E n g l i s h b a t s m a n t o k e e p h i s w i c k e t i n t a c t f o r a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d , b a t t i n g p a s s i v e l y f o r 4 7 , t h e h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e i n n i n g s . H e t h e n c a u g h t B r e t t L e e a t t h i r d m a n i n A u s t r a l i a ' s o n l y i n n i n g s , b e f o r e o f f e r i n g H u s s a i n " s t o u t s u p p o r t " i n m a k i n g 2 3 s e c o n d t i m e a r o u n d . E n g l a n d l o s t t h e T e s t m a t c h b y a n i n n i n g s a n d 4 8 r u n s , a r e s u l t t h a t e n s u r e d t h a t A u s t r a l i a r e t a i n e d t h e A s h e s . F o l l o w i n g a b r e a k f o r t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e V B S e r i e s o f O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l s , E n g l a n d m o v e d t o M e l b o u r n e f o r t h e f o u r t h T e s t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r K e y , h e f e l l f o r a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , t r a p p e d l e g b e f o r e w i c k e t ( l b w ) s e c o n d b a l l b y f a s t b o w l e r B r e t t L e e . W i t h E n g l a n d f o l l o w i n g o n , K e y m a d e a m a i d e n h a l f - c e n t u r y t o e n s u r e A u s t r a l i a h a d t o b a t a g a i n . H e e v e n t u a l l y f e l l j u s t a f t e r t h e n e w b a l l w a s t a k e n , c a u g h t a t s e c o n d s l i p f o r 5 2 . T h e f i n a l T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e S y d n e y C r i c k e t G r o u n d , s a w E n g l a n d a t t e m p t i n g t o a v o i d a s e r i e s w h i t e w a s h . K e y s c o r e d t h r e e r u n s i n E n g l a n d ' s f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e f a l l i n g l b w t o a n i n n o c u o u s h a l f - v o l l e y f r o m S t e v e W a u g h , p l a y i n g i n h i s l a s t A s h e s T e s t . H e s c o r e d 1 4 i n h i s f i n a l i n n i n g s o f t h e t o u r , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t a t m i d w i c k e t , h o w e v e r E n g l a n d h a d n e a r l y 3 5 0 r u n s o n t h e b o a r d b y t h a t s t a g e a n d w e r e o n t r a c k t o c o m p l e t e a c o n s o l a t o r y v i c t o r y . T h e 2 0 0 4 e d i t i o n o f t h e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s ' A l m a n a c k r e c o r d e d t h a t K e y h a d " j u s t i f i e d h i s s e l e c t i o n a h e a d o f a n o l d e r p l a y e r , l i k e M a r k R a m p r a k a s h , b u t d i d n o t c e m e n t h i s p l a c e " . D e s p i t e a l o w - s c o r i n g s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 3 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n , i n w h i c h h e p a s s e d 4 0 o n l y o n c e i n h i s f i r s t s e v e n i n n i n g s o f t h e s e a s o n , h e k e p t h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e f o r t h e v i s i t o f t h e t o u r i n g Z i m b a b w e a n s . B a t t i n g a t n u m b e r f i v e i n b o t h T e s t s , K e y f a i l e d t o m a k e m u c h o f a n i m p a c t , s c o r i n g 1 8 r u n s i n t h e f i r s t m a t c h a n d f o u r i n t h e s e c o n d . H e h a d r e a s o n t o f e e l a g g r i e v e d a t h i s f i r s t T e s t d i s m i s s a l — u m p i r e S t e v e B u c k n o r g a v e h i m o u t c a u g h t b e h i n d , d e s p i t e K e y n o t h i t t i n g t h e b a l l . H i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( O D I ) s q u a d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e a n d S o u t h A f r i c a o w e d m o r e t o t h e l a c k o f a v a i l a b l e p l a y e r s t h a n h i s o w n f o r m ; h e h a d o n l y p a s s e d 4 0 o n o n e o c c a s i o n g o i n g i n t o t h e s e r i e s . K e y m a d e h i s O D I d e b u t a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e i n t h e o p e n i n g m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; h e s c o r e d 1 1 b e f o r e f a l l i n g t o t h e l e f t - a r m s p i n o f R a y P r i c e . K e y o n l y p l a y e d o n e m o r e m a t c h i n t h e s e r i e s ; a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a h e f e l l f o r a g o l d e n d u c k t a k i n g a " w i l d s w i n g " a t t h e f i r s t b a l l h e r e c e i v e d f r o m M a k h a y a N t i n i . F o l l o w i n g E n g l a n d ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n t o t h e f i n a l o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t , K e y w a s r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e s q u a d " t o h a v e s o m e m a t c h - p r a c t i c e i n t h e l o n g e r f o r m o f t h e g a m e a h e a d o f t h e T e s t s e r i e s " a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a . H o w e v e r , K e y d i d n o t m a k e a n a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e s e r i e s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e T e s t m a t c h s i d e a f t e r a n e x c e l l e n t s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 4 s e a s o n . H e r e a c h e d 1 , 0 0 0   r u n s f o r t h e s e a s o n b y 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d f o r 1 6 y e a r s , a n d h a d a r u n o f f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H o w e v e r , h i s l i m i t e d - o v e r s f o r m w a s n o t a s g o o d — h e p a s s e d f i f t y o n l y o n c e a l l s e a s o n . D e s p i t e t h i s , h e w a s c a l l e d i n t o t h e s q u a d f o r t h e N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a n d N e w Z e a l a n d . K e y ' s s e r i e s b e g a n w i t h t h e f i f t h m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a t H e a d i n g l e y . W i t h E n g l a n d c h a s i n g 1 6 0 t o w i n , K e y c a m e i n a t 5 5 f o r o n e , b u t s c o r e d j u s t s i x b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y D w a y n e B r a v o . H i s o n l y o t h e r a p p e a r a n c e c a m e a g a i n s t N e w Z e a l a n d t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e g r o u p s t a g e — K e y s c o r e d 1 8 a n d w a s p l a y i n g w e l l b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t b e h i n d . H i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e w a s e n s u r e d a f t e r M a r k B u t c h e r p u l l e d o u t , h a v i n g b e e n h i t f r o m b e h i n d i n h i s c a r a n d s u s t a i n i n g a w h i p l a s h i n j u r y . K e y t o o k t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , m o v i n g t o w a r d a m a i d e n T e s t c e n t u r y w i t h w h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s " p o w e r f u l d r i v i n g a n d p u l l i n g " . H e w a s d r o p p e d t w i c e — C h r i s G a y l e p a r r i e d a n o p p o r t u n i t y w i t h K e y o n 1 6 , w h i l e D e v o n S m i t h f a i l e d t o d i s m i s s h i m w h e n o n 5 8 . K e y m a i n t a i n e d h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t , e v e n a f t e r m e e t i n g t h e Q u e e n i n a p r e s e n t a t i o n d u r i n g t h e t e a i n t e r v a l . H e b r o u g h t u p h i s c e n t u r y w i t h a b o u n d a r y o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f F i d e l E d w a r d s , a n d b y t h e e n d o f t h e f i r s t d a y h a d r e a c h e d 1 6 7 n o t o u t . H e c o n t i n u e d p o s i t i v e l y o n t h e s e c o n d d a y , a n d b r o u g h t u p h i s m a i d e n d o u b l e c e n t u r y w i t h f o u r t h r o u g h s q u a r e l e g o f f P e d r o C o l l i n s . H e w a s e v e n t u a l l y d i s m i s s e d w h e n h e " s l a s h e d a w i d e b a l l t o B r i a n L a r a a t b a c k w a r d p o i n t " , h a v i n g m a d e 2 2 1 . I n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , h e w a s r u n o u t b y h i s c a p t a i n M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , w h o w e n t o n t o s c o r e h i s s e c o n d c e n t u r y o f t h e m a t c h . T h e s e c o n d T e s t s a w K e y s t r u g g l i n g i n t h e c o r r i d o r o f u n c e r t a i n t y , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h i g h l i g h t e d b y C o l l i n s , w h o b e a t t h e b a t o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s b e f o r e f i n d i n g t h e e d g e t o d i s m i s s h i m . H i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s l a s t e d j u s t s e v e n b a l l s b e f o r e K e y " c h i p p e d a s i m p l e c a t c h t o m i d - o n " , h a v i n g s c o r e d j u s t f o u r . K e y ' s m o s t v a l u a b l e i n n i n g s , a c c o r d i n g t o " W i s d e n " , c a m e i n t h e t h i r d T e s t . D e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g s i x r u n s i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , K e y c a m e t o t h e c r e a s e f o r h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s w i t h E n g l a n d r e q u i r i n g a n o t h e r 2 1 6   r u n s t o t a k e a 3 – 0 l e a d i n t h e s e r i e s . I n i t i a l l y b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , a n d t h e n w i t h A n d r e w F l i n t o f f , K e y s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 9 3 t o g u i d e E n g l a n d t o t h e i r t a r g e t , w h i c h w a s a r e c o r d f o u r t h i n n i n g s t o t a l t o w i n a n O l d T r a f f o r d T e s t . H i s s e r i e s c a m e t o a n e n d w h e n h e s c o r e d t e n r u n s , i n E n g l a n d ' s t e n - w i c k e t v i c t o r y i n t h e f i n a l T e s t . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h e s e r i e s a n d h i s d o m e s t i c f o r m e a r n e d h i m r e c o g n i t i o n — h e w a s n a m e d a s o n e o f t h e f i v e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s o f t h e Y e a r i n t h e 2 0 0 5 e d i t i o n . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s d u r i n g t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , K e y w a s t a k e n o n E n g l a n d ' s t o u r o f S o u t h A f r i c a o v e r t h e E n g l i s h c l o s e - s e a s o n . H o w e v e r , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r r e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o l l o w i n g i n j u r y , K e y l o s t h i s p l a c e . T h i s w a s d e s p i t e h i m s c o r i n g 8 7 i n a w a r m - u p g a m e a g a i n s t a N i c k y O p p e n h e i m e r X I , a m a t c h i n w h i c h B u t c h e r h a d s c o r e d j u s t s i x . R e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t a f t e r B u t c h e r h a d s u s t a i n e d a w r i s t i n j u r y , K e y m a d e a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e " d e f e n d i n g r e s o l u t e l y " i n a c c u m u l a t i n g 4 1 b e f o r e b e i n g s t u m p e d c h a r g i n g N i c k y B o j e . T h e f o u r t h T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e W a n d e r e r s , s a w K e y h i t 8 3 , i n a p a r t n e r s h i p o f 1 8 2 w i t h A n d r e w S t r a u s s t h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s i n c l u d i n g " h a r d - h i t t i n g s u p p o r t f r o m K e y " . H e a d d e d a f u r t h e r e i g h t e e n t o h i s m a t c h t a l l y i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , a c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h h e l p e d E n g l a n d t o a n e v e n t u a l v i c t o r y . K e y r e t u r n e d s i n g l e f i g u r e s c o r e s o f o n e a n d n i n e i n h i s t w o i n n i n g s i n t h e f i n a l T e s t , b e i n g d i s m i s s e d b y S h a u n P o l l o c k o n b o t h o c c a s i o n s i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d d r a w . K e y b r i e f l y r e t u r n e d t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r i c k e t f o r t h e 2 0 0 9 I C C W o r l d T w e n t y 2 0 c o m p e t i t i o n , p l a y i n g h i s o n l y T w e n t y 2 0 I n t e r n a t i o n a l m a t c h a g a i n s t t h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g t h e t o u r n a m e n t a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e i n j u r e d K e v i n P i e t e r s e n . H e s c o r e d 1 0 n o t o u t f r o m e i g h t b a l l s i n a m a t c h w h e r e t h e N e t h e r l a n d s s u c c e s s f u l l y c h a s e d t h e i r t a r g e t f r o m t h e f i n a l b a l l . R e c o r d s : T e s t c e n t u r i e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s :

International career ; Zimbabwe and South Africa in England, 2003

Robert Key is an English cricketer who has represented England in Test matches and One-Day Internationals. He made his Test debut in 2002 against India and went on to play 15 Tests, scoring 775 runs at an average of 31.95. Key also played 5 ODIs, scoring 54 runs at an average of 13.50. He was a key player for Kent County Cricket Club, scoring over 10,000 runs in first-class cricket.

Glamorgan's seconds. Following on from those performances, Key joined the England Under-17 squad for the International Youth Tournament, which was being held in Bermuda. Key's growing reputation as a batsman was greatly enhanced by his performances in this tournament, where he finished with the second highest batting average of anyone at the tournament, scoring 184 runs at an average of 48. Key's performances helped England win the tournament by a single point from Ireland's Under-17s. Key returned to England for two matches with Kent's second team, before joining up with England's Under-19s for a youth Test series against Zimbabwe's under-19s. In the three Test series, Key made two half-centuries, earning himself a place in the squad for the 1998 Under-19 Cricket World Cup in South Africa. Batting at a call up to England A's tour of Zimbabwe through January and February. He struggled for runs throughout his five matches on the tour, failing to pass 26 in any innings. In all, Key managed one century in the calendar year, 125 against Somerset, and finished the year with 1,309 runs in all competitions. The 2000 season proved even more disappointing, with just 700 runs at an average of less than 20. The 2001 English cricket season saw Key's form improve, with him scoring four first-class centuries; including one against the touring Pakistanis. His highest score of the season and career to date would come in the final game—he scored 132 in a rain-affected match against Lancashire. His scoring throughout the season persuaded the national selectors to include and his second innings 93 not out to win the third Test for England. Following the series Key returned to the domestic scene, and finished the season with two further tons; 131 against both Northamptonshire and Middlesex. Following the winter international series in South Africa, Key returned to domestic action with Kent. While not having as successful a season as in the previous year, he still scored over 1,500 runs. This included two centuries in the same match against Surrey, during the second of which he shared a county third-wicket record partnership of 323 with Martin van Jaarsveld. At the end of the season, Key was named the new county captain following the resignation of David Fulton, a role he took on in order to help his chances in the side for the third Test, Key managed scores of 30 and 34 as England succumbed to an innings defeat. However, his performance was marred by him dropping three catches. Key was dropped from the fourth and final Test, with Trescothick replacing him having been rushed back from injury. After success in domestic cricket and promise shown in his Test appearances previously, Key was selected as part of the squad to play Australia. Despite playing well in a limited overs match against an ACB Chairman's XI; hitting 68, he was not selected to play in the first Test, instead acting as twelfth man. He ended up fielding to a greater extent than he would have imagined, after Simon Jones ruptured knee ligaments while fielding, and took no to avoid a series whitewash. Key scored three runs in England's first innings, before falling lbw to an innocuous half-volley from Steve Waugh, playing in his last Ashes Test. He scored 14 in his final innings of the tour, before being caught at midwicket, however England had nearly 350 runs on the board by that stage and were on track to complete a consolatory victory. The 2004 edition of the Wisden Cricketers' Almanack recorded that Key had "justified his selection ahead of an older player, like Mark Ramprakash, but did not cement his place". Despite a low-scoring start to the 2003 English cricket season, in which he passed 40 only once in his first seven innings of the season, he kept his place in the Test side for the visit of the touring Zimbabweans. Batting at number five in both Tests, Key failed to make much of an impact, scoring 18 runs in the first match and four in the second. He had reason to feel aggrieved at his first Test dismissal—umpire Steve Bucknor gave him out caught behind, despite Key not hitting the ball. His inclusion in the One Day International (ODI) squad for the following NatWest Series against Zimbabwe and South Africa owed more to the lack of available players than his own form; he had only passed 40 on one occasion going into the series. Key made his ODI debut against Zimbabwe in the opening match of the tournament; he scored 11 before falling to the left-arm spin of Ray Price. Key only played one more match in the series; against South Africa he fell for a golden duck taking a "wild swing" at the first ball he received from Makhaya Ntini. Following England's qualification into the final of the tournament, Key was released from the squad "to have some match-practice in the longer form of the game ahead of the Test series" against South Africa. However, Key did not make an appearance in the series. Key returned to the Test match side after an excellent start to the 2004 season. He reached 1,000 runs for the season by 2 June, the earliest date the milestone had been reached for 16 years, and had a run of five centuries in seven innings. However, his limited-overs form was not as good—he passed total to win an Old Trafford Test. His series came to an end when he scored ten runs, in England's ten-wicket victory in the final Test. Key's performances in the series and his domestic form earned him recognition—he was named as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in the 2005 edition. Following on from his performances during the series against the West Indies, Key was taken on England's tour of South Africa over the English close-season. However, with Mark Butcher returning to the side following injury, Key lost his place. This was despite him scoring 87 in a warm-up game against a Nicky Oppenheimer XI, a match in which Butcher had scored just six. Returning to the side for the third Test after Butcher had

Robert Key (cricketer)

B o r n i n E a s t D u l w i c h , L o n d o n , t o p a r e n t s T r e v o r a n d L y n n , K e y w a s r a i s e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y s p o r t i n g f a m i l y : h i s m o t h e r p l a y e d f o r K e n t ' s l a d i e s c r i c k e t s i d e , h i s f a t h e r p l a y e d c l u b c r i c k e t i n D e r b y a n d h i s s i s t e r E l i z a b e t h p l a y e d f o r h e r j u n i o r s c h o o l s i d e , w h e r e s h e o n c e t o o k a h a t - t r i c k . K e y h i m s e l f w a s a k e e n a l l - r o u n d s p o r t s m a n ; h e a l s o p l a y e d t e n n i s f o r K e n t . H e a t t e n d e d W o r s l e y B r i d g e P r i m a r y S c h o o l w h e r e t h e s c h o o l w o n b o t h t h e B r o m l e y a r e a a n d K e n t c r i c k e t C u p s . H i s p e r f o r m a n c e s l e d t o h i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e c o u n t y u n d e r - e l e v e n s , b e f o r e A l a n E a l h a m , c o a c h o f K e n t C o u n t y C r i c k e t C l u b ' s y o u t h s i d e s , b e c a m e h i s m e n t o r . L a t e r h e a t t e n d e d C o l f e ' s S c h o o l i n L e e , L o n d o n , a n d L a n g l e y P a r k S c h o o l f o r B o y s i n B e c k e n h a m , w h e r e h e p a s s e d t e n G C S E s . K e y h a s o f t e n b e e n c r i t i c i z e d f o r h i s w e i g h t , a n d a t o n e s t a g e e a r l y i n h i s c a r e e r w e i g h e d 1 6 s t o n e b e f o r e A l e c S t e w a r t t o l d h i m t o " b u c k h i s i d e a s u p " . K e y h i m s e l f s a i d o f t h e m a t t e r : " I ' l l n e v e r b e t h e m o s t a t h l e t i c - l o o k i n g b l o k e , b u t I ' m a h e l l o f a l o t f i t t e r t h a n I w a s a t 1 9 o r 2 0 . " K e y i s m a r r i e d t o F l e u r , w i t h w h o m h e h a s t w o c h i l d r e n . K e y p l a y e d h i s f i r s t m a t c h e s f o r K e n t ' s s e c o n d e l e v e n i n 1 9 9 5 , a t t h e a g e o f s i x t e e n . H e r e m a i n e d a r e g u l a r i n t h e s e c o n d t e a m t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 9 6 s e a s o n a n d f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 1 9 9 7 s e a s o n , b y w h i c h t i m e h e h a d h i t h i s f i r s t t w o c e n t u r i e s f o r a K e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i d e ; a n u n b e a t e n 1 4 6 a g a i n s t E s s e x ' s s e c o n d t e a m , a n d a n u n b e a t e n 1 3 9 a g a i n s t G l a m o r g a n ' s s e c o n d s . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m t h o s e p e r f o r m a n c e s , K e y j o i n e d t h e E n g l a n d U n d e r - 1 7 s q u a d f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Y o u t h T o u r n a m e n t , w h i c h w a s b e i n g h e l d i n B e r m u d a . K e y ' s g r o w i n g r e p u t a t i o n a s a b a t s m a n w a s g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d b y h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h i s t o u r n a m e n t , w h e r e h e f i n i s h e d w i t h t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t b a t t i n g a v e r a g e o f a n y o n e a t t h e t o u r n a m e n t , s c o r i n g 1 8 4 r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f 4 8 . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s h e l p e d E n g l a n d w i n t h e t o u r n a m e n t b y a s i n g l e p o i n t f r o m I r e l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 7 s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d f o r t w o m a t c h e s w i t h K e n t ' s s e c o n d t e a m , b e f o r e j o i n i n g u p w i t h E n g l a n d ' s U n d e r - 1 9 s f o r a y o u t h T e s t s e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e ' s u n d e r - 1 9 s . I n t h e t h r e e T e s t s e r i e s , K e y m a d e t w o h a l f - c e n t u r i e s , e a r n i n g h i m s e l f a p l a c e i n t h e s q u a d f o r t h e 1 9 9 8 U n d e r - 1 9 C r i c k e t W o r l d C u p i n S o u t h A f r i c a . B a t t i n g a t t h e t o p o f t h e o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t , K e y s c o r e d a t o t a l o f 2 0 6   r u n s a s E n g l a n d w o n t h e t o u r n a m e n t , w i t h h i s b e s t p e r f o r m a n c e c o m i n g i n t h e d e f e a t t o I n d i a , w h e r e K e y s c o r e d 5 7 . F o l l o w i n g a f i r s t - c l a s s d e b u t a g a i n s t M i d d l e s e x a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 9 8 s e a s o n , i n w h i c h K e y s c o r e d 1 5 , h e p r o c e e d e d t o p l a y a n e a r - c o m p l e t e s e a s o n . H e s c o r e d h i s f i r s t f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r y a g a i n s t D u r h a m , s c o r i n g 1 0 1 i n a n i n n i n g s v i c t o r y . H e a d d e d a s e c o n d c e n t u r y ( 1 1 5 ) a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e , b e f o r e r e j o i n i n g t h e E n g l a n d u n d e r - 1 9 s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n u n d e r - 1 9 s . H e s t r u g g l e d i n t h e o n e - d a y s e r i e s , s c o r i n g j u s t 3 6   r u n s i n t h r e e m a t c h e s , b u t f i n i s h e d a s t h e t o p r u n - s c o r e r i n t h e y o u t h T e s t s ; w i t h 3 7 7 a t a n a v e r a g e o f 6 2 . 8 3 . T h e 1 9 9 9 s e a s o n b e g a n f o r K e y w i t h a c a l l u p t o E n g l a n d A ' s t o u r o f Z i m b a b w e t h r o u g h J a n u a r y a n d F e b r u a r y . H e s t r u g g l e d f o r r u n s t h r o u g h o u t h i s f i v e m a t c h e s o n t h e t o u r , f a i l i n g t o p a s s 2 6 i n a n y i n n i n g s . I n a l l , K e y m a n a g e d o n e c e n t u r y i n t h e c a l e n d a r y e a r , 1 2 5 a g a i n s t S o m e r s e t , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e y e a r w i t h 1 , 3 0 9   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h e 2 0 0 0 s e a s o n p r o v e d e v e n m o r e d i s a p p o i n t i n g , w i t h j u s t 7 0 0   r u n s a t a n a v e r a g e o f l e s s t h a n 2 0 . T h e 2 0 0 1 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y ' s f o r m i m p r o v e , w i t h h i m s c o r i n g f o u r f i r s t - c l a s s c e n t u r i e s ; i n c l u d i n g o n e a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g P a k i s t a n i s . H i s h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e s e a s o n a n d c a r e e r t o d a t e w o u l d c o m e i n t h e f i n a l g a m e — h e s c o r e d 1 3 2 i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d m a t c h a g a i n s t L a n c a s h i r e . H i s s c o r i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e a s o n p e r s u a d e d t h e n a t i o n a l s e l e c t o r s t o i n c l u d e h i m i n t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y , w h i c h w e n t o n a w i n t e r t o u r o f A u s t r a l i a , w h e r e h e s h o w e d h i s a b i l i t y w i t h a n i n n i n g s o f 1 7 7 a g a i n s t t h e s i d e ' s A u s t r a l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s g o o d f o r m i n t o 2 0 0 2 , w h e r e h i s r u n - s c o r i n g e a r n e d h i m a n i n v i t a t i o n t o p l a y f o r t h e M a r y l e b o n e C r i c k e t C l u b a g a i n s t t h e S r i L a n k a n s . H e s c o r e d 7 7 i n a d r a w n m a t c h , a n d w o u l d l a t e r t h a t s e a s o n m a k e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t a g a i n s t I n d i a . H o w e v e r , f o l l o w i n g h i s T e s t d e b u t , h e o n l y p a s s e d 5 0 o n o n e f u r t h e r o c c a s i o n t h a t y e a r . H e w o u l d m a i n t a i n h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , d e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g o n e i n n i n g s o f n o t e — 1 2 9 a g a i n s t t h e C a m b r i d g e s t u d e n t s . H o w e v e r , a f t e r b e i n g d r o p p e d f r o m t h e s i d e , K e y ' s f o r m s e e m e d t o i m p r o v e : h e s c o r e d 1 4 0 a g a i n s t N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e t o s e t u p a K e n t v i c t o r y , a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y s c o r e d a r o u n d 4 0   r u n s p e r i n n i n g s f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s e a s o n . T h e 2 0 0 4 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n s a w K e y h i t t o p f o r m f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , s c o r i n g a t o t a l o f 2 , 4 8 6   r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s . T h i s t o t a l i n c l u d e d a " m a j e s t i c " u n b e a t e n 1 1 8 i n t h e o p e n i n g g a m e o f t h e s e a s o n a g a i n s t G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e , d u r i n g w h i c h K e y d i d n o t o f f e r a s i n g l e c h a n c e t h r o u g h o u t . H e r e a c h e d t h e t h o u s a n d r u n m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e s e a s o n o n 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d s i n c e 1 9 7 8 , a n d w e n t o n a r u n t h a t i n c l u d e d f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H e w a s t h e n r e c a l l e d t o t h e E n g l a n d s q u a d f o r t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , a n d K e y p l a y e d t w o k e y i n n i n g s : 2 2 1 a t L o r d ' s , a n d h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s 9 3 n o t o u t t o w i n t h e t h i r d T e s t f o r E n g l a n d . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e r i e s K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e d o m e s t i c s c e n e , a n d f i n i s h e d t h e s e a s o n w i t h t w o f u r t h e r t o n s ; 1 3 1 a g a i n s t b o t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a n d M i d d l e s e x . F o l l o w i n g t h e w i n t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e r i e s i n S o u t h A f r i c a , K e y r e t u r n e d t o d o m e s t i c a c t i o n w i t h K e n t . W h i l e n o t h a v i n g a s s u c c e s s f u l a s e a s o n a s i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r , h e s t i l l s c o r e d o v e r 1 , 5 0 0   r u n s . T h i s i n c l u d e d t w o c e n t u r i e s i n t h e s a m e m a t c h a g a i n s t S u r r e y , d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d o f w h i c h h e s h a r e d a c o u n t y t h i r d - w i c k e t r e c o r d p a r t n e r s h i p o f 3 2 3 w i t h M a r t i n v a n J a a r s v e l d . A t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n , K e y w a s n a m e d t h e n e w c o u n t y c a p t a i n f o l l o w i n g t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f D a v i d F u l t o n , a r o l e h e t o o k o n i n o r d e r t o h e l p h i s c h a n c e s o f r e g a i n i n g a p l a c e i n t h e E n g l a n d s i d e . H i s f i r s t s e a s o n a s c a p t a i n s a w h i s f o r m s l i d e , a s K e n t ' s c h a i r m a n o f c r i c k e t G r a h a m J o h n s o n r e l a t e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n : " H i s c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e t e a m h a s p r o b a b l y i m p a c t e d o n h i s o w n f o r m " . N o n e t h e l e s s , h e w a s g i v e n t h e c a p t a i n c y o f t h e E n g l a n d A t e a m i n t h e i r f i x t u r e a g a i n s t P a k i s t a n , a n d l e d K e n t t o f i f t h p l a c e i n t h e t o p t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p . T h e f o l l o w i n g s e a s o n s a w K e y l e a d K e n t t o s i l v e r w a r e , w h i l s t r e t u r n i n g t o s o m e o f h i s b e s t f o r m . H e s t r u c k a t o t a l o f e i g h t c e n t u r i e s , a n d a m a s s e d a t o t a l o f 2 , 2 6 7 r u n s i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s , w h i l s t a l s o l e a d i n g K e n t t o t h e f i n a l s d a y o f t h e 2 0 0 7 T w e n t y 2 0 C u p , i n w h i c h K e n t d e f e a t e d S u s s e x a n d G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e t o c l a i m t h e t r o p h y . H o w e v e r , K e y w a s l a t e r f o u n d g u i l t y o f " s e r i o u s d i s s e n t " f o l l o w i n g h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l d i s m i s s a l i n t h e f i n a l . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s r u n - s c o r i n g i n t o 2 0 0 8 , w h e r e h e s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 1 7 8 a g a i n s t t h e t o u r i n g N e w Z e a l a n d e r s t o " l i f t h i m s e l f f i r m l y i n t o t h e T e s t r e c k o n i n g " . F o l l o w i n g M i c h a e l V a u g h a n ' s r e s i g n a t i o n a s E n g l a n d c a p t a i n , K e y w a s t o u t e d b y t h e s o m e i n t h e m e d i a a s a p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e j o b . H o w e v e r , t h e s e a s o n e n d e d b a d l y f o r K e y , a s u n d e r h i s c a p t a i n c y K e n t w e r e r e l e g a t e d t o t h e s e c o n d t i e r o f t h e C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , w i t h K e y a l s o b e i n g f i n e d £ 1 , 2 5 0 f o r c o m m e n t s h e m a d e o v e r a n E C B p i t c h p a n e l d e c i s i o n i n A u g u s t . K e y t o o k h i s f i r s t w i c k e t i n f i r s t - c l a s s c r i c k e t o n t h e f i n a l d a y o f K e n t ' s d r a w w i t h N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e 2 0 0 9 s e a s o n . H e w e n t o n t o s c o r e 1 , 2 0 9 r u n s t h a t s e a s o n , w i t h f o u r c e n t u r i e s i n c l u d i n g a c a r e e r - b e s t 2 7 0 H e a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m t h e g a m e o n 1 8 A p r i l 2 0 1 6 , c i t i n g h i s d e s i r e t o n o t " h i n d e r y o u n g e r p l a y e r s [ c o m i n g t h r o u g h ] " a n d f o c u s o n c o a c h i n g a n d h i s r o l e w i t h S k y S p o r t s a s a t e l e v i s i o n p u n d i t . K e y m a d e h i s T e s t m a t c h d e b u t i n t h e s e c o n d T e s t a g a i n s t I n d i a i n 2 0 0 2 , a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r M a r c u s T r e s c o t h i c k , w h o h a d b r o k e n h i s t h u m b . C h a i r m a n o f s e l e c t o r s D a v i d G r a v e n e y s a i d K e y w a s s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f h i s " o u t s t a n d i n g f o r m f o r K e n t a f t e r a t t e n d i n g t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y " o v e r t h e w i n t e r . O p e n i n g t h e b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , K e y m a d e 1 7 r u n s i n h i s o n l y i n n i n g s b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y A s h i s h N e h r a . R e t a i n e d i n t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t , K e y m a n a g e d s c o r e s o f 3 0 a n d 3 4 a s E n g l a n d s u c c u m b e d t o a n i n n i n g s d e f e a t . H o w e v e r , h i s p e r f o r m a n c e w a s m a r r e d b y h i m d r o p p i n g t h r e e c a t c h e s . K e y w a s d r o p p e d f r o m t h e f o u r t h a n d f i n a l T e s t , w i t h T r e s c o t h i c k r e p l a c i n g h i m h a v i n g b e e n r u s h e d b a c k f r o m i n j u r y . A f t e r s u c c e s s i n d o m e s t i c c r i c k e t a n d p r o m i s e s h o w n i n h i s T e s t a p p e a r a n c e s p r e v i o u s l y , K e y w a s s e l e c t e d a s p a r t o f t h e s q u a d t o p l a y A u s t r a l i a . D e s p i t e p l a y i n g w e l l i n a l i m i t e d o v e r s m a t c h a g a i n s t a n A C B C h a i r m a n ' s X I ; h i t t i n g 6 8 , h e w a s n o t s e l e c t e d t o p l a y i n t h e f i r s t T e s t , i n s t e a d a c t i n g a s t w e l f t h m a n . H e e n d e d u p f i e l d i n g t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n h e w o u l d h a v e i m a g i n e d , a f t e r S i m o n J o n e s r u p t u r e d k n e e l i g a m e n t s w h i l e f i e l d i n g , a n d t o o k n o f u r t h e r p a r t i n t h e m a t c h . B r o u g h t b a c k i n t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e s e c o n d T e s t f o r t h e i n j u r e d J o h n C r a w l e y , K e y m a d e a s o l i t a r y r u n i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b a t t i n g a t n u m b e r t h r e e , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f S h a n e W a r n e j u s t a f t e r t h e l u n c h b r e a k . R e l e g a t e d t o n u m b e r f i v e i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r a n d N a s s e r H u s s a i n b a t t i n g a h e a d o f h i m , h e a g a i n m a d e j u s t o n e b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t o f f A n d y B i c h e l . K e y f a r e d b e t t e r i n t h e t h i r d m a t c h , p l a y e d a t t h e W A C A G r o u n d i n P e r t h . O n a p i t c h w i t h " e x c e p t i o n a l b o u n c e a n d p a c e " , K e y w a s t h e o n l y E n g l i s h b a t s m a n t o k e e p h i s w i c k e t i n t a c t f o r a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d , b a t t i n g p a s s i v e l y f o r 4 7 , t h e h i g h e s t s c o r e o f t h e i n n i n g s . H e t h e n c a u g h t B r e t t L e e a t t h i r d m a n i n A u s t r a l i a ' s o n l y i n n i n g s , b e f o r e o f f e r i n g H u s s a i n " s t o u t s u p p o r t " i n m a k i n g 2 3 s e c o n d t i m e a r o u n d . E n g l a n d l o s t t h e T e s t m a t c h b y a n i n n i n g s a n d 4 8 r u n s , a r e s u l t t h a t e n s u r e d t h a t A u s t r a l i a r e t a i n e d t h e A s h e s . F o l l o w i n g a b r e a k f o r t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e V B S e r i e s o f O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l s , E n g l a n d m o v e d t o M e l b o u r n e f o r t h e f o u r t h T e s t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r K e y , h e f e l l f o r a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , t r a p p e d l e g b e f o r e w i c k e t ( l b w ) s e c o n d b a l l b y f a s t b o w l e r B r e t t L e e . W i t h E n g l a n d f o l l o w i n g o n , K e y m a d e a m a i d e n h a l f - c e n t u r y t o e n s u r e A u s t r a l i a h a d t o b a t a g a i n . H e e v e n t u a l l y f e l l j u s t a f t e r t h e n e w b a l l w a s t a k e n , c a u g h t a t s e c o n d s l i p f o r 5 2 . T h e f i n a l T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e S y d n e y C r i c k e t G r o u n d , s a w E n g l a n d a t t e m p t i n g t o a v o i d a s e r i e s w h i t e w a s h . K e y s c o r e d t h r e e r u n s i n E n g l a n d ' s f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e f a l l i n g l b w t o a n i n n o c u o u s h a l f - v o l l e y f r o m S t e v e W a u g h , p l a y i n g i n h i s l a s t A s h e s T e s t . H e s c o r e d 1 4 i n h i s f i n a l i n n i n g s o f t h e t o u r , b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t a t m i d w i c k e t , h o w e v e r E n g l a n d h a d n e a r l y 3 5 0 r u n s o n t h e b o a r d b y t h a t s t a g e a n d w e r e o n t r a c k t o c o m p l e t e a c o n s o l a t o r y v i c t o r y . T h e 2 0 0 4 e d i t i o n o f t h e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s ' A l m a n a c k r e c o r d e d t h a t K e y h a d " j u s t i f i e d h i s s e l e c t i o n a h e a d o f a n o l d e r p l a y e r , l i k e M a r k R a m p r a k a s h , b u t d i d n o t c e m e n t h i s p l a c e " . D e s p i t e a l o w - s c o r i n g s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 3 E n g l i s h c r i c k e t s e a s o n , i n w h i c h h e p a s s e d 4 0 o n l y o n c e i n h i s f i r s t s e v e n i n n i n g s o f t h e s e a s o n , h e k e p t h i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e f o r t h e v i s i t o f t h e t o u r i n g Z i m b a b w e a n s . B a t t i n g a t n u m b e r f i v e i n b o t h T e s t s , K e y f a i l e d t o m a k e m u c h o f a n i m p a c t , s c o r i n g 1 8 r u n s i n t h e f i r s t m a t c h a n d f o u r i n t h e s e c o n d . H e h a d r e a s o n t o f e e l a g g r i e v e d a t h i s f i r s t T e s t d i s m i s s a l — u m p i r e S t e v e B u c k n o r g a v e h i m o u t c a u g h t b e h i n d , d e s p i t e K e y n o t h i t t i n g t h e b a l l . H i s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e O n e D a y I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( O D I ) s q u a d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e a n d S o u t h A f r i c a o w e d m o r e t o t h e l a c k o f a v a i l a b l e p l a y e r s t h a n h i s o w n f o r m ; h e h a d o n l y p a s s e d 4 0 o n o n e o c c a s i o n g o i n g i n t o t h e s e r i e s . K e y m a d e h i s O D I d e b u t a g a i n s t Z i m b a b w e i n t h e o p e n i n g m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; h e s c o r e d 1 1 b e f o r e f a l l i n g t o t h e l e f t - a r m s p i n o f R a y P r i c e . K e y o n l y p l a y e d o n e m o r e m a t c h i n t h e s e r i e s ; a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a h e f e l l f o r a g o l d e n d u c k t a k i n g a " w i l d s w i n g " a t t h e f i r s t b a l l h e r e c e i v e d f r o m M a k h a y a N t i n i . F o l l o w i n g E n g l a n d ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n t o t h e f i n a l o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t , K e y w a s r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e s q u a d " t o h a v e s o m e m a t c h - p r a c t i c e i n t h e l o n g e r f o r m o f t h e g a m e a h e a d o f t h e T e s t s e r i e s " a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a . H o w e v e r , K e y d i d n o t m a k e a n a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e s e r i e s . K e y r e t u r n e d t o t h e T e s t m a t c h s i d e a f t e r a n e x c e l l e n t s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 0 4 s e a s o n . H e r e a c h e d 1 , 0 0 0   r u n s f o r t h e s e a s o n b y 2 J u n e , t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e t h e m i l e s t o n e h a d b e e n r e a c h e d f o r 1 6 y e a r s , a n d h a d a r u n o f f i v e c e n t u r i e s i n s e v e n i n n i n g s . H o w e v e r , h i s l i m i t e d - o v e r s f o r m w a s n o t a s g o o d — h e p a s s e d f i f t y o n l y o n c e a l l s e a s o n . D e s p i t e t h i s , h e w a s c a l l e d i n t o t h e s q u a d f o r t h e N a t W e s t S e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a n d N e w Z e a l a n d . K e y ' s s e r i e s b e g a n w i t h t h e f i f t h m a t c h o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t ; a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a t H e a d i n g l e y . W i t h E n g l a n d c h a s i n g 1 6 0 t o w i n , K e y c a m e i n a t 5 5 f o r o n e , b u t s c o r e d j u s t s i x b e f o r e b e i n g b o w l e d b y D w a y n e B r a v o . H i s o n l y o t h e r a p p e a r a n c e c a m e a g a i n s t N e w Z e a l a n d t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e g r o u p s t a g e — K e y s c o r e d 1 8 a n d w a s p l a y i n g w e l l b e f o r e b e i n g c a u g h t b e h i n d . H i s p l a c e i n t h e T e s t s i d e w a s e n s u r e d a f t e r M a r k B u t c h e r p u l l e d o u t , h a v i n g b e e n h i t f r o m b e h i n d i n h i s c a r a n d s u s t a i n i n g a w h i p l a s h i n j u r y . K e y t o o k t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , m o v i n g t o w a r d a m a i d e n T e s t c e n t u r y w i t h w h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s " p o w e r f u l d r i v i n g a n d p u l l i n g " . H e w a s d r o p p e d t w i c e — C h r i s G a y l e p a r r i e d a n o p p o r t u n i t y w i t h K e y o n 1 6 , w h i l e D e v o n S m i t h f a i l e d t o d i s m i s s h i m w h e n o n 5 8 . K e y m a i n t a i n e d h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t , e v e n a f t e r m e e t i n g t h e Q u e e n i n a p r e s e n t a t i o n d u r i n g t h e t e a i n t e r v a l . H e b r o u g h t u p h i s c e n t u r y w i t h a b o u n d a r y o f f t h e b o w l i n g o f F i d e l E d w a r d s , a n d b y t h e e n d o f t h e f i r s t d a y h a d r e a c h e d 1 6 7 n o t o u t . H e c o n t i n u e d p o s i t i v e l y o n t h e s e c o n d d a y , a n d b r o u g h t u p h i s m a i d e n d o u b l e c e n t u r y w i t h f o u r t h r o u g h s q u a r e l e g o f f P e d r o C o l l i n s . H e w a s e v e n t u a l l y d i s m i s s e d w h e n h e " s l a s h e d a w i d e b a l l t o B r i a n L a r a a t b a c k w a r d p o i n t " , h a v i n g m a d e 2 2 1 . I n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , h e w a s r u n o u t b y h i s c a p t a i n M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , w h o w e n t o n t o s c o r e h i s s e c o n d c e n t u r y o f t h e m a t c h . T h e s e c o n d T e s t s a w K e y s t r u g g l i n g i n t h e c o r r i d o r o f u n c e r t a i n t y , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h i g h l i g h t e d b y C o l l i n s , w h o b e a t t h e b a t o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s b e f o r e f i n d i n g t h e e d g e t o d i s m i s s h i m . H i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s l a s t e d j u s t s e v e n b a l l s b e f o r e K e y " c h i p p e d a s i m p l e c a t c h t o m i d - o n " , h a v i n g s c o r e d j u s t f o u r . K e y ' s m o s t v a l u a b l e i n n i n g s , a c c o r d i n g t o " W i s d e n " , c a m e i n t h e t h i r d T e s t . D e s p i t e o n l y s c o r i n g s i x r u n s i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , K e y c a m e t o t h e c r e a s e f o r h i s s e c o n d i n n i n g s w i t h E n g l a n d r e q u i r i n g a n o t h e r 2 1 6   r u n s t o t a k e a 3 – 0 l e a d i n t h e s e r i e s . I n i t i a l l y b a t t i n g w i t h M i c h a e l V a u g h a n , a n d t h e n w i t h A n d r e w F l i n t o f f , K e y s c o r e d a n u n b e a t e n 9 3 t o g u i d e E n g l a n d t o t h e i r t a r g e t , w h i c h w a s a r e c o r d f o u r t h i n n i n g s t o t a l t o w i n a n O l d T r a f f o r d T e s t . H i s s e r i e s c a m e t o a n e n d w h e n h e s c o r e d t e n r u n s , i n E n g l a n d ' s t e n - w i c k e t v i c t o r y i n t h e f i n a l T e s t . K e y ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s i n t h e s e r i e s a n d h i s d o m e s t i c f o r m e a r n e d h i m r e c o g n i t i o n — h e w a s n a m e d a s o n e o f t h e f i v e W i s d e n C r i c k e t e r s o f t h e Y e a r i n t h e 2 0 0 5 e d i t i o n . F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s d u r i n g t h e s e r i e s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s , K e y w a s t a k e n o n E n g l a n d ' s t o u r o f S o u t h A f r i c a o v e r t h e E n g l i s h c l o s e - s e a s o n . H o w e v e r , w i t h M a r k B u t c h e r r e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o l l o w i n g i n j u r y , K e y l o s t h i s p l a c e . T h i s w a s d e s p i t e h i m s c o r i n g 8 7 i n a w a r m - u p g a m e a g a i n s t a N i c k y O p p e n h e i m e r X I , a m a t c h i n w h i c h B u t c h e r h a d s c o r e d j u s t s i x . R e t u r n i n g t o t h e s i d e f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t a f t e r B u t c h e r h a d s u s t a i n e d a w r i s t i n j u r y , K e y m a d e a d u c k i n t h e f i r s t i n n i n g s , b e f o r e " d e f e n d i n g r e s o l u t e l y " i n a c c u m u l a t i n g 4 1 b e f o r e b e i n g s t u m p e d c h a r g i n g N i c k y B o j e . T h e f o u r t h T e s t , p l a y e d a t t h e W a n d e r e r s , s a w K e y h i t 8 3 , i n a p a r t n e r s h i p o f 1 8 2 w i t h A n d r e w S t r a u s s t h a t " W i s d e n " d e s c r i b e d a s i n c l u d i n g " h a r d - h i t t i n g s u p p o r t f r o m K e y " . H e a d d e d a f u r t h e r e i g h t e e n t o h i s m a t c h t a l l y i n t h e s e c o n d i n n i n g s , a c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h h e l p e d E n g l a n d t o a n e v e n t u a l v i c t o r y . K e y r e t u r n e d s i n g l e f i g u r e s c o r e s o f o n e a n d n i n e i n h i s t w o i n n i n g s i n t h e f i n a l T e s t , b e i n g d i s m i s s e d b y S h a u n P o l l o c k o n b o t h o c c a s i o n s i n a r a i n - a f f e c t e d d r a w . K e y b r i e f l y r e t u r n e d t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r i c k e t f o r t h e 2 0 0 9 I C C W o r l d T w e n t y 2 0 c o m p e t i t i o n , p l a y i n g h i s o n l y T w e n t y 2 0 I n t e r n a t i o n a l m a t c h a g a i n s t t h e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g t h e t o u r n a m e n t a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e i n j u r e d K e v i n P i e t e r s e n . H e s c o r e d 1 0 n o t o u t f r o m e i g h t b a l l s i n a m a t c h w h e r e t h e N e t h e r l a n d s s u c c e s s f u l l y c h a s e d t h e i r t a r g e t f r o m t h e f i n a l b a l l . R e c o r d s : T e s t c e n t u r i e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s : C a r e e r p e r f o r m a n c e s :

International career ; West Indies in England, 2004

Robert Key is an English cricketer who has represented England in Tests and ODIs. He made his debut in 2002 and has played for Kent County Cricket Club. Key has had a successful domestic career, scoring over 15,000 runs in first-class cricket. He has also played for England A and has been named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year.

a call up to England A's tour of Zimbabwe through January and February. He struggled for runs throughout his five matches on the tour, failing to pass 26 in any innings. In all, Key managed one century in the calendar year, 125 against Somerset, and finished the year with 1,309 runs in all competitions. The 2000 season proved even more disappointing, with just 700 runs at an average of less than 20. The 2001 English cricket season saw Key's form improve, with him scoring four first-class centuries; including one against the touring Pakistanis. His highest score of the season and career to date would come in the final game—he scored 132 in a rain-affected match against Lancashire. His scoring throughout the season persuaded the national selectors to include Nottinghamshire to set up a Kent victory, and consistently scored around 40 runs per innings for the remainder of the season. The 2004 English cricket season saw Key hit top form for the first time, scoring a total of 2,486 runs in all competitions. This total included a "majestic" unbeaten 118 in the opening game of the season against Gloucestershire, during which Key did not offer a single chance throughout. He reached the thousand run milestone for the season on 2 June, the earliest date the milestone had been reached since 1978, and went on a run that included five centuries in seven innings. He was then recalled to the England squad for the series against the West Indies, and Key played two key innings: 221 at Lord's, third man in Australia's only innings, before offering Hussain "stout support" in making 23 second time around. England lost the Test match by an innings and 48 runs, a result that ensured that Australia retained the Ashes. Following a break for the first part of the VB Series of One Day Internationals, England moved to Melbourne for the fourth Test. Unfortunately for Key, he fell for a duck in the first innings, trapped leg before wicket (lbw) second ball by fast bowler Brett Lee. With England following on, Key made a maiden half-century to ensure Australia had to bat again. He eventually fell just after the new ball was taken, caught at second slip for 52. The final Test, played at the Sydney Cricket Ground, saw England attempting to avoid a series whitewash. Key scored three runs in England's first innings, before falling lbw to an innocuous half-volley from Steve Waugh, playing in his last Ashes Test. He scored 14 in his final innings of the tour, before being caught at midwicket, however England had nearly 350 runs on the board by that stage and were on track to complete a consolatory victory. The 2004 edition of the Wisden Cricketers' Almanack recorded that Key had "justified his selection ahead of an older player, like Mark Ramprakash, but did not cement his place". Despite a low-scoring start to the 2003 English cricket season, in which he passed 40 only once in his first seven innings of the season, he kept his place in the Test side for played one more match in the series; against South Africa he fell for a golden duck taking a "wild swing" at the first ball he received from Makhaya Ntini. Following England's qualification into the final of the tournament, Key was released from the squad "to have some match-practice in the longer form of the game ahead of the Test series" against South Africa. However, Key did not make an appearance in the series. Key returned to the Test match side after an excellent start to the 2004 season. He reached 1,000 runs for the season by 2 June, the earliest date the milestone had been reached for 16 years, and had a run of five centuries in seven innings. However, his limited-overs form was not as good—he passed fifty only once all season. Despite this, he was called into the squad for the NatWest Series against the West Indies and New Zealand. Key's series began with the fifth match of the tournament; against the West Indies at Headingley. With England chasing 160 to win, Key came in at 55 for one, but scored just six before being bowled by Dwayne Bravo. His only other appearance came against New Zealand towards the end of the group stage—Key scored 18 and was playing well before being caught behind. His place in the Test side was ensured after Mark Butcher pulled out, having been hit from behind in his car and sustaining a whiplash injury. Key took the opportunity, moving toward a maiden Test century with what "Wisden" described total to win an Old Trafford Test. His series came to an end when he scored ten runs, in England's ten-wicket victory in the final Test. Key's performances in the series and his domestic form earned him recognition—he was named as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in the 2005 edition. Following on from his performances during the series against the West Indies, Key was taken on England's tour of South Africa over the English close-season. However, with Mark Butcher returning to the side following injury, Key lost his place. This was despite him scoring 87 in a warm-up game against a Nicky Oppenheimer XI, a match in which Butcher had scored just six. Returning to the side for the third Test after Butcher had sustained a wrist injury, Key made a duck in the first innings, before "defending resolutely" in accumulating 41 before being stumped charging Nicky Boje. The fourth Test, played at the Wanderers, saw Key hit 83, in a partnership of 182 with Andrew Strauss that "Wisden" described as including "hard-hitting support from Key". He added a further eighteen to his match tally in the second innings, a contribution which helped England to an eventual victory. Key returned single figure scores of one and nine in his two innings in the final Test, being dismissed by Shaun Pollock on both occasions in a rain-affected draw. Key briefly returned to international cricket for the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 competition, playing his only Twenty20 International match against the Netherlands during the tournament

Murraya

P l a n t s i n t h e g e n u s " M u r r a y a " a r e s h r u b s o r t r e e s w i t h p i n n a t e l e a v e s a r r a n g e d a l t e r n a t e l y , u s u a l l y g l a n d u l a r , a r o m a t i c , a n d l e a t h e r y t o m e m b r a n o u s i n t e x t u r e . T h e l e a f l e t s v a r y i n s h a p e a n d h a v e s m o o t h o r t o o t h e d e d g e s . T h e i n f l o r e s c e n c e i s a p a n i c l e , c y m e , o r s m a l l r a c e m e o f f l o w e r s g r o w i n g a t t h e e n d s o f b r a n c h e s o r i n t h e l e a f a x i l s ; s o m e f l o w e r s a r e s o l i t a r y . T h e f r a g r a n t f l o w e r s h a v e 4 o r 5 s e p a l s a n d w h i t e p e t a l s a n d u p t o 1 0 s t r a i g h t s t a m e n s . T h e f r u i t i s a f l e s h y b e r r y w i t h p u l p b u t w i t h o u t t h e j u i c e v e s i c l e s p r e s e n t i n s o m e r e l a t e d f r u i t s . I t i s u p t o 1 . 3 c e n t i m e t e r s l o n g a n d o r a n g e , r e d , o r b l a c k . T h e g e n u s " M u r r a y a " w a s f i r s t f o r m a l l y d e s c r i b e d i n 1 7 7 1 b y C a r l L i n n a e u s i n " M a n t i s s a P l a n t a r u m A l t e r a " f r o m a n u n p u b l i s h e d d e s c r i p t i o n b y J o h a n n G e r h a r d K ö n i g . T h e g e n u s n a m e c o m m e m o r a t e s t h e 1 8 t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n - S w e d i s h h e r b a l d o c t o r J o h a n A n d r e a s M u r r a y , a s t u d e n t o f L i n n a e u s . I n 1 9 8 6 , P a u l P . - H . B u t a n d c o - a u t h o r s s e p a r a t e d o f f s o m e s p e c i e s o f " M u r r a y a " a s " M . " s e c t . " B e r g e r a " b a s e d o n c h e m i c a l e v i d e n c e . E v i d e n c e f r o m p o l l e n m o r p h o l o g y a n d m u l t i p l e m o l e c u l a r p h y l o g e n e t i c s t u d i e s s h o w e d t h a t w h e n b r o a d l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d , " M u r r a y a " w a s n o t m o n o p h y l e t i c , a n d t r e a t i n g " M . " s e c t . " B e r g e r a " a s t h e s e p a r a t e g e n u s " B e r g e r a " h a s w i d e s p r e a d s u p p o r t . " M u r r a y a " i s i n t h e s u b f a m i l y A u r a n t i o i d e a e , w h i c h a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e g e n u s " C i t r u s " . I t i s i n t h e t r i b e C l a u s e n i n a e . S t u d i e s h a v e r e p e a t e d l y s h o w n t h a t t w o s e c t i o n s i n t o w h i c h " M u r r a y a " h a s b e e n d i v i d e d , " M . " s e c t . " M u r r a y a " a n d " M . " s e c t . " B e r g e r a " , s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d a s s e p a r a t e g e n e r a . " M u r r a y a " s e n s u s t r i c t o w a s r e v i s e d i n 2 0 2 1 , w i t h e i g h t s p e c i e s b e i n g a c c e p t e d : S p e c i e s t h a t h a v e b e e n p l a c e d i n " M u r r a y a " s e c t . " B e r g e r a " b e l o n g i n " B e r g e r a " , a l t h o u g h , n a m e s f o r m a n y h a v e n o t b e e n p u b l i s h e d . F u r t h e r s p e c i e s s t i l l a c c e p t e d i n " M u r r a y a " b y P l a n t s o f t h e W o r l d O n l i n e a r e : " M u r r a y a " s p e c i e s a r e u s e d i n l a n d s c a p i n g . S o m e s p e c i e s c a n b e g r a f t e d o n t o c i t r u s r o o t s t o c k s . S p e c i e s h a v e b e e n u s e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c i n e , w i t h v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e p l a n t s u s e d t o t r e a t f e v e r , p a i n , a n d d y s e n t e r y . " M . p a n i c u l a t a " h a s b e e n u s e d t o i n d u c e l a b o r . I t h a s b e e n u s e d i n C u b a f o r p a i n f u l i n f l a m m a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s . I n M y a n m a r , " M u r r a y a " s p e c i e s a r e u s e d t o m a k e t h a n a k a , a c o s m e t i c p a s t e t h a t i s t y p i c a l l y a p p l i e d o n t o t h e f a c e . C o m p o u n d s i s o l a t e d f r o m " M u r r a y a " i n c l u d e m a n y t y p e s o f c o u m a r i n s a n d a l k a l o i d s . T h e n o v e l a l k a l o i d y u e h c h u k e n e w a s f o u n d i n " M . p a n i c u l a t a " , a n d i t h a s s i n c e b e e n i s o l a t e d f r o m o t h e r " M u r r a y a " . I t i s f o u n d i n r e d - f r u i t e d s p e c i e s w i t h l a r g e r p e t a l s , b u t n o t i n b l a c k - f r u i t e d s p e c i e s w i t h s m a l l e r p e t a l s . S o m e s p e c i e s a l s o c o n t a i n t h e c a r b a z o l e g i r i n i m b i n e . I n J u l y 2 0 2 1 , 1 4 - y e a r o l d Z a i l a A v a n t - g a r d e o f H a r v e y , L o u i s i a n a , w o n t h e f i n a l o f t h e 2 0 2 1 S c r i p p s N a t i o n a l S p e l l i n g B e e b y c o r r e c t l y s p e l l i n g t h e w o r d " M u r r a y a " , a n d w a s t h e f i r s t A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n t o w i n t h e 9 6 - y e a r - o l d e v e n t .

Description

The Murraya genus consists of shrubs or trees with pinnate leaves, fragrant flowers, and fleshy berries. The genus was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1771 and named after Johan Andreas Murray. There are around 8 accepted species, which are used in landscaping, traditional medicine, and cosmetics. Compounds isolated from Murraya include coumarins, alkaloids, and carbazoles.

Plants in the genus "Murraya" are shrubs or trees with pinnate leaves arranged alternately, usually glandular, aromatic, and leathery to membranous in texture. The leaflets vary in shape and have smooth or toothed edges. The inflorescence is a panicle, cyme, or small raceme of flowers growing at the ends of branches or in the leaf axils; some flowers are solitary. The fragrant flowers have 4 or 5 sepals and white petals and up to 10 straight stamens. The fruit is a fleshy berry with pulp but without the juice vesicles present in some related fruits. It is up to 1.3 centimeters long and orange, red, or black. The genus "Murraya" was first formally described in 1771 by Carl Linnaeus in "Mantissa Plantarum Altera" from an unpublished description by Johann Gerhard König. The genus name commemorates the 18th-century German-Swedish herbal doctor Johan Andreas Murray, a student of Linnaeus. In 1986, Paul P.-H. But and co-authors separated off some species of "Murraya" as "M." sect. "Bergera" based on chemical evidence. Evidence from pollen morphology and multiple molecular phylogenetic studies showed that when broadly circumscribed, "Murraya" was not monophyletic, and treating "M." sect. "Bergera" as the separate genus "Bergera" has widespread support. "Murraya" is in the subfamily Aurantioideae, which also includes the genus "Citrus". It is in the tribe Clauseninae. Studies have repeatedly shown that two sections into which "Murraya" has been divided, "M." sect. "Murraya" and "M." sect. "Bergera", should be treated as separate genera. "Murraya" sensu stricto was revised in 2021, with eight species being accepted: Species that have been placed in "Murraya" sect. "Bergera" belong in "Bergera", although , names for many have not been published. Further species still accepted in "Murraya" by Plants of the World Online are: "Murraya" species are used in landscaping. Some species can be grafted onto citrus rootstocks. Species have been used in traditional medicine, with various parts of the plants used to treat fever, pain, and dysentery. "M. paniculata" has been used to induce labor. It has been used in Cuba for painful inflammatory conditions. In Myanmar, "Murraya" species are used to make thanaka, a cosmetic paste that is typically applied onto the face. Compounds isolated from "Murraya" include many types of coumarins and alkaloids. The novel alkaloid yuehchukene was found in "M. paniculata", and it has since been isolated from other "Murraya". It is found in red-fruited species with larger petals, but not in black-fruited species with smaller petals. Some species also contain the carbazole girinimbine. In July 2021, 14-year old Zaila Avant-garde of Harvey, Louisiana, won the final of the 2021 Scripps National Spelling Bee by correctly spelling the word "Murraya", and was the first African American to win the 96-year-old event.

Murraya

P l a n t s i n t h e g e n u s " M u r r a y a " a r e s h r u b s o r t r e e s w i t h p i n n a t e l e a v e s a r r a n g e d a l t e r n a t e l y , u s u a l l y g l a n d u l a r , a r o m a t i c , a n d l e a t h e r y t o m e m b r a n o u s i n t e x t u r e . T h e l e a f l e t s v a r y i n s h a p e a n d h a v e s m o o t h o r t o o t h e d e d g e s . T h e i n f l o r e s c e n c e i s a p a n i c l e , c y m e , o r s m a l l r a c e m e o f f l o w e r s g r o w i n g a t t h e e n d s o f b r a n c h e s o r i n t h e l e a f a x i l s ; s o m e f l o w e r s a r e s o l i t a r y . T h e f r a g r a n t f l o w e r s h a v e 4 o r 5 s e p a l s a n d w h i t e p e t a l s a n d u p t o 1 0 s t r a i g h t s t a m e n s . T h e f r u i t i s a f l e s h y b e r r y w i t h p u l p b u t w i t h o u t t h e j u i c e v e s i c l e s p r e s e n t i n s o m e r e l a t e d f r u i t s . I t i s u p t o 1 . 3 c e n t i m e t e r s l o n g a n d o r a n g e , r e d , o r b l a c k . T h e g e n u s " M u r r a y a " w a s f i r s t f o r m a l l y d e s c r i b e d i n 1 7 7 1 b y C a r l L i n n a e u s i n " M a n t i s s a P l a n t a r u m A l t e r a " f r o m a n u n p u b l i s h e d d e s c r i p t i o n b y J o h a n n G e r h a r d K ö n i g . T h e g e n u s n a m e c o m m e m o r a t e s t h e 1 8 t h - c e n t u r y G e r m a n - S w e d i s h h e r b a l d o c t o r J o h a n A n d r e a s M u r r a y , a s t u d e n t o f L i n n a e u s . I n 1 9 8 6 , P a u l P . - H . B u t a n d c o - a u t h o r s s e p a r a t e d o f f s o m e s p e c i e s o f " M u r r a y a " a s " M . " s e c t . " B e r g e r a " b a s e d o n c h e m i c a l e v i d e n c e . E v i d e n c e f r o m p o l l e n m o r p h o l o g y a n d m u l t i p l e m o l e c u l a r p h y l o g e n e t i c s t u d i e s s h o w e d t h a t w h e n b r o a d l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d , " M u r r a y a " w a s n o t m o n o p h y l e t i c , a n d t r e a t i n g " M . " s e c t . " B e r g e r a " a s t h e s e p a r a t e g e n u s " B e r g e r a " h a s w i d e s p r e a d s u p p o r t . " M u r r a y a " i s i n t h e s u b f a m i l y A u r a n t i o i d e a e , w h i c h a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e g e n u s " C i t r u s " . I t i s i n t h e t r i b e C l a u s e n i n a e . S t u d i e s h a v e r e p e a t e d l y s h o w n t h a t t w o s e c t i o n s i n t o w h i c h " M u r r a y a " h a s b e e n d i v i d e d , " M . " s e c t . " M u r r a y a " a n d " M . " s e c t . " B e r g e r a " , s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d a s s e p a r a t e g e n e r a . " M u r r a y a " s e n s u s t r i c t o w a s r e v i s e d i n 2 0 2 1 , w i t h e i g h t s p e c i e s b e i n g a c c e p t e d : S p e c i e s t h a t h a v e b e e n p l a c e d i n " M u r r a y a " s e c t . " B e r g e r a " b e l o n g i n " B e r g e r a " , a l t h o u g h , n a m e s f o r m a n y h a v e n o t b e e n p u b l i s h e d . F u r t h e r s p e c i e s s t i l l a c c e p t e d i n " M u r r a y a " b y P l a n t s o f t h e W o r l d O n l i n e a r e : " M u r r a y a " s p e c i e s a r e u s e d i n l a n d s c a p i n g . S o m e s p e c i e s c a n b e g r a f t e d o n t o c i t r u s r o o t s t o c k s . S p e c i e s h a v e b e e n u s e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c i n e , w i t h v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e p l a n t s u s e d t o t r e a t f e v e r , p a i n , a n d d y s e n t e r y . " M . p a n i c u l a t a " h a s b e e n u s e d t o i n d u c e l a b o r . I t h a s b e e n u s e d i n C u b a f o r p a i n f u l i n f l a m m a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s . I n M y a n m a r , " M u r r a y a " s p e c i e s a r e u s e d t o m a k e t h a n a k a , a c o s m e t i c p a s t e t h a t i s t y p i c a l l y a p p l i e d o n t o t h e f a c e . C o m p o u n d s i s o l a t e d f r o m " M u r r a y a " i n c l u d e m a n y t y p e s o f c o u m a r i n s a n d a l k a l o i d s . T h e n o v e l a l k a l o i d y u e h c h u k e n e w a s f o u n d i n " M . p a n i c u l a t a " , a n d i t h a s s i n c e b e e n i s o l a t e d f r o m o t h e r " M u r r a y a " . I t i s f o u n d i n r e d - f r u i t e d s p e c i e s w i t h l a r g e r p e t a l s , b u t n o t i n b l a c k - f r u i t e d s p e c i e s w i t h s m a l l e r p e t a l s . S o m e s p e c i e s a l s o c o n t a i n t h e c a r b a z o l e g i r i n i m b i n e . I n J u l y 2 0 2 1 , 1 4 - y e a r o l d Z a i l a A v a n t - g a r d e o f H a r v e y , L o u i s i a n a , w o n t h e f i n a l o f t h e 2 0 2 1 S c r i p p s N a t i o n a l S p e l l i n g B e e b y c o r r e c t l y s p e l l i n g t h e w o r d " M u r r a y a " , a n d w a s t h e f i r s t A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n t o w i n t h e 9 6 - y e a r - o l d e v e n t .

Taxonomy

Murraya is a genus of shrubs or trees characterized by pinnate leaves, fragrant flowers, and fleshy berries. The genus was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1771 and consists of around 8 species. Murraya species are used in landscaping, traditional medicine, and cosmetics. They contain various compounds like coumarins, alkaloids, and carbazoles.

Plants in the genus "Murraya" are shrubs or trees with pinnate leaves arranged alternately, usually glandular, aromatic, and leathery to membranous in texture. The leaflets vary in shape and have smooth or toothed edges. The inflorescence is a panicle, cyme, or small raceme of flowers growing at the ends of branches or in the leaf axils; some flowers are solitary. The fragrant flowers have 4 or 5 sepals and white petals and up to 10 straight stamens. The fruit is a fleshy berry with pulp but without the juice vesicles present in some related fruits. It is up to 1.3 centimeters long and orange, red, or black. The genus "Murraya" was first formally described in 1771 by Carl Linnaeus in "Mantissa Plantarum Altera" from an unpublished description by Johann Gerhard König. The genus name commemorates the 18th-century German-Swedish herbal doctor Johan Andreas Murray, a student of Linnaeus. In 1986, Paul P.-H. But and co-authors separated off some species of "Murraya" as "M." sect. "Bergera" based on chemical evidence. Evidence from pollen morphology and multiple molecular phylogenetic studies showed that when broadly circumscribed, "Murraya" was not monophyletic, and treating "M." sect. "Bergera" as the separate genus "Bergera" has widespread support. "Murraya" is in the subfamily Aurantioideae, which also includes the genus "Citrus". It is in the tribe Clauseninae. Studies have repeatedly shown that two sections into which "Murraya" has been divided, "M." sect. "Murraya" and "M." sect. "Bergera", should be treated as separate genera. "Murraya" sensu stricto was revised in 2021, with eight species being accepted: Species that have been placed in "Murraya" sect. "Bergera" belong in "Bergera", although , names for many have not been published. Further species still accepted in "Murraya" by Plants of the World Online are: "Murraya" species are used in landscaping. Some species can be grafted onto citrus rootstocks. Species have been used in traditional medicine, with various parts of the plants used to treat fever, pain, and dysentery. "M. paniculata" has been used to induce labor. It has been used in Cuba for painful inflammatory conditions. In Myanmar, "Murraya" species are used to make thanaka, a cosmetic paste that is typically applied onto the face. Compounds isolated from "Murraya" include many types of coumarins and alkaloids. The novel alkaloid yuehchukene was found in "M. paniculata", and it has since been isolated from other "Murraya". It is found in red-fruited species with larger petals, but not in black-fruited species with smaller petals. Some species also contain the carbazole girinimbine. In July 2021, 14-year old Zaila Avant-garde of Harvey, Louisiana, won the final of the 2021 Scripps National Spelling Bee by correctly spelling the word "Murraya", and was the first African American to win the 96-year-old event.

Inventor's notebook

A p a t e n t g r a n t s i t s o w n e r ( s ) t h e r i g h t t o s u e t h o s e w h o m a n u f a c t u r e a n d m a r k e t p r o d u c t s o r s e r v i c e s t h a t i n f r i n g e o n t h e c l a i m s d e c l a r e d i n t h e p a t e n t . T y p i c a l l y , g o v e r n m e n t s a w a r d p a t e n t s o n e i t h e r a " f i r s t t o f i l e " o r " f i r s t t o i n v e n t " b a s i s . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o k e e p a n d m a i n t a i n r e c o r d s t h a t h e l p e s t a b l i s h w h o i s f i r s t t o i n v e n t a p a r t i c u l a r i n v e n t i o n . T h e i n v e n t o r ' s n o t e b o o k ( a l s o c a l l e d a j o u r n a l , l a b b o o k o r l o g b o o k ) i s a s y s t e m a t i c d e v i c e f o r r e c o r d i n g a l l i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t e d t o a n i n v e n t i o n i n s u c h a w a y t h a t i t c a n b e u s e d t o d e v e l o p a c a s e d u r i n g a p a t e n t c o n t e s t a t i o n o r p a t e n t - r e l a t e d l a w s u i t . T h e n o t e b o o k i s a l s o a v a l u a b l e t o o l f o r t h e i n v e n t o r s i n c e i t p r o v i d e s a c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e c o r d o f a n i n v e n t i o n a n d i t s r e d u c t i o n t o p r a c t i c e . E a c h e n t r y m u s t b e s i g n e d a n d d a t e d b y a w i t n e s s . T h e w i t n e s s s h o u l d n o t b e s o m e o n e w i t h a c o n f l i c t o f i n t e r e s t ( s u c h a s a r e s e a r c h p a r t n e r ) . I f a n i n v e n t o r e v e r h a s t o g o t o c o u r t t o p r o v e h e o r s h e w a s t h e f i r s t t o i n v e n t , t h e n t h e w i t n e s s w o u l d b e c a l l e d t o t h e s t a n d t o t e s t i f y t h a t t h e s i g n a t u r e i s t h e i r s a n d t h e y s i g n e d t h a t p a g e o n t h a t d a t e . A " v i r t u a l i n v e n t o r ' s n o t e b o o k " , i n w h i c h o n e s c a n s n o t e p a g e s a n d e m a i l s t h e m t o o n e s e l f , w o u l d n o t p r o v i d e t h e s a m e l e g a l p r o t e c t i o n a s a s i n c e i t i s e a s i e r t o c o m m i t f r a u d w i t h a v i r t u a l n o t e b o o k . T h e n e e d f o r a n i n v e n t o r ' s n o t e b o o k w i l l d i m i n i s h i n t h e f u t u r e a s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s p r o g r e s s i v e l y i m p l e m e n t i n g a f i r s t - t o - f i l e s y s t e m p u r s u a n t t o t h e L e a h y - S m i t h A m e r i c a I n v e n t s A c t . I t h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t f i r s t - t o - f i l e e l i m i n a t e s a t r o u b l i n g s o u r c e o f l i t i g a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r i n d i v i d u a l i n v e n t o r s w h o m a y l a c k t h e p r o c e s s e s a n d l e g a l r e s o u r c e s t o d e f e n d a g a i n s t e v i d e n t i a r y c h a l l e n g e s b y l a r g e c o r p o r a t e r e s e a r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w i n g a l l t h e g u i d e l i n e s a b o v e , j o u r n a l s a n d n o t e b o o k s h a v e b e e n k e p t b y m a n y f a m o u s i n v e n t o r s , s c i e n t i s t s a n d e n g i n e e r s . S o m e o f t h e m o s t w e l l - k n o w n j o u r n a l s i n c l u d e t h o s e o f :

Purpose

An inventor's notebook is a crucial document that helps establish ownership of an invention and proves who invented it first. It is a systematic record of an invention's development, including dates, signatures, and witnesses. While the importance of an inventor's notebook may decrease with the shift to a first-to-file system, it remains a valuable tool for inventors to protect their intellectual property.

A patent grants its owner(s) the right to sue those who manufacture and market products or services that infringe on the claims declared in the patent. Typically, governments award patents on either a "first to file" or "first to invent" basis. Therefore, it is important to keep and maintain records that help establish who is first to invent a particular invention. The inventor's notebook (also called a journal, lab book or log book) is a systematic device for recording all information related to an invention in such a way that it can be used to develop a case during a patent contestation or patent-related lawsuit. The notebook is also a valuable tool for the inventor since it provides a chronological record of an invention and its reduction to practice. Each entry must be signed and dated by a witness. The witness should not be someone with a conflict of interest (such as a research partner). If an inventor ever has to go to court to prove he or she was the first to invent, then the witness would be called to the stand to testify that the signature is theirs and they signed that page on that date. A "virtual inventor's notebook", in which one scans note pages and emails them to oneself, would not provide the same legal protection as a since it is easier to commit fraud with a virtual notebook. The need for an inventor's notebook will diminish in the future as the United States is progressively implementing a first-to-file system pursuant to the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act. It has been said that first-to-file eliminates a troubling source of litigation, particularly for individual inventors who may lack the processes and legal resources to defend against evidentiary challenges by large corporate research organizations. Though not necessarily following all the guidelines above, journals and notebooks have been kept by many famous inventors, scientists and engineers. Some of the most well-known journals include those of:

Frederick H. Mueller

M u e l l e r w a s b o r n i n G r a n d R a p i d s , M i c h i g a n , t h e s o n o f E m m a M a t i l d e O e s t e r l e a n d f u r n i t u r e m a n u f a c t u r e r J o h n F r e d e r i c k M u e l l e r . H e g r a d u a t e d f r o m M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n 1 9 1 4 , w i t h a b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e i n m e c h a n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g . U p o n h i s f a t h e r ' s r e t i r e m e n t , h e b e c a m e p r e s i d e n t o f t h e f a m i l y b u s i n e s s . P r i o r t o j o i n i n g t h e E i s e n h o w e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , M u e l l e r s e r v e d i n m u l t i p l e p o s t s a t t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f C o m m e r c e . I n 1 9 5 6 , M u e l l e r w a s c h a r g e d w i t h t h e h e a d i n g o f t h e D i v i s i o n o f D o m e s t i c A f f a i r s , a n d i n 1 9 5 8 , h e w a s e l e v a t e d t o d e p u t y s e c r e t a r y , t h e n u m b e r t w o p o s i t i o n i n t h e b u r e a u . H e m a r r i e d t h e f o r m e r M a r y D a r r a h o n N o v e m b e r 6 , 1 9 1 5 ; t h e y h a d t w o c h i l d r e n , M a r c i a J o a n a n d F r e d e r i c k E u g e n e M u e l l e r . M u e l l e r d i e d i n G r a n d R a p i d s , M i c h i g a n , o n A u g u s t 3 1 , 1 9 7 6 , a t a g e 8 2 . H e i s i n t e r r e d i n G r a c e l a n d M a u s o l e u m i n G r a n d R a p i d s .

Career

Mueller was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan, and graduated from Michigan State University with a degree in mechanical engineering. He worked in the family business before serving in various roles at the Department of Commerce, including as deputy secretary. He married Mary Darrah and had two children, passing away in 1976 at age 82.

Mueller was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan, the son of Emma Matilde Oesterle and furniture manufacturer John Frederick Mueller. He graduated from Michigan State University in 1914, with a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering. Upon his father's retirement, he became president of the family business. Prior to joining the Eisenhower administration, Mueller served in multiple posts at the Department of Commerce. In 1956, Mueller was charged with the heading of the Division of Domestic Affairs, and in 1958, he was elevated to deputy secretary, the number two position in the bureau. He married the former Mary Darrah on November 6, 1915; they had two children, Marcia Joan and Frederick Eugene Mueller. Mueller died in Grand Rapids, Michigan, on August 31, 1976, at age 82. He is interred in Graceland Mausoleum in Grand Rapids.

Christian Wulff

W u l f f w a s b o r n i n O s n a b r ü c k a n d i s R o m a n C a t h o l i c . H e w a s t h e f i r s t R o m a n C a t h o l i c t o h o l d t h e p o s t o f P r e s i d e n t o f G e r m a n y s i n c e H e i n r i c h L ü b k e ( 1 9 5 9 – 1 9 6 9 ) a n d t h e f i r s t P r e s i d e n t t o h a v e b e e n b o r n i n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I p e r i o d . H i s f a t h e r l e f t t h e f a m i l y , a n d h e g r e w u p w i t h h i s m o t h e r . A s a t e e n a g e r , h e t o o k r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e c a r e o f h i s y o u n g e r s i s t e r , a f t e r h i s m o t h e r d e v e l o p e d m u l t i p l e s c l e r o s i s . A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g h i s A b i t u r a t t h e E r n s t M o r i t z A r n d t G y m n a s i u m i n O s n a b r ü c k , W u l f f s t u d i e d l a w w i t h a s p e c i a l i s a t i o n i n e c o n o m i c s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f O s n a b r ü c k . H e j o i n e d t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c U n i o n o f G e r m a n y i n 1 9 7 5 . I n 1 9 8 7 a n d 1 9 9 0 , h e p a s s e d t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d s t a t e e x a m i n a t i o n s i n l a w , a n d h a s s i n c e w o r k e d a s a n a t t o r n e y . S i n c e 1 9 7 5 , W u l f f h a s b e e n a m e m b e r o f t h e C D U . F r o m 1 9 7 8 t o 1 9 8 0 , h e s e r v e d a s f e d e r a l c h a i r m a n o f t h e " S c h ü l e r u n i o n " , a p o l i t i c a l h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s . F r o m 1 9 7 9 t o 1 9 8 3 , h e w a s o n t h e e x e c u t i v e b o a r d o f t h e J u n g e U n i o n a n d b e c a m e i t s s t a t e c h a i r m a n i n L o w e r S a x o n y i n 1 9 8 3 . H o w e v e r , h e d e c i d e d t o r e s i g n f r o m t h e b o a r d i n o r d e r t o p u r s u e h i s l a w d e g r e e , w h i c h h e c o m p l e t e d i n 1 9 8 6 . T h e s a m e y e a r , h e w a s e l e c t e d a c i t y c o u n c i l l o r i n h i s h o m e t o w n . S i n c e 1 9 8 4 , h e s a t o n t h e C D U ' s s t a t e p a r t y c o u n c i l o f L o w e r S a x o n y , s e r v i n g a s i t s c h a i r m a n f r o m 1 9 9 4 t o 2 0 0 8 . T h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s m a d e W u l f f c a n d i d a t e f o r M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f t h e s t a t e i n t h e r u n - u p o f t h e 1 9 9 4 p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e p o p u l a r i n c u m b e n t G e r h a r d S c h r ö d e r w o n a n a b s o l u t e m a j o r i t y i n t h e L o w e r S a x o n y l e g i s l a t u r e , w h i l e t h e s t a t e C D U u n d e r W u l f f r e c e i v e d o n e o f i t s w o r s t r e s u l t s , l e a d i n g s o m e o b s e r v e r s t o d o u b t t h e w i s d o m o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l p a r t y n o m i n a t i n g a y o u n g a n d n e o p h y t e c a n d i d a t e f o r P r e m i e r . A f t e r f o u r y e a r s i n o p p o s i t i o n , t h e 1 9 9 8 l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l y e l e c t i o n b r o u g h t a n o t h e r o p p o r t u n i t y f o r W u l f f t o b e c o m e M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t . I n d e e d , t h e f e d e r a l C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t p a r t y , l e d b y C h a n c e l l o r H e l m u t K o h l , p i n n e d t h e i r h o p e s o n W u l f f – a W u l f f v i c t o r y w o u l d h a v e s t o p p e d t h e i n e v i t a b l e r i s e o f S c h r ö d e r t o t h e S o c i a l D e m o c r a t n o m i n a t i o n f o r C h a n c e l l o r . H o w e v e r , s u p p o r t e d b y a w a v e o f s y m p a t h y f o r h i s p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a c y f o r c h a n c e l l o r i n t h e 1 9 9 8 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n , S c h r ö d e r w a s r e t u r n e d t o p o w e r b y a n e n h a n c e d m a j o r i t y – l e a v i n g W u l f f t o s e r v e f i v e m o r e y e a r s a s s t a t e l e a d e r o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n . S c h r ö d e r w o n t h e 1 9 9 8 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n , l e a v i n g t h e p o s t o f M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t t o h i s a n o i n t e d s u c c e s s o r , I n t e r i o r m i n i s t e r G e r h a r d G l o g o w s k i . T h e l a t t e r s o o n s t u m b l e d o v e r a s c a n d a l i n v o l v i n g f r e e t r a v e l p a i d b y T U I a n d w a s s u c c e e d e d b y y o u n g p a r l i a m e n t a r y l e a d e r S i g m a r G a b r i e l . I n t h e w a k e o f t h e 1 9 9 9 s c a n d a l , a s w e l l a s r i s i n g d i s c o n t e n t w i t h S c h r ö d e r ' s f e d e r a l c a b i n e t , t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s r o s e i n t h e o p i n i o n p o l l s a n d b e c a m e a s e r i o u s c o n t e n d e r f o r p o w e r i n t h e 2 0 0 3 p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n . W u l f f h a d b e e n o n e o f t h e f o u r d e p u t y c h a i r m e n o f t h e C D U p a r t y a t t h e f e d e r a l l e v e l a f t e r 1 9 9 8 , a n d h a d b e e n a b o a r d m e m b e r o f t h e K o n r a d A d e n a u e r F o u n d a t i o n a f t e r 2 0 0 3 . W i t h L o w e r S a x o n y a n n o u n c i n g d e e p e r c u t s o f e d u c a t i o n a n d m u n i c i p a l s e r v i c e s , t h e s t a g e w a s s e t f o r t h e 2 0 0 3 e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n . W u l f f e n t e r e d t h e r a c e a s t h e f a v o u r i t e t o w i n t h e e l e c t i o n a n d e s s e n t i a l l y c a m p a i g n e d o n a p l a t f o r m o f f i s c a l r e s t r a i n t a n d c l e a r - c u t r e f o r m s i n t h e a r e a s o f l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a n d e d u c a t i o n . B o t h i s s u e s w e r e d e c i s i v e i n t h e e l e c t i o n s t h a t l e d t o a c h a n g e i n f o r t u n e s f o r t h e t w o m a j o r p a r t i e s . T h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s , i n t h e p o l i t i c a l w i l d e r n e s s s i n c e t h e 1 9 9 0 S c h r ö d e r v i c t o r y , w e r e r e t u r n e d t o p o w e r w i t h a n a b s o l u t e m a j o r i t y i n t h e s t a t e p a r l i a m e n t , g a i n i n g 4 8 . 3 % o f t h e v o t e . W u l f f w a s s w o r n i n a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o n 2 0 0 3 , a s t h e h e a d o f a c o a l i t i o n b e t w e e n c e n t r e - r i g h t C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s a n d l i b e r a l F r e e D e m o c r a t s ( F D P ) . A s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y , W u l f f p u r s u e d a m u l t i t u d e o f r e f o r m s , i n c l u d i n g a r e s t r u c t u r a t i o n o f t h e p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m i n t h e s t a t e , a s w e l l a s a n i n c r e a s e o f p o l i c e o f f i c e r s o n t h e b e a t . W h e n W u l f f t o o k o f f i c e , L o w e r S a x o n y f a c e d a s e v e r e b u d g e t c r i s i s , r e s u l t i n g f r o m y e a r s o f p u b l i c d e f i c i t s . P a i n f u l c u t s t o p u b l i c e x p e n d i t u r e w e r e e n a c t e d a n d i m p l e m e n t e d a g a i n s t c o n s i d e r a b l e p o l i t i c a l r e s i s t a n c e . T h e m e a s u r e s i n c l u d e d c u t s i n u n i v e r s i t y f u n d i n g a n d i n b e n e f i t s f o r t h e b l i n d . O t h e r p o l i c i e s c o n c e r n t h e r e f o r m o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e a b o l i t i o n o f c e r t a i n d i s t r i c t a u t h o r i t i e s ) . B u d g e t a r y p r o b l e m s c o n t i n u e d t o o v e r s h a d o w W u l f f ' s p o l i c i e s , a l b e i t w i t h s o m e w h a t l e s s p r e s s u r e . M a n y m e a s u r e s h a v e r e m a i n e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l . P r i o r t o t h e 2 0 0 5 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n , W u l f f w a s m e n t i o n e d a s a p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e f e d e r a l c h a n c e l l o r s h i p . I n a s p r i n g 2 0 0 5 p o l l , 2 8 % o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s n a m e d W u l f f a s t h e i r p r e f e r r e d c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c n o m i n a t i o n f o r C h a n c e l l o r . A s W u l f f h a d o n l y b e g a n h i s f i r s t t e r m a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y i n e a r l y 2 0 0 3 , h e l a r g e l y d i s m i s s e d s u c h s p e c u l a t i o n s . S p e c u l a t i o n h a d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c r e a s e d s i n c e t h e D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 4 C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c f e d e r a l c o n v e n t i o n i n D ü s s e l d o r f , w h e n W u l f f w a s r e e l e c t e d d e p u t y l e a d e r o f t h e f e d e r a l p a r t y w i t h r o u g h l y 8 6 % o f a l l d e l e g a t e s s u p p o r t i n g h i m . H o w e v e r , t h e p r e m a t u r e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e B u n d e s t a g i n 2 0 0 5 a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t e l e c t i o n o f C h a n c e l l o r A n g e l a M e r k e l l a r g e l y p u t a n e n d t o f u r t h e r s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t W u l f f ' s f u t u r e a t t h e t i m e . A W u l f f c a n d i d a c y f o r t h e C D U n o m i n a t i o n f o r C h a n c e l l o r w a s s e e n t o a p p e a l t o n o r t h e r n e r s a n d l i b e r a l s w i t h i n t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s . O u t s i d e t h e m o l d o f a t y p i c a l c o n s e r v a t i v e , h e w a s a b l e t o a t t r a c t s w i n g v o t e r s d i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h t h e s l o w n e s s o f r e f o r m s , a s w e l l a s t h e t h e n r a t h e r h i g h r a t e s o f u n e m p l o y m e n t i n G e r m a n y . I n d e e d , h e w o r k e d o n i n c r e a s i n g h i s v i s i b i l i t y b e y o n d L o w e r S a x o n y ' s c o n f i n e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y b y a p p e a r i n g f r e q u e n t l y o n t e l e v i s i o n s h o w s a n d g i v i n g i n t e r v i e w s t o t h e n a t i o n a l n e w s p a p e r s . M o r e o v e r , W u l f f w a s a l s o a c q u i r i n g a p r o f i l e o n a b r o a d r a n g e o f i s s u e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e r e f o r m o f t h e G e r m a n l a n g u a g e , M e d i c a r e a n d s o c i a l s e c u r i t y r e f o r m , a s w e l l a s a m o d e r n i s a t i o n o f G e r m a n y ' s f e d e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n , t h e " G r u n d g e s e t z " . I n f a c t , h e c r i t i c i s e d t h e c o n s e n s u s r e a c h e d b e t w e e n t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c a n d S o c i a l D e m o c r a t i c p a r t i e s o n t h e m o d e r n i s a t i o n o f G e r m a n y ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n , s t a t i n g t h a t h e f e l t t h a t t h e s t a t e s ( " L ä n d e r " ) h a d n o t b e e n g i v e n s u f f i c i e n t p o w e r s t o d e a l w i t h t h e i r o w n a f f a i r s . W u l f f a l s o t o o k a c o n s e r v a t i v e s t a n d o n n u c l e a r e n e r g y , a d v o c a t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e d e a d l i n e s f o r t h e d e c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f G e r m a n y ' s n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s . I n a s p e e c h , W u l f f a l s o e x p r e s s e d h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o e u t h a n a s i a a n d w a r n e d o f a r e t r e a t o f m o r a l v a l u e s . T h i s w a s s e e n a s t h e f i r s t a t t e m p t t o f o r m u l a t e a v a l u e - b a s e d a g e n d a f o r t h e 2 0 0 8 s t a t e , a s w e l l a s m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e 2 0 0 9 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t C h a n c e l l o r M e r k e l h a d b e e n s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i s e d f o r a l a c k o f e m o t i o n a l w a r m t h d u r i n g t h e 2 0 0 5 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n , l e a d i n g t o a w o r s e - t h a n - e x p e c t e d r e s u l t f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s . W u l f f a n n o u n c e d o n 8 J a n u a r y 2 0 0 6 t h a t L o w e r S a x o n y w o u l d b e c o m e t h e f i r s t s t a t e t o a p p r o v e a n e w m o d e l a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e g o v e r n m e n t w i l l t e m p o r a r i l y p a y p a r t o f t h e s a l a r i e s f o r l o w - s a l a r y j o b s , i f t h e e m p l o y e r s c o n c e r n e d a r e w i l l i n g t o e m p l o y a n e m p l o y e e c o n c e r n e d o n a l o n g - t e r m b a s i s . T h i s p i l o t w a s s u p p o s e d t o m a k e n e w j o b s m o r e a f f o r d a b l e i n G e r m a n y ' s n o t o r i o u s l y h i g h - w a g e s e n v i r o n m e n t . D u e t o h i s p o p u l a r i t y i n L o w e r S a x o n y , a n d i n f e d e r a l o p i n i o n p o l l s , W u l f f w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a c o n t e n d e r f o r t h e o f f i c e o f C h a n c e l l o r . A f t e r t h e 2 3 M a y a n n o u n c e m e n t t h a t f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n s w e r e t o b e a d v a n c e d t o S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 5 , W u l f f a n n o u n c e d t h a t h e w a s n o t a c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t n o m i n a t i o n f o r C h a n c e l l o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s h e h a d n o t c o m p l e t e d h i s f i r s t t e r m a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y . I n s t e a d , W u l f f d e c l a r e d h i s s u p p o r t f o r C D U p a r t y a n d p a r l i a m e n t a r y l e a d e r A n g e l a M e r k e l . A l t h o u g h t h e r e w a s s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t W u l f f w o u l d b e g i v e n a p o s i t i o n i n t h e n e w g o v e r n m e n t , e n t e r i n g f e d e r a l p o l i t i c s , h e r e m a i n e d M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y . W u l f f w a s e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t o f G e r m a n y o n 2 0 1 0 t o f o l l o w H o r s t K ö h l e r , w h o h a d r e s i g n e d o n 3 1 M a y 2 0 1 0 . H e w o n 6 2 5 o f 1 , 2 4 2 v o t e s o n t h e t h i r d b a l l o t o f t h e F e d e r a l C o n v e n t i o n . H e b e c a m e G e r m a n y ' s y o u n g e s t p r e s i d e n t a t t h e a g e o f 5 1 a n d w a s s w o r n i n o n 2 J u l y 2 0 1 0 i n f r o n t o f t h e B u n d e s t a g a n d t h e B u n d e s r a t . H i s m a i n c o n t e n d e r i n t h e e l e c t i o n w a s J o a c h i m G a u c k , a c i v i l r i g h t s a c t i v i s t f r o m E a s t G e r m a n y a n d f o r m e r F e d e r a l C o m m i s s i o n e r f o r t h e S t a s i R e c o r d s . N o t a m e m b e r o f a n y p a r t y h i m s e l f , G a u c k w a s n o m i n a t e d b y t h e o p p o s i t i o n S P D a n d G r e e n s a s t h e i r p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e o n . W u l f f w a s s u c c e e d e d a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y b y D a v i d M c A l l i s t e r . W u l f f ' s c a n d i d a c y f o r P r e s i d e n t o f G e r m a n y i n t h e 2 0 1 0 p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n w a s f o r m a l l y c o n f i r m e d b y A n g e l a M e r k e l , G u i d o W e s t e r w e l l e a n d H o r s t S e e h o f e r , t h e h e a d s o f t h e g o v e r n i n g C D U , F D P a n d C S U p a r t i e s , d u r i n g t h e e v e n i n g o f 2 0 1 0 . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 1 , P r e s i d e n t W u l f f o p e n e d a n e c o n o m i s t s ' c o n f e r e n c e w i t h a s p e e c h o n t h e e u r o . H e c r i t i c i s e d t h e E u r o p e a n C e n t r a l B a n k ( E C B ) , w h i c h h a d e n t e r e d a s e c o n d r o u n d o f b o n d b u y - u p s f r o m h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d e u r o - z o n e n a t i o n s , c a l l i n g t h e p l a n t o s t a b i l i s e t h e e u r o " l e g a l l y a n d p o l i t i c a l l y q u e s t i o n a b l e " . I n D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 1 , G e r m a n m e d i a r e p o r t e d a l l e g a t i o n s t h a t W u l f f h a d d e c e i v e d t h e P a r l i a m e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y i n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 0 , d u r i n g a n i n q u i r y i n t o h i s c o n n e c t i o n s a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y w i t h a n u m b e r o f a f f l u e n t b u s i n e s s m e n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r o f q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p u r c h a s e o f a h o u s e , f o r w h i c h W u l f f a c c e p t e d a l o a n f r o m a n e n t r e p r e n e u r f a m i l y w i t h w h o m h e w a s f r i e n d s . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , W u l f f t r i e d t o i n f l u e n c e t h e m e d i a c o v e r a g e i n t h e r u n - u p t o t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e s c a n d a l . A d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w e r e l a u n c h e d i n t o W u l f f ' s p o l i t i c a l d e a l i n g w i t h v a r i o u s e n t r e p r e n e u r s w i t h w h o m h e a n d h i s f a m i l y s p e n t t h e i r p r i v a t e v a c a t i o n s . S i n c e i t w a s n o t c l e a r w h o h a d p a i d f o r t h e s e h o l i d a y s , W u l f f w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y a c c u s e d o f f a v o r i t i s m a n d u n e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r . A f t e r t h e d i s t r i c t a t t o r n e y ' s o f f i c e i n H a n o v e r h a d r e q u e s t e d t h e l i f t i n g o f h i s i m m u n i t y o n 1 6 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 2 , W u l f f t h e n r e s i g n e d a s G e r m a n P r e s i d e n t t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y . O n 2 7 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 , t w o y e a r s a f t e r h i s r e s i g n a t i o n , W u l f f w a s a c q u i t t e d o f a l l c o r r u p t i o n c h a r g e s b y t h e H a n o v e r r e g i o n a l c o u r t . I n 2 0 1 6 W u l f f w a s a w a r d e d t h e M e r c a t o r V i s i t i n g P r o f e s s o r s h i p f o r P o l i t i c a l M a n a g e m e n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t ä t E s s e n - D u i s b u r g ' s N R W S c h o o l o f G o v e r n a n c e . H e g a v e b o t h s e m i n a r s a n d l e c t u r e s a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 7 , i t w a s r e v e a l e d t h a t W u l f f a l s o w o r k s a s a n a d v i s o r f o r t h e G e r m a n b r a n c h o f Y a r g i c i , a T u r k i s h h i g h - s t r e e t f a s h i o n c o m p a n y . C h r i s t i a n W u l f f m e t h i s f i r s t w i f e , l a w y e r C h r i s t i a n e V o g t ( b o r n 1 9 6 1 ) , w h e n t h e y w e r e b o t h l a w s t u d e n t s i n O s n a b r ü c k i n 1 9 8 3 . T h e y m a r r i e d i n M a r c h 1 9 8 8 , a n d h a v e a d a u g h t e r , A n n a l e n a ( b o r n 1 9 9 3 ) . I n J u n e 2 0 0 6 , W u l f f a n n o u n c e d t h e i r d i v o r c e . W u l f f s u b s e q u e n t l y m a r r i e d B e t t i n a K ö r n e r ( b o r n 1 9 7 3 i n H a n n o v e r ) , o n 2 0 0 8 a t a c e r e m o n y i n C a s t l e H e r r e n h a u s e n , n e a r H a n n o v e r . S h e h a s a s o n L e a n d e r B a l t h a s a r ( 2 0 0 3 ) f r o m a p r e v i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p . O n 2 0 0 8 , g a v e b i r t h t o t h e i r f i r s t c h i l d t o g e t h e r , a b o y n a m e d L i n u s . W u l f f a n d s e c o n d w i f e B e t t i n a a n n o u n c e d t h e i r s e p a r a t i o n i n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 3 , a n d h e m o v e d o u t o f t h e i r H a n n o v e r h o m e . T h e y s t a r t e d d i v o r c e p r o c e e d i n g s i n M a r c h 2 0 1 5 , b u t r e c o n c i l e d a m e r e t w o m o n t h s t h e r e a f t e r . T h e y s e p a r a t e d a s e c o n d t i m e i n 2 0 1 8 .

Political career

Christian Wulff began his political career in 1975 as a member of the CDU. He held various positions within the party, including federal chairman of the "Schülerunion" and state chairman in Lower Saxony. In 1986, he was elected a city councillor and later became the CDU's candidate for Minister President of Lower Saxony in 1994 and 1998, but lost both times. He eventually won the election in 2003 and served as Minister President until 2010, when he was elected President of Germany. During his tenure, he implemented several reforms, including restructuring the primary education system and increasing police officers on the beat.

Since 1975, Wulff has been a member of the CDU. From 1978 to 1980, he served as federal chairman of the "Schülerunion", a political high school student organization affiliated with the Christian Democrats. From 1979 to 1983, he was on the executive board of the Junge Union and became its state chairman in Lower Saxony in 1983. However, he decided to resign from the board in order to pursue his law degree, which he completed in 1986. The same year, he was elected a city councillor in his hometown. Since 1984, he sat on the CDU's state party council of Lower Saxony, serving as its chairman from 1994 to 2008. The Christian Democrats made Wulff candidate for Minister President of the state in the run-up of the 1994 parliamentary election. However, the popular incumbent Gerhard Schröder won an absolute majority in the Lower Saxony legislature, while the state CDU under Wulff received one of its worst results, leading some observers to doubt the wisdom of the provincial party nominating a young and neophyte candidate for Premier. After four years in opposition, the 1998 legislative assembly election brought another opportunity for Wulff to become Minister President. Indeed, the federal Christian Democrat party, led by Chancellor Helmut Kohl, pinned their hopes on Wulff – a Wulff victory would have stopped the inevitable rise of Schröder to the Social Democrat nomination for Chancellor. However, supported by a wave of sympathy for his potential candidacy for chancellor in the 1998 federal election, Schröder was returned to power by an enhanced majority – leaving Wulff to serve five more years as state leader of the opposition. Schröder won the 1998 federal election, leaving the post of Minister President to his anointed successor, Interior minister Gerhard Glogowski. The latter soon stumbled over a scandal involving free travel paid by TUI and was succeeded by young parliamentary leader Sigmar Gabriel. In the wake of the 1999 scandal, as well as rising discontent with Schröder's federal cabinet, the Christian Democrats rose in the opinion polls and became a serious contender for power in the 2003 parliamentary election. Wulff had been one of the four deputy chairmen of the CDU party at the federal level after 1998, and had been a board member of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation after 2003. With Lower Saxony announcing deeper cuts of education and municipal services, the stage was set for the 2003 election campaign. Wulff entered the race as the favourite to win the election and essentially campaigned on a platform of fiscal restraint and clear-cut reforms in the areas of law enforcement and education. Both issues were decisive in the elections that led to a change in fortunes for the two major parties. The Christian Democrats, in the political wilderness since the 1990 Schröder victory, were returned to power with an absolute majority in the state parliament, gaining 48.3% of the vote. Wulff was sworn in as Minister President on 2003, as the head of a coalition between centre-right Christian Democrats and liberal Free Democrats (FDP). As Minister President of Lower Saxony, Wulff pursued a multitude of reforms, including a restructuration of the primary education system in the state, as well as an increase of police officers on the beat. When Wulff took office, Lower Saxony faced a severe budget crisis, resulting from years of public deficits. Painful cuts to public expenditure were enacted and implemented against considerable political resistance. The measures included cuts in university funding and in benefits for the blind. Other policies concern the reform of the administration (especially the abolition of certain district authorities). Budgetary problems continued to overshadow Wulff's policies, albeit with somewhat less pressure. Many measures have remained controversial. Prior to the 2005 federal election, Wulff was mentioned as a potential candidate for the federal chancellorship. In a spring 2005 poll, 28% of all respondents named stand on nuclear energy, advocating an extension of the deadlines for the decommissioning of Germany's nuclear reactors. In a speech, Wulff also expressed his opposition to euthanasia and warned of a retreat of moral values. This was seen as the first attempt to formulate a value-based agenda for the 2008 state, as well as more importantly, the 2009 federal election. In this context, it is important to note that Chancellor Merkel had been severely criticised for a lack of emotional warmth during the 2005 federal election campaign, leading to a worse-than-expected result for the Christian Democrats. Wulff announced on 8 January 2006 that Lower Saxony would become the first state to approve a new model according to which the government will temporarily pay part of the salaries for low-salary jobs, if the employers concerned are willing to employ an employee concerned on a long-term basis. This pilot was supposed to make new jobs more affordable in Germany's notoriously high-wages environment. Due to his popularity in Lower Saxony, and in federal opinion polls, Wulff was considered to be a contender for the office of Chancellor. After the 23 May announcement that federal elections were to be advanced to September 2005, Wulff announced that he was not a candidate for the Christian Democrat nomination for Chancellor, particularly as he had not completed his first term as Minister President of Lower Saxony. Instead, Wulff declared his support for CDU party and parliamentary leader Angela Merkel. Although there was speculation that Wulff would be given a position in the new government, entering federal politics, he remained Minister President of Lower Saxony. Wulff was elected President of Germany on 2010 to follow Horst Köhler, who had resigned on 31 May 2010. He won 625 of 1,242 votes on the third ballot of the Federal Convention. He became Germany's youngest president at the age of 51 and was sworn in on 2 July 2010 in front of the Bundestag and the Bundesrat. His main contender in the election was Joachim Gauck, a civil rights activist from East Germany and former Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records. Not a member of any party himself, Gauck was nominated by the opposition SPD and Greens as their presidential candidate on . Wulff was succeeded as Minister President of Lower Saxony by David McAllister.

Christian Wulff

W u l f f w a s b o r n i n O s n a b r ü c k a n d i s R o m a n C a t h o l i c . H e w a s t h e f i r s t R o m a n C a t h o l i c t o h o l d t h e p o s t o f P r e s i d e n t o f G e r m a n y s i n c e H e i n r i c h L ü b k e ( 1 9 5 9 – 1 9 6 9 ) a n d t h e f i r s t P r e s i d e n t t o h a v e b e e n b o r n i n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I p e r i o d . H i s f a t h e r l e f t t h e f a m i l y , a n d h e g r e w u p w i t h h i s m o t h e r . A s a t e e n a g e r , h e t o o k r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e c a r e o f h i s y o u n g e r s i s t e r , a f t e r h i s m o t h e r d e v e l o p e d m u l t i p l e s c l e r o s i s . A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g h i s A b i t u r a t t h e E r n s t M o r i t z A r n d t G y m n a s i u m i n O s n a b r ü c k , W u l f f s t u d i e d l a w w i t h a s p e c i a l i s a t i o n i n e c o n o m i c s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f O s n a b r ü c k . H e j o i n e d t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c U n i o n o f G e r m a n y i n 1 9 7 5 . I n 1 9 8 7 a n d 1 9 9 0 , h e p a s s e d t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d s t a t e e x a m i n a t i o n s i n l a w , a n d h a s s i n c e w o r k e d a s a n a t t o r n e y . S i n c e 1 9 7 5 , W u l f f h a s b e e n a m e m b e r o f t h e C D U . F r o m 1 9 7 8 t o 1 9 8 0 , h e s e r v e d a s f e d e r a l c h a i r m a n o f t h e " S c h ü l e r u n i o n " , a p o l i t i c a l h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s . F r o m 1 9 7 9 t o 1 9 8 3 , h e w a s o n t h e e x e c u t i v e b o a r d o f t h e J u n g e U n i o n a n d b e c a m e i t s s t a t e c h a i r m a n i n L o w e r S a x o n y i n 1 9 8 3 . H o w e v e r , h e d e c i d e d t o r e s i g n f r o m t h e b o a r d i n o r d e r t o p u r s u e h i s l a w d e g r e e , w h i c h h e c o m p l e t e d i n 1 9 8 6 . T h e s a m e y e a r , h e w a s e l e c t e d a c i t y c o u n c i l l o r i n h i s h o m e t o w n . S i n c e 1 9 8 4 , h e s a t o n t h e C D U ' s s t a t e p a r t y c o u n c i l o f L o w e r S a x o n y , s e r v i n g a s i t s c h a i r m a n f r o m 1 9 9 4 t o 2 0 0 8 . T h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s m a d e W u l f f c a n d i d a t e f o r M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f t h e s t a t e i n t h e r u n - u p o f t h e 1 9 9 4 p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e p o p u l a r i n c u m b e n t G e r h a r d S c h r ö d e r w o n a n a b s o l u t e m a j o r i t y i n t h e L o w e r S a x o n y l e g i s l a t u r e , w h i l e t h e s t a t e C D U u n d e r W u l f f r e c e i v e d o n e o f i t s w o r s t r e s u l t s , l e a d i n g s o m e o b s e r v e r s t o d o u b t t h e w i s d o m o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l p a r t y n o m i n a t i n g a y o u n g a n d n e o p h y t e c a n d i d a t e f o r P r e m i e r . A f t e r f o u r y e a r s i n o p p o s i t i o n , t h e 1 9 9 8 l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l y e l e c t i o n b r o u g h t a n o t h e r o p p o r t u n i t y f o r W u l f f t o b e c o m e M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t . I n d e e d , t h e f e d e r a l C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t p a r t y , l e d b y C h a n c e l l o r H e l m u t K o h l , p i n n e d t h e i r h o p e s o n W u l f f – a W u l f f v i c t o r y w o u l d h a v e s t o p p e d t h e i n e v i t a b l e r i s e o f S c h r ö d e r t o t h e S o c i a l D e m o c r a t n o m i n a t i o n f o r C h a n c e l l o r . H o w e v e r , s u p p o r t e d b y a w a v e o f s y m p a t h y f o r h i s p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a c y f o r c h a n c e l l o r i n t h e 1 9 9 8 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n , S c h r ö d e r w a s r e t u r n e d t o p o w e r b y a n e n h a n c e d m a j o r i t y – l e a v i n g W u l f f t o s e r v e f i v e m o r e y e a r s a s s t a t e l e a d e r o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n . S c h r ö d e r w o n t h e 1 9 9 8 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n , l e a v i n g t h e p o s t o f M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t t o h i s a n o i n t e d s u c c e s s o r , I n t e r i o r m i n i s t e r G e r h a r d G l o g o w s k i . T h e l a t t e r s o o n s t u m b l e d o v e r a s c a n d a l i n v o l v i n g f r e e t r a v e l p a i d b y T U I a n d w a s s u c c e e d e d b y y o u n g p a r l i a m e n t a r y l e a d e r S i g m a r G a b r i e l . I n t h e w a k e o f t h e 1 9 9 9 s c a n d a l , a s w e l l a s r i s i n g d i s c o n t e n t w i t h S c h r ö d e r ' s f e d e r a l c a b i n e t , t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s r o s e i n t h e o p i n i o n p o l l s a n d b e c a m e a s e r i o u s c o n t e n d e r f o r p o w e r i n t h e 2 0 0 3 p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n . W u l f f h a d b e e n o n e o f t h e f o u r d e p u t y c h a i r m e n o f t h e C D U p a r t y a t t h e f e d e r a l l e v e l a f t e r 1 9 9 8 , a n d h a d b e e n a b o a r d m e m b e r o f t h e K o n r a d A d e n a u e r F o u n d a t i o n a f t e r 2 0 0 3 . W i t h L o w e r S a x o n y a n n o u n c i n g d e e p e r c u t s o f e d u c a t i o n a n d m u n i c i p a l s e r v i c e s , t h e s t a g e w a s s e t f o r t h e 2 0 0 3 e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n . W u l f f e n t e r e d t h e r a c e a s t h e f a v o u r i t e t o w i n t h e e l e c t i o n a n d e s s e n t i a l l y c a m p a i g n e d o n a p l a t f o r m o f f i s c a l r e s t r a i n t a n d c l e a r - c u t r e f o r m s i n t h e a r e a s o f l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a n d e d u c a t i o n . B o t h i s s u e s w e r e d e c i s i v e i n t h e e l e c t i o n s t h a t l e d t o a c h a n g e i n f o r t u n e s f o r t h e t w o m a j o r p a r t i e s . T h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s , i n t h e p o l i t i c a l w i l d e r n e s s s i n c e t h e 1 9 9 0 S c h r ö d e r v i c t o r y , w e r e r e t u r n e d t o p o w e r w i t h a n a b s o l u t e m a j o r i t y i n t h e s t a t e p a r l i a m e n t , g a i n i n g 4 8 . 3 % o f t h e v o t e . W u l f f w a s s w o r n i n a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o n 2 0 0 3 , a s t h e h e a d o f a c o a l i t i o n b e t w e e n c e n t r e - r i g h t C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s a n d l i b e r a l F r e e D e m o c r a t s ( F D P ) . A s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y , W u l f f p u r s u e d a m u l t i t u d e o f r e f o r m s , i n c l u d i n g a r e s t r u c t u r a t i o n o f t h e p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m i n t h e s t a t e , a s w e l l a s a n i n c r e a s e o f p o l i c e o f f i c e r s o n t h e b e a t . W h e n W u l f f t o o k o f f i c e , L o w e r S a x o n y f a c e d a s e v e r e b u d g e t c r i s i s , r e s u l t i n g f r o m y e a r s o f p u b l i c d e f i c i t s . P a i n f u l c u t s t o p u b l i c e x p e n d i t u r e w e r e e n a c t e d a n d i m p l e m e n t e d a g a i n s t c o n s i d e r a b l e p o l i t i c a l r e s i s t a n c e . T h e m e a s u r e s i n c l u d e d c u t s i n u n i v e r s i t y f u n d i n g a n d i n b e n e f i t s f o r t h e b l i n d . O t h e r p o l i c i e s c o n c e r n t h e r e f o r m o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e a b o l i t i o n o f c e r t a i n d i s t r i c t a u t h o r i t i e s ) . B u d g e t a r y p r o b l e m s c o n t i n u e d t o o v e r s h a d o w W u l f f ' s p o l i c i e s , a l b e i t w i t h s o m e w h a t l e s s p r e s s u r e . M a n y m e a s u r e s h a v e r e m a i n e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l . P r i o r t o t h e 2 0 0 5 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n , W u l f f w a s m e n t i o n e d a s a p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e f e d e r a l c h a n c e l l o r s h i p . I n a s p r i n g 2 0 0 5 p o l l , 2 8 % o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s n a m e d W u l f f a s t h e i r p r e f e r r e d c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c n o m i n a t i o n f o r C h a n c e l l o r . A s W u l f f h a d o n l y b e g a n h i s f i r s t t e r m a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y i n e a r l y 2 0 0 3 , h e l a r g e l y d i s m i s s e d s u c h s p e c u l a t i o n s . S p e c u l a t i o n h a d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c r e a s e d s i n c e t h e D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 4 C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c f e d e r a l c o n v e n t i o n i n D ü s s e l d o r f , w h e n W u l f f w a s r e e l e c t e d d e p u t y l e a d e r o f t h e f e d e r a l p a r t y w i t h r o u g h l y 8 6 % o f a l l d e l e g a t e s s u p p o r t i n g h i m . H o w e v e r , t h e p r e m a t u r e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e B u n d e s t a g i n 2 0 0 5 a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t e l e c t i o n o f C h a n c e l l o r A n g e l a M e r k e l l a r g e l y p u t a n e n d t o f u r t h e r s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t W u l f f ' s f u t u r e a t t h e t i m e . A W u l f f c a n d i d a c y f o r t h e C D U n o m i n a t i o n f o r C h a n c e l l o r w a s s e e n t o a p p e a l t o n o r t h e r n e r s a n d l i b e r a l s w i t h i n t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s . O u t s i d e t h e m o l d o f a t y p i c a l c o n s e r v a t i v e , h e w a s a b l e t o a t t r a c t s w i n g v o t e r s d i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h t h e s l o w n e s s o f r e f o r m s , a s w e l l a s t h e t h e n r a t h e r h i g h r a t e s o f u n e m p l o y m e n t i n G e r m a n y . I n d e e d , h e w o r k e d o n i n c r e a s i n g h i s v i s i b i l i t y b e y o n d L o w e r S a x o n y ' s c o n f i n e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y b y a p p e a r i n g f r e q u e n t l y o n t e l e v i s i o n s h o w s a n d g i v i n g i n t e r v i e w s t o t h e n a t i o n a l n e w s p a p e r s . M o r e o v e r , W u l f f w a s a l s o a c q u i r i n g a p r o f i l e o n a b r o a d r a n g e o f i s s u e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e r e f o r m o f t h e G e r m a n l a n g u a g e , M e d i c a r e a n d s o c i a l s e c u r i t y r e f o r m , a s w e l l a s a m o d e r n i s a t i o n o f G e r m a n y ' s f e d e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n , t h e " G r u n d g e s e t z " . I n f a c t , h e c r i t i c i s e d t h e c o n s e n s u s r e a c h e d b e t w e e n t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c a n d S o c i a l D e m o c r a t i c p a r t i e s o n t h e m o d e r n i s a t i o n o f G e r m a n y ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n , s t a t i n g t h a t h e f e l t t h a t t h e s t a t e s ( " L ä n d e r " ) h a d n o t b e e n g i v e n s u f f i c i e n t p o w e r s t o d e a l w i t h t h e i r o w n a f f a i r s . W u l f f a l s o t o o k a c o n s e r v a t i v e s t a n d o n n u c l e a r e n e r g y , a d v o c a t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e d e a d l i n e s f o r t h e d e c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f G e r m a n y ' s n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s . I n a s p e e c h , W u l f f a l s o e x p r e s s e d h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o e u t h a n a s i a a n d w a r n e d o f a r e t r e a t o f m o r a l v a l u e s . T h i s w a s s e e n a s t h e f i r s t a t t e m p t t o f o r m u l a t e a v a l u e - b a s e d a g e n d a f o r t h e 2 0 0 8 s t a t e , a s w e l l a s m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e 2 0 0 9 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t C h a n c e l l o r M e r k e l h a d b e e n s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i s e d f o r a l a c k o f e m o t i o n a l w a r m t h d u r i n g t h e 2 0 0 5 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n , l e a d i n g t o a w o r s e - t h a n - e x p e c t e d r e s u l t f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s . W u l f f a n n o u n c e d o n 8 J a n u a r y 2 0 0 6 t h a t L o w e r S a x o n y w o u l d b e c o m e t h e f i r s t s t a t e t o a p p r o v e a n e w m o d e l a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e g o v e r n m e n t w i l l t e m p o r a r i l y p a y p a r t o f t h e s a l a r i e s f o r l o w - s a l a r y j o b s , i f t h e e m p l o y e r s c o n c e r n e d a r e w i l l i n g t o e m p l o y a n e m p l o y e e c o n c e r n e d o n a l o n g - t e r m b a s i s . T h i s p i l o t w a s s u p p o s e d t o m a k e n e w j o b s m o r e a f f o r d a b l e i n G e r m a n y ' s n o t o r i o u s l y h i g h - w a g e s e n v i r o n m e n t . D u e t o h i s p o p u l a r i t y i n L o w e r S a x o n y , a n d i n f e d e r a l o p i n i o n p o l l s , W u l f f w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a c o n t e n d e r f o r t h e o f f i c e o f C h a n c e l l o r . A f t e r t h e 2 3 M a y a n n o u n c e m e n t t h a t f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n s w e r e t o b e a d v a n c e d t o S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 5 , W u l f f a n n o u n c e d t h a t h e w a s n o t a c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t n o m i n a t i o n f o r C h a n c e l l o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s h e h a d n o t c o m p l e t e d h i s f i r s t t e r m a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y . I n s t e a d , W u l f f d e c l a r e d h i s s u p p o r t f o r C D U p a r t y a n d p a r l i a m e n t a r y l e a d e r A n g e l a M e r k e l . A l t h o u g h t h e r e w a s s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t W u l f f w o u l d b e g i v e n a p o s i t i o n i n t h e n e w g o v e r n m e n t , e n t e r i n g f e d e r a l p o l i t i c s , h e r e m a i n e d M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y . W u l f f w a s e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t o f G e r m a n y o n 2 0 1 0 t o f o l l o w H o r s t K ö h l e r , w h o h a d r e s i g n e d o n 3 1 M a y 2 0 1 0 . H e w o n 6 2 5 o f 1 , 2 4 2 v o t e s o n t h e t h i r d b a l l o t o f t h e F e d e r a l C o n v e n t i o n . H e b e c a m e G e r m a n y ' s y o u n g e s t p r e s i d e n t a t t h e a g e o f 5 1 a n d w a s s w o r n i n o n 2 J u l y 2 0 1 0 i n f r o n t o f t h e B u n d e s t a g a n d t h e B u n d e s r a t . H i s m a i n c o n t e n d e r i n t h e e l e c t i o n w a s J o a c h i m G a u c k , a c i v i l r i g h t s a c t i v i s t f r o m E a s t G e r m a n y a n d f o r m e r F e d e r a l C o m m i s s i o n e r f o r t h e S t a s i R e c o r d s . N o t a m e m b e r o f a n y p a r t y h i m s e l f , G a u c k w a s n o m i n a t e d b y t h e o p p o s i t i o n S P D a n d G r e e n s a s t h e i r p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e o n . W u l f f w a s s u c c e e d e d a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y b y D a v i d M c A l l i s t e r . W u l f f ' s c a n d i d a c y f o r P r e s i d e n t o f G e r m a n y i n t h e 2 0 1 0 p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n w a s f o r m a l l y c o n f i r m e d b y A n g e l a M e r k e l , G u i d o W e s t e r w e l l e a n d H o r s t S e e h o f e r , t h e h e a d s o f t h e g o v e r n i n g C D U , F D P a n d C S U p a r t i e s , d u r i n g t h e e v e n i n g o f 2 0 1 0 . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 1 , P r e s i d e n t W u l f f o p e n e d a n e c o n o m i s t s ' c o n f e r e n c e w i t h a s p e e c h o n t h e e u r o . H e c r i t i c i s e d t h e E u r o p e a n C e n t r a l B a n k ( E C B ) , w h i c h h a d e n t e r e d a s e c o n d r o u n d o f b o n d b u y - u p s f r o m h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d e u r o - z o n e n a t i o n s , c a l l i n g t h e p l a n t o s t a b i l i s e t h e e u r o " l e g a l l y a n d p o l i t i c a l l y q u e s t i o n a b l e " . I n D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 1 , G e r m a n m e d i a r e p o r t e d a l l e g a t i o n s t h a t W u l f f h a d d e c e i v e d t h e P a r l i a m e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y i n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 0 , d u r i n g a n i n q u i r y i n t o h i s c o n n e c t i o n s a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y w i t h a n u m b e r o f a f f l u e n t b u s i n e s s m e n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r o f q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p u r c h a s e o f a h o u s e , f o r w h i c h W u l f f a c c e p t e d a l o a n f r o m a n e n t r e p r e n e u r f a m i l y w i t h w h o m h e w a s f r i e n d s . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , W u l f f t r i e d t o i n f l u e n c e t h e m e d i a c o v e r a g e i n t h e r u n - u p t o t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e s c a n d a l . A d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w e r e l a u n c h e d i n t o W u l f f ' s p o l i t i c a l d e a l i n g w i t h v a r i o u s e n t r e p r e n e u r s w i t h w h o m h e a n d h i s f a m i l y s p e n t t h e i r p r i v a t e v a c a t i o n s . S i n c e i t w a s n o t c l e a r w h o h a d p a i d f o r t h e s e h o l i d a y s , W u l f f w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y a c c u s e d o f f a v o r i t i s m a n d u n e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r . A f t e r t h e d i s t r i c t a t t o r n e y ' s o f f i c e i n H a n o v e r h a d r e q u e s t e d t h e l i f t i n g o f h i s i m m u n i t y o n 1 6 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 2 , W u l f f t h e n r e s i g n e d a s G e r m a n P r e s i d e n t t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y . O n 2 7 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 , t w o y e a r s a f t e r h i s r e s i g n a t i o n , W u l f f w a s a c q u i t t e d o f a l l c o r r u p t i o n c h a r g e s b y t h e H a n o v e r r e g i o n a l c o u r t . I n 2 0 1 6 W u l f f w a s a w a r d e d t h e M e r c a t o r V i s i t i n g P r o f e s s o r s h i p f o r P o l i t i c a l M a n a g e m e n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t ä t E s s e n - D u i s b u r g ' s N R W S c h o o l o f G o v e r n a n c e . H e g a v e b o t h s e m i n a r s a n d l e c t u r e s a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 7 , i t w a s r e v e a l e d t h a t W u l f f a l s o w o r k s a s a n a d v i s o r f o r t h e G e r m a n b r a n c h o f Y a r g i c i , a T u r k i s h h i g h - s t r e e t f a s h i o n c o m p a n y . C h r i s t i a n W u l f f m e t h i s f i r s t w i f e , l a w y e r C h r i s t i a n e V o g t ( b o r n 1 9 6 1 ) , w h e n t h e y w e r e b o t h l a w s t u d e n t s i n O s n a b r ü c k i n 1 9 8 3 . T h e y m a r r i e d i n M a r c h 1 9 8 8 , a n d h a v e a d a u g h t e r , A n n a l e n a ( b o r n 1 9 9 3 ) . I n J u n e 2 0 0 6 , W u l f f a n n o u n c e d t h e i r d i v o r c e . W u l f f s u b s e q u e n t l y m a r r i e d B e t t i n a K ö r n e r ( b o r n 1 9 7 3 i n H a n n o v e r ) , o n 2 0 0 8 a t a c e r e m o n y i n C a s t l e H e r r e n h a u s e n , n e a r H a n n o v e r . S h e h a s a s o n L e a n d e r B a l t h a s a r ( 2 0 0 3 ) f r o m a p r e v i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p . O n 2 0 0 8 , g a v e b i r t h t o t h e i r f i r s t c h i l d t o g e t h e r , a b o y n a m e d L i n u s . W u l f f a n d s e c o n d w i f e B e t t i n a a n n o u n c e d t h e i r s e p a r a t i o n i n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 3 , a n d h e m o v e d o u t o f t h e i r H a n n o v e r h o m e . T h e y s t a r t e d d i v o r c e p r o c e e d i n g s i n M a r c h 2 0 1 5 , b u t r e c o n c i l e d a m e r e t w o m o n t h s t h e r e a f t e r . T h e y s e p a r a t e d a s e c o n d t i m e i n 2 0 1 8 .

Political career ; President of Germany

Christian Wulff served as President of Germany from 2010 to 2012. Prior to his presidency, he held various positions including Minister President of Lower Saxony and leader of the opposition in the state legislature. Wulff was a member of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany and was known for his fiscally conservative policies. During his presidency, he faced criticism for his handling of the European sovereign-debt crisis and was eventually forced to resign due to allegations of corruption.

Wulff was born in Osnabrück and is Roman Catholic. He was the first Roman Catholic to hold the post of President of Germany since Heinrich Lübke (1959–1969) and the first President to have been born in the post-World War II period. His father left the family, and he grew up with his mother. As a teenager, he took responsibility for the care of his younger sister, after his mother developed multiple sclerosis. After completing his Abitur at the Ernst Moritz Arndt Gymnasium in Osnabrück, Wulff studied law with a specialisation in economics at the University of Osnabrück. He joined the Christian Democratic Union of Germany in 1975. In 1987 and 1990, he passed the first and second state examinations in law, and has since worked as an attorney. parliamentary election. However, the popular incumbent Gerhard Schröder won an absolute majority in the Lower Saxony legislature, while the state CDU under Wulff received one of its worst results, leading some observers to doubt the wisdom of the provincial party nominating a young and neophyte candidate for Premier. After four years in opposition, the 1998 legislative assembly election brought another opportunity for Wulff to become Minister President. Indeed, the federal Christian Democrat party, led by Chancellor Helmut Kohl, pinned their hopes on Wulff – a Wulff victory would have stopped the inevitable rise of Schröder to the Social Democrat nomination for Chancellor. However, supported by a wave of sympathy for his potential candidacy for chancellor in the 1998 federal election, Schröder was returned to power by an enhanced majority – leaving Wulff to serve five more years as state leader of the opposition. Schröder won the 1998 federal election, leaving the post of Minister President to his anointed successor, Interior minister Gerhard Glogowski. The latter soon stumbled over a scandal involving free travel paid by TUI and was succeeded by young parliamentary leader Sigmar Gabriel. In the wake of the 1999 scandal, as well as rising discontent with Schröder's federal cabinet, the Christian Democrats rose in the opinion polls and became a serious contender for power in the 2003 parliamentary election. Wulff had been one of the four deputy chairmen of the CDU party at the federal level after 1998, and had been a board member of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation after 2003. With Lower Saxony announcing deeper cuts of education and municipal services, the stage was set for the 2003 election campaign. Wulff entered the race as the favourite to win the election and essentially campaigned on a platform of fiscal restraint and clear-cut reforms in the areas of law enforcement and education. Both issues were decisive in the elections that led to a change in fortunes for the two major parties. The Christian Democrats, in the political wilderness since the 1990 Schröder victory, were returned to power with an absolute majority in the state parliament, gaining 48.3% of the vote. Wulff was sworn in as Minister President on 2003, as the head of a coalition between centre-right Christian Democrats and liberal Free Democrats (FDP). As Minister President of Lower Saxony, Wulff pursued low-salary jobs, if the employers concerned are willing to employ an employee concerned on a long-term basis. This pilot was supposed to make new jobs more affordable in Germany's notoriously high-wages environment. Due to his popularity in Lower Saxony, and in federal opinion polls, Wulff was considered to be a contender for the office of Chancellor. After the 23 May announcement that federal elections were to be advanced to September 2005, Wulff announced that he was not a candidate for the Christian Democrat nomination for Chancellor, particularly as he had not completed his first term as Minister President of Lower Saxony. Instead, Wulff declared his support for CDU party and parliamentary leader Angela Merkel. Although there was speculation that Wulff would be given a position in the new government, entering federal politics, he remained Minister President of Lower Saxony. Wulff was elected President of Germany on 2010 to follow Horst Köhler, who had resigned on 31 May 2010. He won 625 of 1,242 votes on the third ballot of the Federal Convention. He became Germany's youngest president at the age of 51 and was sworn in on 2 July 2010 in front of the Bundestag and the Bundesrat. His main contender in the election was Joachim Gauck, a civil rights activist from East Germany and former Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records. Not a member of any party himself, Gauck was nominated by the opposition SPD and Greens as their presidential candidate on . Wulff was succeeded as Minister President of Lower Saxony by David McAllister. Wulff's candidacy for President of Germany in the 2010 presidential election was formally confirmed by Angela Merkel, Guido Westerwelle and Horst Seehofer, the heads of the governing CDU, FDP and CSU parties, during the evening of 2010. In August 2011, President Wulff opened an economists' conference with a speech on the euro. He criticised the European Central Bank (ECB), which had entered a second round of bond buy-ups from heavily indebted euro-zone nations, calling the plan to stabilise the euro "legally and politically questionable". In December 2011, German media reported allegations that Wulff had deceived the Parliament of Lower Saxony in February 2010, during an inquiry into his connections as Minister President of Lower Saxony with a number of affluent businessmen. In particular, there were a number of questions concerning the purchase of a house, for which Wulff accepted a loan from an entrepreneur family with whom he was friends. In this context, Wulff tried to influence the media coverage in the run-up to the breaking of the scandal. Additional investigations were launched into Wulff's political dealing with various entrepreneurs with whom he and his family spent their private vacations. Since it was not clear who had paid for these holidays, Wulff was subsequently accused of favoritism and unethical behavior. After the district attorney's office in Hanover had requested the lifting of his immunity on 16 February 2012, Wulff then resigned as German President the following day. On 27 February 2014, two years after his resignation, Wulff was acquitted of all corruption charges by the Hanover

Christian Wulff

W u l f f w a s b o r n i n O s n a b r ü c k a n d i s R o m a n C a t h o l i c . H e w a s t h e f i r s t R o m a n C a t h o l i c t o h o l d t h e p o s t o f P r e s i d e n t o f G e r m a n y s i n c e H e i n r i c h L ü b k e ( 1 9 5 9 – 1 9 6 9 ) a n d t h e f i r s t P r e s i d e n t t o h a v e b e e n b o r n i n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I p e r i o d . H i s f a t h e r l e f t t h e f a m i l y , a n d h e g r e w u p w i t h h i s m o t h e r . A s a t e e n a g e r , h e t o o k r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e c a r e o f h i s y o u n g e r s i s t e r , a f t e r h i s m o t h e r d e v e l o p e d m u l t i p l e s c l e r o s i s . A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g h i s A b i t u r a t t h e E r n s t M o r i t z A r n d t G y m n a s i u m i n O s n a b r ü c k , W u l f f s t u d i e d l a w w i t h a s p e c i a l i s a t i o n i n e c o n o m i c s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f O s n a b r ü c k . H e j o i n e d t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c U n i o n o f G e r m a n y i n 1 9 7 5 . I n 1 9 8 7 a n d 1 9 9 0 , h e p a s s e d t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d s t a t e e x a m i n a t i o n s i n l a w , a n d h a s s i n c e w o r k e d a s a n a t t o r n e y . S i n c e 1 9 7 5 , W u l f f h a s b e e n a m e m b e r o f t h e C D U . F r o m 1 9 7 8 t o 1 9 8 0 , h e s e r v e d a s f e d e r a l c h a i r m a n o f t h e " S c h ü l e r u n i o n " , a p o l i t i c a l h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s . F r o m 1 9 7 9 t o 1 9 8 3 , h e w a s o n t h e e x e c u t i v e b o a r d o f t h e J u n g e U n i o n a n d b e c a m e i t s s t a t e c h a i r m a n i n L o w e r S a x o n y i n 1 9 8 3 . H o w e v e r , h e d e c i d e d t o r e s i g n f r o m t h e b o a r d i n o r d e r t o p u r s u e h i s l a w d e g r e e , w h i c h h e c o m p l e t e d i n 1 9 8 6 . T h e s a m e y e a r , h e w a s e l e c t e d a c i t y c o u n c i l l o r i n h i s h o m e t o w n . S i n c e 1 9 8 4 , h e s a t o n t h e C D U ' s s t a t e p a r t y c o u n c i l o f L o w e r S a x o n y , s e r v i n g a s i t s c h a i r m a n f r o m 1 9 9 4 t o 2 0 0 8 . T h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s m a d e W u l f f c a n d i d a t e f o r M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f t h e s t a t e i n t h e r u n - u p o f t h e 1 9 9 4 p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e p o p u l a r i n c u m b e n t G e r h a r d S c h r ö d e r w o n a n a b s o l u t e m a j o r i t y i n t h e L o w e r S a x o n y l e g i s l a t u r e , w h i l e t h e s t a t e C D U u n d e r W u l f f r e c e i v e d o n e o f i t s w o r s t r e s u l t s , l e a d i n g s o m e o b s e r v e r s t o d o u b t t h e w i s d o m o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l p a r t y n o m i n a t i n g a y o u n g a n d n e o p h y t e c a n d i d a t e f o r P r e m i e r . A f t e r f o u r y e a r s i n o p p o s i t i o n , t h e 1 9 9 8 l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l y e l e c t i o n b r o u g h t a n o t h e r o p p o r t u n i t y f o r W u l f f t o b e c o m e M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t . I n d e e d , t h e f e d e r a l C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t p a r t y , l e d b y C h a n c e l l o r H e l m u t K o h l , p i n n e d t h e i r h o p e s o n W u l f f – a W u l f f v i c t o r y w o u l d h a v e s t o p p e d t h e i n e v i t a b l e r i s e o f S c h r ö d e r t o t h e S o c i a l D e m o c r a t n o m i n a t i o n f o r C h a n c e l l o r . H o w e v e r , s u p p o r t e d b y a w a v e o f s y m p a t h y f o r h i s p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a c y f o r c h a n c e l l o r i n t h e 1 9 9 8 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n , S c h r ö d e r w a s r e t u r n e d t o p o w e r b y a n e n h a n c e d m a j o r i t y – l e a v i n g W u l f f t o s e r v e f i v e m o r e y e a r s a s s t a t e l e a d e r o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n . S c h r ö d e r w o n t h e 1 9 9 8 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n , l e a v i n g t h e p o s t o f M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t t o h i s a n o i n t e d s u c c e s s o r , I n t e r i o r m i n i s t e r G e r h a r d G l o g o w s k i . T h e l a t t e r s o o n s t u m b l e d o v e r a s c a n d a l i n v o l v i n g f r e e t r a v e l p a i d b y T U I a n d w a s s u c c e e d e d b y y o u n g p a r l i a m e n t a r y l e a d e r S i g m a r G a b r i e l . I n t h e w a k e o f t h e 1 9 9 9 s c a n d a l , a s w e l l a s r i s i n g d i s c o n t e n t w i t h S c h r ö d e r ' s f e d e r a l c a b i n e t , t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s r o s e i n t h e o p i n i o n p o l l s a n d b e c a m e a s e r i o u s c o n t e n d e r f o r p o w e r i n t h e 2 0 0 3 p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n . W u l f f h a d b e e n o n e o f t h e f o u r d e p u t y c h a i r m e n o f t h e C D U p a r t y a t t h e f e d e r a l l e v e l a f t e r 1 9 9 8 , a n d h a d b e e n a b o a r d m e m b e r o f t h e K o n r a d A d e n a u e r F o u n d a t i o n a f t e r 2 0 0 3 . W i t h L o w e r S a x o n y a n n o u n c i n g d e e p e r c u t s o f e d u c a t i o n a n d m u n i c i p a l s e r v i c e s , t h e s t a g e w a s s e t f o r t h e 2 0 0 3 e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n . W u l f f e n t e r e d t h e r a c e a s t h e f a v o u r i t e t o w i n t h e e l e c t i o n a n d e s s e n t i a l l y c a m p a i g n e d o n a p l a t f o r m o f f i s c a l r e s t r a i n t a n d c l e a r - c u t r e f o r m s i n t h e a r e a s o f l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a n d e d u c a t i o n . B o t h i s s u e s w e r e d e c i s i v e i n t h e e l e c t i o n s t h a t l e d t o a c h a n g e i n f o r t u n e s f o r t h e t w o m a j o r p a r t i e s . T h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s , i n t h e p o l i t i c a l w i l d e r n e s s s i n c e t h e 1 9 9 0 S c h r ö d e r v i c t o r y , w e r e r e t u r n e d t o p o w e r w i t h a n a b s o l u t e m a j o r i t y i n t h e s t a t e p a r l i a m e n t , g a i n i n g 4 8 . 3 % o f t h e v o t e . W u l f f w a s s w o r n i n a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o n 2 0 0 3 , a s t h e h e a d o f a c o a l i t i o n b e t w e e n c e n t r e - r i g h t C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s a n d l i b e r a l F r e e D e m o c r a t s ( F D P ) . A s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y , W u l f f p u r s u e d a m u l t i t u d e o f r e f o r m s , i n c l u d i n g a r e s t r u c t u r a t i o n o f t h e p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m i n t h e s t a t e , a s w e l l a s a n i n c r e a s e o f p o l i c e o f f i c e r s o n t h e b e a t . W h e n W u l f f t o o k o f f i c e , L o w e r S a x o n y f a c e d a s e v e r e b u d g e t c r i s i s , r e s u l t i n g f r o m y e a r s o f p u b l i c d e f i c i t s . P a i n f u l c u t s t o p u b l i c e x p e n d i t u r e w e r e e n a c t e d a n d i m p l e m e n t e d a g a i n s t c o n s i d e r a b l e p o l i t i c a l r e s i s t a n c e . T h e m e a s u r e s i n c l u d e d c u t s i n u n i v e r s i t y f u n d i n g a n d i n b e n e f i t s f o r t h e b l i n d . O t h e r p o l i c i e s c o n c e r n t h e r e f o r m o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e a b o l i t i o n o f c e r t a i n d i s t r i c t a u t h o r i t i e s ) . B u d g e t a r y p r o b l e m s c o n t i n u e d t o o v e r s h a d o w W u l f f ' s p o l i c i e s , a l b e i t w i t h s o m e w h a t l e s s p r e s s u r e . M a n y m e a s u r e s h a v e r e m a i n e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l . P r i o r t o t h e 2 0 0 5 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n , W u l f f w a s m e n t i o n e d a s a p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e f e d e r a l c h a n c e l l o r s h i p . I n a s p r i n g 2 0 0 5 p o l l , 2 8 % o f a l l r e s p o n d e n t s n a m e d W u l f f a s t h e i r p r e f e r r e d c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c n o m i n a t i o n f o r C h a n c e l l o r . A s W u l f f h a d o n l y b e g a n h i s f i r s t t e r m a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y i n e a r l y 2 0 0 3 , h e l a r g e l y d i s m i s s e d s u c h s p e c u l a t i o n s . S p e c u l a t i o n h a d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c r e a s e d s i n c e t h e D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 4 C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c f e d e r a l c o n v e n t i o n i n D ü s s e l d o r f , w h e n W u l f f w a s r e e l e c t e d d e p u t y l e a d e r o f t h e f e d e r a l p a r t y w i t h r o u g h l y 8 6 % o f a l l d e l e g a t e s s u p p o r t i n g h i m . H o w e v e r , t h e p r e m a t u r e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e B u n d e s t a g i n 2 0 0 5 a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t e l e c t i o n o f C h a n c e l l o r A n g e l a M e r k e l l a r g e l y p u t a n e n d t o f u r t h e r s p e c u l a t i o n a b o u t W u l f f ' s f u t u r e a t t h e t i m e . A W u l f f c a n d i d a c y f o r t h e C D U n o m i n a t i o n f o r C h a n c e l l o r w a s s e e n t o a p p e a l t o n o r t h e r n e r s a n d l i b e r a l s w i t h i n t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s . O u t s i d e t h e m o l d o f a t y p i c a l c o n s e r v a t i v e , h e w a s a b l e t o a t t r a c t s w i n g v o t e r s d i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h t h e s l o w n e s s o f r e f o r m s , a s w e l l a s t h e t h e n r a t h e r h i g h r a t e s o f u n e m p l o y m e n t i n G e r m a n y . I n d e e d , h e w o r k e d o n i n c r e a s i n g h i s v i s i b i l i t y b e y o n d L o w e r S a x o n y ' s c o n f i n e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y b y a p p e a r i n g f r e q u e n t l y o n t e l e v i s i o n s h o w s a n d g i v i n g i n t e r v i e w s t o t h e n a t i o n a l n e w s p a p e r s . M o r e o v e r , W u l f f w a s a l s o a c q u i r i n g a p r o f i l e o n a b r o a d r a n g e o f i s s u e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e r e f o r m o f t h e G e r m a n l a n g u a g e , M e d i c a r e a n d s o c i a l s e c u r i t y r e f o r m , a s w e l l a s a m o d e r n i s a t i o n o f G e r m a n y ' s f e d e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n , t h e " G r u n d g e s e t z " . I n f a c t , h e c r i t i c i s e d t h e c o n s e n s u s r e a c h e d b e t w e e n t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t i c a n d S o c i a l D e m o c r a t i c p a r t i e s o n t h e m o d e r n i s a t i o n o f G e r m a n y ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n , s t a t i n g t h a t h e f e l t t h a t t h e s t a t e s ( " L ä n d e r " ) h a d n o t b e e n g i v e n s u f f i c i e n t p o w e r s t o d e a l w i t h t h e i r o w n a f f a i r s . W u l f f a l s o t o o k a c o n s e r v a t i v e s t a n d o n n u c l e a r e n e r g y , a d v o c a t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e d e a d l i n e s f o r t h e d e c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f G e r m a n y ' s n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s . I n a s p e e c h , W u l f f a l s o e x p r e s s e d h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o e u t h a n a s i a a n d w a r n e d o f a r e t r e a t o f m o r a l v a l u e s . T h i s w a s s e e n a s t h e f i r s t a t t e m p t t o f o r m u l a t e a v a l u e - b a s e d a g e n d a f o r t h e 2 0 0 8 s t a t e , a s w e l l a s m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e 2 0 0 9 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t C h a n c e l l o r M e r k e l h a d b e e n s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i s e d f o r a l a c k o f e m o t i o n a l w a r m t h d u r i n g t h e 2 0 0 5 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n , l e a d i n g t o a w o r s e - t h a n - e x p e c t e d r e s u l t f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t s . W u l f f a n n o u n c e d o n 8 J a n u a r y 2 0 0 6 t h a t L o w e r S a x o n y w o u l d b e c o m e t h e f i r s t s t a t e t o a p p r o v e a n e w m o d e l a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e g o v e r n m e n t w i l l t e m p o r a r i l y p a y p a r t o f t h e s a l a r i e s f o r l o w - s a l a r y j o b s , i f t h e e m p l o y e r s c o n c e r n e d a r e w i l l i n g t o e m p l o y a n e m p l o y e e c o n c e r n e d o n a l o n g - t e r m b a s i s . T h i s p i l o t w a s s u p p o s e d t o m a k e n e w j o b s m o r e a f f o r d a b l e i n G e r m a n y ' s n o t o r i o u s l y h i g h - w a g e s e n v i r o n m e n t . D u e t o h i s p o p u l a r i t y i n L o w e r S a x o n y , a n d i n f e d e r a l o p i n i o n p o l l s , W u l f f w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a c o n t e n d e r f o r t h e o f f i c e o f C h a n c e l l o r . A f t e r t h e 2 3 M a y a n n o u n c e m e n t t h a t f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n s w e r e t o b e a d v a n c e d t o S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 5 , W u l f f a n n o u n c e d t h a t h e w a s n o t a c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n D e m o c r a t n o m i n a t i o n f o r C h a n c e l l o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s h e h a d n o t c o m p l e t e d h i s f i r s t t e r m a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y . I n s t e a d , W u l f f d e c l a r e d h i s s u p p o r t f o r C D U p a r t y a n d p a r l i a m e n t a r y l e a d e r A n g e l a M e r k e l . A l t h o u g h t h e r e w a s s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t W u l f f w o u l d b e g i v e n a p o s i t i o n i n t h e n e w g o v e r n m e n t , e n t e r i n g f e d e r a l p o l i t i c s , h e r e m a i n e d M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y . W u l f f w a s e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t o f G e r m a n y o n 2 0 1 0 t o f o l l o w H o r s t K ö h l e r , w h o h a d r e s i g n e d o n 3 1 M a y 2 0 1 0 . H e w o n 6 2 5 o f 1 , 2 4 2 v o t e s o n t h e t h i r d b a l l o t o f t h e F e d e r a l C o n v e n t i o n . H e b e c a m e G e r m a n y ' s y o u n g e s t p r e s i d e n t a t t h e a g e o f 5 1 a n d w a s s w o r n i n o n 2 J u l y 2 0 1 0 i n f r o n t o f t h e B u n d e s t a g a n d t h e B u n d e s r a t . H i s m a i n c o n t e n d e r i n t h e e l e c t i o n w a s J o a c h i m G a u c k , a c i v i l r i g h t s a c t i v i s t f r o m E a s t G e r m a n y a n d f o r m e r F e d e r a l C o m m i s s i o n e r f o r t h e S t a s i R e c o r d s . N o t a m e m b e r o f a n y p a r t y h i m s e l f , G a u c k w a s n o m i n a t e d b y t h e o p p o s i t i o n S P D a n d G r e e n s a s t h e i r p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e o n . W u l f f w a s s u c c e e d e d a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y b y D a v i d M c A l l i s t e r . W u l f f ' s c a n d i d a c y f o r P r e s i d e n t o f G e r m a n y i n t h e 2 0 1 0 p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n w a s f o r m a l l y c o n f i r m e d b y A n g e l a M e r k e l , G u i d o W e s t e r w e l l e a n d H o r s t S e e h o f e r , t h e h e a d s o f t h e g o v e r n i n g C D U , F D P a n d C S U p a r t i e s , d u r i n g t h e e v e n i n g o f 2 0 1 0 . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 1 , P r e s i d e n t W u l f f o p e n e d a n e c o n o m i s t s ' c o n f e r e n c e w i t h a s p e e c h o n t h e e u r o . H e c r i t i c i s e d t h e E u r o p e a n C e n t r a l B a n k ( E C B ) , w h i c h h a d e n t e r e d a s e c o n d r o u n d o f b o n d b u y - u p s f r o m h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d e u r o - z o n e n a t i o n s , c a l l i n g t h e p l a n t o s t a b i l i s e t h e e u r o " l e g a l l y a n d p o l i t i c a l l y q u e s t i o n a b l e " . I n D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 1 , G e r m a n m e d i a r e p o r t e d a l l e g a t i o n s t h a t W u l f f h a d d e c e i v e d t h e P a r l i a m e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y i n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 0 , d u r i n g a n i n q u i r y i n t o h i s c o n n e c t i o n s a s M i n i s t e r P r e s i d e n t o f L o w e r S a x o n y w i t h a n u m b e r o f a f f l u e n t b u s i n e s s m e n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r o f q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p u r c h a s e o f a h o u s e , f o r w h i c h W u l f f a c c e p t e d a l o a n f r o m a n e n t r e p r e n e u r f a m i l y w i t h w h o m h e w a s f r i e n d s . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , W u l f f t r i e d t o i n f l u e n c e t h e m e d i a c o v e r a g e i n t h e r u n - u p t o t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e s c a n d a l . A d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w e r e l a u n c h e d i n t o W u l f f ' s p o l i t i c a l d e a l i n g w i t h v a r i o u s e n t r e p r e n e u r s w i t h w h o m h e a n d h i s f a m i l y s p e n t t h e i r p r i v a t e v a c a t i o n s . S i n c e i t w a s n o t c l e a r w h o h a d p a i d f o r t h e s e h o l i d a y s , W u l f f w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y a c c u s e d o f f a v o r i t i s m a n d u n e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r . A f t e r t h e d i s t r i c t a t t o r n e y ' s o f f i c e i n H a n o v e r h a d r e q u e s t e d t h e l i f t i n g o f h i s i m m u n i t y o n 1 6 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 2 , W u l f f t h e n r e s i g n e d a s G e r m a n P r e s i d e n t t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y . O n 2 7 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 4 , t w o y e a r s a f t e r h i s r e s i g n a t i o n , W u l f f w a s a c q u i t t e d o f a l l c o r r u p t i o n c h a r g e s b y t h e H a n o v e r r e g i o n a l c o u r t . I n 2 0 1 6 W u l f f w a s a w a r d e d t h e M e r c a t o r V i s i t i n g P r o f e s s o r s h i p f o r P o l i t i c a l M a n a g e m e n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t ä t E s s e n - D u i s b u r g ' s N R W S c h o o l o f G o v e r n a n c e . H e g a v e b o t h s e m i n a r s a n d l e c t u r e s a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y . I n A u g u s t 2 0 1 7 , i t w a s r e v e a l e d t h a t W u l f f a l s o w o r k s a s a n a d v i s o r f o r t h e G e r m a n b r a n c h o f Y a r g i c i , a T u r k i s h h i g h - s t r e e t f a s h i o n c o m p a n y . C h r i s t i a n W u l f f m e t h i s f i r s t w i f e , l a w y e r C h r i s t i a n e V o g t ( b o r n 1 9 6 1 ) , w h e n t h e y w e r e b o t h l a w s t u d e n t s i n O s n a b r ü c k i n 1 9 8 3 . T h e y m a r r i e d i n M a r c h 1 9 8 8 , a n d h a v e a d a u g h t e r , A n n a l e n a ( b o r n 1 9 9 3 ) . I n J u n e 2 0 0 6 , W u l f f a n n o u n c e d t h e i r d i v o r c e . W u l f f s u b s e q u e n t l y m a r r i e d B e t t i n a K ö r n e r ( b o r n 1 9 7 3 i n H a n n o v e r ) , o n 2 0 0 8 a t a c e r e m o n y i n C a s t l e H e r r e n h a u s e n , n e a r H a n n o v e r . S h e h a s a s o n L e a n d e r B a l t h a s a r ( 2 0 0 3 ) f r o m a p r e v i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p . O n 2 0 0 8 , g a v e b i r t h t o t h e i r f i r s t c h i l d t o g e t h e r , a b o y n a m e d L i n u s . W u l f f a n d s e c o n d w i f e B e t t i n a a n n o u n c e d t h e i r s e p a r a t i o n i n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 3 , a n d h e m o v e d o u t o f t h e i r H a n n o v e r h o m e . T h e y s t a r t e d d i v o r c e p r o c e e d i n g s i n M a r c h 2 0 1 5 , b u t r e c o n c i l e d a m e r e t w o m o n t h s t h e r e a f t e r . T h e y s e p a r a t e d a s e c o n d t i m e i n 2 0 1 8 .

Political career ; Scandals, resignation and final acquittal

Christian Wulff began his political career in 1975 as a member of the CDU. He held various positions within the party, including federal chairman of the "Schülerunion" and state chairman in Lower Saxony. In 1994, he ran for Minister President of Lower Saxony but lost to Gerhard Schröder. He eventually won the position in 2003 and served until 2010 when he was elected President of Germany. During his presidency, scandals arose regarding his acceptance of loans and favors from entrepreneurs, leading to his resignation in 2012. Two years later, he was acquitted of all corruption charges.

Since 1975, Wulff has been a member of the CDU. From 1978 to 1980, he served as federal chairman of the "Schülerunion", a political high school student organization affiliated with the Christian Democrats. From 1979 to 1983, he was on the executive board of the Junge Union and became its state chairman in Lower Saxony in 1983. However, he decided to resign from the board in order to pursue his law degree, which he completed in 1986. The same year, he was elected a city councillor in his hometown. Since 1984, he sat on the CDU's state party council of Lower Saxony, serving as its chairman from 1994 to 2008. The Christian Democrats made Wulff candidate for Minister President of the state in the run-up of the 1994 parliamentary election. However, the popular incumbent Gerhard Schröder won an absolute majority in the Lower Saxony legislature, while the state CDU under Wulff received one of its worst results, leading some observers to doubt the wisdom of the provincial party nominating a young and neophyte candidate for Premier. After four years in opposition, the 1998 legislative assembly election brought another opportunity for Wulff to become Minister President. Indeed, the federal Christian Democrat party, led by Chancellor Helmut Kohl, pinned their hopes on Wulff – a Wulff victory would have stopped the inevitable rise of Schröder to the Social Democrat nomination for Chancellor. However, supported by a wave of sympathy for his potential candidacy for chancellor in the 1998 federal election, Schröder was returned to power by an enhanced majority – leaving Wulff to serve five more years as state leader of the opposition. Schröder won the 1998 federal election, leaving the post of Minister President to his anointed successor, Interior minister Gerhard Glogowski. The latter soon stumbled over a scandal involving free travel paid by TUI and was succeeded by young parliamentary leader Sigmar Gabriel. In the wake of the 1999 scandal, as well as rising discontent with Schröder's federal cabinet, the Christian Democrats rose in the opinion polls and became a serious contender for power in the 2003 parliamentary election. Wulff had been one of the four deputy chairmen of the CDU party at the federal level after 1998, and had been a board member of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation after 2003. With Lower Saxony announcing deeper cuts of education and municipal services, the stage was set for the 2003 election campaign. Wulff entered the race as the favourite to win the election and essentially campaigned on a platform of fiscal restraint and clear-cut reforms in the areas of law enforcement and education. Both issues were decisive in the elections that led to a change in fortunes for the two major parties. The Christian Democrats, in the political wilderness since the 1990 Schröder victory, were returned to power with an absolute majority in the state parliament, gaining 48.3% of the vote. Wulff was sworn in as Minister President on 2003, as the head of a coalition between centre-right Christian Democrats and liberal Free Democrats (FDP). As Minister President of Lower Saxony, Wulff pursued a multitude of reforms, including a restructuration of the primary education system in the state, as well as an increase of police officers on the beat. When Wulff took office, Lower Saxony faced a severe budget crisis, resulting from years of public deficits. Painful cuts to public expenditure were enacted and implemented against considerable political resistance. The measures included cuts in university funding and in benefits for the blind. Other policies concern the reform of the administration (especially the abolition of certain district authorities). Budgetary problems continued to overshadow Wulff's policies, albeit with somewhat less pressure. Many measures have remained controversial. Prior to the 2005 federal election, Wulff was mentioned as a potential candidate for the federal chancellorship. In a spring 2005 poll, 28% of all respondents named stand on nuclear energy, advocating an extension of the deadlines for the decommissioning of Germany's nuclear reactors. In a speech, Wulff also expressed his opposition to euthanasia and warned of a retreat of moral values. This was seen as the first attempt to formulate a value-based agenda for the 2008 state, as well as more importantly, the 2009 federal election. In this context, it is important to note that Chancellor Merkel had been severely criticised for a lack of emotional warmth during the 2005 federal election campaign, leading to a worse-than-expected result for the Christian Democrats. Wulff announced on 8 January 2006 that Lower Saxony would become the first state to approve a new model according to which the government will temporarily pay part of the salaries for government, entering federal politics, he remained Minister President of Lower Saxony. Wulff was elected President of Germany on 2010 to follow Horst Köhler, who had resigned on 31 May 2010. He won 625 of 1,242 votes on the third ballot of the Federal Convention. He became Germany's youngest president at the age of 51 and was sworn in on 2 July 2010 in front of the Bundestag and the Bundesrat. His main contender in the election was Joachim Gauck, a civil rights activist from East Germany and former Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records. Not a member of any party himself, Gauck was nominated by the opposition SPD and Greens as their presidential candidate on . Wulff was succeeded as Minister President of Lower Saxony by David McAllister. questions concerning the purchase of a house, for which Wulff accepted a loan from an entrepreneur family with whom he was friends. In this context, Wulff tried to influence the media coverage in the run-up to the breaking of the scandal. Additional investigations were launched into Wulff's political dealing with various entrepreneurs with whom he and his family spent their private vacations. Since it was not clear who had paid for these holidays, Wulff was subsequently accused of favoritism and unethical behavior. After the district attorney's office in Hanover had requested the lifting of his immunity on 16 February 2012, Wulff then resigned as German President the following day. On 27 February 2014, two years after his resignation, Wulff was acquitted of all corruption charges by the Hanover

Peneda-Gerês National Park

P r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e i n h o s p i t a l i t y o f t h e G e r ê s M o u n t a i n s , t h e o l d e s t s i g n s o f h u m a n p r e s e n c e d a t e o n l y f r o m 6 0 0 0 B C t o 3 0 0 0 B C ; d o l m e n s a n d o t h e r m e g a l i t h i c t o m b s r e m a i n i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n , i n c l u d i n g n e a r C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o a n d M o u r e l a . H u m a n a c t i v i t i e s c o n s i s t e d o f a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y a n d i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a d e c r e a s e i n f o r e s t c o v e r . T h e R o m a n G e i r a , a R o m a n r o a d , w h i c h f o r m e r l y c o n n e c t e d t h e R o m a n " c i v i t a t e s " o f A s t u r i c a A u g u s t a a n d B r a c c a r a A u g u s t a , c r o s s e d w h a t i s n o w t h e p a r k . L o n g s t r e t c h e s o f t h e r o a d a l o n g t h e H o m e m R i v e r a r e s t i l l p r e s e r v e d , a s a r e s e v e r a l R o m a n b r i d g e s a n d n u m e r o u s m i l l e n a r i u m m a r k e r s . T h e G e r m a n i c t r i b e o f t h e B u r i a c c o m p a n i e d t h e S u e b i i n t h e i r i n v a s i o n o f t h e I b e r i a n P e n i n s u l a a n d e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n G a l l a e c i a ( m o d e r n n o r t h e r n P o r t u g a l a n d G a l i c i a ) . T h e B u r i s e t t l e d i n t h e r e g i o n b e t w e e n t h e C á v a d o a n d H o m e m r i v e r s , i n t h e a r e a l a t e r k n o w n a s T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( " L a n d o f t h e B u r i " ) . T h e m o v e f r o m t h e t e r r a c e d c l i f f s a n d s l o p e s t o t h e l o w l a n d r i v e r v a l l e y s b r o u g h t - o n a p a t t e r n e d o f n e w d e f o r e s t a t i o n . T h e r e o c c u p a t i o n o f m o u n t a i n a r e a s s t a r t e d i n t h e 1 2 t h c e n t u r y , i n t e n s i f y i n g i n t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m a i z e , b e a n s , a n d p o t a t o e s f r o m t h e A m e r i c a s . A g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s o c c u p i e d f o r m e r p a s t u r e s , a n d t h e s e w e r e d i s p l a c e d t o m o r e e l e v a t e d a r e a s r e s u l t i n g i n a m o s a i c o f f i e l d s , p a s t u r e s , a n d f o r e s t s . T h e r e f o r e s t a t i o n o f u n c u l t i v a t e d l a n d s , i m p o s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n 1 9 3 5 , r e d u c e d t h e a v a i l a b l e p a s t u r e s , a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o a r u r a l e x o d u s t h a t c o n t i n u e d a f t e r t h e 1 9 5 0 s . Y e t i t w a s s t i l l c o m m o n p r a c t i c e f o r t h e r e s i d e n t s o f m o u n t a i n c o m m u n i t i e s t o s p e n d p a r t o f t h e y e a r i n t w o l o c a t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y n e a r C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o . F r o m a b o u t E a s t e r t o a b o u t C h r i s t m a s , r e s i d e n t s w o u l d l i v e i n h o m e s o v e r 1 , 0 0 0   m a b o v e s e a l e v e l , k n o w n a s " b r a n d a " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " b r a n d o " , m e a n i n g ' m i l d ' o r ' g e n t l e ' ) . I n t h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t o f t h e y e a r , t h e s e i n h a b i t a n t s w o u l d o c c u p y h o m e s i n t h e r i v e r v a l l e y , k n o w n a s " i n v e r n e i r a " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " i n v e r n o " , m e a n i n g ' w i n t e r ' ) . I n 1 9 7 0 , t h e v i l l a g e o f V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s w a s f l o o d e d w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a d a m o n t h e H o m e m R i v e r . D u r i n g y e a r s w i t h l o w r a i n f a l l , t h e v i l l a g e r u i n s s t a n d s a b o v e t h e w a t e r , a t t r a c t i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f t o u r i s t s . T h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k ( c o m p l e t e d u n d e r d e c r e e n o . 1 8 7 / 7 1 , 8 M a y 1 9 7 1 ) e n v i s i o n e d a p l a n n i n g a r e a o f m o u n t a i n o u s s p a c e s , i n o r d e r t o c o n s e r v e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , w h i l e p e r m i t t i n g h u m a n a n d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e a c t i v i t i e s , w h i c h w o u l d i n c l u d e e d u c a t i o n a l , t o u r i s t i c a n d s c i e n t i f i c p r o j e c t s . A t h e a r t i s t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a a n d f a u n a , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f l a n d s c a p e s w i t h i n t h e v a s t m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n i n t h e n o r t h w e s t o f P o r t u g a l . I n 1 9 9 7 , P e n e d a - G e r ê s w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e N a t u r a 2 0 0 0 n e t w o r k , a n d i n 1 9 9 9 , d e s i g n a t e d a S p e c i a l P r o t e c t i o n A r e a f o r W i l d B i r d s . M o r e o v e r , i t a l s o e n c o m p a s s e s a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a o f n a t u r a l f o r e s t , w h i c h f o r m s p a r t o f t h e E u r o p e a n N e t w o r k o f B i o g e n e t i c R e s e r v e s , a n d i s r e c o g n i z e d a s a n a t i o n a l p a r k b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i o n f o r C o n s e r v a t i o n o f N a t u r e . I n 2 0 0 7 , i t w a s a c c e p t e d i n t h e P A N P a r k s n e t w o r k t h a t c e r t i f i e s t h e q u a l i t y p r o t e c t e d a r e a s , a c c o r d i n g t o r i g o r o u s c r i t e r i a o f n a t u r e c o n s e r v a t i o n , c u l t u r a l s e r v i c e s a n d s u s t a i n a b i l i t y . T h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k i s l o c a t e d i n t h e n o r t h w e s t o f P o r t u g a l , e x t e n d i n g t h r o u g h t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f M e l g a ç o , A r c o s d e V a l d e v e z a n d P o n t e d a B a r c a ( i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f V i a n a d o C a s t e l o ) , T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( d i s t r i c t o f B r a g a ) , a n d M o n t a l e g r e ( d i s t r i c t o f V i l a R e a l ) . T h e p a r k i n c l u d e s a n a r e a o f 7 0 2 . 9 0   k m 2 , o f w h i c h 5 2 . 7 5   k m 2 a r e p u b l i c l a n d s , 1 9 4 . 3 8   k m 2 a r e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g 4 5 5 . 7 7   k m 2 a r e c o m m o n s . T h e p a r k i s a v a s t a m p h i t h e a t r e - s h a p e d s p a c e s c u l p t e d d u r i n g t h e V a r i s c a n o r o g e n y b y g e o l o g i c a l f o r c e s , w i n d a n d w a t e r , a n d e x t e n d s f r o m t h e C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o t o t h e M o u r e l a p l a t e a u s , e n c o m p a s s i n g t h e S e r r a d a P e n e d a , S e r r a d o S o a j o , S e r r a A m a r e l a a n d t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s . T h e s e f o r m a b a r r i e r b e t w e e n t h e o c e a n p l a i n s t o i t s w e s t a n d t h e p l a t e a u s i n t h e e a s t . T h e h i g h e s t p e a k s a r e P e n e d a ( 1 3 4 0   m ) , S o a j o ( 1 4 3 0   m ) , A m a r e l o ( 1 3 5 0   m ) , G e r ê s ( 1 5 4 5   m ) a n d A l t a r d o s C a b r õ e s ( 1 , 5 3 8   m ) l o c a t e d o n t h e b o r d e r w i t h G a l i c i a , c o n t i n u i n g i n t o t h i s t e r r i t o r y a s p a r t o f t h e S e r r a d o X u r é s . T h e g r a n i t i c r o c k s t h a t d o m i n a t e t h i s s h i e l d w e r e d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n t i n e n t a l c o l l i s i o n t h a t b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r t h e l o w e r I b e r i a n p e n i n s u l a w i t h E u r o p e , b e t w e e n 3 8 0 m i l l i o n a n d 2 7 5 m i l l i o n y e a r s ; t h e o l d e s t o f t h e m , a t A m a r e l a , d a t e f r o m 3 1 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o . T h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e o f t h e g r a n i t i c r o c k s t h a t o c c u r w i t h i n t h e p a r k a r e t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s p l u t o n w h i c h i s a n e x p o s e d r e l i e f t h a t b e c a m e e x p o s e d a r o u n d 2 9 0 - 2 9 6 M a b y t h e G e r ê s - L o v i o s f a u l t . S e d i m e n t a r y l a y e r s l a i d d o w n b e t w e e n 4 3 5 a n d 4 0 8 M a ( S i l u r i a n e p o c h ) w e r e d e f o r m e d a n d m e t a m o r p h o s e d i n t o s c h i s t s , g r e y w a c k e s a n d q u a r t z i t e s ( s u c h a s i n t h e a r e a o f C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o ) . A l s o , d y k e s a n d s i l l s f o r m e d f r o m q u a r t z a n d a p l i t e - p e g m a t i t e s w e r e m i n e r a l i z e d r e s u l t i n g i n t i n , t u n g s t e n , m o l y b d e n u m a n d g o l d ( w h i c h w o u l d b e c o m e t h e f o c u s o f m i n i n g i n t h e h u m a n e r a , a t t h e n o w - c l o s e d m i n e s o f C a r r i s a n d B o r r a g e i r o ) . G e n e r a l l y , t h e l i t h o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e l a y e r s : D u r i n g t h e P l e i s t o c e n e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 . 8 t o 0 . 0 0 1 M a a g o ) c l i m a t i c v a r i a t i o n s r e s u l t e d i n a n e x t e n s i o n o f g l a c i a l f i e l d s t o t h e m i d - l a t i t u d e s . W h i l e t h e r e a r e n o r e m n a n t s o f g l a c i e r s n o w , t h e i r I c e A g e p r o d u c t s ( U - s h a p e d v a l l e y s , m o r a i n e s , g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s , p o l i s h e d a n d n a t u r a l g r a n i t e s u r f a c e s ) a r e i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e S e r r a d a P e n e d a , S e r r a d o S o a j o a n d S e r r a d o G e r ê s m o u n t a i n r a n g e s . T h e p r i n c i p a l w a t e r s h e d s t h a t c r o s s t h e p a r k a r e t h o s e o f t h e M i n h o ( o c c u p y i n g 2 % o f t h e p a r k ) , L i m a ( 4 7 . 8 % ) a n d C á v a d o ( 5 0 . 2 % ) , w i t h b r o o k s a n d w a t e r f a l l s c o m m o n o n m a n y o f t h e m o u n t a i n s l o p e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o s e v e r a l s e c o n d a r y t r i b u t a r i e s ( s u c h a s t h e H o m e m , R a b a g ã o , C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o , a n d A r a d o r i v e r s ) . T h e L i m a c u t s a c r o s s t h e P N P G e a s t t o w e s t , w h i l e t h e C á v a d o s e r v e s t h e s o u t h e r n l i m i t s o f t h e d i s t r i c t s o f V i l a R e a l a n d B r a g a . F r a c t u r e s i n t h e l a n d s c a p e h a v e c o n f i n e d t h e r i v e r s t o d e e p , s t r a i g h t v a l l e y s a n d a r e v i s i b l e i n t h e y o u n g e r g r a n i t e o u t c r o p s v i s i b l e i n t h e u n c o v e r e d h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s . O w i n g t o t h e n u m b e r t r i b u t a r i e s , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h y d r o e l e c t r i c a l d a m s h a s b e e n u n d e r t a k e n t o g e n e r a t e e l e c t r i c i t y a c r o s s s i x l o c a t i o n s : A l t o R a b a g ã o , P a r a d e l a , C a n i ç a d a , V i l a r i n h o d a F u r n a , T o u v e d o a n d L i n d o s o . S o i l s w i t h i n t h e e l e v a t e d t e r r a i n s a n d i n c l i n e d s p a c e s a r e n o n - e x i s t e n t , w h i l e t h e v a l l e y s a r e r i c h a n d d e e p , d e p o s i t e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d b y p l u v i a l a c t i o n . T h e s e s t r a t a a r e t e x t u r e d , p e r m e a b l e , e a s i l y w o r k e d , a l b e i t w i t h a w e a k c o n s i s t e n c y , a n d m a r k e d b y t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r e . T h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f b i o m a s s a n d e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n , a l o n g w i t h t h e l o w a u t u m n - w i n t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s g i v e a n o r i g i n t o t h e a l t e r a t i o n s i n p H l e v e l s . T h e e l e v a t e d l e v e l s o f i n c o m p l e t e l y d e c o m p o s e d o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l , l o w i n p h o s p h o r u s a n d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y l o w / h i g h i n p o t a s s i u m , a r e s u b j e c t o f a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t i o n . T h e r e g i o n o f t h e P a r q u e N a c i o n a l P e n e d a G e r ê s f a l l s w i t h i n a t r a n s i t i o n a l z o n e b e t w e e n t h e A t l a n t i c a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n e n v i r o n m e n t s , a n d i s i n f l u e n c e d b y v a r i o u s c l i m a t i c s y s t e m s : A t l a n t i c , M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d C o n t i n e n t a l . I t s c l i m a t e i s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e t o p o g r a p h y ; t h e m o u n t a i n s e x e r t a b a r r i e r e f f e c t t o t h e p a s s a g e o f h o t a n d w e t a i r m a s s e s c o m i n g f r o m t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n , r e s u l t i n g i n e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r . I t f a l l s i n a p a r t o f P o r t u g a l ( a n d E u r o p e ) t h a t i s a f f e c t e d b y e x t r e m e r a i n f a l l , o b t a i n i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n l e v e l s o f 3 2 0 0 m i l l i m e t r e s p e r y e a r o n h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s , a n d 1 6 0 0 m i l l i m e t r e s a t l o w e r a l t i t u d e s , w i t h m o r e t h a n 1 3 0 r a i n y d a y s p e r y e a r . A v e r a g e d a i l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g e f r o m 1 0   ° C t o 2 1   ° C , w i t h s o m e v a r i a t i o n ; t h e h i g h l a n d s h a v e a n a v e r a g e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e o f a b o u t 1 1   ° C , r a n g i n g f r o m 4 t o 2 0   ° C , o n e o f t h e f e w p l a c e s i n P o r t u g a l w i t h a n o c e a n i c c l i m a t e , w h i l e a r e a s i n t h e v a l l e y s ( s u c h a s t h e H o m e m , L i m a a n d C á v a d o r i v e r v a l l e y s ) h a v e w a r m e r c l i m a t e s , w i t h d a i l y m a x t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g i n g f r o m 1 2 t o 2 8   ° C ( w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 2 0   ° C ) , t r a n s i t i o n i n g i n t o a H o t - s u m m e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n c l i m a t e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e a r e a i s p r o n e t o v a r i o u s m i c r o - c l i m a t e s , a f f e c t e d b y v a r i a t i o n s i n a l t i t u d e , t o p o g r a p h i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , h u m a n o c c u p a t i o n , d i f f e r e n t e x p o s u r e s a n d t h e r m a l v a r i a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , t h i s d i f f e r e n c e h a s r e s u l t e d i n a n i n t e r c h a n g e o f v e g e t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f M e d i t e r r a n e a n , E u r o - S i b e r i a n a n d A l p i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s . R i v a s - M a r t i n e z d e f i n e d t h e f o o t h i l l s o f b o t h t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s a n d t h e S e r r a d a C a b r e i r a ( l a n d s b e l o w t h e T â m e g a , A v e a n d C á v a d o w a t e r s h e d s ) a s t h e f r o n t i e r b e t w e e n t h e E u r o - S i b e r i a n a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e g i o n s , g r a n t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t f l o r a l a n d p h y t o g e o g r a p h i c i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k . B i o m a s s c o v e r a g e o f t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s , S e r r a A m a r e l a , S e r r a d o P e n e d a a n d S e r r a d o S o a j o , a s w e l l a s t h e M o u r e l a a n d C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o p l a t e a u s , a r e d o m i n a t e d b y f o u r d i s t i n c t b i o m e s : o a k f o r e s t , s h r u b b e r y , m a r s h e s a n d r i p a r i a n v e g e t a t i o n . T h e f l o r i s t i c d i v e r s i t y i n c l u d e s 8 2 3 v a s c u l a r t a x a t h a t o c c u r i n 1 2 8 t y p e s o f n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n . T h e o a k f o r e s t s w h i c h a r e c o m m o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e p a r k , a r e e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e R a m i s c a l , P e n e d a , G e r ê s a n d B e r e d o r i v e r v a l l e y s . T h e s e f o r e s t e d a r e a s a r e d o m i n a t e d b y a n a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e P y r e n e a n ( " Q u e r c u s p y r e n a i c a " ) a n d E u r o p e a n ( " Q u e r c u s r o b u r " ) o a k s , w h i c h t h e m s e l v e s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a m o n g t h e l o w e r a l t i t u d e s a n d e x p o s e d f l a n k s ( t h e " R u s c e t o - Q u e r c e t u m r o b o r i s " ) a n d t h o s e o f t y p i c a l A t l a n t i c e n v i r o n m e n t s ( " M y r e t i l l o - Q u e r c e t u m r o b o r i s " ) . T h e f i r s t a s s o c i a t i o n i s c o m m o n l y f o u n d w i t h E u r o p e a n o a k ( " Q u e r c u s r o b e r " ) , c o r k o a k ( " Q u e r c u s s u b e r " ) , b u t c h e r ' s b r o o m ( " R u s c u s a c u l e a t u s " ) , m a p l e ( " A c e r p s e u d o p l a t a n u s " ) a n d P o r t u g u e s e l a u r e l ( " P r u n u s l u s i t a n i c a " ) , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d a s s o c i a t i o n u n i t e s t h e E u r o p e a n a n d P y r e n e a n o a k s w i t h b i l b e r r y ( " V a c c i n i u m m y r t i l l u s " ) , s t r a w b e r r y t r e e ( " A r b u t u s u n e d o " ) a n d E u r o p e a n h o l l y ( " I l e x a q u i f o l i u m " ) . I n u p p e r a l t i t u d e s t h e r e a r e p a t c h e s o f E u r o p e a n o a k t h a t e n t e r i n t o t h e i r o w n a s s o c i a t i o n ( " H o l c o - Q u e r c e t u m p y r e n a c i a " ) , w h i c h i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a n o t h e r g r o u p ( " Q u e r i c o n r o b r i - p a t r a e a " ) . T h e s e o a k s h a v e b e e n , o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f h u m a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h e o b j e c t o f i n t e n s e u s e , r e s u l t i n g i n a g e n e r a l d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e s p a c e s i n t o n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n s h r u b b e r y . T h e b u s h a n d s h r u b l a n d s , w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s p a c e s ( 7 4 % o f t h e p a r k ) , a r e d o m i n a t e d b y d w a r f ( " U l e x m i n o r " ) a n d E u r o p e a n ( " U l e x e u r o p a e u s " ) g o r s e a n d h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a u m b e l l a t a " a n d " C a l l u n a v u l g a r i s " ) , w i t h a m i x t u r e s o f c o m m o n j u n i p e r ( " J u n i p e r u s c o m m u n i s " ) , s o u t h e r n h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a a u s t r a l i s " ) i n t h e u p p e r a l t i t u d e s , w h i l e l o w e r a l t i t u d e b u s h i n c l u d e s c r o s s - l e a v e d h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a t e t r a l i x " ) , d w a r f g o r s e ( " U l e x m i n o r " ) , D o r s e t h e a t h ( " E r i c a c i l i a r i s " ) , c o m m o n s u n d e w ( " D r o s e r a r o t u n d i f o l i a " ) , p a l e b u t t e r w o r t ( " P i n g u i c u l a l u s i t a n i c a " ) , m a r s h v i o l e t ( " V i o l a p a l u s t r i s " ) a n d p u r p l e m o o r g r a s s ( " M o l i n i a c a e r u l e a " ) . R i p a r i a n a n d m a r s h l a n d s a l o n g t h e r i v e r c o u r s e s a r e a l s o s i t e s o f r a r e s p e c i e s o f c h a i n f e r n s ( " W o o d w a r d i a r a d i c a n s " ) , w i l l o w ( " S a l i x r e p e n s " ) , d o w n y b i r c h ( " B e t u l a p u b e s c e n s " ) , d e c i d u o u s s h r u b s ( " S p i r a e a h y p e r i c i f o l i a " ) , P o r t u g u e s e e n c h a n t e r ' s n i g h t s h a d e ( " C i r c a e a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a n d a n g e l i c a h e r b s ( " A n g e l i c a l a e v i s " ) . T h e r e a r e 6 2 7 f l o r a s p e c i e s i d e n t i f i e d b y S e r r a a n d C a r v a l h o ( 1 9 8 9 ) a s u n d e r p r e s s u r e a n d c o n s i d e r e d e n d a n g e r e d , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t w o m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s : t u t s a n ( " H y p e r i c u m a n d r o s a e m u m " ) a n d s u n d e w ( " D r o s e r a r o t u n d i f o l i a " ) . B a s e d o n t h e p r o t e c t i o n l i s t o f b o t a n i c a l s p e c i e s , a n d U I C N c a t e g o r i e s : 1 8 a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n r i s k o f e x t i n c t i o n , 1 7 a r e v u l n e r a b l e a n d o n e i s r a r e . T h e y a l s o i d e n t i f i e d t w o s p e c i e s a s e x t i n c t w i t h i n t h e p a r k b o u n d a r i e s : a g e r a n i u m ( " G e r a n i u m l a n u g i n o s u m " ) a n d f r a g r a n t o r c h i d ( " G y m n a d e n i a c o n o p s e a " ) . T h e r e a r e t h r e e e n d e m i c s p e c i e s . T h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d t h a t t h r e a t e n t h e s e h a b i t a t s i n c l u d e : n a t u r a l a n d m a n m a d e f i r e s , u s e o f f o r e s t f o r f u e l w o o d a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l u s e o f h a b i t a t s . M a n y o f t h e s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d o n t h e s p e c i e s t h a t i n h a b i t a n t t h e p a r k h a v e b e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e a r e a o f M a t a s d e A l b e r g a r i a / P a l h e i r o s , t r a d i t i o n a l l y i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e " h e a r t " o f t h e p a r k . W o r k b y t h e F a c u l t y o f S c i e n c e s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P o r t o a n d U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n h o h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n a f e w m a m m a l s ( P y r e n e a n d e s m a n , E u r o p e a n o t t e r , r o e d e e r , a n d w i l d b o a r ) , r e p t i l e s a n d f i s h . T h e s e s t u d i e s l o o k e d i n t o t h e n u m b e r s o f s p e c i e s a n d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e i r h a b i t a t s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 3 5 v e r t e b r a t e s p e c i e s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e p a r k , o f w h i c h 2 0 0 a r e t h r e a t e n e d o r u n d e r p r o t e c t i o n . T h e s e i n c l u d e t h r e e s p e c i e s o f b a t u n d e r p r e s s u r e ( o f t h e e i g h t t h a t e x i s t ) : g r e a t e r h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p h u s f e r r u m e q u i n u m " ) , l e s s e r h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p h u s h i p p o s i d e r o s " ) a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p l u s e u r y a l e " ) . O t h e r s p e c i e s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e : t h e I b e r i a n s h r e w ( " S o r e x g r a n a r i u s " ) , t h e E u r o p e a n p i n e m a r t e n ( " M a r t e s m a r t e s " ) , t h e E u r o p e a n w i l d c a t ( " F e l i s s i l v e s t r i s " ) , t h e g o l d - s t r i p e d s a l a m a n d e r ( " C h i o g l o s s a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a n d t h e s n u b - n o s e d v i p e r ( " V i p e r a l a t a s t e i " ) . A f e w o f t h e l o c a l s p e c i e s a r e p r o t e c t e d b y t h e C o n v e n t i o n o n t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n o f E u r o p e a n W i l d l i f e a n d N a t u r a l H a b i t a t s . T h e r e d s q u i r r e l ( " S c i u r u s v u l g a r i s " ) w h o s e h a b i t a t i s r e s t r i c t e d a n d m a r g i n a l i n c o n t i n e n t a l P o r t u g a l , i s a n o t h e r s p e c i e s t h a t i s c o m m o n t o t h e p a r k . A f t e r f o u r c e n t u r i e s a b s e n t f r o m P o r t u g u e s e t e r r i t o r y , i t s p o p u l a t i o n b e g a n t o b e r e c o r d e d i n 1 9 8 5 – 1 9 8 6 , i n V i a n a d o C a s t e l o . T h e r e w e r e a l s o r e g i s t e r e d s i g h t i n g s i n A l b e r g a r i a , L a m a s d e M o u r o a n d S e r r a d a P a n e d a , w h i l e c o m p a r a b l e e n c o u n t e r s i n S p a i n w e r e i d e n t i f i e d a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r . R o e d e e r , w h i c h a r e a s y m b o l o f t h e p a r k a r e e n c o u n t e r e d i n p r o l i f i c q u a n t i t y , a l o n g t h e m a r g i n s o f t h e p a r k , w h e r e t h e y f i n d s h e l t e r a n d f o o d . M e a n w h i l e , o t h e r m a m m a l s , s u c h a s t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f I b e r i a n w o l f ( " C a n i s l u p u s s i g n a t u s " ) h a v e c o l l a p s e d w i t h h u m a n e n c r o a c h m e n t , w h i l e t h e n u m b e r o f e x e m p l a r s a r e l i m i t e d . A l o n g w i t h t h e g o l d e n e a g l e , t h e w o l f w a s s e e n a s a t h r e a t t o l i v e s t o c k , a n d w a s a l m o s t h u n t e d t o e x t i n c t i o n , a l t h o u g h p r o t e c t e d b y l a w s i n c e t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y . B r o w n b e a r s d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e r e g i o n i n t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h e e x t i n c t P o r t u g u e s e i b e x ( " C a p r a p y r e n a i c a l u s i t a n i c a " ) , l o c a l l y k n o w n a s " G e r ê s g o a t " , w a s l a s t s e e n i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s . M o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y l a t e r , i t s v a c a n t e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e w a s r e o c c u p i e d n a t u r a l l y b y S p a n i s h i b e x c o m i n g f r o m G a l i c i a , a n d t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n n u m b e r e d a b o u t 1 0 0 a n i m a l s b y 2 0 1 1 . W o r t h y o f m e n t i o n a r e t h e " G a r r a n o " ( o r M i n h o h o r s e ) , a b r e e d o f s m a l l e q u i n e s p e c i e s w h o w e r e a n c e s t o r s o f t h e G a l i c i a n p o n y a n d A n d a l u s i a n h o r s e , w h i c h m o s t l y l i v e i n t h e w i l d , b u t a r e a g e n t l e b r e e d w i t h n o s i g n i f i c a n t f e a r o f h u m a n s . F o r a l o n g t i m e t h e s e h o r s e s p e r m e a t e d t h e f a r m s o f V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s ( b e f o r e i t w a s i n u n d a t e d w i t h t h e d a m ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n ) , b u t l a t e r b e g a n t o f r e e l y m o v e b e t w e e n t h e P o r t u g u e s e - S p a n i s h b o r d e r a f t e r 1 9 7 9 . T h e r e a r e 1 4 7 a v i a n s p e c i e s t h a t a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s p a r k , e s p e c i a l l y a l o n g t h e M o u r e l a r e g i o n i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f i t s f r o n t i e r . I n t h i s r e g i o n , a l t h o u g h i t m i g h t v a r y t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r ( g i v e n c l i m a t e a n d s e a s o n ) , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 6 s p e c i e s m a k e t h e i r n e s t s i n t h e a r e a . O f p a r t i c u l a r n o t e i n t h i s p a r k a r e t h e : h e n h a r r i e r ( " C i r c u s c y a n e u s " ) , E u r o p e a n h o n e y b u z z a r d ( " P e r n i s a p i v o r u s " ) , c o m m o n s n i p e ( " G a l l i n a g o g a l l i n a g o " ) , r e d - b a c k e d s h r i k e ( " L a n i u s c o l l u r i o " ) , y e l l o w h a m m e r ( " E m b e r i z a c i t r i n e l l a " ) , g a r d e n w a r b l e r ( " S y l v i a b o r i n " ) a n d w h i n c h a t ( " S a x i c o l a r u b e t r a " ) . F o r t h e w i n c h a t , t h e a r e a o f M o u r e l a i s t h e u n i q u e n e s t i n g g r o u n d i n P o r t u g a l , w h i l e t h e r e d - b a c k e d s h r i k e a n d y e l l o w h a m m e r a r e l i m i t e d t o C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o p l a t e a u a n d n o r t h e r n c o r n e r s o f t h e p a r k . A l s o i m p o r t a n t t o h i g h l i g h t i s t h e g o l d - s t r i p e d s a l a m a n d e r ( " C h i o g l o s s a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a s p e c i e s e n d e m i c t o t h e n o r t h w e s t I b e r i a n p e n i n s u l a , t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o u n t a i n o u s a r e a s w i t h e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n . T h e w a t e r s o f t h e p a r k t e e m w i t h v a r i o u s s p e c i e s , o f t e n c a l l e d " R i o s t r u t e i r o s " ( " T r o u t R i v e r s " ) f o r t h e a b u n d a n c e o f t r o u t . A l t h o u g h s t o c k s h a v e d i m i n i s h e d , t h e s a l m o n p o p u l a t i o n s s t i l l s p a w n s i n t h e r i v e r s o f t h e p a r k . S p e c i e s w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e b i o t o p e s o f P e n e d a - G e r ê s i n c l u d e : T h e 1 9 7 1 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f P e n e d a - G e r ê s a s a n a t i o n a l p a r k c a m e f r o m a g r o u p o f r u l e s / r e q u i r e m e n t s e s t a b l i s h e d t o a l l o w : t h e p r u d e n t u s e o f t h e p a r k ' s r e s o u r c e s , p r e s e r v a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g f l o r a a n d f a u n a s p e c i e s , a l l o w i n g f o r t h e c o n t i n u e d c o h a b i t a t i o n , w h i l e p r o v i d i n g a n e n v i r o n m e n t f o r s c i e n t i f i c , e d u c a t i o n a l a n d t o u r i s t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e s e s p e c i f i e d : I n 2 0 1 1 a n e w m a n a g e m e n t p l a n w a s p u b l i s h e d f o r P e n e d a - G e r ê s N P d e f i n i n g 5 l e v e l s o f p r o t e c t i o n : t o t a l p r o t e c t i o n a r e a , p a r t i a l p r o t e c t i o n a r e a s ( l e v e l s I a n d I I ) a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y p r o t e c t i o n a r e a s ( l e v e l s I a n d I I ) . T h i s m a n a g e m e n t p l a n w a s b a s e d o n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b i o d i v e r s i t y c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d w i l d e r n e s s p r o t e c t i o n a p p r o a c h e s . T h e p l a n w a s b a s e d o n a n u p - t o - d a t e s y n t h e s i s o f a l l i n f o r m a t i o n a n d l i t e r a t u r e a v a i l a b l e a b o u t t h e p r o t e c t e d a r e a . A l t h o u g h t h e r e h a s b e e n v a r i a b l e g r o w t h t h r o u g h o u t t h e N o r t e r e g i o n , t h e r e h a s b e e n a g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n d e c r e a s e i n t h o s e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s t h a t f e l l w i t h i n t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k ( 1 9 8 1 – 1 9 9 1 ) , i n t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f M e l g a ç o ( - 1 6 . 8 % ) , A r c o s d e V a l d e v e z ( - 1 3 . 4 % ) , P o n t e d a B a r c a ( - 6 . 1 % ) , T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( - 7 . 2 % ) , a n d M o n t a l e g r e ( - 2 0 . 3 % ) . T h e r e w a s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 9 , 0 9 9 a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 1 9 9 1 c e n s u s , a 1 6 % d e c r e a s e f r o m t h e 1 0 , 8 4 9 r e g i s t e r e d i n 1 9 8 1 . T h e r e a r e n o p o s i t i v e - n e g a t i v e v a r i a t i o n s b e t w e e n c i v i l p a r i s h e s ; o f t h o s e c i v i l p a r i s h e s t h a t f e l l w i t h i n t h e P N P G a u t h o r i t y , t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s d r o p p e d f r o m 0 . 8 % ( V i l a r d a V e i g a ) t o 3 8 . 6 % ( S e z e l h e ) . T h e s e r e s i d e n t s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d p r i m a r i l y i n v a r i o u s a g g l o m e r a t i o n s : s m a l l n u c l e i s e p a r a t e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r ; a n e x t e n s i o n o f b u i l d i n g s l o c a t e d a l o n g r o a d w a y s ; s o m e i s o l a t e d g r o u p s ; c o n s t r u c t i o n s a l o n g a g r i c u l t u r a l r o a d s i n p a s t u r e l a n d s ; a n d t h r e e o r m o r e h o m e s i s o l a t e d b y p a s t u r e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e a r e s i x h o m o g e n e o u s z o n e s : S o m e o f t h e v i l l a g e s i n t h e h i g h l a n d s a r e l o c a t e d n e a r t h e a r a b l e l a n d s . T e r r a c e s , b u i l t t o m a k e b e t t e r u s e o f t h e s e s c a r c e l a n d s , a n d t r a d i t i o n a l h o u s e s , w i t h g r a n i t e w a l l s a n d t h a t c h r o o f s , s h a p e t h e l a n d s c a p e w i t h a n i n d e l i b l e , h a r m o n i o u s , h u m a n m a r k i n s o m e o f t h e m o s t i s o l a t e d v i l l a g e s s u c h a s P i t õ e s d a s J ú n i a s a n d E r m i d a . O v e r t h e l a s t 5 0 y e a r s , t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k h a s b e e n o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s i t e s f o r e c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n P o r t u g a l , b u t a l s o f o r o t h e r n a t u r a l a n d s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . A n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d f r o m t h e P e n e d a F i e l d S t a t i o n i n C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o r u n b y P r o f . H e n r i q u e M . P e r e i r a . T h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e l o o k e d a t p a t t e r n s o f s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y a t m u l t i p l e s c a l e s a n d t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o t h e h a b i t a t c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e l a n d s c a p e a n d m u l t i p l e l a n d - u s e s . T h e y h a v e a l s o d o c u m e n t e d a n e w m o t h s p e c i e s f o r s c i e n c e i n 2 0 1 5 , " I s o t r i a s p e n e d a n a " . T h e p r i m a r y e c o n o m i c s e c t o r d o m i n a t e s t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f r e s i d e n t s t h a t l i v e w i t h i n t h e p a r k ' s t e r r i t o r y . A l t h o u g h a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y r e m a i n s d i f f i c u l t , i t s t i l l o u t - p a c e s s e c o n d a r y a n d t e r t i a r y a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h , a p a r t f r o m t h e T e r r a s d e B o u r o a n d P o n t e d a B a r c a , h a v e b e e n i n s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y a n d d i m i n i s h e d e x t e r i o r i n v e s t m e n t p o t e n t i a l , h a s c o n c e n t r a t e d t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n p r i m a r i l y i n t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f f o r e s t r y , t h e s u p p o r t o f h y d r o - e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t i o n a n d t o u r i s m . B u t t h i s t o o i s l i m i t e d ; t o u r i s m i s c o n c e n t r a t e d g e n e r a l l y i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f C a l d a s d o G e r ê s , h y d r o - e l e c t r i c a l t r a n s m i s s i o n h a s n o t a f f e c t e d t h e l o c a l e c o n o m y , a n d a l o n g w i t h f o r e s t r y , h a s n o t s e e n a n a p p r e c i a b l e r e - i n v e s t m e n t o r r e - c a p i t a l i z a t i o n o f w e a l t h ( w i t h i n c o m e g e n e r a t e d t r a n s f e r r e d o u t s i d e t h e l o c a l m a r k e t ) . T h e p r i m a r y s e c t o r , a l t h o u g h t h e l a r g e s t c o n t r i b u t o r , i s s u b s i s t e n c e a t b e s t : s u p p o r t e d b y a n a g e i n g ( m o s t l y f e m a l e ) p o p u l a t i o n ; i n d i v i d u a l p a r c e l s a r e s m a l l a n d o v e r - s u b d i v i d e d ; p r o d u c e r s t h a t s u p p o r t f a m i l i a l o r l o c a l c l i e n t s ; a p r o d u c t i o n t h a t i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d o n p e r s o n a l c o n s u m p t i o n ; p o o r c o m m e r c i a l n e t w o r k s ; a n d p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n , w i t h l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n a l s u p p o r t s . B e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 7 0 % o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n i s s u p p o r t e d b y s u b s i d i e s . I n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e c i v i l p a r i s h e s w i t h i n t h e p a r k a r e p o o r l y d i v e r s i f i e d a n d s u p p o r t f a m i l i a l b u s i n e s s e s . C i v i l c o n s t r u c t i o n , a l t h o u g h o n e o f t h e l a r g e r e c o n o m i c s u p p o r t e r s , h a s l i t t l e e f f e c t o n l o c a l i n c o m e s , s i n c e a m a j o r i t y o f t h e e m p l o y e d c o m e f r o m o u t s i d e t h e r e g i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e a f e w l a r g e r o p e r a t i o n s ( b r e a d - m a k i n g , c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d s a w - m i l l i n g / c a r p e n t r y ) m o s t a r e s m a l l o w n e r - o p e r a t o r s , t h a t s u p p o r t l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n o r o c c a s i o n a l s a l e s . F r e q u e n t l y , a r t i s a n a l p r o d u c e r s h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d h a v e n o t b e e n r e p l a c e d b y m a s s - p r o d u c e d o r c o m p a r a b l e v e n d o r s . S i m i l a r l y , t e r t i a r y a c t i v i t i e s a r e l i m i t e d s m a l l o p e r a t o r s ; c o m m o n l y p o o r l y d i v e r s i f i e d , d o m i n a t e d b y c o m m e r c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a n d f o c u s e d o n l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n , t h e y a r e o p e r a t e d b y f a m i l i e s a n d d o n o t g e n e r a t e m u c h i n e m p l o y m e n t . C a f é s a n d r e s t a u r a n t s , a r e a g o o d e x a m p l e o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , w i t h m a n y d o t t i n g t h e s e t t l e m e n t l a n d s c a p e o f t h e p a r k ' s l i m i t s , p r i m a r i l y i n t h e a r e a o f G e r ê s . O t h e r s e r v i c e s e c t o r a c t i v i t i e s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d w i t h i n t h e u r b a n i z e d m u n i c i p a l s e a t s a n d l a r g e r v i l l a g e s , w i t h m a n y o f t h e m o r e d y n a m i c n u c l e i t h e c e n t r e o f p o s t a l s e r v i c e s , b a n k s , p o s t s f o r t h e G . N . R . o r h e a l t h c e n t r e s . I n 2 0 1 8 t h e B a r r o s o A g r o - s y l v o - p a s t o r a l S y s t e m ( B A S P ) w h e r e t r e e s a r e c u l t i v a t e d a l o n g s i d e c r o p s w a s a m o n g s t t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s i t e s d e s i g n a t e d a s ' G l o b a l l y I m p o r t a n t A g r i c u l t u r a l H e r i t a g e S y s t e m ' ( G I A H S ) b y t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d a n d A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e B A S P i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k a s i t i s f a r m i n g i n h a r m o n y w i t h n a t u r e . O f t h e 5 7 G I A H S t h a t e x i s t e d i n t h e w o r l d 2 0 1 8 , o n l y s i x w e r e d e s i g n a t e d i n E u r o p e . T h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s B a r r o s ã c a t t l e w i t h l o n g c u r v e d h o r n s , w h i c h c a n g r o w w e l l o v e r 1 0 0   c m i n l e n g t h . T h e a n i m a l s g r a z e f r e e l y o n t r a d i t i o n a l p a s t u r e s a n d m a r s h e s i n c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a r e i d e a l f o r t h e i r w e l f a r e . T h e c a t t l e e n j o y a p u r i t y o f n a t u r e t h a t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s e p l a c e s , c o n t r i b u t i n g g r e a t l y t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d b i o d i v e r s i t y o f t h e l a n d s c a p e a s w e l l a s t o t h e r u r a l e c o n o m i c s u s t a i n a b i l i t y . B a r r o s ã c a t t l e h a v e b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r a n c i e n t g e n e t i c h e r i t a g e . T h e p a r k t r i e s t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e n c o u r a g e a n d c o n t r o l t o u r i s m , s i n c e t h e p a r k ' s n a t u r e w o u l d n o t r e s i s t a m a s s i v e f l o w o f t o u r i s t s . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e r e a r e s i x s m a l l c a m p i n g s i t e s a n d s e v e r a l h i k i n g t r a i l s a r e m a r k e d , m a k i n g i t r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o f i n d m a n y o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g s p o t s , s u c h a s t h e c a s t r o s a t C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o a n d C a l c e d ó n i a a n d t h e m o n a s t e r y a t P i t õ e s d a s J ú n i a s . T h e t r a i l a t M é z i o a s a p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n i n d e s c r i b i n g s o m e o f t h e l o c a l f e a t u r e s . L o c a t i o n s n e a r t h e f e w m a j o r r o a d s a r e t h e m o s t v i s i t e d . M a n y o f t h e m a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e r e l i g i o u s n e s s o f t h e p e o p l e i n n o r t h e r n P o r t u g a l n a m e l y t h e s h r i n e s a t S e n h o r a d a P e n e d a a n d S ã o B e n t o d a P o r t a A b e r t a . O t h e r s , s u c h a s S o a j o a n d L i n d o s o , d i s p l a y s m a l l , t r a d i t i o n a l g r a n a r i e s b u i l t o f g r a n i t e , t h e " e s p i g u e i r o s " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " e s p i g a " , m e a n i n g " s p i k e " / e a r ) ) . S o a j o i s a t y p i c a l P o r t u g u e s e v i l l a g e , l o c a t e d o n o n e o f t h e s l o p e s o f P e n e d a M o u n t a i n s . T h e 2 4 e s p i g u e i r o s w e r e e r e c t e d o n a g r a n i t e s l a b a n d a r e s t i l l u s e d t o d a y f o r d r y i n g c o r n . P r o b a b l y t h e t w o m o s t k n o w n a n d v i s i t e d f e a t u r e s a r e t h e m a n y w a t e r f a l l s , m o s t l y t h e o n e n e a r t h e o l d f r o n t i e r s t a t i o n a t P o r t e l a d o H o m e m , a n d t h e V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s v i l l a g e , w h e n e v e r t h e V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s D a m i s l o w e n o u g h . T h e d o m e s t i c a n i m a l s a l s o d e s e r v e b e i n g n o t e d . T h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s " B a r r o s ã " a n d t h e s m a l l e r " C a c h e n a " c a t t l e , u s e d i n a g r i c u l t u r e , i s n o w a d a y s e n d a n g e r e d b e c a u s e i t i s l o s i n g i t s u t i l i t y ; a s i s a l s o t h e C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o d o g , a h u n t i n g d o g .

History

The history of Peneda-Gerês National Park dates back to 6000 BC, with dolmens and megalithic tombs remaining in the region. The Roman road, Geira, crossed the park, and the Germanic tribe of the Buri settled in the area. Deforestation occurred in the Middle Ages, followed by reforestation efforts in the 20th century. The park's population decreased between 1981 and 1991, with residents concentrated in small agglomerations. The park is home to unique cultural and natural heritage, including the Barroso Agro-sylvo-pastoral System and the autochthonous Barrosã cattle. Tourism is encouraged and controlled to preserve the park's nature.

Probably due to the inhospitality of the Gerês Mountains, the oldest signs of human presence date only from 6000 BC to 3000 BC; dolmens and other megalithic tombs remain interspersed within the region, including near Castro Laboreiro and Mourela. Human activities consisted of animal husbandry and incipient agriculture, and archaeological evidence points to the beginning of a decrease in forest cover. The Roman Geira, a Roman road, which formerly connected the Roman "civitates" of Asturica Augusta and Braccara Augusta, crossed what is now the park. Long stretches of the road along the Homem River are still preserved, as are several Roman bridges and numerous millenarium markers. The Germanic tribe of the Buri accompanied the Suebi in their invasion of the Iberian Peninsula and establishment in Gallaecia (modern northern Portugal and Galicia). The Buri settled in the region between the Cávado and Homem rivers, in the area later known as Terras de Bouro ("Land of the Buri"). The move from the terraced cliffs and slopes to the lowland river valleys brought-on a patterned of new deforestation. The reoccupation of mountain areas started in the 12th century, intensifying in the 16th century with the introduction of maize, beans, and potatoes from the Americas. Agricultural fields occupied former pastures, and these were displaced to more elevated areas resulting in a mosaic of fields, pastures, and forests. The reforestation of uncultivated lands, imposed by the government in 1935, reduced the available pastures, and contributed to a rural exodus that continued after the 1950s. Yet it was still common practice for 408 Ma (Silurian epoch) were deformed and metamorphosed into schists, greywackes and quartzites (such as in the area of Castro Laboreiro). Also, dykes and sills formed from quartz and aplite-pegmatites were mineralized resulting in tin, tungsten, molybdenum and gold (which would become the focus of mining in the human era, at the now-closed mines of Carris and Borrageiro). Generally, the lithological structures can be divided into three layers: During the Pleistocene (approximately 1.8 to 0.001 Ma ago) climatic variations resulted in an extension of glacial fields to the mid-latitudes. While there are no remnants of glaciers now, their Ice Age products (U-shaped valleys, moraines, glacial deposits, polished and natural granite surfaces) are identified in the Serra da Peneda, Serra do Soajo and Serra do Gerês mountain ranges. The protection approaches. The plan was based on an up-to-date synthesis of all information and literature available about the protected area. Although there has been variable growth throughout the Norte region, there has been a general population decrease in those administrative units that fell within the Peneda-Gerês National Park (1981–1991), in the municipalities of Melgaço (-16.8%), Arcos de Valdevez (-13.4%), Ponte da Barca(-6.1%), Terras de Bouro (-7.2%), and Montalegre (-20.3%). There was a population of 9,099 according to the 1991 census, a 16% decrease from the 10,849 registered in 1981. There are no positive-negative variations between civil parishes; of those civil parishes that fell within the PNPG authority, their populations dropped from 0.8% (Vilar da Veiga) to 38.6% (Sezelhe). These residents are concentrated primarily in various agglomerations: small nuclei separated from each other; an extension of buildings located along roadways; some isolated groups; constructions along agricultural roads in pasturelands; and three or more homes isolated by pastures. Consequently, there are six homogeneous zones: Some of the villages in the high lands are located near the arable lands. Terraces, built to make better use of these scarce lands, and traditional houses, with granite walls and thatch roofs, shape the landscape with an indelible, harmonious, human mark in some of the most isolated villages such as Pitões das Júnias and Ermida. Over the last 50 years, the Peneda-Gerês National Park has been one of the most important sites for ecological research in Portugal, but also for other natural and social sciences. A number of studies have been conducted from nuclei the centre of postal services, banks, posts for the G.N.R. or health centres. In 2018 the Barroso Agro-sylvo-pastoral System (BASP) where trees are cultivated alongside crops was amongst the first European sites designated as 'Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System' (GIAHS) by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. The BASP is integrated into the Peneda-Gerês National Park as it is farming in harmony with nature. Of the 57 GIAHS that existed in the world 2018, only six were designated in Europe. The autochthonous Barrosã cattle with long curved horns, which can grow well over 100 cm in length. The animals graze freely on traditional pastures and marshes in conditions that are ideal for their welfare. The cattle enjoy a purity of nature that is characteristic of these places, contributing greatly to the preservation and biodiversity of the landscape as well as to the rural economic sustainability. Barrosã cattle have been extensively studied because of their ancient genetic heritage. The park tries to simultaneously encourage and control tourism, since the park's nature would not resist a massive flow of tourists. Accordingly, there are six small camping sites and several hikingtrails are marked, making it relatively easy to find many of the most interesting spots, such as the castros at Castro Laboreiro and Calcedónia and the monastery at Pitões das Júnias. The trail at Mézio as a particular concern in describing some of the local features. Locations near the few major roads are the most visited. Many of them are related to the religiousness of the people endangered because it is losing its utility; as is also the Castro Laboreiro dog, a hunting dog.

Peneda-Gerês National Park

P r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e i n h o s p i t a l i t y o f t h e G e r ê s M o u n t a i n s , t h e o l d e s t s i g n s o f h u m a n p r e s e n c e d a t e o n l y f r o m 6 0 0 0 B C t o 3 0 0 0 B C ; d o l m e n s a n d o t h e r m e g a l i t h i c t o m b s r e m a i n i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n , i n c l u d i n g n e a r C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o a n d M o u r e l a . H u m a n a c t i v i t i e s c o n s i s t e d o f a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y a n d i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a d e c r e a s e i n f o r e s t c o v e r . T h e R o m a n G e i r a , a R o m a n r o a d , w h i c h f o r m e r l y c o n n e c t e d t h e R o m a n " c i v i t a t e s " o f A s t u r i c a A u g u s t a a n d B r a c c a r a A u g u s t a , c r o s s e d w h a t i s n o w t h e p a r k . L o n g s t r e t c h e s o f t h e r o a d a l o n g t h e H o m e m R i v e r a r e s t i l l p r e s e r v e d , a s a r e s e v e r a l R o m a n b r i d g e s a n d n u m e r o u s m i l l e n a r i u m m a r k e r s . T h e G e r m a n i c t r i b e o f t h e B u r i a c c o m p a n i e d t h e S u e b i i n t h e i r i n v a s i o n o f t h e I b e r i a n P e n i n s u l a a n d e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n G a l l a e c i a ( m o d e r n n o r t h e r n P o r t u g a l a n d G a l i c i a ) . T h e B u r i s e t t l e d i n t h e r e g i o n b e t w e e n t h e C á v a d o a n d H o m e m r i v e r s , i n t h e a r e a l a t e r k n o w n a s T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( " L a n d o f t h e B u r i " ) . T h e m o v e f r o m t h e t e r r a c e d c l i f f s a n d s l o p e s t o t h e l o w l a n d r i v e r v a l l e y s b r o u g h t - o n a p a t t e r n e d o f n e w d e f o r e s t a t i o n . T h e r e o c c u p a t i o n o f m o u n t a i n a r e a s s t a r t e d i n t h e 1 2 t h c e n t u r y , i n t e n s i f y i n g i n t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m a i z e , b e a n s , a n d p o t a t o e s f r o m t h e A m e r i c a s . A g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s o c c u p i e d f o r m e r p a s t u r e s , a n d t h e s e w e r e d i s p l a c e d t o m o r e e l e v a t e d a r e a s r e s u l t i n g i n a m o s a i c o f f i e l d s , p a s t u r e s , a n d f o r e s t s . T h e r e f o r e s t a t i o n o f u n c u l t i v a t e d l a n d s , i m p o s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n 1 9 3 5 , r e d u c e d t h e a v a i l a b l e p a s t u r e s , a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o a r u r a l e x o d u s t h a t c o n t i n u e d a f t e r t h e 1 9 5 0 s . Y e t i t w a s s t i l l c o m m o n p r a c t i c e f o r t h e r e s i d e n t s o f m o u n t a i n c o m m u n i t i e s t o s p e n d p a r t o f t h e y e a r i n t w o l o c a t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y n e a r C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o . F r o m a b o u t E a s t e r t o a b o u t C h r i s t m a s , r e s i d e n t s w o u l d l i v e i n h o m e s o v e r 1 , 0 0 0   m a b o v e s e a l e v e l , k n o w n a s " b r a n d a " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " b r a n d o " , m e a n i n g ' m i l d ' o r ' g e n t l e ' ) . I n t h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t o f t h e y e a r , t h e s e i n h a b i t a n t s w o u l d o c c u p y h o m e s i n t h e r i v e r v a l l e y , k n o w n a s " i n v e r n e i r a " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " i n v e r n o " , m e a n i n g ' w i n t e r ' ) . I n 1 9 7 0 , t h e v i l l a g e o f V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s w a s f l o o d e d w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a d a m o n t h e H o m e m R i v e r . D u r i n g y e a r s w i t h l o w r a i n f a l l , t h e v i l l a g e r u i n s s t a n d s a b o v e t h e w a t e r , a t t r a c t i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f t o u r i s t s . T h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k ( c o m p l e t e d u n d e r d e c r e e n o . 1 8 7 / 7 1 , 8 M a y 1 9 7 1 ) e n v i s i o n e d a p l a n n i n g a r e a o f m o u n t a i n o u s s p a c e s , i n o r d e r t o c o n s e r v e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , w h i l e p e r m i t t i n g h u m a n a n d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e a c t i v i t i e s , w h i c h w o u l d i n c l u d e e d u c a t i o n a l , t o u r i s t i c a n d s c i e n t i f i c p r o j e c t s . A t h e a r t i s t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a a n d f a u n a , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f l a n d s c a p e s w i t h i n t h e v a s t m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n i n t h e n o r t h w e s t o f P o r t u g a l . I n 1 9 9 7 , P e n e d a - G e r ê s w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e N a t u r a 2 0 0 0 n e t w o r k , a n d i n 1 9 9 9 , d e s i g n a t e d a S p e c i a l P r o t e c t i o n A r e a f o r W i l d B i r d s . M o r e o v e r , i t a l s o e n c o m p a s s e s a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a o f n a t u r a l f o r e s t , w h i c h f o r m s p a r t o f t h e E u r o p e a n N e t w o r k o f B i o g e n e t i c R e s e r v e s , a n d i s r e c o g n i z e d a s a n a t i o n a l p a r k b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i o n f o r C o n s e r v a t i o n o f N a t u r e . I n 2 0 0 7 , i t w a s a c c e p t e d i n t h e P A N P a r k s n e t w o r k t h a t c e r t i f i e s t h e q u a l i t y p r o t e c t e d a r e a s , a c c o r d i n g t o r i g o r o u s c r i t e r i a o f n a t u r e c o n s e r v a t i o n , c u l t u r a l s e r v i c e s a n d s u s t a i n a b i l i t y . T h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k i s l o c a t e d i n t h e n o r t h w e s t o f P o r t u g a l , e x t e n d i n g t h r o u g h t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f M e l g a ç o , A r c o s d e V a l d e v e z a n d P o n t e d a B a r c a ( i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f V i a n a d o C a s t e l o ) , T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( d i s t r i c t o f B r a g a ) , a n d M o n t a l e g r e ( d i s t r i c t o f V i l a R e a l ) . T h e p a r k i n c l u d e s a n a r e a o f 7 0 2 . 9 0   k m 2 , o f w h i c h 5 2 . 7 5   k m 2 a r e p u b l i c l a n d s , 1 9 4 . 3 8   k m 2 a r e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g 4 5 5 . 7 7   k m 2 a r e c o m m o n s . T h e p a r k i s a v a s t a m p h i t h e a t r e - s h a p e d s p a c e s c u l p t e d d u r i n g t h e V a r i s c a n o r o g e n y b y g e o l o g i c a l f o r c e s , w i n d a n d w a t e r , a n d e x t e n d s f r o m t h e C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o t o t h e M o u r e l a p l a t e a u s , e n c o m p a s s i n g t h e S e r r a d a P e n e d a , S e r r a d o S o a j o , S e r r a A m a r e l a a n d t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s . T h e s e f o r m a b a r r i e r b e t w e e n t h e o c e a n p l a i n s t o i t s w e s t a n d t h e p l a t e a u s i n t h e e a s t . T h e h i g h e s t p e a k s a r e P e n e d a ( 1 3 4 0   m ) , S o a j o ( 1 4 3 0   m ) , A m a r e l o ( 1 3 5 0   m ) , G e r ê s ( 1 5 4 5   m ) a n d A l t a r d o s C a b r õ e s ( 1 , 5 3 8   m ) l o c a t e d o n t h e b o r d e r w i t h G a l i c i a , c o n t i n u i n g i n t o t h i s t e r r i t o r y a s p a r t o f t h e S e r r a d o X u r é s . T h e g r a n i t i c r o c k s t h a t d o m i n a t e t h i s s h i e l d w e r e d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n t i n e n t a l c o l l i s i o n t h a t b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r t h e l o w e r I b e r i a n p e n i n s u l a w i t h E u r o p e , b e t w e e n 3 8 0 m i l l i o n a n d 2 7 5 m i l l i o n y e a r s ; t h e o l d e s t o f t h e m , a t A m a r e l a , d a t e f r o m 3 1 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o . T h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e o f t h e g r a n i t i c r o c k s t h a t o c c u r w i t h i n t h e p a r k a r e t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s p l u t o n w h i c h i s a n e x p o s e d r e l i e f t h a t b e c a m e e x p o s e d a r o u n d 2 9 0 - 2 9 6 M a b y t h e G e r ê s - L o v i o s f a u l t . S e d i m e n t a r y l a y e r s l a i d d o w n b e t w e e n 4 3 5 a n d 4 0 8 M a ( S i l u r i a n e p o c h ) w e r e d e f o r m e d a n d m e t a m o r p h o s e d i n t o s c h i s t s , g r e y w a c k e s a n d q u a r t z i t e s ( s u c h a s i n t h e a r e a o f C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o ) . A l s o , d y k e s a n d s i l l s f o r m e d f r o m q u a r t z a n d a p l i t e - p e g m a t i t e s w e r e m i n e r a l i z e d r e s u l t i n g i n t i n , t u n g s t e n , m o l y b d e n u m a n d g o l d ( w h i c h w o u l d b e c o m e t h e f o c u s o f m i n i n g i n t h e h u m a n e r a , a t t h e n o w - c l o s e d m i n e s o f C a r r i s a n d B o r r a g e i r o ) . G e n e r a l l y , t h e l i t h o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e l a y e r s : D u r i n g t h e P l e i s t o c e n e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 . 8 t o 0 . 0 0 1 M a a g o ) c l i m a t i c v a r i a t i o n s r e s u l t e d i n a n e x t e n s i o n o f g l a c i a l f i e l d s t o t h e m i d - l a t i t u d e s . W h i l e t h e r e a r e n o r e m n a n t s o f g l a c i e r s n o w , t h e i r I c e A g e p r o d u c t s ( U - s h a p e d v a l l e y s , m o r a i n e s , g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s , p o l i s h e d a n d n a t u r a l g r a n i t e s u r f a c e s ) a r e i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e S e r r a d a P e n e d a , S e r r a d o S o a j o a n d S e r r a d o G e r ê s m o u n t a i n r a n g e s . T h e p r i n c i p a l w a t e r s h e d s t h a t c r o s s t h e p a r k a r e t h o s e o f t h e M i n h o ( o c c u p y i n g 2 % o f t h e p a r k ) , L i m a ( 4 7 . 8 % ) a n d C á v a d o ( 5 0 . 2 % ) , w i t h b r o o k s a n d w a t e r f a l l s c o m m o n o n m a n y o f t h e m o u n t a i n s l o p e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o s e v e r a l s e c o n d a r y t r i b u t a r i e s ( s u c h a s t h e H o m e m , R a b a g ã o , C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o , a n d A r a d o r i v e r s ) . T h e L i m a c u t s a c r o s s t h e P N P G e a s t t o w e s t , w h i l e t h e C á v a d o s e r v e s t h e s o u t h e r n l i m i t s o f t h e d i s t r i c t s o f V i l a R e a l a n d B r a g a . F r a c t u r e s i n t h e l a n d s c a p e h a v e c o n f i n e d t h e r i v e r s t o d e e p , s t r a i g h t v a l l e y s a n d a r e v i s i b l e i n t h e y o u n g e r g r a n i t e o u t c r o p s v i s i b l e i n t h e u n c o v e r e d h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s . O w i n g t o t h e n u m b e r t r i b u t a r i e s , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h y d r o e l e c t r i c a l d a m s h a s b e e n u n d e r t a k e n t o g e n e r a t e e l e c t r i c i t y a c r o s s s i x l o c a t i o n s : A l t o R a b a g ã o , P a r a d e l a , C a n i ç a d a , V i l a r i n h o d a F u r n a , T o u v e d o a n d L i n d o s o . S o i l s w i t h i n t h e e l e v a t e d t e r r a i n s a n d i n c l i n e d s p a c e s a r e n o n - e x i s t e n t , w h i l e t h e v a l l e y s a r e r i c h a n d d e e p , d e p o s i t e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d b y p l u v i a l a c t i o n . T h e s e s t r a t a a r e t e x t u r e d , p e r m e a b l e , e a s i l y w o r k e d , a l b e i t w i t h a w e a k c o n s i s t e n c y , a n d m a r k e d b y t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r e . T h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f b i o m a s s a n d e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n , a l o n g w i t h t h e l o w a u t u m n - w i n t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s g i v e a n o r i g i n t o t h e a l t e r a t i o n s i n p H l e v e l s . T h e e l e v a t e d l e v e l s o f i n c o m p l e t e l y d e c o m p o s e d o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l , l o w i n p h o s p h o r u s a n d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y l o w / h i g h i n p o t a s s i u m , a r e s u b j e c t o f a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t i o n . T h e r e g i o n o f t h e P a r q u e N a c i o n a l P e n e d a G e r ê s f a l l s w i t h i n a t r a n s i t i o n a l z o n e b e t w e e n t h e A t l a n t i c a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n e n v i r o n m e n t s , a n d i s i n f l u e n c e d b y v a r i o u s c l i m a t i c s y s t e m s : A t l a n t i c , M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d C o n t i n e n t a l . I t s c l i m a t e i s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e t o p o g r a p h y ; t h e m o u n t a i n s e x e r t a b a r r i e r e f f e c t t o t h e p a s s a g e o f h o t a n d w e t a i r m a s s e s c o m i n g f r o m t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n , r e s u l t i n g i n e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r . I t f a l l s i n a p a r t o f P o r t u g a l ( a n d E u r o p e ) t h a t i s a f f e c t e d b y e x t r e m e r a i n f a l l , o b t a i n i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n l e v e l s o f 3 2 0 0 m i l l i m e t r e s p e r y e a r o n h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s , a n d 1 6 0 0 m i l l i m e t r e s a t l o w e r a l t i t u d e s , w i t h m o r e t h a n 1 3 0 r a i n y d a y s p e r y e a r . A v e r a g e d a i l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g e f r o m 1 0   ° C t o 2 1   ° C , w i t h s o m e v a r i a t i o n ; t h e h i g h l a n d s h a v e a n a v e r a g e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e o f a b o u t 1 1   ° C , r a n g i n g f r o m 4 t o 2 0   ° C , o n e o f t h e f e w p l a c e s i n P o r t u g a l w i t h a n o c e a n i c c l i m a t e , w h i l e a r e a s i n t h e v a l l e y s ( s u c h a s t h e H o m e m , L i m a a n d C á v a d o r i v e r v a l l e y s ) h a v e w a r m e r c l i m a t e s , w i t h d a i l y m a x t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g i n g f r o m 1 2 t o 2 8   ° C ( w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 2 0   ° C ) , t r a n s i t i o n i n g i n t o a H o t - s u m m e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n c l i m a t e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e a r e a i s p r o n e t o v a r i o u s m i c r o - c l i m a t e s , a f f e c t e d b y v a r i a t i o n s i n a l t i t u d e , t o p o g r a p h i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , h u m a n o c c u p a t i o n , d i f f e r e n t e x p o s u r e s a n d t h e r m a l v a r i a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , t h i s d i f f e r e n c e h a s r e s u l t e d i n a n i n t e r c h a n g e o f v e g e t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f M e d i t e r r a n e a n , E u r o - S i b e r i a n a n d A l p i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s . R i v a s - M a r t i n e z d e f i n e d t h e f o o t h i l l s o f b o t h t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s a n d t h e S e r r a d a C a b r e i r a ( l a n d s b e l o w t h e T â m e g a , A v e a n d C á v a d o w a t e r s h e d s ) a s t h e f r o n t i e r b e t w e e n t h e E u r o - S i b e r i a n a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e g i o n s , g r a n t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t f l o r a l a n d p h y t o g e o g r a p h i c i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k . B i o m a s s c o v e r a g e o f t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s , S e r r a A m a r e l a , S e r r a d o P e n e d a a n d S e r r a d o S o a j o , a s w e l l a s t h e M o u r e l a a n d C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o p l a t e a u s , a r e d o m i n a t e d b y f o u r d i s t i n c t b i o m e s : o a k f o r e s t , s h r u b b e r y , m a r s h e s a n d r i p a r i a n v e g e t a t i o n . T h e f l o r i s t i c d i v e r s i t y i n c l u d e s 8 2 3 v a s c u l a r t a x a t h a t o c c u r i n 1 2 8 t y p e s o f n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n . T h e o a k f o r e s t s w h i c h a r e c o m m o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e p a r k , a r e e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e R a m i s c a l , P e n e d a , G e r ê s a n d B e r e d o r i v e r v a l l e y s . T h e s e f o r e s t e d a r e a s a r e d o m i n a t e d b y a n a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e P y r e n e a n ( " Q u e r c u s p y r e n a i c a " ) a n d E u r o p e a n ( " Q u e r c u s r o b u r " ) o a k s , w h i c h t h e m s e l v e s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a m o n g t h e l o w e r a l t i t u d e s a n d e x p o s e d f l a n k s ( t h e " R u s c e t o - Q u e r c e t u m r o b o r i s " ) a n d t h o s e o f t y p i c a l A t l a n t i c e n v i r o n m e n t s ( " M y r e t i l l o - Q u e r c e t u m r o b o r i s " ) . T h e f i r s t a s s o c i a t i o n i s c o m m o n l y f o u n d w i t h E u r o p e a n o a k ( " Q u e r c u s r o b e r " ) , c o r k o a k ( " Q u e r c u s s u b e r " ) , b u t c h e r ' s b r o o m ( " R u s c u s a c u l e a t u s " ) , m a p l e ( " A c e r p s e u d o p l a t a n u s " ) a n d P o r t u g u e s e l a u r e l ( " P r u n u s l u s i t a n i c a " ) , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d a s s o c i a t i o n u n i t e s t h e E u r o p e a n a n d P y r e n e a n o a k s w i t h b i l b e r r y ( " V a c c i n i u m m y r t i l l u s " ) , s t r a w b e r r y t r e e ( " A r b u t u s u n e d o " ) a n d E u r o p e a n h o l l y ( " I l e x a q u i f o l i u m " ) . I n u p p e r a l t i t u d e s t h e r e a r e p a t c h e s o f E u r o p e a n o a k t h a t e n t e r i n t o t h e i r o w n a s s o c i a t i o n ( " H o l c o - Q u e r c e t u m p y r e n a c i a " ) , w h i c h i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a n o t h e r g r o u p ( " Q u e r i c o n r o b r i - p a t r a e a " ) . T h e s e o a k s h a v e b e e n , o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f h u m a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h e o b j e c t o f i n t e n s e u s e , r e s u l t i n g i n a g e n e r a l d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e s p a c e s i n t o n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n s h r u b b e r y . T h e b u s h a n d s h r u b l a n d s , w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s p a c e s ( 7 4 % o f t h e p a r k ) , a r e d o m i n a t e d b y d w a r f ( " U l e x m i n o r " ) a n d E u r o p e a n ( " U l e x e u r o p a e u s " ) g o r s e a n d h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a u m b e l l a t a " a n d " C a l l u n a v u l g a r i s " ) , w i t h a m i x t u r e s o f c o m m o n j u n i p e r ( " J u n i p e r u s c o m m u n i s " ) , s o u t h e r n h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a a u s t r a l i s " ) i n t h e u p p e r a l t i t u d e s , w h i l e l o w e r a l t i t u d e b u s h i n c l u d e s c r o s s - l e a v e d h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a t e t r a l i x " ) , d w a r f g o r s e ( " U l e x m i n o r " ) , D o r s e t h e a t h ( " E r i c a c i l i a r i s " ) , c o m m o n s u n d e w ( " D r o s e r a r o t u n d i f o l i a " ) , p a l e b u t t e r w o r t ( " P i n g u i c u l a l u s i t a n i c a " ) , m a r s h v i o l e t ( " V i o l a p a l u s t r i s " ) a n d p u r p l e m o o r g r a s s ( " M o l i n i a c a e r u l e a " ) . R i p a r i a n a n d m a r s h l a n d s a l o n g t h e r i v e r c o u r s e s a r e a l s o s i t e s o f r a r e s p e c i e s o f c h a i n f e r n s ( " W o o d w a r d i a r a d i c a n s " ) , w i l l o w ( " S a l i x r e p e n s " ) , d o w n y b i r c h ( " B e t u l a p u b e s c e n s " ) , d e c i d u o u s s h r u b s ( " S p i r a e a h y p e r i c i f o l i a " ) , P o r t u g u e s e e n c h a n t e r ' s n i g h t s h a d e ( " C i r c a e a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a n d a n g e l i c a h e r b s ( " A n g e l i c a l a e v i s " ) . T h e r e a r e 6 2 7 f l o r a s p e c i e s i d e n t i f i e d b y S e r r a a n d C a r v a l h o ( 1 9 8 9 ) a s u n d e r p r e s s u r e a n d c o n s i d e r e d e n d a n g e r e d , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t w o m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s : t u t s a n ( " H y p e r i c u m a n d r o s a e m u m " ) a n d s u n d e w ( " D r o s e r a r o t u n d i f o l i a " ) . B a s e d o n t h e p r o t e c t i o n l i s t o f b o t a n i c a l s p e c i e s , a n d U I C N c a t e g o r i e s : 1 8 a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n r i s k o f e x t i n c t i o n , 1 7 a r e v u l n e r a b l e a n d o n e i s r a r e . T h e y a l s o i d e n t i f i e d t w o s p e c i e s a s e x t i n c t w i t h i n t h e p a r k b o u n d a r i e s : a g e r a n i u m ( " G e r a n i u m l a n u g i n o s u m " ) a n d f r a g r a n t o r c h i d ( " G y m n a d e n i a c o n o p s e a " ) . T h e r e a r e t h r e e e n d e m i c s p e c i e s . T h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d t h a t t h r e a t e n t h e s e h a b i t a t s i n c l u d e : n a t u r a l a n d m a n m a d e f i r e s , u s e o f f o r e s t f o r f u e l w o o d a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l u s e o f h a b i t a t s . M a n y o f t h e s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d o n t h e s p e c i e s t h a t i n h a b i t a n t t h e p a r k h a v e b e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e a r e a o f M a t a s d e A l b e r g a r i a / P a l h e i r o s , t r a d i t i o n a l l y i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e " h e a r t " o f t h e p a r k . W o r k b y t h e F a c u l t y o f S c i e n c e s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P o r t o a n d U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n h o h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n a f e w m a m m a l s ( P y r e n e a n d e s m a n , E u r o p e a n o t t e r , r o e d e e r , a n d w i l d b o a r ) , r e p t i l e s a n d f i s h . T h e s e s t u d i e s l o o k e d i n t o t h e n u m b e r s o f s p e c i e s a n d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e i r h a b i t a t s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 3 5 v e r t e b r a t e s p e c i e s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e p a r k , o f w h i c h 2 0 0 a r e t h r e a t e n e d o r u n d e r p r o t e c t i o n . T h e s e i n c l u d e t h r e e s p e c i e s o f b a t u n d e r p r e s s u r e ( o f t h e e i g h t t h a t e x i s t ) : g r e a t e r h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p h u s f e r r u m e q u i n u m " ) , l e s s e r h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p h u s h i p p o s i d e r o s " ) a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p l u s e u r y a l e " ) . O t h e r s p e c i e s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e : t h e I b e r i a n s h r e w ( " S o r e x g r a n a r i u s " ) , t h e E u r o p e a n p i n e m a r t e n ( " M a r t e s m a r t e s " ) , t h e E u r o p e a n w i l d c a t ( " F e l i s s i l v e s t r i s " ) , t h e g o l d - s t r i p e d s a l a m a n d e r ( " C h i o g l o s s a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a n d t h e s n u b - n o s e d v i p e r ( " V i p e r a l a t a s t e i " ) . A f e w o f t h e l o c a l s p e c i e s a r e p r o t e c t e d b y t h e C o n v e n t i o n o n t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n o f E u r o p e a n W i l d l i f e a n d N a t u r a l H a b i t a t s . T h e r e d s q u i r r e l ( " S c i u r u s v u l g a r i s " ) w h o s e h a b i t a t i s r e s t r i c t e d a n d m a r g i n a l i n c o n t i n e n t a l P o r t u g a l , i s a n o t h e r s p e c i e s t h a t i s c o m m o n t o t h e p a r k . A f t e r f o u r c e n t u r i e s a b s e n t f r o m P o r t u g u e s e t e r r i t o r y , i t s p o p u l a t i o n b e g a n t o b e r e c o r d e d i n 1 9 8 5 – 1 9 8 6 , i n V i a n a d o C a s t e l o . T h e r e w e r e a l s o r e g i s t e r e d s i g h t i n g s i n A l b e r g a r i a , L a m a s d e M o u r o a n d S e r r a d a P a n e d a , w h i l e c o m p a r a b l e e n c o u n t e r s i n S p a i n w e r e i d e n t i f i e d a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r . R o e d e e r , w h i c h a r e a s y m b o l o f t h e p a r k a r e e n c o u n t e r e d i n p r o l i f i c q u a n t i t y , a l o n g t h e m a r g i n s o f t h e p a r k , w h e r e t h e y f i n d s h e l t e r a n d f o o d . M e a n w h i l e , o t h e r m a m m a l s , s u c h a s t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f I b e r i a n w o l f ( " C a n i s l u p u s s i g n a t u s " ) h a v e c o l l a p s e d w i t h h u m a n e n c r o a c h m e n t , w h i l e t h e n u m b e r o f e x e m p l a r s a r e l i m i t e d . A l o n g w i t h t h e g o l d e n e a g l e , t h e w o l f w a s s e e n a s a t h r e a t t o l i v e s t o c k , a n d w a s a l m o s t h u n t e d t o e x t i n c t i o n , a l t h o u g h p r o t e c t e d b y l a w s i n c e t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y . B r o w n b e a r s d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e r e g i o n i n t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h e e x t i n c t P o r t u g u e s e i b e x ( " C a p r a p y r e n a i c a l u s i t a n i c a " ) , l o c a l l y k n o w n a s " G e r ê s g o a t " , w a s l a s t s e e n i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s . M o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y l a t e r , i t s v a c a n t e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e w a s r e o c c u p i e d n a t u r a l l y b y S p a n i s h i b e x c o m i n g f r o m G a l i c i a , a n d t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n n u m b e r e d a b o u t 1 0 0 a n i m a l s b y 2 0 1 1 . W o r t h y o f m e n t i o n a r e t h e " G a r r a n o " ( o r M i n h o h o r s e ) , a b r e e d o f s m a l l e q u i n e s p e c i e s w h o w e r e a n c e s t o r s o f t h e G a l i c i a n p o n y a n d A n d a l u s i a n h o r s e , w h i c h m o s t l y l i v e i n t h e w i l d , b u t a r e a g e n t l e b r e e d w i t h n o s i g n i f i c a n t f e a r o f h u m a n s . F o r a l o n g t i m e t h e s e h o r s e s p e r m e a t e d t h e f a r m s o f V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s ( b e f o r e i t w a s i n u n d a t e d w i t h t h e d a m ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n ) , b u t l a t e r b e g a n t o f r e e l y m o v e b e t w e e n t h e P o r t u g u e s e - S p a n i s h b o r d e r a f t e r 1 9 7 9 . T h e r e a r e 1 4 7 a v i a n s p e c i e s t h a t a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s p a r k , e s p e c i a l l y a l o n g t h e M o u r e l a r e g i o n i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f i t s f r o n t i e r . I n t h i s r e g i o n , a l t h o u g h i t m i g h t v a r y t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r ( g i v e n c l i m a t e a n d s e a s o n ) , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 6 s p e c i e s m a k e t h e i r n e s t s i n t h e a r e a . O f p a r t i c u l a r n o t e i n t h i s p a r k a r e t h e : h e n h a r r i e r ( " C i r c u s c y a n e u s " ) , E u r o p e a n h o n e y b u z z a r d ( " P e r n i s a p i v o r u s " ) , c o m m o n s n i p e ( " G a l l i n a g o g a l l i n a g o " ) , r e d - b a c k e d s h r i k e ( " L a n i u s c o l l u r i o " ) , y e l l o w h a m m e r ( " E m b e r i z a c i t r i n e l l a " ) , g a r d e n w a r b l e r ( " S y l v i a b o r i n " ) a n d w h i n c h a t ( " S a x i c o l a r u b e t r a " ) . F o r t h e w i n c h a t , t h e a r e a o f M o u r e l a i s t h e u n i q u e n e s t i n g g r o u n d i n P o r t u g a l , w h i l e t h e r e d - b a c k e d s h r i k e a n d y e l l o w h a m m e r a r e l i m i t e d t o C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o p l a t e a u a n d n o r t h e r n c o r n e r s o f t h e p a r k . A l s o i m p o r t a n t t o h i g h l i g h t i s t h e g o l d - s t r i p e d s a l a m a n d e r ( " C h i o g l o s s a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a s p e c i e s e n d e m i c t o t h e n o r t h w e s t I b e r i a n p e n i n s u l a , t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o u n t a i n o u s a r e a s w i t h e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n . T h e w a t e r s o f t h e p a r k t e e m w i t h v a r i o u s s p e c i e s , o f t e n c a l l e d " R i o s t r u t e i r o s " ( " T r o u t R i v e r s " ) f o r t h e a b u n d a n c e o f t r o u t . A l t h o u g h s t o c k s h a v e d i m i n i s h e d , t h e s a l m o n p o p u l a t i o n s s t i l l s p a w n s i n t h e r i v e r s o f t h e p a r k . S p e c i e s w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e b i o t o p e s o f P e n e d a - G e r ê s i n c l u d e : T h e 1 9 7 1 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f P e n e d a - G e r ê s a s a n a t i o n a l p a r k c a m e f r o m a g r o u p o f r u l e s / r e q u i r e m e n t s e s t a b l i s h e d t o a l l o w : t h e p r u d e n t u s e o f t h e p a r k ' s r e s o u r c e s , p r e s e r v a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g f l o r a a n d f a u n a s p e c i e s , a l l o w i n g f o r t h e c o n t i n u e d c o h a b i t a t i o n , w h i l e p r o v i d i n g a n e n v i r o n m e n t f o r s c i e n t i f i c , e d u c a t i o n a l a n d t o u r i s t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e s e s p e c i f i e d : I n 2 0 1 1 a n e w m a n a g e m e n t p l a n w a s p u b l i s h e d f o r P e n e d a - G e r ê s N P d e f i n i n g 5 l e v e l s o f p r o t e c t i o n : t o t a l p r o t e c t i o n a r e a , p a r t i a l p r o t e c t i o n a r e a s ( l e v e l s I a n d I I ) a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y p r o t e c t i o n a r e a s ( l e v e l s I a n d I I ) . T h i s m a n a g e m e n t p l a n w a s b a s e d o n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b i o d i v e r s i t y c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d w i l d e r n e s s p r o t e c t i o n a p p r o a c h e s . T h e p l a n w a s b a s e d o n a n u p - t o - d a t e s y n t h e s i s o f a l l i n f o r m a t i o n a n d l i t e r a t u r e a v a i l a b l e a b o u t t h e p r o t e c t e d a r e a . A l t h o u g h t h e r e h a s b e e n v a r i a b l e g r o w t h t h r o u g h o u t t h e N o r t e r e g i o n , t h e r e h a s b e e n a g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n d e c r e a s e i n t h o s e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s t h a t f e l l w i t h i n t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k ( 1 9 8 1 – 1 9 9 1 ) , i n t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f M e l g a ç o ( - 1 6 . 8 % ) , A r c o s d e V a l d e v e z ( - 1 3 . 4 % ) , P o n t e d a B a r c a ( - 6 . 1 % ) , T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( - 7 . 2 % ) , a n d M o n t a l e g r e ( - 2 0 . 3 % ) . T h e r e w a s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 9 , 0 9 9 a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 1 9 9 1 c e n s u s , a 1 6 % d e c r e a s e f r o m t h e 1 0 , 8 4 9 r e g i s t e r e d i n 1 9 8 1 . T h e r e a r e n o p o s i t i v e - n e g a t i v e v a r i a t i o n s b e t w e e n c i v i l p a r i s h e s ; o f t h o s e c i v i l p a r i s h e s t h a t f e l l w i t h i n t h e P N P G a u t h o r i t y , t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s d r o p p e d f r o m 0 . 8 % ( V i l a r d a V e i g a ) t o 3 8 . 6 % ( S e z e l h e ) . T h e s e r e s i d e n t s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d p r i m a r i l y i n v a r i o u s a g g l o m e r a t i o n s : s m a l l n u c l e i s e p a r a t e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r ; a n e x t e n s i o n o f b u i l d i n g s l o c a t e d a l o n g r o a d w a y s ; s o m e i s o l a t e d g r o u p s ; c o n s t r u c t i o n s a l o n g a g r i c u l t u r a l r o a d s i n p a s t u r e l a n d s ; a n d t h r e e o r m o r e h o m e s i s o l a t e d b y p a s t u r e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e a r e s i x h o m o g e n e o u s z o n e s : S o m e o f t h e v i l l a g e s i n t h e h i g h l a n d s a r e l o c a t e d n e a r t h e a r a b l e l a n d s . T e r r a c e s , b u i l t t o m a k e b e t t e r u s e o f t h e s e s c a r c e l a n d s , a n d t r a d i t i o n a l h o u s e s , w i t h g r a n i t e w a l l s a n d t h a t c h r o o f s , s h a p e t h e l a n d s c a p e w i t h a n i n d e l i b l e , h a r m o n i o u s , h u m a n m a r k i n s o m e o f t h e m o s t i s o l a t e d v i l l a g e s s u c h a s P i t õ e s d a s J ú n i a s a n d E r m i d a . O v e r t h e l a s t 5 0 y e a r s , t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k h a s b e e n o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s i t e s f o r e c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n P o r t u g a l , b u t a l s o f o r o t h e r n a t u r a l a n d s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . A n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d f r o m t h e P e n e d a F i e l d S t a t i o n i n C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o r u n b y P r o f . H e n r i q u e M . P e r e i r a . T h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e l o o k e d a t p a t t e r n s o f s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y a t m u l t i p l e s c a l e s a n d t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o t h e h a b i t a t c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e l a n d s c a p e a n d m u l t i p l e l a n d - u s e s . T h e y h a v e a l s o d o c u m e n t e d a n e w m o t h s p e c i e s f o r s c i e n c e i n 2 0 1 5 , " I s o t r i a s p e n e d a n a " . T h e p r i m a r y e c o n o m i c s e c t o r d o m i n a t e s t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f r e s i d e n t s t h a t l i v e w i t h i n t h e p a r k ' s t e r r i t o r y . A l t h o u g h a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y r e m a i n s d i f f i c u l t , i t s t i l l o u t - p a c e s s e c o n d a r y a n d t e r t i a r y a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h , a p a r t f r o m t h e T e r r a s d e B o u r o a n d P o n t e d a B a r c a , h a v e b e e n i n s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y a n d d i m i n i s h e d e x t e r i o r i n v e s t m e n t p o t e n t i a l , h a s c o n c e n t r a t e d t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n p r i m a r i l y i n t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f f o r e s t r y , t h e s u p p o r t o f h y d r o - e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t i o n a n d t o u r i s m . B u t t h i s t o o i s l i m i t e d ; t o u r i s m i s c o n c e n t r a t e d g e n e r a l l y i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f C a l d a s d o G e r ê s , h y d r o - e l e c t r i c a l t r a n s m i s s i o n h a s n o t a f f e c t e d t h e l o c a l e c o n o m y , a n d a l o n g w i t h f o r e s t r y , h a s n o t s e e n a n a p p r e c i a b l e r e - i n v e s t m e n t o r r e - c a p i t a l i z a t i o n o f w e a l t h ( w i t h i n c o m e g e n e r a t e d t r a n s f e r r e d o u t s i d e t h e l o c a l m a r k e t ) . T h e p r i m a r y s e c t o r , a l t h o u g h t h e l a r g e s t c o n t r i b u t o r , i s s u b s i s t e n c e a t b e s t : s u p p o r t e d b y a n a g e i n g ( m o s t l y f e m a l e ) p o p u l a t i o n ; i n d i v i d u a l p a r c e l s a r e s m a l l a n d o v e r - s u b d i v i d e d ; p r o d u c e r s t h a t s u p p o r t f a m i l i a l o r l o c a l c l i e n t s ; a p r o d u c t i o n t h a t i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d o n p e r s o n a l c o n s u m p t i o n ; p o o r c o m m e r c i a l n e t w o r k s ; a n d p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n , w i t h l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n a l s u p p o r t s . B e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 7 0 % o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n i s s u p p o r t e d b y s u b s i d i e s . I n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e c i v i l p a r i s h e s w i t h i n t h e p a r k a r e p o o r l y d i v e r s i f i e d a n d s u p p o r t f a m i l i a l b u s i n e s s e s . C i v i l c o n s t r u c t i o n , a l t h o u g h o n e o f t h e l a r g e r e c o n o m i c s u p p o r t e r s , h a s l i t t l e e f f e c t o n l o c a l i n c o m e s , s i n c e a m a j o r i t y o f t h e e m p l o y e d c o m e f r o m o u t s i d e t h e r e g i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e a f e w l a r g e r o p e r a t i o n s ( b r e a d - m a k i n g , c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d s a w - m i l l i n g / c a r p e n t r y ) m o s t a r e s m a l l o w n e r - o p e r a t o r s , t h a t s u p p o r t l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n o r o c c a s i o n a l s a l e s . F r e q u e n t l y , a r t i s a n a l p r o d u c e r s h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d h a v e n o t b e e n r e p l a c e d b y m a s s - p r o d u c e d o r c o m p a r a b l e v e n d o r s . S i m i l a r l y , t e r t i a r y a c t i v i t i e s a r e l i m i t e d s m a l l o p e r a t o r s ; c o m m o n l y p o o r l y d i v e r s i f i e d , d o m i n a t e d b y c o m m e r c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a n d f o c u s e d o n l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n , t h e y a r e o p e r a t e d b y f a m i l i e s a n d d o n o t g e n e r a t e m u c h i n e m p l o y m e n t . C a f é s a n d r e s t a u r a n t s , a r e a g o o d e x a m p l e o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , w i t h m a n y d o t t i n g t h e s e t t l e m e n t l a n d s c a p e o f t h e p a r k ' s l i m i t s , p r i m a r i l y i n t h e a r e a o f G e r ê s . O t h e r s e r v i c e s e c t o r a c t i v i t i e s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d w i t h i n t h e u r b a n i z e d m u n i c i p a l s e a t s a n d l a r g e r v i l l a g e s , w i t h m a n y o f t h e m o r e d y n a m i c n u c l e i t h e c e n t r e o f p o s t a l s e r v i c e s , b a n k s , p o s t s f o r t h e G . N . R . o r h e a l t h c e n t r e s . I n 2 0 1 8 t h e B a r r o s o A g r o - s y l v o - p a s t o r a l S y s t e m ( B A S P ) w h e r e t r e e s a r e c u l t i v a t e d a l o n g s i d e c r o p s w a s a m o n g s t t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s i t e s d e s i g n a t e d a s ' G l o b a l l y I m p o r t a n t A g r i c u l t u r a l H e r i t a g e S y s t e m ' ( G I A H S ) b y t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d a n d A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e B A S P i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k a s i t i s f a r m i n g i n h a r m o n y w i t h n a t u r e . O f t h e 5 7 G I A H S t h a t e x i s t e d i n t h e w o r l d 2 0 1 8 , o n l y s i x w e r e d e s i g n a t e d i n E u r o p e . T h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s B a r r o s ã c a t t l e w i t h l o n g c u r v e d h o r n s , w h i c h c a n g r o w w e l l o v e r 1 0 0   c m i n l e n g t h . T h e a n i m a l s g r a z e f r e e l y o n t r a d i t i o n a l p a s t u r e s a n d m a r s h e s i n c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a r e i d e a l f o r t h e i r w e l f a r e . T h e c a t t l e e n j o y a p u r i t y o f n a t u r e t h a t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s e p l a c e s , c o n t r i b u t i n g g r e a t l y t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d b i o d i v e r s i t y o f t h e l a n d s c a p e a s w e l l a s t o t h e r u r a l e c o n o m i c s u s t a i n a b i l i t y . B a r r o s ã c a t t l e h a v e b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r a n c i e n t g e n e t i c h e r i t a g e . T h e p a r k t r i e s t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e n c o u r a g e a n d c o n t r o l t o u r i s m , s i n c e t h e p a r k ' s n a t u r e w o u l d n o t r e s i s t a m a s s i v e f l o w o f t o u r i s t s . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e r e a r e s i x s m a l l c a m p i n g s i t e s a n d s e v e r a l h i k i n g t r a i l s a r e m a r k e d , m a k i n g i t r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o f i n d m a n y o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g s p o t s , s u c h a s t h e c a s t r o s a t C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o a n d C a l c e d ó n i a a n d t h e m o n a s t e r y a t P i t õ e s d a s J ú n i a s . T h e t r a i l a t M é z i o a s a p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n i n d e s c r i b i n g s o m e o f t h e l o c a l f e a t u r e s . L o c a t i o n s n e a r t h e f e w m a j o r r o a d s a r e t h e m o s t v i s i t e d . M a n y o f t h e m a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e r e l i g i o u s n e s s o f t h e p e o p l e i n n o r t h e r n P o r t u g a l n a m e l y t h e s h r i n e s a t S e n h o r a d a P e n e d a a n d S ã o B e n t o d a P o r t a A b e r t a . O t h e r s , s u c h a s S o a j o a n d L i n d o s o , d i s p l a y s m a l l , t r a d i t i o n a l g r a n a r i e s b u i l t o f g r a n i t e , t h e " e s p i g u e i r o s " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " e s p i g a " , m e a n i n g " s p i k e " / e a r ) ) . S o a j o i s a t y p i c a l P o r t u g u e s e v i l l a g e , l o c a t e d o n o n e o f t h e s l o p e s o f P e n e d a M o u n t a i n s . T h e 2 4 e s p i g u e i r o s w e r e e r e c t e d o n a g r a n i t e s l a b a n d a r e s t i l l u s e d t o d a y f o r d r y i n g c o r n . P r o b a b l y t h e t w o m o s t k n o w n a n d v i s i t e d f e a t u r e s a r e t h e m a n y w a t e r f a l l s , m o s t l y t h e o n e n e a r t h e o l d f r o n t i e r s t a t i o n a t P o r t e l a d o H o m e m , a n d t h e V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s v i l l a g e , w h e n e v e r t h e V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s D a m i s l o w e n o u g h . T h e d o m e s t i c a n i m a l s a l s o d e s e r v e b e i n g n o t e d . T h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s " B a r r o s ã " a n d t h e s m a l l e r " C a c h e n a " c a t t l e , u s e d i n a g r i c u l t u r e , i s n o w a d a y s e n d a n g e r e d b e c a u s e i t i s l o s i n g i t s u t i l i t y ; a s i s a l s o t h e C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o d o g , a h u n t i n g d o g .

Geography

The geography of Portugal's Peneda-Gerês National Park is characterized by its unique landscape shaped by geological forces, wind, and water. The park spans 702.90 km², featuring a mix of mountains, valleys, and rivers. The region's climate is influenced by its topography, with varying microclimates and vegetation types. Human occupation has led to deforestation, reforestation, and changes in land use patterns. The park is home to diverse flora and fauna, including the Barrosã cattle, and is recognized for its ecological significance, earning designations such as the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS).

Portugal and Galicia). The Buri settled in the region between the Cávado and Homem rivers, in the area later known as Terras de Bouro ("Land of the Buri"). The move from the terraced cliffs and slopes to the lowland river valleys brought-on a patterned of new deforestation. The reoccupation of mountain areas started in the 12th century, intensifying in the 16th century with the introduction of maize, beans, and potatoes from the Americas. Agricultural fields occupied former pastures, and these were displaced to more elevated areas resulting in a mosaic of fields, pastures, and forests. The reforestation of uncultivated lands, imposed by the government in 1935, reduced the available pastures, and contributed to a rural exodus that continued after the 1950s. Yet it was still common practice for nature conservation, cultural services and sustainability. The Peneda-Gerês National Park is located in the northwest of Portugal, extending through the municipalities of Melgaço, Arcos de Valdevez and Ponte da Barca (in the district of Viana do Castelo), Terras de Bouro (district of Braga), and Montalegre (district of Vila Real). The park includes an area of 702.90 km2, of which 52.75 km2 are public lands, 194.38 km2 are private property and the remaining 455.77 km2 are commons. The park is a vast amphitheatre-shaped space sculpted during the Variscan orogeny by geological forces, wind and water, and extends from the Castro Laboreiro to the Mourela plateaus, encompassing the Serra da Peneda, Serra do Soajo, Serra Amarela and the Serra do Gerês. These form a barrier between the ocean plains to principal watersheds that cross the park are those of the Minho (occupying 2% of the park), Lima (47.8%) and Cávado (50.2%), with brooks and waterfalls common on many of the mountain slopes, in addition to several secondary tributaries (such as the Homem, Rabagão, Castro Laboreiro, and Arado rivers). The Lima cuts across the PNPG east to west, while the Cávado serves the southern limits of the districts of Vila Real and Braga. Fractures in the landscape have confined the rivers to deep, straight valleys and are visible in the younger granite outcrops visible in the uncovered higher altitudes. Owing to the number tributaries, the construction of hydroelectrical dams has been undertaken to generate electricity across six locations: Alto Rabagão, Paradela, Caniçada, Vilarinho da Furna, Touvedo and Lindoso. Soils within the elevated terrains and inclined spaces are non-existent, while the valleys are rich and deep, deposited and transported by pluvial action. These strata are textured, permeable, easily worked, albeit with a weak consistency, and marked by the peculiarities of local agriculture. The incorporation of biomass and elevated precipitation, along with the low autumn-winter temperatures give an origin to the alterations in pH levels. The elevated levels of incompletely decomposed organic material, low in phosphorus and intermittently low/high in potassium, are subject of alluvial deposition. The region of the Parque Nacional Peneda Gerês falls within a transitional zone between the Atlantic and Mediterranean environments, and is influenced by various climatic systems: Atlantic, Mediterranean and Continental. Its climate is greatly influenced by the topography; the mountains exert a barrier 12 to 28 °C (with an average of 20 °C), transitioning into a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate. Consequently, the area is prone to various micro-climates, affected by variations in altitude, topographic characteristics, human occupation, different exposures and thermal variation. Similarly, this difference has resulted in an interchange of vegetation characteristic of Mediterranean, Euro-Siberian and Alpine environments. Rivas-Martinez defined the foothills of both the Serra do Gerês and the Serra da Cabreira (lands below the Tâmega, Ave and Cávado watersheds) as the frontier between the Euro-Siberian and Mediterranean regions, granting a significant floral and phytogeographic importance to the National Park. Biomass coverage of the Serra do Gerês, Serra Amarela, Serra do Peneda and Serra do Soajo, as well as the Mourela and Castro Laboreiro plateaus, are dominated by four distinct protection approaches. The plan was based on an up-to-date synthesis of all information and literature available about the protected area. Although there has been variable growth throughout the Norte region, there has been a general population decrease in those administrative units that fell within the Peneda-Gerês National Park (1981–1991), in the municipalities of Melgaço (-16.8%), Arcos de Valdevez (-13.4%), Ponte da Barca(-6.1%), Terras de Bouro (-7.2%), and Montalegre (-20.3%). There was a population of 9,099 according to the 1991 census, a 16% decrease from the 10,849 registered in 1981. There are no positive-negative variations between civil parishes; of those civil parishes that fell within the PNPG authority, their populations dropped from 0.8% (Vilar da Veiga) to 38.6% (Sezelhe). These residents are concentrated primarily in various agglomerations: small nuclei separated from each other; an extension of buildings located along roadways; some isolated groups; constructions along agricultural roads in pasturelands; and three or more homes isolated by pastures. Consequently, there are six homogeneous zones: Some of the villages in the high lands are located near the arable lands. Terraces, built to make better use of these scarce lands, and traditional houses, with granite walls and thatch roofs, shape the landscape with an indelible, harmonious, human mark in some of the most isolated villages such as Pitões das Júnias and Ermida. Over the last 50 years, the Peneda-Gerês National Park has been one of the most important sites for ecological research in Portugal, but also for other natural and social sciences. A number of studies have been conducted from nuclei the centre of postal services, banks, posts for the G.N.R. or health centres. In 2018 the Barroso Agro-sylvo-pastoral System (BASP) where trees are cultivated alongside crops was amongst the first European sites designated as 'Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System' (GIAHS) by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. The BASP is integrated into the Peneda-Gerês National Park as it is farming in harmony with nature. Of the 57 GIAHS that existed in the world 2018, only six were designated in Europe. The autochthonous Barrosã cattle with long curved horns, which can grow well over 100 cm in length. The animals graze freely on traditional pastures and marshes in conditions that are ideal for their welfare. The cattle enjoy a purity of nature that is characteristic of these

Peneda-Gerês National Park

P r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e i n h o s p i t a l i t y o f t h e G e r ê s M o u n t a i n s , t h e o l d e s t s i g n s o f h u m a n p r e s e n c e d a t e o n l y f r o m 6 0 0 0 B C t o 3 0 0 0 B C ; d o l m e n s a n d o t h e r m e g a l i t h i c t o m b s r e m a i n i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n , i n c l u d i n g n e a r C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o a n d M o u r e l a . H u m a n a c t i v i t i e s c o n s i s t e d o f a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y a n d i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a d e c r e a s e i n f o r e s t c o v e r . T h e R o m a n G e i r a , a R o m a n r o a d , w h i c h f o r m e r l y c o n n e c t e d t h e R o m a n " c i v i t a t e s " o f A s t u r i c a A u g u s t a a n d B r a c c a r a A u g u s t a , c r o s s e d w h a t i s n o w t h e p a r k . L o n g s t r e t c h e s o f t h e r o a d a l o n g t h e H o m e m R i v e r a r e s t i l l p r e s e r v e d , a s a r e s e v e r a l R o m a n b r i d g e s a n d n u m e r o u s m i l l e n a r i u m m a r k e r s . T h e G e r m a n i c t r i b e o f t h e B u r i a c c o m p a n i e d t h e S u e b i i n t h e i r i n v a s i o n o f t h e I b e r i a n P e n i n s u l a a n d e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n G a l l a e c i a ( m o d e r n n o r t h e r n P o r t u g a l a n d G a l i c i a ) . T h e B u r i s e t t l e d i n t h e r e g i o n b e t w e e n t h e C á v a d o a n d H o m e m r i v e r s , i n t h e a r e a l a t e r k n o w n a s T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( " L a n d o f t h e B u r i " ) . T h e m o v e f r o m t h e t e r r a c e d c l i f f s a n d s l o p e s t o t h e l o w l a n d r i v e r v a l l e y s b r o u g h t - o n a p a t t e r n e d o f n e w d e f o r e s t a t i o n . T h e r e o c c u p a t i o n o f m o u n t a i n a r e a s s t a r t e d i n t h e 1 2 t h c e n t u r y , i n t e n s i f y i n g i n t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m a i z e , b e a n s , a n d p o t a t o e s f r o m t h e A m e r i c a s . A g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s o c c u p i e d f o r m e r p a s t u r e s , a n d t h e s e w e r e d i s p l a c e d t o m o r e e l e v a t e d a r e a s r e s u l t i n g i n a m o s a i c o f f i e l d s , p a s t u r e s , a n d f o r e s t s . T h e r e f o r e s t a t i o n o f u n c u l t i v a t e d l a n d s , i m p o s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n 1 9 3 5 , r e d u c e d t h e a v a i l a b l e p a s t u r e s , a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o a r u r a l e x o d u s t h a t c o n t i n u e d a f t e r t h e 1 9 5 0 s . Y e t i t w a s s t i l l c o m m o n p r a c t i c e f o r t h e r e s i d e n t s o f m o u n t a i n c o m m u n i t i e s t o s p e n d p a r t o f t h e y e a r i n t w o l o c a t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y n e a r C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o . F r o m a b o u t E a s t e r t o a b o u t C h r i s t m a s , r e s i d e n t s w o u l d l i v e i n h o m e s o v e r 1 , 0 0 0   m a b o v e s e a l e v e l , k n o w n a s " b r a n d a " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " b r a n d o " , m e a n i n g ' m i l d ' o r ' g e n t l e ' ) . I n t h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t o f t h e y e a r , t h e s e i n h a b i t a n t s w o u l d o c c u p y h o m e s i n t h e r i v e r v a l l e y , k n o w n a s " i n v e r n e i r a " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " i n v e r n o " , m e a n i n g ' w i n t e r ' ) . I n 1 9 7 0 , t h e v i l l a g e o f V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s w a s f l o o d e d w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a d a m o n t h e H o m e m R i v e r . D u r i n g y e a r s w i t h l o w r a i n f a l l , t h e v i l l a g e r u i n s s t a n d s a b o v e t h e w a t e r , a t t r a c t i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f t o u r i s t s . T h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k ( c o m p l e t e d u n d e r d e c r e e n o . 1 8 7 / 7 1 , 8 M a y 1 9 7 1 ) e n v i s i o n e d a p l a n n i n g a r e a o f m o u n t a i n o u s s p a c e s , i n o r d e r t o c o n s e r v e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , w h i l e p e r m i t t i n g h u m a n a n d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e a c t i v i t i e s , w h i c h w o u l d i n c l u d e e d u c a t i o n a l , t o u r i s t i c a n d s c i e n t i f i c p r o j e c t s . A t h e a r t i s t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a a n d f a u n a , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f l a n d s c a p e s w i t h i n t h e v a s t m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n i n t h e n o r t h w e s t o f P o r t u g a l . I n 1 9 9 7 , P e n e d a - G e r ê s w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e N a t u r a 2 0 0 0 n e t w o r k , a n d i n 1 9 9 9 , d e s i g n a t e d a S p e c i a l P r o t e c t i o n A r e a f o r W i l d B i r d s . M o r e o v e r , i t a l s o e n c o m p a s s e s a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a o f n a t u r a l f o r e s t , w h i c h f o r m s p a r t o f t h e E u r o p e a n N e t w o r k o f B i o g e n e t i c R e s e r v e s , a n d i s r e c o g n i z e d a s a n a t i o n a l p a r k b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i o n f o r C o n s e r v a t i o n o f N a t u r e . I n 2 0 0 7 , i t w a s a c c e p t e d i n t h e P A N P a r k s n e t w o r k t h a t c e r t i f i e s t h e q u a l i t y p r o t e c t e d a r e a s , a c c o r d i n g t o r i g o r o u s c r i t e r i a o f n a t u r e c o n s e r v a t i o n , c u l t u r a l s e r v i c e s a n d s u s t a i n a b i l i t y . T h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k i s l o c a t e d i n t h e n o r t h w e s t o f P o r t u g a l , e x t e n d i n g t h r o u g h t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f M e l g a ç o , A r c o s d e V a l d e v e z a n d P o n t e d a B a r c a ( i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f V i a n a d o C a s t e l o ) , T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( d i s t r i c t o f B r a g a ) , a n d M o n t a l e g r e ( d i s t r i c t o f V i l a R e a l ) . T h e p a r k i n c l u d e s a n a r e a o f 7 0 2 . 9 0   k m 2 , o f w h i c h 5 2 . 7 5   k m 2 a r e p u b l i c l a n d s , 1 9 4 . 3 8   k m 2 a r e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g 4 5 5 . 7 7   k m 2 a r e c o m m o n s . T h e p a r k i s a v a s t a m p h i t h e a t r e - s h a p e d s p a c e s c u l p t e d d u r i n g t h e V a r i s c a n o r o g e n y b y g e o l o g i c a l f o r c e s , w i n d a n d w a t e r , a n d e x t e n d s f r o m t h e C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o t o t h e M o u r e l a p l a t e a u s , e n c o m p a s s i n g t h e S e r r a d a P e n e d a , S e r r a d o S o a j o , S e r r a A m a r e l a a n d t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s . T h e s e f o r m a b a r r i e r b e t w e e n t h e o c e a n p l a i n s t o i t s w e s t a n d t h e p l a t e a u s i n t h e e a s t . T h e h i g h e s t p e a k s a r e P e n e d a ( 1 3 4 0   m ) , S o a j o ( 1 4 3 0   m ) , A m a r e l o ( 1 3 5 0   m ) , G e r ê s ( 1 5 4 5   m ) a n d A l t a r d o s C a b r õ e s ( 1 , 5 3 8   m ) l o c a t e d o n t h e b o r d e r w i t h G a l i c i a , c o n t i n u i n g i n t o t h i s t e r r i t o r y a s p a r t o f t h e S e r r a d o X u r é s . T h e g r a n i t i c r o c k s t h a t d o m i n a t e t h i s s h i e l d w e r e d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n t i n e n t a l c o l l i s i o n t h a t b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r t h e l o w e r I b e r i a n p e n i n s u l a w i t h E u r o p e , b e t w e e n 3 8 0 m i l l i o n a n d 2 7 5 m i l l i o n y e a r s ; t h e o l d e s t o f t h e m , a t A m a r e l a , d a t e f r o m 3 1 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o . T h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e o f t h e g r a n i t i c r o c k s t h a t o c c u r w i t h i n t h e p a r k a r e t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s p l u t o n w h i c h i s a n e x p o s e d r e l i e f t h a t b e c a m e e x p o s e d a r o u n d 2 9 0 - 2 9 6 M a b y t h e G e r ê s - L o v i o s f a u l t . S e d i m e n t a r y l a y e r s l a i d d o w n b e t w e e n 4 3 5 a n d 4 0 8 M a ( S i l u r i a n e p o c h ) w e r e d e f o r m e d a n d m e t a m o r p h o s e d i n t o s c h i s t s , g r e y w a c k e s a n d q u a r t z i t e s ( s u c h a s i n t h e a r e a o f C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o ) . A l s o , d y k e s a n d s i l l s f o r m e d f r o m q u a r t z a n d a p l i t e - p e g m a t i t e s w e r e m i n e r a l i z e d r e s u l t i n g i n t i n , t u n g s t e n , m o l y b d e n u m a n d g o l d ( w h i c h w o u l d b e c o m e t h e f o c u s o f m i n i n g i n t h e h u m a n e r a , a t t h e n o w - c l o s e d m i n e s o f C a r r i s a n d B o r r a g e i r o ) . G e n e r a l l y , t h e l i t h o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e l a y e r s : D u r i n g t h e P l e i s t o c e n e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 . 8 t o 0 . 0 0 1 M a a g o ) c l i m a t i c v a r i a t i o n s r e s u l t e d i n a n e x t e n s i o n o f g l a c i a l f i e l d s t o t h e m i d - l a t i t u d e s . W h i l e t h e r e a r e n o r e m n a n t s o f g l a c i e r s n o w , t h e i r I c e A g e p r o d u c t s ( U - s h a p e d v a l l e y s , m o r a i n e s , g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s , p o l i s h e d a n d n a t u r a l g r a n i t e s u r f a c e s ) a r e i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e S e r r a d a P e n e d a , S e r r a d o S o a j o a n d S e r r a d o G e r ê s m o u n t a i n r a n g e s . T h e p r i n c i p a l w a t e r s h e d s t h a t c r o s s t h e p a r k a r e t h o s e o f t h e M i n h o ( o c c u p y i n g 2 % o f t h e p a r k ) , L i m a ( 4 7 . 8 % ) a n d C á v a d o ( 5 0 . 2 % ) , w i t h b r o o k s a n d w a t e r f a l l s c o m m o n o n m a n y o f t h e m o u n t a i n s l o p e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o s e v e r a l s e c o n d a r y t r i b u t a r i e s ( s u c h a s t h e H o m e m , R a b a g ã o , C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o , a n d A r a d o r i v e r s ) . T h e L i m a c u t s a c r o s s t h e P N P G e a s t t o w e s t , w h i l e t h e C á v a d o s e r v e s t h e s o u t h e r n l i m i t s o f t h e d i s t r i c t s o f V i l a R e a l a n d B r a g a . F r a c t u r e s i n t h e l a n d s c a p e h a v e c o n f i n e d t h e r i v e r s t o d e e p , s t r a i g h t v a l l e y s a n d a r e v i s i b l e i n t h e y o u n g e r g r a n i t e o u t c r o p s v i s i b l e i n t h e u n c o v e r e d h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s . O w i n g t o t h e n u m b e r t r i b u t a r i e s , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h y d r o e l e c t r i c a l d a m s h a s b e e n u n d e r t a k e n t o g e n e r a t e e l e c t r i c i t y a c r o s s s i x l o c a t i o n s : A l t o R a b a g ã o , P a r a d e l a , C a n i ç a d a , V i l a r i n h o d a F u r n a , T o u v e d o a n d L i n d o s o . S o i l s w i t h i n t h e e l e v a t e d t e r r a i n s a n d i n c l i n e d s p a c e s a r e n o n - e x i s t e n t , w h i l e t h e v a l l e y s a r e r i c h a n d d e e p , d e p o s i t e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d b y p l u v i a l a c t i o n . T h e s e s t r a t a a r e t e x t u r e d , p e r m e a b l e , e a s i l y w o r k e d , a l b e i t w i t h a w e a k c o n s i s t e n c y , a n d m a r k e d b y t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r e . T h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f b i o m a s s a n d e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n , a l o n g w i t h t h e l o w a u t u m n - w i n t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s g i v e a n o r i g i n t o t h e a l t e r a t i o n s i n p H l e v e l s . T h e e l e v a t e d l e v e l s o f i n c o m p l e t e l y d e c o m p o s e d o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l , l o w i n p h o s p h o r u s a n d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y l o w / h i g h i n p o t a s s i u m , a r e s u b j e c t o f a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t i o n . T h e r e g i o n o f t h e P a r q u e N a c i o n a l P e n e d a G e r ê s f a l l s w i t h i n a t r a n s i t i o n a l z o n e b e t w e e n t h e A t l a n t i c a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n e n v i r o n m e n t s , a n d i s i n f l u e n c e d b y v a r i o u s c l i m a t i c s y s t e m s : A t l a n t i c , M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d C o n t i n e n t a l . I t s c l i m a t e i s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e t o p o g r a p h y ; t h e m o u n t a i n s e x e r t a b a r r i e r e f f e c t t o t h e p a s s a g e o f h o t a n d w e t a i r m a s s e s c o m i n g f r o m t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n , r e s u l t i n g i n e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r . I t f a l l s i n a p a r t o f P o r t u g a l ( a n d E u r o p e ) t h a t i s a f f e c t e d b y e x t r e m e r a i n f a l l , o b t a i n i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n l e v e l s o f 3 2 0 0 m i l l i m e t r e s p e r y e a r o n h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s , a n d 1 6 0 0 m i l l i m e t r e s a t l o w e r a l t i t u d e s , w i t h m o r e t h a n 1 3 0 r a i n y d a y s p e r y e a r . A v e r a g e d a i l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g e f r o m 1 0   ° C t o 2 1   ° C , w i t h s o m e v a r i a t i o n ; t h e h i g h l a n d s h a v e a n a v e r a g e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e o f a b o u t 1 1   ° C , r a n g i n g f r o m 4 t o 2 0   ° C , o n e o f t h e f e w p l a c e s i n P o r t u g a l w i t h a n o c e a n i c c l i m a t e , w h i l e a r e a s i n t h e v a l l e y s ( s u c h a s t h e H o m e m , L i m a a n d C á v a d o r i v e r v a l l e y s ) h a v e w a r m e r c l i m a t e s , w i t h d a i l y m a x t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g i n g f r o m 1 2 t o 2 8   ° C ( w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 2 0   ° C ) , t r a n s i t i o n i n g i n t o a H o t - s u m m e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n c l i m a t e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e a r e a i s p r o n e t o v a r i o u s m i c r o - c l i m a t e s , a f f e c t e d b y v a r i a t i o n s i n a l t i t u d e , t o p o g r a p h i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , h u m a n o c c u p a t i o n , d i f f e r e n t e x p o s u r e s a n d t h e r m a l v a r i a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , t h i s d i f f e r e n c e h a s r e s u l t e d i n a n i n t e r c h a n g e o f v e g e t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f M e d i t e r r a n e a n , E u r o - S i b e r i a n a n d A l p i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s . R i v a s - M a r t i n e z d e f i n e d t h e f o o t h i l l s o f b o t h t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s a n d t h e S e r r a d a C a b r e i r a ( l a n d s b e l o w t h e T â m e g a , A v e a n d C á v a d o w a t e r s h e d s ) a s t h e f r o n t i e r b e t w e e n t h e E u r o - S i b e r i a n a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e g i o n s , g r a n t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t f l o r a l a n d p h y t o g e o g r a p h i c i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k . B i o m a s s c o v e r a g e o f t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s , S e r r a A m a r e l a , S e r r a d o P e n e d a a n d S e r r a d o S o a j o , a s w e l l a s t h e M o u r e l a a n d C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o p l a t e a u s , a r e d o m i n a t e d b y f o u r d i s t i n c t b i o m e s : o a k f o r e s t , s h r u b b e r y , m a r s h e s a n d r i p a r i a n v e g e t a t i o n . T h e f l o r i s t i c d i v e r s i t y i n c l u d e s 8 2 3 v a s c u l a r t a x a t h a t o c c u r i n 1 2 8 t y p e s o f n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n . T h e o a k f o r e s t s w h i c h a r e c o m m o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e p a r k , a r e e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e R a m i s c a l , P e n e d a , G e r ê s a n d B e r e d o r i v e r v a l l e y s . T h e s e f o r e s t e d a r e a s a r e d o m i n a t e d b y a n a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e P y r e n e a n ( " Q u e r c u s p y r e n a i c a " ) a n d E u r o p e a n ( " Q u e r c u s r o b u r " ) o a k s , w h i c h t h e m s e l v e s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a m o n g t h e l o w e r a l t i t u d e s a n d e x p o s e d f l a n k s ( t h e " R u s c e t o - Q u e r c e t u m r o b o r i s " ) a n d t h o s e o f t y p i c a l A t l a n t i c e n v i r o n m e n t s ( " M y r e t i l l o - Q u e r c e t u m r o b o r i s " ) . T h e f i r s t a s s o c i a t i o n i s c o m m o n l y f o u n d w i t h E u r o p e a n o a k ( " Q u e r c u s r o b e r " ) , c o r k o a k ( " Q u e r c u s s u b e r " ) , b u t c h e r ' s b r o o m ( " R u s c u s a c u l e a t u s " ) , m a p l e ( " A c e r p s e u d o p l a t a n u s " ) a n d P o r t u g u e s e l a u r e l ( " P r u n u s l u s i t a n i c a " ) , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d a s s o c i a t i o n u n i t e s t h e E u r o p e a n a n d P y r e n e a n o a k s w i t h b i l b e r r y ( " V a c c i n i u m m y r t i l l u s " ) , s t r a w b e r r y t r e e ( " A r b u t u s u n e d o " ) a n d E u r o p e a n h o l l y ( " I l e x a q u i f o l i u m " ) . I n u p p e r a l t i t u d e s t h e r e a r e p a t c h e s o f E u r o p e a n o a k t h a t e n t e r i n t o t h e i r o w n a s s o c i a t i o n ( " H o l c o - Q u e r c e t u m p y r e n a c i a " ) , w h i c h i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a n o t h e r g r o u p ( " Q u e r i c o n r o b r i - p a t r a e a " ) . T h e s e o a k s h a v e b e e n , o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f h u m a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h e o b j e c t o f i n t e n s e u s e , r e s u l t i n g i n a g e n e r a l d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e s p a c e s i n t o n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n s h r u b b e r y . T h e b u s h a n d s h r u b l a n d s , w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s p a c e s ( 7 4 % o f t h e p a r k ) , a r e d o m i n a t e d b y d w a r f ( " U l e x m i n o r " ) a n d E u r o p e a n ( " U l e x e u r o p a e u s " ) g o r s e a n d h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a u m b e l l a t a " a n d " C a l l u n a v u l g a r i s " ) , w i t h a m i x t u r e s o f c o m m o n j u n i p e r ( " J u n i p e r u s c o m m u n i s " ) , s o u t h e r n h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a a u s t r a l i s " ) i n t h e u p p e r a l t i t u d e s , w h i l e l o w e r a l t i t u d e b u s h i n c l u d e s c r o s s - l e a v e d h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a t e t r a l i x " ) , d w a r f g o r s e ( " U l e x m i n o r " ) , D o r s e t h e a t h ( " E r i c a c i l i a r i s " ) , c o m m o n s u n d e w ( " D r o s e r a r o t u n d i f o l i a " ) , p a l e b u t t e r w o r t ( " P i n g u i c u l a l u s i t a n i c a " ) , m a r s h v i o l e t ( " V i o l a p a l u s t r i s " ) a n d p u r p l e m o o r g r a s s ( " M o l i n i a c a e r u l e a " ) . R i p a r i a n a n d m a r s h l a n d s a l o n g t h e r i v e r c o u r s e s a r e a l s o s i t e s o f r a r e s p e c i e s o f c h a i n f e r n s ( " W o o d w a r d i a r a d i c a n s " ) , w i l l o w ( " S a l i x r e p e n s " ) , d o w n y b i r c h ( " B e t u l a p u b e s c e n s " ) , d e c i d u o u s s h r u b s ( " S p i r a e a h y p e r i c i f o l i a " ) , P o r t u g u e s e e n c h a n t e r ' s n i g h t s h a d e ( " C i r c a e a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a n d a n g e l i c a h e r b s ( " A n g e l i c a l a e v i s " ) . T h e r e a r e 6 2 7 f l o r a s p e c i e s i d e n t i f i e d b y S e r r a a n d C a r v a l h o ( 1 9 8 9 ) a s u n d e r p r e s s u r e a n d c o n s i d e r e d e n d a n g e r e d , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t w o m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s : t u t s a n ( " H y p e r i c u m a n d r o s a e m u m " ) a n d s u n d e w ( " D r o s e r a r o t u n d i f o l i a " ) . B a s e d o n t h e p r o t e c t i o n l i s t o f b o t a n i c a l s p e c i e s , a n d U I C N c a t e g o r i e s : 1 8 a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n r i s k o f e x t i n c t i o n , 1 7 a r e v u l n e r a b l e a n d o n e i s r a r e . T h e y a l s o i d e n t i f i e d t w o s p e c i e s a s e x t i n c t w i t h i n t h e p a r k b o u n d a r i e s : a g e r a n i u m ( " G e r a n i u m l a n u g i n o s u m " ) a n d f r a g r a n t o r c h i d ( " G y m n a d e n i a c o n o p s e a " ) . T h e r e a r e t h r e e e n d e m i c s p e c i e s . T h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d t h a t t h r e a t e n t h e s e h a b i t a t s i n c l u d e : n a t u r a l a n d m a n m a d e f i r e s , u s e o f f o r e s t f o r f u e l w o o d a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l u s e o f h a b i t a t s . M a n y o f t h e s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d o n t h e s p e c i e s t h a t i n h a b i t a n t t h e p a r k h a v e b e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e a r e a o f M a t a s d e A l b e r g a r i a / P a l h e i r o s , t r a d i t i o n a l l y i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e " h e a r t " o f t h e p a r k . W o r k b y t h e F a c u l t y o f S c i e n c e s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P o r t o a n d U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n h o h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n a f e w m a m m a l s ( P y r e n e a n d e s m a n , E u r o p e a n o t t e r , r o e d e e r , a n d w i l d b o a r ) , r e p t i l e s a n d f i s h . T h e s e s t u d i e s l o o k e d i n t o t h e n u m b e r s o f s p e c i e s a n d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e i r h a b i t a t s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 3 5 v e r t e b r a t e s p e c i e s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e p a r k , o f w h i c h 2 0 0 a r e t h r e a t e n e d o r u n d e r p r o t e c t i o n . T h e s e i n c l u d e t h r e e s p e c i e s o f b a t u n d e r p r e s s u r e ( o f t h e e i g h t t h a t e x i s t ) : g r e a t e r h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p h u s f e r r u m e q u i n u m " ) , l e s s e r h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p h u s h i p p o s i d e r o s " ) a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p l u s e u r y a l e " ) . O t h e r s p e c i e s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e : t h e I b e r i a n s h r e w ( " S o r e x g r a n a r i u s " ) , t h e E u r o p e a n p i n e m a r t e n ( " M a r t e s m a r t e s " ) , t h e E u r o p e a n w i l d c a t ( " F e l i s s i l v e s t r i s " ) , t h e g o l d - s t r i p e d s a l a m a n d e r ( " C h i o g l o s s a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a n d t h e s n u b - n o s e d v i p e r ( " V i p e r a l a t a s t e i " ) . A f e w o f t h e l o c a l s p e c i e s a r e p r o t e c t e d b y t h e C o n v e n t i o n o n t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n o f E u r o p e a n W i l d l i f e a n d N a t u r a l H a b i t a t s . T h e r e d s q u i r r e l ( " S c i u r u s v u l g a r i s " ) w h o s e h a b i t a t i s r e s t r i c t e d a n d m a r g i n a l i n c o n t i n e n t a l P o r t u g a l , i s a n o t h e r s p e c i e s t h a t i s c o m m o n t o t h e p a r k . A f t e r f o u r c e n t u r i e s a b s e n t f r o m P o r t u g u e s e t e r r i t o r y , i t s p o p u l a t i o n b e g a n t o b e r e c o r d e d i n 1 9 8 5 – 1 9 8 6 , i n V i a n a d o C a s t e l o . T h e r e w e r e a l s o r e g i s t e r e d s i g h t i n g s i n A l b e r g a r i a , L a m a s d e M o u r o a n d S e r r a d a P a n e d a , w h i l e c o m p a r a b l e e n c o u n t e r s i n S p a i n w e r e i d e n t i f i e d a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r . R o e d e e r , w h i c h a r e a s y m b o l o f t h e p a r k a r e e n c o u n t e r e d i n p r o l i f i c q u a n t i t y , a l o n g t h e m a r g i n s o f t h e p a r k , w h e r e t h e y f i n d s h e l t e r a n d f o o d . M e a n w h i l e , o t h e r m a m m a l s , s u c h a s t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f I b e r i a n w o l f ( " C a n i s l u p u s s i g n a t u s " ) h a v e c o l l a p s e d w i t h h u m a n e n c r o a c h m e n t , w h i l e t h e n u m b e r o f e x e m p l a r s a r e l i m i t e d . A l o n g w i t h t h e g o l d e n e a g l e , t h e w o l f w a s s e e n a s a t h r e a t t o l i v e s t o c k , a n d w a s a l m o s t h u n t e d t o e x t i n c t i o n , a l t h o u g h p r o t e c t e d b y l a w s i n c e t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y . B r o w n b e a r s d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e r e g i o n i n t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h e e x t i n c t P o r t u g u e s e i b e x ( " C a p r a p y r e n a i c a l u s i t a n i c a " ) , l o c a l l y k n o w n a s " G e r ê s g o a t " , w a s l a s t s e e n i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s . M o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y l a t e r , i t s v a c a n t e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e w a s r e o c c u p i e d n a t u r a l l y b y S p a n i s h i b e x c o m i n g f r o m G a l i c i a , a n d t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n n u m b e r e d a b o u t 1 0 0 a n i m a l s b y 2 0 1 1 . W o r t h y o f m e n t i o n a r e t h e " G a r r a n o " ( o r M i n h o h o r s e ) , a b r e e d o f s m a l l e q u i n e s p e c i e s w h o w e r e a n c e s t o r s o f t h e G a l i c i a n p o n y a n d A n d a l u s i a n h o r s e , w h i c h m o s t l y l i v e i n t h e w i l d , b u t a r e a g e n t l e b r e e d w i t h n o s i g n i f i c a n t f e a r o f h u m a n s . F o r a l o n g t i m e t h e s e h o r s e s p e r m e a t e d t h e f a r m s o f V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s ( b e f o r e i t w a s i n u n d a t e d w i t h t h e d a m ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n ) , b u t l a t e r b e g a n t o f r e e l y m o v e b e t w e e n t h e P o r t u g u e s e - S p a n i s h b o r d e r a f t e r 1 9 7 9 . T h e r e a r e 1 4 7 a v i a n s p e c i e s t h a t a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s p a r k , e s p e c i a l l y a l o n g t h e M o u r e l a r e g i o n i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f i t s f r o n t i e r . I n t h i s r e g i o n , a l t h o u g h i t m i g h t v a r y t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r ( g i v e n c l i m a t e a n d s e a s o n ) , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 6 s p e c i e s m a k e t h e i r n e s t s i n t h e a r e a . O f p a r t i c u l a r n o t e i n t h i s p a r k a r e t h e : h e n h a r r i e r ( " C i r c u s c y a n e u s " ) , E u r o p e a n h o n e y b u z z a r d ( " P e r n i s a p i v o r u s " ) , c o m m o n s n i p e ( " G a l l i n a g o g a l l i n a g o " ) , r e d - b a c k e d s h r i k e ( " L a n i u s c o l l u r i o " ) , y e l l o w h a m m e r ( " E m b e r i z a c i t r i n e l l a " ) , g a r d e n w a r b l e r ( " S y l v i a b o r i n " ) a n d w h i n c h a t ( " S a x i c o l a r u b e t r a " ) . F o r t h e w i n c h a t , t h e a r e a o f M o u r e l a i s t h e u n i q u e n e s t i n g g r o u n d i n P o r t u g a l , w h i l e t h e r e d - b a c k e d s h r i k e a n d y e l l o w h a m m e r a r e l i m i t e d t o C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o p l a t e a u a n d n o r t h e r n c o r n e r s o f t h e p a r k . A l s o i m p o r t a n t t o h i g h l i g h t i s t h e g o l d - s t r i p e d s a l a m a n d e r ( " C h i o g l o s s a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a s p e c i e s e n d e m i c t o t h e n o r t h w e s t I b e r i a n p e n i n s u l a , t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o u n t a i n o u s a r e a s w i t h e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n . T h e w a t e r s o f t h e p a r k t e e m w i t h v a r i o u s s p e c i e s , o f t e n c a l l e d " R i o s t r u t e i r o s " ( " T r o u t R i v e r s " ) f o r t h e a b u n d a n c e o f t r o u t . A l t h o u g h s t o c k s h a v e d i m i n i s h e d , t h e s a l m o n p o p u l a t i o n s s t i l l s p a w n s i n t h e r i v e r s o f t h e p a r k . S p e c i e s w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e b i o t o p e s o f P e n e d a - G e r ê s i n c l u d e : T h e 1 9 7 1 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f P e n e d a - G e r ê s a s a n a t i o n a l p a r k c a m e f r o m a g r o u p o f r u l e s / r e q u i r e m e n t s e s t a b l i s h e d t o a l l o w : t h e p r u d e n t u s e o f t h e p a r k ' s r e s o u r c e s , p r e s e r v a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g f l o r a a n d f a u n a s p e c i e s , a l l o w i n g f o r t h e c o n t i n u e d c o h a b i t a t i o n , w h i l e p r o v i d i n g a n e n v i r o n m e n t f o r s c i e n t i f i c , e d u c a t i o n a l a n d t o u r i s t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e s e s p e c i f i e d : I n 2 0 1 1 a n e w m a n a g e m e n t p l a n w a s p u b l i s h e d f o r P e n e d a - G e r ê s N P d e f i n i n g 5 l e v e l s o f p r o t e c t i o n : t o t a l p r o t e c t i o n a r e a , p a r t i a l p r o t e c t i o n a r e a s ( l e v e l s I a n d I I ) a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y p r o t e c t i o n a r e a s ( l e v e l s I a n d I I ) . T h i s m a n a g e m e n t p l a n w a s b a s e d o n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b i o d i v e r s i t y c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d w i l d e r n e s s p r o t e c t i o n a p p r o a c h e s . T h e p l a n w a s b a s e d o n a n u p - t o - d a t e s y n t h e s i s o f a l l i n f o r m a t i o n a n d l i t e r a t u r e a v a i l a b l e a b o u t t h e p r o t e c t e d a r e a . A l t h o u g h t h e r e h a s b e e n v a r i a b l e g r o w t h t h r o u g h o u t t h e N o r t e r e g i o n , t h e r e h a s b e e n a g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n d e c r e a s e i n t h o s e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s t h a t f e l l w i t h i n t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k ( 1 9 8 1 – 1 9 9 1 ) , i n t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f M e l g a ç o ( - 1 6 . 8 % ) , A r c o s d e V a l d e v e z ( - 1 3 . 4 % ) , P o n t e d a B a r c a ( - 6 . 1 % ) , T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( - 7 . 2 % ) , a n d M o n t a l e g r e ( - 2 0 . 3 % ) . T h e r e w a s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 9 , 0 9 9 a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 1 9 9 1 c e n s u s , a 1 6 % d e c r e a s e f r o m t h e 1 0 , 8 4 9 r e g i s t e r e d i n 1 9 8 1 . T h e r e a r e n o p o s i t i v e - n e g a t i v e v a r i a t i o n s b e t w e e n c i v i l p a r i s h e s ; o f t h o s e c i v i l p a r i s h e s t h a t f e l l w i t h i n t h e P N P G a u t h o r i t y , t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s d r o p p e d f r o m 0 . 8 % ( V i l a r d a V e i g a ) t o 3 8 . 6 % ( S e z e l h e ) . T h e s e r e s i d e n t s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d p r i m a r i l y i n v a r i o u s a g g l o m e r a t i o n s : s m a l l n u c l e i s e p a r a t e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r ; a n e x t e n s i o n o f b u i l d i n g s l o c a t e d a l o n g r o a d w a y s ; s o m e i s o l a t e d g r o u p s ; c o n s t r u c t i o n s a l o n g a g r i c u l t u r a l r o a d s i n p a s t u r e l a n d s ; a n d t h r e e o r m o r e h o m e s i s o l a t e d b y p a s t u r e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e a r e s i x h o m o g e n e o u s z o n e s : S o m e o f t h e v i l l a g e s i n t h e h i g h l a n d s a r e l o c a t e d n e a r t h e a r a b l e l a n d s . T e r r a c e s , b u i l t t o m a k e b e t t e r u s e o f t h e s e s c a r c e l a n d s , a n d t r a d i t i o n a l h o u s e s , w i t h g r a n i t e w a l l s a n d t h a t c h r o o f s , s h a p e t h e l a n d s c a p e w i t h a n i n d e l i b l e , h a r m o n i o u s , h u m a n m a r k i n s o m e o f t h e m o s t i s o l a t e d v i l l a g e s s u c h a s P i t õ e s d a s J ú n i a s a n d E r m i d a . O v e r t h e l a s t 5 0 y e a r s , t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k h a s b e e n o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s i t e s f o r e c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n P o r t u g a l , b u t a l s o f o r o t h e r n a t u r a l a n d s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . A n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d f r o m t h e P e n e d a F i e l d S t a t i o n i n C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o r u n b y P r o f . H e n r i q u e M . P e r e i r a . T h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e l o o k e d a t p a t t e r n s o f s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y a t m u l t i p l e s c a l e s a n d t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o t h e h a b i t a t c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e l a n d s c a p e a n d m u l t i p l e l a n d - u s e s . T h e y h a v e a l s o d o c u m e n t e d a n e w m o t h s p e c i e s f o r s c i e n c e i n 2 0 1 5 , " I s o t r i a s p e n e d a n a " . T h e p r i m a r y e c o n o m i c s e c t o r d o m i n a t e s t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f r e s i d e n t s t h a t l i v e w i t h i n t h e p a r k ' s t e r r i t o r y . A l t h o u g h a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y r e m a i n s d i f f i c u l t , i t s t i l l o u t - p a c e s s e c o n d a r y a n d t e r t i a r y a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h , a p a r t f r o m t h e T e r r a s d e B o u r o a n d P o n t e d a B a r c a , h a v e b e e n i n s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y a n d d i m i n i s h e d e x t e r i o r i n v e s t m e n t p o t e n t i a l , h a s c o n c e n t r a t e d t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n p r i m a r i l y i n t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f f o r e s t r y , t h e s u p p o r t o f h y d r o - e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t i o n a n d t o u r i s m . B u t t h i s t o o i s l i m i t e d ; t o u r i s m i s c o n c e n t r a t e d g e n e r a l l y i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f C a l d a s d o G e r ê s , h y d r o - e l e c t r i c a l t r a n s m i s s i o n h a s n o t a f f e c t e d t h e l o c a l e c o n o m y , a n d a l o n g w i t h f o r e s t r y , h a s n o t s e e n a n a p p r e c i a b l e r e - i n v e s t m e n t o r r e - c a p i t a l i z a t i o n o f w e a l t h ( w i t h i n c o m e g e n e r a t e d t r a n s f e r r e d o u t s i d e t h e l o c a l m a r k e t ) . T h e p r i m a r y s e c t o r , a l t h o u g h t h e l a r g e s t c o n t r i b u t o r , i s s u b s i s t e n c e a t b e s t : s u p p o r t e d b y a n a g e i n g ( m o s t l y f e m a l e ) p o p u l a t i o n ; i n d i v i d u a l p a r c e l s a r e s m a l l a n d o v e r - s u b d i v i d e d ; p r o d u c e r s t h a t s u p p o r t f a m i l i a l o r l o c a l c l i e n t s ; a p r o d u c t i o n t h a t i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d o n p e r s o n a l c o n s u m p t i o n ; p o o r c o m m e r c i a l n e t w o r k s ; a n d p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n , w i t h l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n a l s u p p o r t s . B e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 7 0 % o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n i s s u p p o r t e d b y s u b s i d i e s . I n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e c i v i l p a r i s h e s w i t h i n t h e p a r k a r e p o o r l y d i v e r s i f i e d a n d s u p p o r t f a m i l i a l b u s i n e s s e s . C i v i l c o n s t r u c t i o n , a l t h o u g h o n e o f t h e l a r g e r e c o n o m i c s u p p o r t e r s , h a s l i t t l e e f f e c t o n l o c a l i n c o m e s , s i n c e a m a j o r i t y o f t h e e m p l o y e d c o m e f r o m o u t s i d e t h e r e g i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e a f e w l a r g e r o p e r a t i o n s ( b r e a d - m a k i n g , c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d s a w - m i l l i n g / c a r p e n t r y ) m o s t a r e s m a l l o w n e r - o p e r a t o r s , t h a t s u p p o r t l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n o r o c c a s i o n a l s a l e s . F r e q u e n t l y , a r t i s a n a l p r o d u c e r s h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d h a v e n o t b e e n r e p l a c e d b y m a s s - p r o d u c e d o r c o m p a r a b l e v e n d o r s . S i m i l a r l y , t e r t i a r y a c t i v i t i e s a r e l i m i t e d s m a l l o p e r a t o r s ; c o m m o n l y p o o r l y d i v e r s i f i e d , d o m i n a t e d b y c o m m e r c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a n d f o c u s e d o n l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n , t h e y a r e o p e r a t e d b y f a m i l i e s a n d d o n o t g e n e r a t e m u c h i n e m p l o y m e n t . C a f é s a n d r e s t a u r a n t s , a r e a g o o d e x a m p l e o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , w i t h m a n y d o t t i n g t h e s e t t l e m e n t l a n d s c a p e o f t h e p a r k ' s l i m i t s , p r i m a r i l y i n t h e a r e a o f G e r ê s . O t h e r s e r v i c e s e c t o r a c t i v i t i e s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d w i t h i n t h e u r b a n i z e d m u n i c i p a l s e a t s a n d l a r g e r v i l l a g e s , w i t h m a n y o f t h e m o r e d y n a m i c n u c l e i t h e c e n t r e o f p o s t a l s e r v i c e s , b a n k s , p o s t s f o r t h e G . N . R . o r h e a l t h c e n t r e s . I n 2 0 1 8 t h e B a r r o s o A g r o - s y l v o - p a s t o r a l S y s t e m ( B A S P ) w h e r e t r e e s a r e c u l t i v a t e d a l o n g s i d e c r o p s w a s a m o n g s t t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s i t e s d e s i g n a t e d a s ' G l o b a l l y I m p o r t a n t A g r i c u l t u r a l H e r i t a g e S y s t e m ' ( G I A H S ) b y t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d a n d A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e B A S P i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k a s i t i s f a r m i n g i n h a r m o n y w i t h n a t u r e . O f t h e 5 7 G I A H S t h a t e x i s t e d i n t h e w o r l d 2 0 1 8 , o n l y s i x w e r e d e s i g n a t e d i n E u r o p e . T h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s B a r r o s ã c a t t l e w i t h l o n g c u r v e d h o r n s , w h i c h c a n g r o w w e l l o v e r 1 0 0   c m i n l e n g t h . T h e a n i m a l s g r a z e f r e e l y o n t r a d i t i o n a l p a s t u r e s a n d m a r s h e s i n c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a r e i d e a l f o r t h e i r w e l f a r e . T h e c a t t l e e n j o y a p u r i t y o f n a t u r e t h a t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s e p l a c e s , c o n t r i b u t i n g g r e a t l y t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d b i o d i v e r s i t y o f t h e l a n d s c a p e a s w e l l a s t o t h e r u r a l e c o n o m i c s u s t a i n a b i l i t y . B a r r o s ã c a t t l e h a v e b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r a n c i e n t g e n e t i c h e r i t a g e . T h e p a r k t r i e s t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e n c o u r a g e a n d c o n t r o l t o u r i s m , s i n c e t h e p a r k ' s n a t u r e w o u l d n o t r e s i s t a m a s s i v e f l o w o f t o u r i s t s . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e r e a r e s i x s m a l l c a m p i n g s i t e s a n d s e v e r a l h i k i n g t r a i l s a r e m a r k e d , m a k i n g i t r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o f i n d m a n y o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g s p o t s , s u c h a s t h e c a s t r o s a t C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o a n d C a l c e d ó n i a a n d t h e m o n a s t e r y a t P i t õ e s d a s J ú n i a s . T h e t r a i l a t M é z i o a s a p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n i n d e s c r i b i n g s o m e o f t h e l o c a l f e a t u r e s . L o c a t i o n s n e a r t h e f e w m a j o r r o a d s a r e t h e m o s t v i s i t e d . M a n y o f t h e m a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e r e l i g i o u s n e s s o f t h e p e o p l e i n n o r t h e r n P o r t u g a l n a m e l y t h e s h r i n e s a t S e n h o r a d a P e n e d a a n d S ã o B e n t o d a P o r t a A b e r t a . O t h e r s , s u c h a s S o a j o a n d L i n d o s o , d i s p l a y s m a l l , t r a d i t i o n a l g r a n a r i e s b u i l t o f g r a n i t e , t h e " e s p i g u e i r o s " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " e s p i g a " , m e a n i n g " s p i k e " / e a r ) ) . S o a j o i s a t y p i c a l P o r t u g u e s e v i l l a g e , l o c a t e d o n o n e o f t h e s l o p e s o f P e n e d a M o u n t a i n s . T h e 2 4 e s p i g u e i r o s w e r e e r e c t e d o n a g r a n i t e s l a b a n d a r e s t i l l u s e d t o d a y f o r d r y i n g c o r n . P r o b a b l y t h e t w o m o s t k n o w n a n d v i s i t e d f e a t u r e s a r e t h e m a n y w a t e r f a l l s , m o s t l y t h e o n e n e a r t h e o l d f r o n t i e r s t a t i o n a t P o r t e l a d o H o m e m , a n d t h e V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s v i l l a g e , w h e n e v e r t h e V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s D a m i s l o w e n o u g h . T h e d o m e s t i c a n i m a l s a l s o d e s e r v e b e i n g n o t e d . T h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s " B a r r o s ã " a n d t h e s m a l l e r " C a c h e n a " c a t t l e , u s e d i n a g r i c u l t u r e , i s n o w a d a y s e n d a n g e r e d b e c a u s e i t i s l o s i n g i t s u t i l i t y ; a s i s a l s o t h e C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o d o g , a h u n t i n g d o g .

Geography ; Physical geography

The Peneda-Gerês National Park is a protected area in northwestern Portugal, covering 702.90 km². It's a mountainous region with diverse geology, including granitic rocks, sedimentary layers, and glacial features. The park is home to various ecosystems, including forests, rivers, and wetlands, supporting a wide range of flora and fauna. Human activities, such as agriculture, forestry, and tourism, coexist with conservation efforts, aiming to preserve the natural beauty and biodiversity of the area.

mountainous spaces, in order to conserve the environment, while permitting human and natural resource activities, which would include educational, touristic and scientific projects. At heart is the conservation of soils, water, flora and fauna, in addition to the preservation of landscapes within the vast mountainous region in the northwest of Portugal. In 1997, Peneda-Gerês was included in the Natura 2000 network, and in 1999, designated a Special Protection Area for Wild Birds. Moreover, it also encompasses an important area of natural forest, which forms part of the European Network of Biogenetic Reserves, and is recognized as a national park by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. In 2007, it was accepted in the PAN Parks network that certifies the quality protected areas, according to rigorous criteria of nature conservation, cultural services and sustainability. The Peneda-Gerês National Park is located in the northwest of Portugal, extending through the municipalities of Melgaço, Arcos de Valdevez and Ponte da Barca (in the district of Viana do Castelo), Terras de Bouro (district of Braga), and Montalegre (district of Vila Real). The park includes an area of 702.90 km2, of which 52.75 km2 are public lands, 194.38 km2 are private property and the remaining 455.77 km2 are commons. The park is a vast amphitheatre-shaped space sculpted during the Variscan orogeny by geological forces, wind and water, and extends from the Castro Laboreiro to the Mourela plateaus, encompassing the Serra da Peneda, Serra do Soajo, Serra Amarela and the Serra do Gerês. These form a barrier between the ocean plains to its west and the plateaus in the east. The highest peaks are Peneda (1340 m), Soajo (1430 m), Amarelo (1350 m), Gerês (1545 m) and Altar dos Cabrões (1,538 m) located on the border with Galicia, continuing into this territory as part of the Serra do Xurés. The granitic rocks that dominate this shield were deposited during the process of continental collision that brought together the lower Iberian peninsula with Europe, between 380 million and 275 million years; the oldest of them, at Amarela, date from 310 million years ago. The most extensive of the granitic rocks that occur within the park are the Peneda-Gerês pluton which is an exposed relief that became exposed around 290-296 Ma by the Gerês-Lovios fault. Sedimentary layers laid down between 435 and 408 Ma (Silurian epoch) were deformed and metamorphosed into schists, greywackes and quartzites (such as in the area of Castro Laboreiro). Also, dykes and sills formed from quartz and aplite-pegmatites were mineralized resulting in tin, tungsten, molybdenum and gold (which would become the focus of mining in the human era, at the now-closed mines of Carris and Borrageiro). Generally, the lithological structures can be divided into three layers: During the Pleistocene (approximately 1.8 to 0.001 Ma ago) climatic variations resulted in an extension of glacial fields to the mid-latitudes. While there are no remnants of glaciers now, their Ice Age products (U-shaped valleys, moraines, glacial deposits, polished and natural granite surfaces) are identified in the Serra da Peneda, Serra do Soajo and Serra do Gerês mountain ranges. The principal watersheds that cross the park are those of the Minho (occupying 2% of the park), Lima (47.8%) and Cávado (50.2%), with brooks and waterfalls common on many of the mountain slopes, in addition to several secondary tributaries (such as the Homem, Rabagão, Castro Laboreiro, and Arado rivers). The Lima cuts across the PNPG east to west, while the Cávado serves the southern limits of the districts of Vila Real and Braga. Fractures in the landscape have confined the rivers to deep, straight valleys and are visible in the younger granite outcrops visible in the uncovered higher altitudes. Owing to the number tributaries, the construction of hydroelectrical dams has been undertaken to generate electricity across six locations: Alto Rabagão, Paradela, Caniçada, Vilarinho da Furna, Touvedo and Lindoso. Soils within the elevated terrains and inclined spaces are non-existent, while the valleys are rich and deep, deposited and transported by pluvial action. These strata are textured, permeable, easily worked, albeit with a weak consistency, and marked by the peculiarities of local agriculture. The incorporation of biomass and elevated precipitation, along with the low autumn-winter temperatures give an origin to the alterations in pH levels. The elevated levels of incompletely decomposed organic material, low in phosphorus and intermittently low/high in potassium, are subject of alluvial deposition. The region of the Parque Nacional Peneda Gerês falls within a transitional zone between the Atlantic and Mediterranean environments, and is influenced by various climatic systems: Atlantic, Mediterranean and Continental. Its climate is greatly influenced by the topography; the mountains exert a barrier 12 to 28 °C (with an average of 20 °C), transitioning into a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate. Consequently, the area is prone to various micro-climates, affected by variations in altitude, topographic characteristics, human occupation, different exposures and thermal variation. Similarly, this difference has resulted in an interchange of vegetation characteristic of Mediterranean, Euro-Siberian and Alpine environments. Rivas-Martinez defined the foothills of both the Serra do Gerês and the Serra da Cabreira (lands below the Tâmega, Ave and Cávado watersheds) as the frontier between the Euro-Siberian and Mediterranean regions, granting a significant floral and phytogeographic importance to the National Park. Biomass coverage of the Serra do Gerês, Serra Amarela, Serra do Peneda and Serra do Soajo, as well as the Mourela and Castro Laboreiro plateaus, are dominated by four distinct separated from each other; an extension of buildings located along roadways; some isolated groups; constructions along agricultural roads in pasturelands; and three or more homes isolated by pastures. Consequently, there are six homogeneous zones: Some of the villages in the high lands are located near the arable lands. Terraces, built to make better use of these scarce lands, and traditional houses, with granite walls and thatch roofs, shape the landscape with an indelible, harmonious, human mark in some of the most isolated villages such as Pitões das Júnias and Ermida. Over the last 50 years, the Peneda-Gerês National Park has been one of the most important sites for ecological research in Portugal, but also for other natural and social sciences. A number of studies have been conducted from

Peneda-Gerês National Park

P r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e i n h o s p i t a l i t y o f t h e G e r ê s M o u n t a i n s , t h e o l d e s t s i g n s o f h u m a n p r e s e n c e d a t e o n l y f r o m 6 0 0 0 B C t o 3 0 0 0 B C ; d o l m e n s a n d o t h e r m e g a l i t h i c t o m b s r e m a i n i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n , i n c l u d i n g n e a r C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o a n d M o u r e l a . H u m a n a c t i v i t i e s c o n s i s t e d o f a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y a n d i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a d e c r e a s e i n f o r e s t c o v e r . T h e R o m a n G e i r a , a R o m a n r o a d , w h i c h f o r m e r l y c o n n e c t e d t h e R o m a n " c i v i t a t e s " o f A s t u r i c a A u g u s t a a n d B r a c c a r a A u g u s t a , c r o s s e d w h a t i s n o w t h e p a r k . L o n g s t r e t c h e s o f t h e r o a d a l o n g t h e H o m e m R i v e r a r e s t i l l p r e s e r v e d , a s a r e s e v e r a l R o m a n b r i d g e s a n d n u m e r o u s m i l l e n a r i u m m a r k e r s . T h e G e r m a n i c t r i b e o f t h e B u r i a c c o m p a n i e d t h e S u e b i i n t h e i r i n v a s i o n o f t h e I b e r i a n P e n i n s u l a a n d e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n G a l l a e c i a ( m o d e r n n o r t h e r n P o r t u g a l a n d G a l i c i a ) . T h e B u r i s e t t l e d i n t h e r e g i o n b e t w e e n t h e C á v a d o a n d H o m e m r i v e r s , i n t h e a r e a l a t e r k n o w n a s T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( " L a n d o f t h e B u r i " ) . T h e m o v e f r o m t h e t e r r a c e d c l i f f s a n d s l o p e s t o t h e l o w l a n d r i v e r v a l l e y s b r o u g h t - o n a p a t t e r n e d o f n e w d e f o r e s t a t i o n . T h e r e o c c u p a t i o n o f m o u n t a i n a r e a s s t a r t e d i n t h e 1 2 t h c e n t u r y , i n t e n s i f y i n g i n t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m a i z e , b e a n s , a n d p o t a t o e s f r o m t h e A m e r i c a s . A g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s o c c u p i e d f o r m e r p a s t u r e s , a n d t h e s e w e r e d i s p l a c e d t o m o r e e l e v a t e d a r e a s r e s u l t i n g i n a m o s a i c o f f i e l d s , p a s t u r e s , a n d f o r e s t s . T h e r e f o r e s t a t i o n o f u n c u l t i v a t e d l a n d s , i m p o s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n 1 9 3 5 , r e d u c e d t h e a v a i l a b l e p a s t u r e s , a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o a r u r a l e x o d u s t h a t c o n t i n u e d a f t e r t h e 1 9 5 0 s . Y e t i t w a s s t i l l c o m m o n p r a c t i c e f o r t h e r e s i d e n t s o f m o u n t a i n c o m m u n i t i e s t o s p e n d p a r t o f t h e y e a r i n t w o l o c a t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y n e a r C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o . F r o m a b o u t E a s t e r t o a b o u t C h r i s t m a s , r e s i d e n t s w o u l d l i v e i n h o m e s o v e r 1 , 0 0 0   m a b o v e s e a l e v e l , k n o w n a s " b r a n d a " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " b r a n d o " , m e a n i n g ' m i l d ' o r ' g e n t l e ' ) . I n t h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t o f t h e y e a r , t h e s e i n h a b i t a n t s w o u l d o c c u p y h o m e s i n t h e r i v e r v a l l e y , k n o w n a s " i n v e r n e i r a " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " i n v e r n o " , m e a n i n g ' w i n t e r ' ) . I n 1 9 7 0 , t h e v i l l a g e o f V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s w a s f l o o d e d w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a d a m o n t h e H o m e m R i v e r . D u r i n g y e a r s w i t h l o w r a i n f a l l , t h e v i l l a g e r u i n s s t a n d s a b o v e t h e w a t e r , a t t r a c t i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f t o u r i s t s . T h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k ( c o m p l e t e d u n d e r d e c r e e n o . 1 8 7 / 7 1 , 8 M a y 1 9 7 1 ) e n v i s i o n e d a p l a n n i n g a r e a o f m o u n t a i n o u s s p a c e s , i n o r d e r t o c o n s e r v e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , w h i l e p e r m i t t i n g h u m a n a n d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e a c t i v i t i e s , w h i c h w o u l d i n c l u d e e d u c a t i o n a l , t o u r i s t i c a n d s c i e n t i f i c p r o j e c t s . A t h e a r t i s t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a a n d f a u n a , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f l a n d s c a p e s w i t h i n t h e v a s t m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n i n t h e n o r t h w e s t o f P o r t u g a l . I n 1 9 9 7 , P e n e d a - G e r ê s w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e N a t u r a 2 0 0 0 n e t w o r k , a n d i n 1 9 9 9 , d e s i g n a t e d a S p e c i a l P r o t e c t i o n A r e a f o r W i l d B i r d s . M o r e o v e r , i t a l s o e n c o m p a s s e s a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a o f n a t u r a l f o r e s t , w h i c h f o r m s p a r t o f t h e E u r o p e a n N e t w o r k o f B i o g e n e t i c R e s e r v e s , a n d i s r e c o g n i z e d a s a n a t i o n a l p a r k b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i o n f o r C o n s e r v a t i o n o f N a t u r e . I n 2 0 0 7 , i t w a s a c c e p t e d i n t h e P A N P a r k s n e t w o r k t h a t c e r t i f i e s t h e q u a l i t y p r o t e c t e d a r e a s , a c c o r d i n g t o r i g o r o u s c r i t e r i a o f n a t u r e c o n s e r v a t i o n , c u l t u r a l s e r v i c e s a n d s u s t a i n a b i l i t y . T h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k i s l o c a t e d i n t h e n o r t h w e s t o f P o r t u g a l , e x t e n d i n g t h r o u g h t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f M e l g a ç o , A r c o s d e V a l d e v e z a n d P o n t e d a B a r c a ( i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f V i a n a d o C a s t e l o ) , T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( d i s t r i c t o f B r a g a ) , a n d M o n t a l e g r e ( d i s t r i c t o f V i l a R e a l ) . T h e p a r k i n c l u d e s a n a r e a o f 7 0 2 . 9 0   k m 2 , o f w h i c h 5 2 . 7 5   k m 2 a r e p u b l i c l a n d s , 1 9 4 . 3 8   k m 2 a r e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g 4 5 5 . 7 7   k m 2 a r e c o m m o n s . T h e p a r k i s a v a s t a m p h i t h e a t r e - s h a p e d s p a c e s c u l p t e d d u r i n g t h e V a r i s c a n o r o g e n y b y g e o l o g i c a l f o r c e s , w i n d a n d w a t e r , a n d e x t e n d s f r o m t h e C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o t o t h e M o u r e l a p l a t e a u s , e n c o m p a s s i n g t h e S e r r a d a P e n e d a , S e r r a d o S o a j o , S e r r a A m a r e l a a n d t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s . T h e s e f o r m a b a r r i e r b e t w e e n t h e o c e a n p l a i n s t o i t s w e s t a n d t h e p l a t e a u s i n t h e e a s t . T h e h i g h e s t p e a k s a r e P e n e d a ( 1 3 4 0   m ) , S o a j o ( 1 4 3 0   m ) , A m a r e l o ( 1 3 5 0   m ) , G e r ê s ( 1 5 4 5   m ) a n d A l t a r d o s C a b r õ e s ( 1 , 5 3 8   m ) l o c a t e d o n t h e b o r d e r w i t h G a l i c i a , c o n t i n u i n g i n t o t h i s t e r r i t o r y a s p a r t o f t h e S e r r a d o X u r é s . T h e g r a n i t i c r o c k s t h a t d o m i n a t e t h i s s h i e l d w e r e d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n t i n e n t a l c o l l i s i o n t h a t b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r t h e l o w e r I b e r i a n p e n i n s u l a w i t h E u r o p e , b e t w e e n 3 8 0 m i l l i o n a n d 2 7 5 m i l l i o n y e a r s ; t h e o l d e s t o f t h e m , a t A m a r e l a , d a t e f r o m 3 1 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o . T h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e o f t h e g r a n i t i c r o c k s t h a t o c c u r w i t h i n t h e p a r k a r e t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s p l u t o n w h i c h i s a n e x p o s e d r e l i e f t h a t b e c a m e e x p o s e d a r o u n d 2 9 0 - 2 9 6 M a b y t h e G e r ê s - L o v i o s f a u l t . S e d i m e n t a r y l a y e r s l a i d d o w n b e t w e e n 4 3 5 a n d 4 0 8 M a ( S i l u r i a n e p o c h ) w e r e d e f o r m e d a n d m e t a m o r p h o s e d i n t o s c h i s t s , g r e y w a c k e s a n d q u a r t z i t e s ( s u c h a s i n t h e a r e a o f C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o ) . A l s o , d y k e s a n d s i l l s f o r m e d f r o m q u a r t z a n d a p l i t e - p e g m a t i t e s w e r e m i n e r a l i z e d r e s u l t i n g i n t i n , t u n g s t e n , m o l y b d e n u m a n d g o l d ( w h i c h w o u l d b e c o m e t h e f o c u s o f m i n i n g i n t h e h u m a n e r a , a t t h e n o w - c l o s e d m i n e s o f C a r r i s a n d B o r r a g e i r o ) . G e n e r a l l y , t h e l i t h o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e l a y e r s : D u r i n g t h e P l e i s t o c e n e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 . 8 t o 0 . 0 0 1 M a a g o ) c l i m a t i c v a r i a t i o n s r e s u l t e d i n a n e x t e n s i o n o f g l a c i a l f i e l d s t o t h e m i d - l a t i t u d e s . W h i l e t h e r e a r e n o r e m n a n t s o f g l a c i e r s n o w , t h e i r I c e A g e p r o d u c t s ( U - s h a p e d v a l l e y s , m o r a i n e s , g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s , p o l i s h e d a n d n a t u r a l g r a n i t e s u r f a c e s ) a r e i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e S e r r a d a P e n e d a , S e r r a d o S o a j o a n d S e r r a d o G e r ê s m o u n t a i n r a n g e s . T h e p r i n c i p a l w a t e r s h e d s t h a t c r o s s t h e p a r k a r e t h o s e o f t h e M i n h o ( o c c u p y i n g 2 % o f t h e p a r k ) , L i m a ( 4 7 . 8 % ) a n d C á v a d o ( 5 0 . 2 % ) , w i t h b r o o k s a n d w a t e r f a l l s c o m m o n o n m a n y o f t h e m o u n t a i n s l o p e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o s e v e r a l s e c o n d a r y t r i b u t a r i e s ( s u c h a s t h e H o m e m , R a b a g ã o , C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o , a n d A r a d o r i v e r s ) . T h e L i m a c u t s a c r o s s t h e P N P G e a s t t o w e s t , w h i l e t h e C á v a d o s e r v e s t h e s o u t h e r n l i m i t s o f t h e d i s t r i c t s o f V i l a R e a l a n d B r a g a . F r a c t u r e s i n t h e l a n d s c a p e h a v e c o n f i n e d t h e r i v e r s t o d e e p , s t r a i g h t v a l l e y s a n d a r e v i s i b l e i n t h e y o u n g e r g r a n i t e o u t c r o p s v i s i b l e i n t h e u n c o v e r e d h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s . O w i n g t o t h e n u m b e r t r i b u t a r i e s , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h y d r o e l e c t r i c a l d a m s h a s b e e n u n d e r t a k e n t o g e n e r a t e e l e c t r i c i t y a c r o s s s i x l o c a t i o n s : A l t o R a b a g ã o , P a r a d e l a , C a n i ç a d a , V i l a r i n h o d a F u r n a , T o u v e d o a n d L i n d o s o . S o i l s w i t h i n t h e e l e v a t e d t e r r a i n s a n d i n c l i n e d s p a c e s a r e n o n - e x i s t e n t , w h i l e t h e v a l l e y s a r e r i c h a n d d e e p , d e p o s i t e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d b y p l u v i a l a c t i o n . T h e s e s t r a t a a r e t e x t u r e d , p e r m e a b l e , e a s i l y w o r k e d , a l b e i t w i t h a w e a k c o n s i s t e n c y , a n d m a r k e d b y t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r e . T h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f b i o m a s s a n d e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n , a l o n g w i t h t h e l o w a u t u m n - w i n t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s g i v e a n o r i g i n t o t h e a l t e r a t i o n s i n p H l e v e l s . T h e e l e v a t e d l e v e l s o f i n c o m p l e t e l y d e c o m p o s e d o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l , l o w i n p h o s p h o r u s a n d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y l o w / h i g h i n p o t a s s i u m , a r e s u b j e c t o f a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t i o n . T h e r e g i o n o f t h e P a r q u e N a c i o n a l P e n e d a G e r ê s f a l l s w i t h i n a t r a n s i t i o n a l z o n e b e t w e e n t h e A t l a n t i c a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n e n v i r o n m e n t s , a n d i s i n f l u e n c e d b y v a r i o u s c l i m a t i c s y s t e m s : A t l a n t i c , M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d C o n t i n e n t a l . I t s c l i m a t e i s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e t o p o g r a p h y ; t h e m o u n t a i n s e x e r t a b a r r i e r e f f e c t t o t h e p a s s a g e o f h o t a n d w e t a i r m a s s e s c o m i n g f r o m t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n , r e s u l t i n g i n e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r . I t f a l l s i n a p a r t o f P o r t u g a l ( a n d E u r o p e ) t h a t i s a f f e c t e d b y e x t r e m e r a i n f a l l , o b t a i n i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n l e v e l s o f 3 2 0 0 m i l l i m e t r e s p e r y e a r o n h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s , a n d 1 6 0 0 m i l l i m e t r e s a t l o w e r a l t i t u d e s , w i t h m o r e t h a n 1 3 0 r a i n y d a y s p e r y e a r . A v e r a g e d a i l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g e f r o m 1 0   ° C t o 2 1   ° C , w i t h s o m e v a r i a t i o n ; t h e h i g h l a n d s h a v e a n a v e r a g e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e o f a b o u t 1 1   ° C , r a n g i n g f r o m 4 t o 2 0   ° C , o n e o f t h e f e w p l a c e s i n P o r t u g a l w i t h a n o c e a n i c c l i m a t e , w h i l e a r e a s i n t h e v a l l e y s ( s u c h a s t h e H o m e m , L i m a a n d C á v a d o r i v e r v a l l e y s ) h a v e w a r m e r c l i m a t e s , w i t h d a i l y m a x t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g i n g f r o m 1 2 t o 2 8   ° C ( w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 2 0   ° C ) , t r a n s i t i o n i n g i n t o a H o t - s u m m e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n c l i m a t e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e a r e a i s p r o n e t o v a r i o u s m i c r o - c l i m a t e s , a f f e c t e d b y v a r i a t i o n s i n a l t i t u d e , t o p o g r a p h i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , h u m a n o c c u p a t i o n , d i f f e r e n t e x p o s u r e s a n d t h e r m a l v a r i a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , t h i s d i f f e r e n c e h a s r e s u l t e d i n a n i n t e r c h a n g e o f v e g e t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f M e d i t e r r a n e a n , E u r o - S i b e r i a n a n d A l p i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s . R i v a s - M a r t i n e z d e f i n e d t h e f o o t h i l l s o f b o t h t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s a n d t h e S e r r a d a C a b r e i r a ( l a n d s b e l o w t h e T â m e g a , A v e a n d C á v a d o w a t e r s h e d s ) a s t h e f r o n t i e r b e t w e e n t h e E u r o - S i b e r i a n a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e g i o n s , g r a n t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t f l o r a l a n d p h y t o g e o g r a p h i c i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k . B i o m a s s c o v e r a g e o f t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s , S e r r a A m a r e l a , S e r r a d o P e n e d a a n d S e r r a d o S o a j o , a s w e l l a s t h e M o u r e l a a n d C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o p l a t e a u s , a r e d o m i n a t e d b y f o u r d i s t i n c t b i o m e s : o a k f o r e s t , s h r u b b e r y , m a r s h e s a n d r i p a r i a n v e g e t a t i o n . T h e f l o r i s t i c d i v e r s i t y i n c l u d e s 8 2 3 v a s c u l a r t a x a t h a t o c c u r i n 1 2 8 t y p e s o f n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n . T h e o a k f o r e s t s w h i c h a r e c o m m o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e p a r k , a r e e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e R a m i s c a l , P e n e d a , G e r ê s a n d B e r e d o r i v e r v a l l e y s . T h e s e f o r e s t e d a r e a s a r e d o m i n a t e d b y a n a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e P y r e n e a n ( " Q u e r c u s p y r e n a i c a " ) a n d E u r o p e a n ( " Q u e r c u s r o b u r " ) o a k s , w h i c h t h e m s e l v e s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a m o n g t h e l o w e r a l t i t u d e s a n d e x p o s e d f l a n k s ( t h e " R u s c e t o - Q u e r c e t u m r o b o r i s " ) a n d t h o s e o f t y p i c a l A t l a n t i c e n v i r o n m e n t s ( " M y r e t i l l o - Q u e r c e t u m r o b o r i s " ) . T h e f i r s t a s s o c i a t i o n i s c o m m o n l y f o u n d w i t h E u r o p e a n o a k ( " Q u e r c u s r o b e r " ) , c o r k o a k ( " Q u e r c u s s u b e r " ) , b u t c h e r ' s b r o o m ( " R u s c u s a c u l e a t u s " ) , m a p l e ( " A c e r p s e u d o p l a t a n u s " ) a n d P o r t u g u e s e l a u r e l ( " P r u n u s l u s i t a n i c a " ) , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d a s s o c i a t i o n u n i t e s t h e E u r o p e a n a n d P y r e n e a n o a k s w i t h b i l b e r r y ( " V a c c i n i u m m y r t i l l u s " ) , s t r a w b e r r y t r e e ( " A r b u t u s u n e d o " ) a n d E u r o p e a n h o l l y ( " I l e x a q u i f o l i u m " ) . I n u p p e r a l t i t u d e s t h e r e a r e p a t c h e s o f E u r o p e a n o a k t h a t e n t e r i n t o t h e i r o w n a s s o c i a t i o n ( " H o l c o - Q u e r c e t u m p y r e n a c i a " ) , w h i c h i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a n o t h e r g r o u p ( " Q u e r i c o n r o b r i - p a t r a e a " ) . T h e s e o a k s h a v e b e e n , o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f h u m a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h e o b j e c t o f i n t e n s e u s e , r e s u l t i n g i n a g e n e r a l d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e s p a c e s i n t o n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n s h r u b b e r y . T h e b u s h a n d s h r u b l a n d s , w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s p a c e s ( 7 4 % o f t h e p a r k ) , a r e d o m i n a t e d b y d w a r f ( " U l e x m i n o r " ) a n d E u r o p e a n ( " U l e x e u r o p a e u s " ) g o r s e a n d h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a u m b e l l a t a " a n d " C a l l u n a v u l g a r i s " ) , w i t h a m i x t u r e s o f c o m m o n j u n i p e r ( " J u n i p e r u s c o m m u n i s " ) , s o u t h e r n h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a a u s t r a l i s " ) i n t h e u p p e r a l t i t u d e s , w h i l e l o w e r a l t i t u d e b u s h i n c l u d e s c r o s s - l e a v e d h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a t e t r a l i x " ) , d w a r f g o r s e ( " U l e x m i n o r " ) , D o r s e t h e a t h ( " E r i c a c i l i a r i s " ) , c o m m o n s u n d e w ( " D r o s e r a r o t u n d i f o l i a " ) , p a l e b u t t e r w o r t ( " P i n g u i c u l a l u s i t a n i c a " ) , m a r s h v i o l e t ( " V i o l a p a l u s t r i s " ) a n d p u r p l e m o o r g r a s s ( " M o l i n i a c a e r u l e a " ) . R i p a r i a n a n d m a r s h l a n d s a l o n g t h e r i v e r c o u r s e s a r e a l s o s i t e s o f r a r e s p e c i e s o f c h a i n f e r n s ( " W o o d w a r d i a r a d i c a n s " ) , w i l l o w ( " S a l i x r e p e n s " ) , d o w n y b i r c h ( " B e t u l a p u b e s c e n s " ) , d e c i d u o u s s h r u b s ( " S p i r a e a h y p e r i c i f o l i a " ) , P o r t u g u e s e e n c h a n t e r ' s n i g h t s h a d e ( " C i r c a e a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a n d a n g e l i c a h e r b s ( " A n g e l i c a l a e v i s " ) . T h e r e a r e 6 2 7 f l o r a s p e c i e s i d e n t i f i e d b y S e r r a a n d C a r v a l h o ( 1 9 8 9 ) a s u n d e r p r e s s u r e a n d c o n s i d e r e d e n d a n g e r e d , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t w o m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s : t u t s a n ( " H y p e r i c u m a n d r o s a e m u m " ) a n d s u n d e w ( " D r o s e r a r o t u n d i f o l i a " ) . B a s e d o n t h e p r o t e c t i o n l i s t o f b o t a n i c a l s p e c i e s , a n d U I C N c a t e g o r i e s : 1 8 a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n r i s k o f e x t i n c t i o n , 1 7 a r e v u l n e r a b l e a n d o n e i s r a r e . T h e y a l s o i d e n t i f i e d t w o s p e c i e s a s e x t i n c t w i t h i n t h e p a r k b o u n d a r i e s : a g e r a n i u m ( " G e r a n i u m l a n u g i n o s u m " ) a n d f r a g r a n t o r c h i d ( " G y m n a d e n i a c o n o p s e a " ) . T h e r e a r e t h r e e e n d e m i c s p e c i e s . T h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d t h a t t h r e a t e n t h e s e h a b i t a t s i n c l u d e : n a t u r a l a n d m a n m a d e f i r e s , u s e o f f o r e s t f o r f u e l w o o d a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l u s e o f h a b i t a t s . M a n y o f t h e s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d o n t h e s p e c i e s t h a t i n h a b i t a n t t h e p a r k h a v e b e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e a r e a o f M a t a s d e A l b e r g a r i a / P a l h e i r o s , t r a d i t i o n a l l y i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e " h e a r t " o f t h e p a r k . W o r k b y t h e F a c u l t y o f S c i e n c e s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P o r t o a n d U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n h o h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n a f e w m a m m a l s ( P y r e n e a n d e s m a n , E u r o p e a n o t t e r , r o e d e e r , a n d w i l d b o a r ) , r e p t i l e s a n d f i s h . T h e s e s t u d i e s l o o k e d i n t o t h e n u m b e r s o f s p e c i e s a n d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e i r h a b i t a t s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 3 5 v e r t e b r a t e s p e c i e s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e p a r k , o f w h i c h 2 0 0 a r e t h r e a t e n e d o r u n d e r p r o t e c t i o n . T h e s e i n c l u d e t h r e e s p e c i e s o f b a t u n d e r p r e s s u r e ( o f t h e e i g h t t h a t e x i s t ) : g r e a t e r h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p h u s f e r r u m e q u i n u m " ) , l e s s e r h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p h u s h i p p o s i d e r o s " ) a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p l u s e u r y a l e " ) . O t h e r s p e c i e s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e : t h e I b e r i a n s h r e w ( " S o r e x g r a n a r i u s " ) , t h e E u r o p e a n p i n e m a r t e n ( " M a r t e s m a r t e s " ) , t h e E u r o p e a n w i l d c a t ( " F e l i s s i l v e s t r i s " ) , t h e g o l d - s t r i p e d s a l a m a n d e r ( " C h i o g l o s s a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a n d t h e s n u b - n o s e d v i p e r ( " V i p e r a l a t a s t e i " ) . A f e w o f t h e l o c a l s p e c i e s a r e p r o t e c t e d b y t h e C o n v e n t i o n o n t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n o f E u r o p e a n W i l d l i f e a n d N a t u r a l H a b i t a t s . T h e r e d s q u i r r e l ( " S c i u r u s v u l g a r i s " ) w h o s e h a b i t a t i s r e s t r i c t e d a n d m a r g i n a l i n c o n t i n e n t a l P o r t u g a l , i s a n o t h e r s p e c i e s t h a t i s c o m m o n t o t h e p a r k . A f t e r f o u r c e n t u r i e s a b s e n t f r o m P o r t u g u e s e t e r r i t o r y , i t s p o p u l a t i o n b e g a n t o b e r e c o r d e d i n 1 9 8 5 – 1 9 8 6 , i n V i a n a d o C a s t e l o . T h e r e w e r e a l s o r e g i s t e r e d s i g h t i n g s i n A l b e r g a r i a , L a m a s d e M o u r o a n d S e r r a d a P a n e d a , w h i l e c o m p a r a b l e e n c o u n t e r s i n S p a i n w e r e i d e n t i f i e d a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r . R o e d e e r , w h i c h a r e a s y m b o l o f t h e p a r k a r e e n c o u n t e r e d i n p r o l i f i c q u a n t i t y , a l o n g t h e m a r g i n s o f t h e p a r k , w h e r e t h e y f i n d s h e l t e r a n d f o o d . M e a n w h i l e , o t h e r m a m m a l s , s u c h a s t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f I b e r i a n w o l f ( " C a n i s l u p u s s i g n a t u s " ) h a v e c o l l a p s e d w i t h h u m a n e n c r o a c h m e n t , w h i l e t h e n u m b e r o f e x e m p l a r s a r e l i m i t e d . A l o n g w i t h t h e g o l d e n e a g l e , t h e w o l f w a s s e e n a s a t h r e a t t o l i v e s t o c k , a n d w a s a l m o s t h u n t e d t o e x t i n c t i o n , a l t h o u g h p r o t e c t e d b y l a w s i n c e t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y . B r o w n b e a r s d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e r e g i o n i n t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h e e x t i n c t P o r t u g u e s e i b e x ( " C a p r a p y r e n a i c a l u s i t a n i c a " ) , l o c a l l y k n o w n a s " G e r ê s g o a t " , w a s l a s t s e e n i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s . M o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y l a t e r , i t s v a c a n t e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e w a s r e o c c u p i e d n a t u r a l l y b y S p a n i s h i b e x c o m i n g f r o m G a l i c i a , a n d t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n n u m b e r e d a b o u t 1 0 0 a n i m a l s b y 2 0 1 1 . W o r t h y o f m e n t i o n a r e t h e " G a r r a n o " ( o r M i n h o h o r s e ) , a b r e e d o f s m a l l e q u i n e s p e c i e s w h o w e r e a n c e s t o r s o f t h e G a l i c i a n p o n y a n d A n d a l u s i a n h o r s e , w h i c h m o s t l y l i v e i n t h e w i l d , b u t a r e a g e n t l e b r e e d w i t h n o s i g n i f i c a n t f e a r o f h u m a n s . F o r a l o n g t i m e t h e s e h o r s e s p e r m e a t e d t h e f a r m s o f V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s ( b e f o r e i t w a s i n u n d a t e d w i t h t h e d a m ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n ) , b u t l a t e r b e g a n t o f r e e l y m o v e b e t w e e n t h e P o r t u g u e s e - S p a n i s h b o r d e r a f t e r 1 9 7 9 . T h e r e a r e 1 4 7 a v i a n s p e c i e s t h a t a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s p a r k , e s p e c i a l l y a l o n g t h e M o u r e l a r e g i o n i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f i t s f r o n t i e r . I n t h i s r e g i o n , a l t h o u g h i t m i g h t v a r y t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r ( g i v e n c l i m a t e a n d s e a s o n ) , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 6 s p e c i e s m a k e t h e i r n e s t s i n t h e a r e a . O f p a r t i c u l a r n o t e i n t h i s p a r k a r e t h e : h e n h a r r i e r ( " C i r c u s c y a n e u s " ) , E u r o p e a n h o n e y b u z z a r d ( " P e r n i s a p i v o r u s " ) , c o m m o n s n i p e ( " G a l l i n a g o g a l l i n a g o " ) , r e d - b a c k e d s h r i k e ( " L a n i u s c o l l u r i o " ) , y e l l o w h a m m e r ( " E m b e r i z a c i t r i n e l l a " ) , g a r d e n w a r b l e r ( " S y l v i a b o r i n " ) a n d w h i n c h a t ( " S a x i c o l a r u b e t r a " ) . F o r t h e w i n c h a t , t h e a r e a o f M o u r e l a i s t h e u n i q u e n e s t i n g g r o u n d i n P o r t u g a l , w h i l e t h e r e d - b a c k e d s h r i k e a n d y e l l o w h a m m e r a r e l i m i t e d t o C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o p l a t e a u a n d n o r t h e r n c o r n e r s o f t h e p a r k . A l s o i m p o r t a n t t o h i g h l i g h t i s t h e g o l d - s t r i p e d s a l a m a n d e r ( " C h i o g l o s s a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a s p e c i e s e n d e m i c t o t h e n o r t h w e s t I b e r i a n p e n i n s u l a , t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o u n t a i n o u s a r e a s w i t h e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n . T h e w a t e r s o f t h e p a r k t e e m w i t h v a r i o u s s p e c i e s , o f t e n c a l l e d " R i o s t r u t e i r o s " ( " T r o u t R i v e r s " ) f o r t h e a b u n d a n c e o f t r o u t . A l t h o u g h s t o c k s h a v e d i m i n i s h e d , t h e s a l m o n p o p u l a t i o n s s t i l l s p a w n s i n t h e r i v e r s o f t h e p a r k . S p e c i e s w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e b i o t o p e s o f P e n e d a - G e r ê s i n c l u d e : T h e 1 9 7 1 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f P e n e d a - G e r ê s a s a n a t i o n a l p a r k c a m e f r o m a g r o u p o f r u l e s / r e q u i r e m e n t s e s t a b l i s h e d t o a l l o w : t h e p r u d e n t u s e o f t h e p a r k ' s r e s o u r c e s , p r e s e r v a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g f l o r a a n d f a u n a s p e c i e s , a l l o w i n g f o r t h e c o n t i n u e d c o h a b i t a t i o n , w h i l e p r o v i d i n g a n e n v i r o n m e n t f o r s c i e n t i f i c , e d u c a t i o n a l a n d t o u r i s t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e s e s p e c i f i e d : I n 2 0 1 1 a n e w m a n a g e m e n t p l a n w a s p u b l i s h e d f o r P e n e d a - G e r ê s N P d e f i n i n g 5 l e v e l s o f p r o t e c t i o n : t o t a l p r o t e c t i o n a r e a , p a r t i a l p r o t e c t i o n a r e a s ( l e v e l s I a n d I I ) a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y p r o t e c t i o n a r e a s ( l e v e l s I a n d I I ) . T h i s m a n a g e m e n t p l a n w a s b a s e d o n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b i o d i v e r s i t y c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d w i l d e r n e s s p r o t e c t i o n a p p r o a c h e s . T h e p l a n w a s b a s e d o n a n u p - t o - d a t e s y n t h e s i s o f a l l i n f o r m a t i o n a n d l i t e r a t u r e a v a i l a b l e a b o u t t h e p r o t e c t e d a r e a . A l t h o u g h t h e r e h a s b e e n v a r i a b l e g r o w t h t h r o u g h o u t t h e N o r t e r e g i o n , t h e r e h a s b e e n a g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n d e c r e a s e i n t h o s e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s t h a t f e l l w i t h i n t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k ( 1 9 8 1 – 1 9 9 1 ) , i n t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f M e l g a ç o ( - 1 6 . 8 % ) , A r c o s d e V a l d e v e z ( - 1 3 . 4 % ) , P o n t e d a B a r c a ( - 6 . 1 % ) , T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( - 7 . 2 % ) , a n d M o n t a l e g r e ( - 2 0 . 3 % ) . T h e r e w a s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 9 , 0 9 9 a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 1 9 9 1 c e n s u s , a 1 6 % d e c r e a s e f r o m t h e 1 0 , 8 4 9 r e g i s t e r e d i n 1 9 8 1 . T h e r e a r e n o p o s i t i v e - n e g a t i v e v a r i a t i o n s b e t w e e n c i v i l p a r i s h e s ; o f t h o s e c i v i l p a r i s h e s t h a t f e l l w i t h i n t h e P N P G a u t h o r i t y , t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s d r o p p e d f r o m 0 . 8 % ( V i l a r d a V e i g a ) t o 3 8 . 6 % ( S e z e l h e ) . T h e s e r e s i d e n t s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d p r i m a r i l y i n v a r i o u s a g g l o m e r a t i o n s : s m a l l n u c l e i s e p a r a t e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r ; a n e x t e n s i o n o f b u i l d i n g s l o c a t e d a l o n g r o a d w a y s ; s o m e i s o l a t e d g r o u p s ; c o n s t r u c t i o n s a l o n g a g r i c u l t u r a l r o a d s i n p a s t u r e l a n d s ; a n d t h r e e o r m o r e h o m e s i s o l a t e d b y p a s t u r e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e a r e s i x h o m o g e n e o u s z o n e s : S o m e o f t h e v i l l a g e s i n t h e h i g h l a n d s a r e l o c a t e d n e a r t h e a r a b l e l a n d s . T e r r a c e s , b u i l t t o m a k e b e t t e r u s e o f t h e s e s c a r c e l a n d s , a n d t r a d i t i o n a l h o u s e s , w i t h g r a n i t e w a l l s a n d t h a t c h r o o f s , s h a p e t h e l a n d s c a p e w i t h a n i n d e l i b l e , h a r m o n i o u s , h u m a n m a r k i n s o m e o f t h e m o s t i s o l a t e d v i l l a g e s s u c h a s P i t õ e s d a s J ú n i a s a n d E r m i d a . O v e r t h e l a s t 5 0 y e a r s , t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k h a s b e e n o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s i t e s f o r e c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n P o r t u g a l , b u t a l s o f o r o t h e r n a t u r a l a n d s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . A n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d f r o m t h e P e n e d a F i e l d S t a t i o n i n C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o r u n b y P r o f . H e n r i q u e M . P e r e i r a . T h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e l o o k e d a t p a t t e r n s o f s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y a t m u l t i p l e s c a l e s a n d t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o t h e h a b i t a t c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e l a n d s c a p e a n d m u l t i p l e l a n d - u s e s . T h e y h a v e a l s o d o c u m e n t e d a n e w m o t h s p e c i e s f o r s c i e n c e i n 2 0 1 5 , " I s o t r i a s p e n e d a n a " . T h e p r i m a r y e c o n o m i c s e c t o r d o m i n a t e s t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f r e s i d e n t s t h a t l i v e w i t h i n t h e p a r k ' s t e r r i t o r y . A l t h o u g h a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y r e m a i n s d i f f i c u l t , i t s t i l l o u t - p a c e s s e c o n d a r y a n d t e r t i a r y a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h , a p a r t f r o m t h e T e r r a s d e B o u r o a n d P o n t e d a B a r c a , h a v e b e e n i n s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y a n d d i m i n i s h e d e x t e r i o r i n v e s t m e n t p o t e n t i a l , h a s c o n c e n t r a t e d t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n p r i m a r i l y i n t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f f o r e s t r y , t h e s u p p o r t o f h y d r o - e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t i o n a n d t o u r i s m . B u t t h i s t o o i s l i m i t e d ; t o u r i s m i s c o n c e n t r a t e d g e n e r a l l y i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f C a l d a s d o G e r ê s , h y d r o - e l e c t r i c a l t r a n s m i s s i o n h a s n o t a f f e c t e d t h e l o c a l e c o n o m y , a n d a l o n g w i t h f o r e s t r y , h a s n o t s e e n a n a p p r e c i a b l e r e - i n v e s t m e n t o r r e - c a p i t a l i z a t i o n o f w e a l t h ( w i t h i n c o m e g e n e r a t e d t r a n s f e r r e d o u t s i d e t h e l o c a l m a r k e t ) . T h e p r i m a r y s e c t o r , a l t h o u g h t h e l a r g e s t c o n t r i b u t o r , i s s u b s i s t e n c e a t b e s t : s u p p o r t e d b y a n a g e i n g ( m o s t l y f e m a l e ) p o p u l a t i o n ; i n d i v i d u a l p a r c e l s a r e s m a l l a n d o v e r - s u b d i v i d e d ; p r o d u c e r s t h a t s u p p o r t f a m i l i a l o r l o c a l c l i e n t s ; a p r o d u c t i o n t h a t i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d o n p e r s o n a l c o n s u m p t i o n ; p o o r c o m m e r c i a l n e t w o r k s ; a n d p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n , w i t h l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n a l s u p p o r t s . B e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 7 0 % o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n i s s u p p o r t e d b y s u b s i d i e s . I n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e c i v i l p a r i s h e s w i t h i n t h e p a r k a r e p o o r l y d i v e r s i f i e d a n d s u p p o r t f a m i l i a l b u s i n e s s e s . C i v i l c o n s t r u c t i o n , a l t h o u g h o n e o f t h e l a r g e r e c o n o m i c s u p p o r t e r s , h a s l i t t l e e f f e c t o n l o c a l i n c o m e s , s i n c e a m a j o r i t y o f t h e e m p l o y e d c o m e f r o m o u t s i d e t h e r e g i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e a f e w l a r g e r o p e r a t i o n s ( b r e a d - m a k i n g , c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d s a w - m i l l i n g / c a r p e n t r y ) m o s t a r e s m a l l o w n e r - o p e r a t o r s , t h a t s u p p o r t l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n o r o c c a s i o n a l s a l e s . F r e q u e n t l y , a r t i s a n a l p r o d u c e r s h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d h a v e n o t b e e n r e p l a c e d b y m a s s - p r o d u c e d o r c o m p a r a b l e v e n d o r s . S i m i l a r l y , t e r t i a r y a c t i v i t i e s a r e l i m i t e d s m a l l o p e r a t o r s ; c o m m o n l y p o o r l y d i v e r s i f i e d , d o m i n a t e d b y c o m m e r c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a n d f o c u s e d o n l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n , t h e y a r e o p e r a t e d b y f a m i l i e s a n d d o n o t g e n e r a t e m u c h i n e m p l o y m e n t . C a f é s a n d r e s t a u r a n t s , a r e a g o o d e x a m p l e o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , w i t h m a n y d o t t i n g t h e s e t t l e m e n t l a n d s c a p e o f t h e p a r k ' s l i m i t s , p r i m a r i l y i n t h e a r e a o f G e r ê s . O t h e r s e r v i c e s e c t o r a c t i v i t i e s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d w i t h i n t h e u r b a n i z e d m u n i c i p a l s e a t s a n d l a r g e r v i l l a g e s , w i t h m a n y o f t h e m o r e d y n a m i c n u c l e i t h e c e n t r e o f p o s t a l s e r v i c e s , b a n k s , p o s t s f o r t h e G . N . R . o r h e a l t h c e n t r e s . I n 2 0 1 8 t h e B a r r o s o A g r o - s y l v o - p a s t o r a l S y s t e m ( B A S P ) w h e r e t r e e s a r e c u l t i v a t e d a l o n g s i d e c r o p s w a s a m o n g s t t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s i t e s d e s i g n a t e d a s ' G l o b a l l y I m p o r t a n t A g r i c u l t u r a l H e r i t a g e S y s t e m ' ( G I A H S ) b y t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d a n d A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e B A S P i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k a s i t i s f a r m i n g i n h a r m o n y w i t h n a t u r e . O f t h e 5 7 G I A H S t h a t e x i s t e d i n t h e w o r l d 2 0 1 8 , o n l y s i x w e r e d e s i g n a t e d i n E u r o p e . T h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s B a r r o s ã c a t t l e w i t h l o n g c u r v e d h o r n s , w h i c h c a n g r o w w e l l o v e r 1 0 0   c m i n l e n g t h . T h e a n i m a l s g r a z e f r e e l y o n t r a d i t i o n a l p a s t u r e s a n d m a r s h e s i n c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a r e i d e a l f o r t h e i r w e l f a r e . T h e c a t t l e e n j o y a p u r i t y o f n a t u r e t h a t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s e p l a c e s , c o n t r i b u t i n g g r e a t l y t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d b i o d i v e r s i t y o f t h e l a n d s c a p e a s w e l l a s t o t h e r u r a l e c o n o m i c s u s t a i n a b i l i t y . B a r r o s ã c a t t l e h a v e b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r a n c i e n t g e n e t i c h e r i t a g e . T h e p a r k t r i e s t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e n c o u r a g e a n d c o n t r o l t o u r i s m , s i n c e t h e p a r k ' s n a t u r e w o u l d n o t r e s i s t a m a s s i v e f l o w o f t o u r i s t s . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e r e a r e s i x s m a l l c a m p i n g s i t e s a n d s e v e r a l h i k i n g t r a i l s a r e m a r k e d , m a k i n g i t r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o f i n d m a n y o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g s p o t s , s u c h a s t h e c a s t r o s a t C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o a n d C a l c e d ó n i a a n d t h e m o n a s t e r y a t P i t õ e s d a s J ú n i a s . T h e t r a i l a t M é z i o a s a p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n i n d e s c r i b i n g s o m e o f t h e l o c a l f e a t u r e s . L o c a t i o n s n e a r t h e f e w m a j o r r o a d s a r e t h e m o s t v i s i t e d . M a n y o f t h e m a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e r e l i g i o u s n e s s o f t h e p e o p l e i n n o r t h e r n P o r t u g a l n a m e l y t h e s h r i n e s a t S e n h o r a d a P e n e d a a n d S ã o B e n t o d a P o r t a A b e r t a . O t h e r s , s u c h a s S o a j o a n d L i n d o s o , d i s p l a y s m a l l , t r a d i t i o n a l g r a n a r i e s b u i l t o f g r a n i t e , t h e " e s p i g u e i r o s " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " e s p i g a " , m e a n i n g " s p i k e " / e a r ) ) . S o a j o i s a t y p i c a l P o r t u g u e s e v i l l a g e , l o c a t e d o n o n e o f t h e s l o p e s o f P e n e d a M o u n t a i n s . T h e 2 4 e s p i g u e i r o s w e r e e r e c t e d o n a g r a n i t e s l a b a n d a r e s t i l l u s e d t o d a y f o r d r y i n g c o r n . P r o b a b l y t h e t w o m o s t k n o w n a n d v i s i t e d f e a t u r e s a r e t h e m a n y w a t e r f a l l s , m o s t l y t h e o n e n e a r t h e o l d f r o n t i e r s t a t i o n a t P o r t e l a d o H o m e m , a n d t h e V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s v i l l a g e , w h e n e v e r t h e V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s D a m i s l o w e n o u g h . T h e d o m e s t i c a n i m a l s a l s o d e s e r v e b e i n g n o t e d . T h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s " B a r r o s ã " a n d t h e s m a l l e r " C a c h e n a " c a t t l e , u s e d i n a g r i c u l t u r e , i s n o w a d a y s e n d a n g e r e d b e c a u s e i t i s l o s i n g i t s u t i l i t y ; a s i s a l s o t h e C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o d o g , a h u n t i n g d o g .

Geography ; Biome

The geography of Portugal and Galicia features a unique biome characterized by a mix of Mediterranean, Euro-Siberian, and Alpine environments. The Peneda-Gerês National Park, located in northwest Portugal, is a vast amphitheater-shaped space with diverse climates, vegetation, and wildlife. The park's terrain is shaped by geological forces, wind, and water, and features four distinct biomes: oak forest, shrubbery, marshes, and riparian vegetation. Human settlements in the park are scattered and harmonious with the natural environment, with traditional houses and agricultural practices blending seamlessly into the landscape. The park is also home to important ecological research and has been designated as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS) by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization.

Portugal and Galicia). The Buri settled in the region between the Cávado and Homem rivers, in the area later known as Terras de Bouro ("Land of the Buri"). The move from the terraced cliffs and slopes to the lowland river valleys brought-on a patterned of new deforestation. The reoccupation of mountain areas started in the 12th century, intensifying in the 16th century with the introduction of maize, beans, and potatoes from the Americas. Agricultural fields occupied former pastures, and these were displaced to more elevated areas resulting in a mosaic of fields, pastures, and forests. The reforestation of uncultivated lands, imposed by the government in 1935, reduced the available pastures, and contributed to a rural exodus that continued after the 1950s. Yet it was still common practice for mountainous spaces, in order to conserve the environment, while permitting human and natural resource activities, which would include educational, touristic and scientific projects. At heart is the conservation of soils, water, flora and fauna, in addition to the preservation of landscapes within the vast mountainous region in the northwest of Portugal. In 1997, Peneda-Gerês was included in the Natura 2000 network, and in 1999, designated a Special Protection Area for Wild Birds. Moreover, it also encompasses an important area of natural forest, which forms part of the European Network of Biogenetic Reserves, and is recognized as a national park by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. In 2007, it was accepted in the PAN Parks network that certifies the quality protected areas, according to rigorous criteria of nature conservation, cultural services and sustainability. The Peneda-Gerês National Park is located in the northwest of Portugal, extending through the municipalities of Melgaço, Arcos de Valdevez and Ponte da Barca (in the district of Viana do Castelo), Terras de Bouro (district of Braga), and Montalegre (district of Vila Real). The park includes an area of 702.90 km2, of which 52.75 km2 are public lands, 194.38 km2 are private property and the remaining 455.77 km2 are commons. The park is a vast amphitheatre-shaped space sculpted during the Variscan orogeny by geological forces, wind and water, and extends from the Castro Laboreiro to the Mourela plateaus, encompassing the Serra da Peneda, Serra do Soajo, Serra Amarela and the Serra do Gerês. These form a barrier between the ocean plains to within the elevated terrains and inclined spaces are non-existent, while the valleys are rich and deep, deposited and transported by pluvial action. These strata are textured, permeable, easily worked, albeit with a weak consistency, and marked by the peculiarities of local agriculture. The incorporation of biomass and elevated precipitation, along with the low autumn-winter temperatures give an origin to the alterations in pH levels. The elevated levels of incompletely decomposed organic material, low in phosphorus and intermittently low/high in potassium, are subject of alluvial deposition. The region of the Parque Nacional Peneda Gerês falls within a transitional zone between the Atlantic and Mediterranean environments, and is influenced by various climatic systems: Atlantic, Mediterranean and Continental. Its climate is greatly influenced by the topography; the mountains exert a barrier 12 to 28 °C (with an average of 20 °C), transitioning into a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate. Consequently, the area is prone to various micro-climates, affected by variations in altitude, topographic characteristics, human occupation, different exposures and thermal variation. Similarly, this difference has resulted in an interchange of vegetation characteristic of Mediterranean, Euro-Siberian and Alpine environments. Rivas-Martinez defined the foothills of both the Serra do Gerês and the Serra da Cabreira (lands below the Tâmega, Ave and Cávado watersheds) as the frontier between the Euro-Siberian and Mediterranean regions, granting a significant floral and phytogeographic importance to the National Park. Biomass coverage of the Serra do Gerês, Serra Amarela, Serra do Peneda and Serra do Soajo, as well as the Mourela and Castro Laboreiro plateaus, are dominated by four distinct biomes: oak forest, shrubbery, marshes and riparian vegetation. The floristic diversity includes 823 vascular taxa that occur in 128 types of natural vegetation. The oak forests which are common throughout the park, are especially concentrated in the Ramiscal, Peneda, Gerês and Beredo river valleys. These forested areas are dominated by an alliance between the Pyrenean ("Quercus pyrenaica") and European ("Quercus robur") oaks, which themselves are differentiated among the lower altitudes and exposed flanks (the "Rusceto-Quercetum roboris") and those of typical Atlantic environments ("Myretillo-Quercetum roboris"). The first association is commonly found with European oak ("Quercus rober"), cork oak ("Quercus suber"), butcher's broom ("Ruscus aculeatus"), maple ("Acer pseudoplatanus") and Portuguese laurel ("Prunus lusitanica"), while the second association unites the European and Pyrenean oaks with bilberry ("Vaccinium myrtillus"), strawberry tree ("Arbutus separated from each other; an extension of buildings located along roadways; some isolated groups; constructions along agricultural roads in pasturelands; and three or more homes isolated by pastures. Consequently, there are six homogeneous zones: Some of the villages in the high lands are located near the arable lands. Terraces, built to make better use of these scarce lands, and traditional houses, with granite walls and thatch roofs, shape the landscape with an indelible, harmonious, human mark in some of the most isolated villages such as Pitões das Júnias and Ermida. Over the last 50 years, the Peneda-Gerês National Park has been one of the most important sites for ecological research in Portugal, but also for other natural and social sciences. A number of studies have been conducted from nuclei the centre of postal services, banks, posts for the G.N.R. or health centres. In 2018 the Barroso Agro-sylvo-pastoral System (BASP) where trees are cultivated alongside crops was amongst the first European sites designated as 'Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System' (GIAHS) by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. The BASP is integrated into the Peneda-Gerês National Park as it is farming in harmony with nature. Of the 57 GIAHS that existed in the world 2018, only six were designated in Europe. The autochthonous Barrosã cattle with long curved horns, which can grow well over 100 cm in length. The animals graze freely on traditional pastures and marshes in conditions that are ideal for their welfare. The cattle enjoy a purity of nature that is characteristic of these

Peneda-Gerês National Park

P r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e i n h o s p i t a l i t y o f t h e G e r ê s M o u n t a i n s , t h e o l d e s t s i g n s o f h u m a n p r e s e n c e d a t e o n l y f r o m 6 0 0 0 B C t o 3 0 0 0 B C ; d o l m e n s a n d o t h e r m e g a l i t h i c t o m b s r e m a i n i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n , i n c l u d i n g n e a r C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o a n d M o u r e l a . H u m a n a c t i v i t i e s c o n s i s t e d o f a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y a n d i n c i p i e n t a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a d e c r e a s e i n f o r e s t c o v e r . T h e R o m a n G e i r a , a R o m a n r o a d , w h i c h f o r m e r l y c o n n e c t e d t h e R o m a n " c i v i t a t e s " o f A s t u r i c a A u g u s t a a n d B r a c c a r a A u g u s t a , c r o s s e d w h a t i s n o w t h e p a r k . L o n g s t r e t c h e s o f t h e r o a d a l o n g t h e H o m e m R i v e r a r e s t i l l p r e s e r v e d , a s a r e s e v e r a l R o m a n b r i d g e s a n d n u m e r o u s m i l l e n a r i u m m a r k e r s . T h e G e r m a n i c t r i b e o f t h e B u r i a c c o m p a n i e d t h e S u e b i i n t h e i r i n v a s i o n o f t h e I b e r i a n P e n i n s u l a a n d e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n G a l l a e c i a ( m o d e r n n o r t h e r n P o r t u g a l a n d G a l i c i a ) . T h e B u r i s e t t l e d i n t h e r e g i o n b e t w e e n t h e C á v a d o a n d H o m e m r i v e r s , i n t h e a r e a l a t e r k n o w n a s T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( " L a n d o f t h e B u r i " ) . T h e m o v e f r o m t h e t e r r a c e d c l i f f s a n d s l o p e s t o t h e l o w l a n d r i v e r v a l l e y s b r o u g h t - o n a p a t t e r n e d o f n e w d e f o r e s t a t i o n . T h e r e o c c u p a t i o n o f m o u n t a i n a r e a s s t a r t e d i n t h e 1 2 t h c e n t u r y , i n t e n s i f y i n g i n t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m a i z e , b e a n s , a n d p o t a t o e s f r o m t h e A m e r i c a s . A g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s o c c u p i e d f o r m e r p a s t u r e s , a n d t h e s e w e r e d i s p l a c e d t o m o r e e l e v a t e d a r e a s r e s u l t i n g i n a m o s a i c o f f i e l d s , p a s t u r e s , a n d f o r e s t s . T h e r e f o r e s t a t i o n o f u n c u l t i v a t e d l a n d s , i m p o s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n 1 9 3 5 , r e d u c e d t h e a v a i l a b l e p a s t u r e s , a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o a r u r a l e x o d u s t h a t c o n t i n u e d a f t e r t h e 1 9 5 0 s . Y e t i t w a s s t i l l c o m m o n p r a c t i c e f o r t h e r e s i d e n t s o f m o u n t a i n c o m m u n i t i e s t o s p e n d p a r t o f t h e y e a r i n t w o l o c a t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y n e a r C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o . F r o m a b o u t E a s t e r t o a b o u t C h r i s t m a s , r e s i d e n t s w o u l d l i v e i n h o m e s o v e r 1 , 0 0 0   m a b o v e s e a l e v e l , k n o w n a s " b r a n d a " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " b r a n d o " , m e a n i n g ' m i l d ' o r ' g e n t l e ' ) . I n t h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t o f t h e y e a r , t h e s e i n h a b i t a n t s w o u l d o c c u p y h o m e s i n t h e r i v e r v a l l e y , k n o w n a s " i n v e r n e i r a " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " i n v e r n o " , m e a n i n g ' w i n t e r ' ) . I n 1 9 7 0 , t h e v i l l a g e o f V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s w a s f l o o d e d w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a d a m o n t h e H o m e m R i v e r . D u r i n g y e a r s w i t h l o w r a i n f a l l , t h e v i l l a g e r u i n s s t a n d s a b o v e t h e w a t e r , a t t r a c t i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f t o u r i s t s . T h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k ( c o m p l e t e d u n d e r d e c r e e n o . 1 8 7 / 7 1 , 8 M a y 1 9 7 1 ) e n v i s i o n e d a p l a n n i n g a r e a o f m o u n t a i n o u s s p a c e s , i n o r d e r t o c o n s e r v e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , w h i l e p e r m i t t i n g h u m a n a n d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e a c t i v i t i e s , w h i c h w o u l d i n c l u d e e d u c a t i o n a l , t o u r i s t i c a n d s c i e n t i f i c p r o j e c t s . A t h e a r t i s t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f s o i l s , w a t e r , f l o r a a n d f a u n a , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f l a n d s c a p e s w i t h i n t h e v a s t m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n i n t h e n o r t h w e s t o f P o r t u g a l . I n 1 9 9 7 , P e n e d a - G e r ê s w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e N a t u r a 2 0 0 0 n e t w o r k , a n d i n 1 9 9 9 , d e s i g n a t e d a S p e c i a l P r o t e c t i o n A r e a f o r W i l d B i r d s . M o r e o v e r , i t a l s o e n c o m p a s s e s a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a o f n a t u r a l f o r e s t , w h i c h f o r m s p a r t o f t h e E u r o p e a n N e t w o r k o f B i o g e n e t i c R e s e r v e s , a n d i s r e c o g n i z e d a s a n a t i o n a l p a r k b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i o n f o r C o n s e r v a t i o n o f N a t u r e . I n 2 0 0 7 , i t w a s a c c e p t e d i n t h e P A N P a r k s n e t w o r k t h a t c e r t i f i e s t h e q u a l i t y p r o t e c t e d a r e a s , a c c o r d i n g t o r i g o r o u s c r i t e r i a o f n a t u r e c o n s e r v a t i o n , c u l t u r a l s e r v i c e s a n d s u s t a i n a b i l i t y . T h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k i s l o c a t e d i n t h e n o r t h w e s t o f P o r t u g a l , e x t e n d i n g t h r o u g h t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f M e l g a ç o , A r c o s d e V a l d e v e z a n d P o n t e d a B a r c a ( i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f V i a n a d o C a s t e l o ) , T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( d i s t r i c t o f B r a g a ) , a n d M o n t a l e g r e ( d i s t r i c t o f V i l a R e a l ) . T h e p a r k i n c l u d e s a n a r e a o f 7 0 2 . 9 0   k m 2 , o f w h i c h 5 2 . 7 5   k m 2 a r e p u b l i c l a n d s , 1 9 4 . 3 8   k m 2 a r e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g 4 5 5 . 7 7   k m 2 a r e c o m m o n s . T h e p a r k i s a v a s t a m p h i t h e a t r e - s h a p e d s p a c e s c u l p t e d d u r i n g t h e V a r i s c a n o r o g e n y b y g e o l o g i c a l f o r c e s , w i n d a n d w a t e r , a n d e x t e n d s f r o m t h e C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o t o t h e M o u r e l a p l a t e a u s , e n c o m p a s s i n g t h e S e r r a d a P e n e d a , S e r r a d o S o a j o , S e r r a A m a r e l a a n d t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s . T h e s e f o r m a b a r r i e r b e t w e e n t h e o c e a n p l a i n s t o i t s w e s t a n d t h e p l a t e a u s i n t h e e a s t . T h e h i g h e s t p e a k s a r e P e n e d a ( 1 3 4 0   m ) , S o a j o ( 1 4 3 0   m ) , A m a r e l o ( 1 3 5 0   m ) , G e r ê s ( 1 5 4 5   m ) a n d A l t a r d o s C a b r õ e s ( 1 , 5 3 8   m ) l o c a t e d o n t h e b o r d e r w i t h G a l i c i a , c o n t i n u i n g i n t o t h i s t e r r i t o r y a s p a r t o f t h e S e r r a d o X u r é s . T h e g r a n i t i c r o c k s t h a t d o m i n a t e t h i s s h i e l d w e r e d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n t i n e n t a l c o l l i s i o n t h a t b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r t h e l o w e r I b e r i a n p e n i n s u l a w i t h E u r o p e , b e t w e e n 3 8 0 m i l l i o n a n d 2 7 5 m i l l i o n y e a r s ; t h e o l d e s t o f t h e m , a t A m a r e l a , d a t e f r o m 3 1 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o . T h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e o f t h e g r a n i t i c r o c k s t h a t o c c u r w i t h i n t h e p a r k a r e t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s p l u t o n w h i c h i s a n e x p o s e d r e l i e f t h a t b e c a m e e x p o s e d a r o u n d 2 9 0 - 2 9 6 M a b y t h e G e r ê s - L o v i o s f a u l t . S e d i m e n t a r y l a y e r s l a i d d o w n b e t w e e n 4 3 5 a n d 4 0 8 M a ( S i l u r i a n e p o c h ) w e r e d e f o r m e d a n d m e t a m o r p h o s e d i n t o s c h i s t s , g r e y w a c k e s a n d q u a r t z i t e s ( s u c h a s i n t h e a r e a o f C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o ) . A l s o , d y k e s a n d s i l l s f o r m e d f r o m q u a r t z a n d a p l i t e - p e g m a t i t e s w e r e m i n e r a l i z e d r e s u l t i n g i n t i n , t u n g s t e n , m o l y b d e n u m a n d g o l d ( w h i c h w o u l d b e c o m e t h e f o c u s o f m i n i n g i n t h e h u m a n e r a , a t t h e n o w - c l o s e d m i n e s o f C a r r i s a n d B o r r a g e i r o ) . G e n e r a l l y , t h e l i t h o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e l a y e r s : D u r i n g t h e P l e i s t o c e n e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 . 8 t o 0 . 0 0 1 M a a g o ) c l i m a t i c v a r i a t i o n s r e s u l t e d i n a n e x t e n s i o n o f g l a c i a l f i e l d s t o t h e m i d - l a t i t u d e s . W h i l e t h e r e a r e n o r e m n a n t s o f g l a c i e r s n o w , t h e i r I c e A g e p r o d u c t s ( U - s h a p e d v a l l e y s , m o r a i n e s , g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s , p o l i s h e d a n d n a t u r a l g r a n i t e s u r f a c e s ) a r e i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e S e r r a d a P e n e d a , S e r r a d o S o a j o a n d S e r r a d o G e r ê s m o u n t a i n r a n g e s . T h e p r i n c i p a l w a t e r s h e d s t h a t c r o s s t h e p a r k a r e t h o s e o f t h e M i n h o ( o c c u p y i n g 2 % o f t h e p a r k ) , L i m a ( 4 7 . 8 % ) a n d C á v a d o ( 5 0 . 2 % ) , w i t h b r o o k s a n d w a t e r f a l l s c o m m o n o n m a n y o f t h e m o u n t a i n s l o p e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o s e v e r a l s e c o n d a r y t r i b u t a r i e s ( s u c h a s t h e H o m e m , R a b a g ã o , C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o , a n d A r a d o r i v e r s ) . T h e L i m a c u t s a c r o s s t h e P N P G e a s t t o w e s t , w h i l e t h e C á v a d o s e r v e s t h e s o u t h e r n l i m i t s o f t h e d i s t r i c t s o f V i l a R e a l a n d B r a g a . F r a c t u r e s i n t h e l a n d s c a p e h a v e c o n f i n e d t h e r i v e r s t o d e e p , s t r a i g h t v a l l e y s a n d a r e v i s i b l e i n t h e y o u n g e r g r a n i t e o u t c r o p s v i s i b l e i n t h e u n c o v e r e d h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s . O w i n g t o t h e n u m b e r t r i b u t a r i e s , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h y d r o e l e c t r i c a l d a m s h a s b e e n u n d e r t a k e n t o g e n e r a t e e l e c t r i c i t y a c r o s s s i x l o c a t i o n s : A l t o R a b a g ã o , P a r a d e l a , C a n i ç a d a , V i l a r i n h o d a F u r n a , T o u v e d o a n d L i n d o s o . S o i l s w i t h i n t h e e l e v a t e d t e r r a i n s a n d i n c l i n e d s p a c e s a r e n o n - e x i s t e n t , w h i l e t h e v a l l e y s a r e r i c h a n d d e e p , d e p o s i t e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d b y p l u v i a l a c t i o n . T h e s e s t r a t a a r e t e x t u r e d , p e r m e a b l e , e a s i l y w o r k e d , a l b e i t w i t h a w e a k c o n s i s t e n c y , a n d m a r k e d b y t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r e . T h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f b i o m a s s a n d e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n , a l o n g w i t h t h e l o w a u t u m n - w i n t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s g i v e a n o r i g i n t o t h e a l t e r a t i o n s i n p H l e v e l s . T h e e l e v a t e d l e v e l s o f i n c o m p l e t e l y d e c o m p o s e d o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l , l o w i n p h o s p h o r u s a n d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y l o w / h i g h i n p o t a s s i u m , a r e s u b j e c t o f a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t i o n . T h e r e g i o n o f t h e P a r q u e N a c i o n a l P e n e d a G e r ê s f a l l s w i t h i n a t r a n s i t i o n a l z o n e b e t w e e n t h e A t l a n t i c a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n e n v i r o n m e n t s , a n d i s i n f l u e n c e d b y v a r i o u s c l i m a t i c s y s t e m s : A t l a n t i c , M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d C o n t i n e n t a l . I t s c l i m a t e i s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e t o p o g r a p h y ; t h e m o u n t a i n s e x e r t a b a r r i e r e f f e c t t o t h e p a s s a g e o f h o t a n d w e t a i r m a s s e s c o m i n g f r o m t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n , r e s u l t i n g i n e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r . I t f a l l s i n a p a r t o f P o r t u g a l ( a n d E u r o p e ) t h a t i s a f f e c t e d b y e x t r e m e r a i n f a l l , o b t a i n i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n l e v e l s o f 3 2 0 0 m i l l i m e t r e s p e r y e a r o n h i g h e r a l t i t u d e s , a n d 1 6 0 0 m i l l i m e t r e s a t l o w e r a l t i t u d e s , w i t h m o r e t h a n 1 3 0 r a i n y d a y s p e r y e a r . A v e r a g e d a i l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g e f r o m 1 0   ° C t o 2 1   ° C , w i t h s o m e v a r i a t i o n ; t h e h i g h l a n d s h a v e a n a v e r a g e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e o f a b o u t 1 1   ° C , r a n g i n g f r o m 4 t o 2 0   ° C , o n e o f t h e f e w p l a c e s i n P o r t u g a l w i t h a n o c e a n i c c l i m a t e , w h i l e a r e a s i n t h e v a l l e y s ( s u c h a s t h e H o m e m , L i m a a n d C á v a d o r i v e r v a l l e y s ) h a v e w a r m e r c l i m a t e s , w i t h d a i l y m a x t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g i n g f r o m 1 2 t o 2 8   ° C ( w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 2 0   ° C ) , t r a n s i t i o n i n g i n t o a H o t - s u m m e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n c l i m a t e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e a r e a i s p r o n e t o v a r i o u s m i c r o - c l i m a t e s , a f f e c t e d b y v a r i a t i o n s i n a l t i t u d e , t o p o g r a p h i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , h u m a n o c c u p a t i o n , d i f f e r e n t e x p o s u r e s a n d t h e r m a l v a r i a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , t h i s d i f f e r e n c e h a s r e s u l t e d i n a n i n t e r c h a n g e o f v e g e t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f M e d i t e r r a n e a n , E u r o - S i b e r i a n a n d A l p i n e e n v i r o n m e n t s . R i v a s - M a r t i n e z d e f i n e d t h e f o o t h i l l s o f b o t h t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s a n d t h e S e r r a d a C a b r e i r a ( l a n d s b e l o w t h e T â m e g a , A v e a n d C á v a d o w a t e r s h e d s ) a s t h e f r o n t i e r b e t w e e n t h e E u r o - S i b e r i a n a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e g i o n s , g r a n t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t f l o r a l a n d p h y t o g e o g r a p h i c i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k . B i o m a s s c o v e r a g e o f t h e S e r r a d o G e r ê s , S e r r a A m a r e l a , S e r r a d o P e n e d a a n d S e r r a d o S o a j o , a s w e l l a s t h e M o u r e l a a n d C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o p l a t e a u s , a r e d o m i n a t e d b y f o u r d i s t i n c t b i o m e s : o a k f o r e s t , s h r u b b e r y , m a r s h e s a n d r i p a r i a n v e g e t a t i o n . T h e f l o r i s t i c d i v e r s i t y i n c l u d e s 8 2 3 v a s c u l a r t a x a t h a t o c c u r i n 1 2 8 t y p e s o f n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n . T h e o a k f o r e s t s w h i c h a r e c o m m o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e p a r k , a r e e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e R a m i s c a l , P e n e d a , G e r ê s a n d B e r e d o r i v e r v a l l e y s . T h e s e f o r e s t e d a r e a s a r e d o m i n a t e d b y a n a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e P y r e n e a n ( " Q u e r c u s p y r e n a i c a " ) a n d E u r o p e a n ( " Q u e r c u s r o b u r " ) o a k s , w h i c h t h e m s e l v e s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a m o n g t h e l o w e r a l t i t u d e s a n d e x p o s e d f l a n k s ( t h e " R u s c e t o - Q u e r c e t u m r o b o r i s " ) a n d t h o s e o f t y p i c a l A t l a n t i c e n v i r o n m e n t s ( " M y r e t i l l o - Q u e r c e t u m r o b o r i s " ) . T h e f i r s t a s s o c i a t i o n i s c o m m o n l y f o u n d w i t h E u r o p e a n o a k ( " Q u e r c u s r o b e r " ) , c o r k o a k ( " Q u e r c u s s u b e r " ) , b u t c h e r ' s b r o o m ( " R u s c u s a c u l e a t u s " ) , m a p l e ( " A c e r p s e u d o p l a t a n u s " ) a n d P o r t u g u e s e l a u r e l ( " P r u n u s l u s i t a n i c a " ) , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d a s s o c i a t i o n u n i t e s t h e E u r o p e a n a n d P y r e n e a n o a k s w i t h b i l b e r r y ( " V a c c i n i u m m y r t i l l u s " ) , s t r a w b e r r y t r e e ( " A r b u t u s u n e d o " ) a n d E u r o p e a n h o l l y ( " I l e x a q u i f o l i u m " ) . I n u p p e r a l t i t u d e s t h e r e a r e p a t c h e s o f E u r o p e a n o a k t h a t e n t e r i n t o t h e i r o w n a s s o c i a t i o n ( " H o l c o - Q u e r c e t u m p y r e n a c i a " ) , w h i c h i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a n o t h e r g r o u p ( " Q u e r i c o n r o b r i - p a t r a e a " ) . T h e s e o a k s h a v e b e e n , o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f h u m a n s e t t l e m e n t , t h e o b j e c t o f i n t e n s e u s e , r e s u l t i n g i n a g e n e r a l d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e s p a c e s i n t o n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n s h r u b b e r y . T h e b u s h a n d s h r u b l a n d s , w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s p a c e s ( 7 4 % o f t h e p a r k ) , a r e d o m i n a t e d b y d w a r f ( " U l e x m i n o r " ) a n d E u r o p e a n ( " U l e x e u r o p a e u s " ) g o r s e a n d h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a u m b e l l a t a " a n d " C a l l u n a v u l g a r i s " ) , w i t h a m i x t u r e s o f c o m m o n j u n i p e r ( " J u n i p e r u s c o m m u n i s " ) , s o u t h e r n h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a a u s t r a l i s " ) i n t h e u p p e r a l t i t u d e s , w h i l e l o w e r a l t i t u d e b u s h i n c l u d e s c r o s s - l e a v e d h e a t h e r ( " E r i c a t e t r a l i x " ) , d w a r f g o r s e ( " U l e x m i n o r " ) , D o r s e t h e a t h ( " E r i c a c i l i a r i s " ) , c o m m o n s u n d e w ( " D r o s e r a r o t u n d i f o l i a " ) , p a l e b u t t e r w o r t ( " P i n g u i c u l a l u s i t a n i c a " ) , m a r s h v i o l e t ( " V i o l a p a l u s t r i s " ) a n d p u r p l e m o o r g r a s s ( " M o l i n i a c a e r u l e a " ) . R i p a r i a n a n d m a r s h l a n d s a l o n g t h e r i v e r c o u r s e s a r e a l s o s i t e s o f r a r e s p e c i e s o f c h a i n f e r n s ( " W o o d w a r d i a r a d i c a n s " ) , w i l l o w ( " S a l i x r e p e n s " ) , d o w n y b i r c h ( " B e t u l a p u b e s c e n s " ) , d e c i d u o u s s h r u b s ( " S p i r a e a h y p e r i c i f o l i a " ) , P o r t u g u e s e e n c h a n t e r ' s n i g h t s h a d e ( " C i r c a e a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a n d a n g e l i c a h e r b s ( " A n g e l i c a l a e v i s " ) . T h e r e a r e 6 2 7 f l o r a s p e c i e s i d e n t i f i e d b y S e r r a a n d C a r v a l h o ( 1 9 8 9 ) a s u n d e r p r e s s u r e a n d c o n s i d e r e d e n d a n g e r e d , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t w o m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s : t u t s a n ( " H y p e r i c u m a n d r o s a e m u m " ) a n d s u n d e w ( " D r o s e r a r o t u n d i f o l i a " ) . B a s e d o n t h e p r o t e c t i o n l i s t o f b o t a n i c a l s p e c i e s , a n d U I C N c a t e g o r i e s : 1 8 a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n r i s k o f e x t i n c t i o n , 1 7 a r e v u l n e r a b l e a n d o n e i s r a r e . T h e y a l s o i d e n t i f i e d t w o s p e c i e s a s e x t i n c t w i t h i n t h e p a r k b o u n d a r i e s : a g e r a n i u m ( " G e r a n i u m l a n u g i n o s u m " ) a n d f r a g r a n t o r c h i d ( " G y m n a d e n i a c o n o p s e a " ) . T h e r e a r e t h r e e e n d e m i c s p e c i e s . T h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d t h a t t h r e a t e n t h e s e h a b i t a t s i n c l u d e : n a t u r a l a n d m a n m a d e f i r e s , u s e o f f o r e s t f o r f u e l w o o d a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l u s e o f h a b i t a t s . M a n y o f t h e s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d o n t h e s p e c i e s t h a t i n h a b i t a n t t h e p a r k h a v e b e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e a r e a o f M a t a s d e A l b e r g a r i a / P a l h e i r o s , t r a d i t i o n a l l y i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e " h e a r t " o f t h e p a r k . W o r k b y t h e F a c u l t y o f S c i e n c e s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P o r t o a n d U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n h o h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n a f e w m a m m a l s ( P y r e n e a n d e s m a n , E u r o p e a n o t t e r , r o e d e e r , a n d w i l d b o a r ) , r e p t i l e s a n d f i s h . T h e s e s t u d i e s l o o k e d i n t o t h e n u m b e r s o f s p e c i e s a n d f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e i r h a b i t a t s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 3 5 v e r t e b r a t e s p e c i e s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e p a r k , o f w h i c h 2 0 0 a r e t h r e a t e n e d o r u n d e r p r o t e c t i o n . T h e s e i n c l u d e t h r e e s p e c i e s o f b a t u n d e r p r e s s u r e ( o f t h e e i g h t t h a t e x i s t ) : g r e a t e r h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p h u s f e r r u m e q u i n u m " ) , l e s s e r h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p h u s h i p p o s i d e r o s " ) a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n h o r s e s h o e b a t ( " R h i n o l o p l u s e u r y a l e " ) . O t h e r s p e c i e s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e : t h e I b e r i a n s h r e w ( " S o r e x g r a n a r i u s " ) , t h e E u r o p e a n p i n e m a r t e n ( " M a r t e s m a r t e s " ) , t h e E u r o p e a n w i l d c a t ( " F e l i s s i l v e s t r i s " ) , t h e g o l d - s t r i p e d s a l a m a n d e r ( " C h i o g l o s s a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a n d t h e s n u b - n o s e d v i p e r ( " V i p e r a l a t a s t e i " ) . A f e w o f t h e l o c a l s p e c i e s a r e p r o t e c t e d b y t h e C o n v e n t i o n o n t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n o f E u r o p e a n W i l d l i f e a n d N a t u r a l H a b i t a t s . T h e r e d s q u i r r e l ( " S c i u r u s v u l g a r i s " ) w h o s e h a b i t a t i s r e s t r i c t e d a n d m a r g i n a l i n c o n t i n e n t a l P o r t u g a l , i s a n o t h e r s p e c i e s t h a t i s c o m m o n t o t h e p a r k . A f t e r f o u r c e n t u r i e s a b s e n t f r o m P o r t u g u e s e t e r r i t o r y , i t s p o p u l a t i o n b e g a n t o b e r e c o r d e d i n 1 9 8 5 – 1 9 8 6 , i n V i a n a d o C a s t e l o . T h e r e w e r e a l s o r e g i s t e r e d s i g h t i n g s i n A l b e r g a r i a , L a m a s d e M o u r o a n d S e r r a d a P a n e d a , w h i l e c o m p a r a b l e e n c o u n t e r s i n S p a i n w e r e i d e n t i f i e d a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r . R o e d e e r , w h i c h a r e a s y m b o l o f t h e p a r k a r e e n c o u n t e r e d i n p r o l i f i c q u a n t i t y , a l o n g t h e m a r g i n s o f t h e p a r k , w h e r e t h e y f i n d s h e l t e r a n d f o o d . M e a n w h i l e , o t h e r m a m m a l s , s u c h a s t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f I b e r i a n w o l f ( " C a n i s l u p u s s i g n a t u s " ) h a v e c o l l a p s e d w i t h h u m a n e n c r o a c h m e n t , w h i l e t h e n u m b e r o f e x e m p l a r s a r e l i m i t e d . A l o n g w i t h t h e g o l d e n e a g l e , t h e w o l f w a s s e e n a s a t h r e a t t o l i v e s t o c k , a n d w a s a l m o s t h u n t e d t o e x t i n c t i o n , a l t h o u g h p r o t e c t e d b y l a w s i n c e t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y . B r o w n b e a r s d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e r e g i o n i n t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h e e x t i n c t P o r t u g u e s e i b e x ( " C a p r a p y r e n a i c a l u s i t a n i c a " ) , l o c a l l y k n o w n a s " G e r ê s g o a t " , w a s l a s t s e e n i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s . M o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y l a t e r , i t s v a c a n t e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e w a s r e o c c u p i e d n a t u r a l l y b y S p a n i s h i b e x c o m i n g f r o m G a l i c i a , a n d t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n n u m b e r e d a b o u t 1 0 0 a n i m a l s b y 2 0 1 1 . W o r t h y o f m e n t i o n a r e t h e " G a r r a n o " ( o r M i n h o h o r s e ) , a b r e e d o f s m a l l e q u i n e s p e c i e s w h o w e r e a n c e s t o r s o f t h e G a l i c i a n p o n y a n d A n d a l u s i a n h o r s e , w h i c h m o s t l y l i v e i n t h e w i l d , b u t a r e a g e n t l e b r e e d w i t h n o s i g n i f i c a n t f e a r o f h u m a n s . F o r a l o n g t i m e t h e s e h o r s e s p e r m e a t e d t h e f a r m s o f V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s ( b e f o r e i t w a s i n u n d a t e d w i t h t h e d a m ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n ) , b u t l a t e r b e g a n t o f r e e l y m o v e b e t w e e n t h e P o r t u g u e s e - S p a n i s h b o r d e r a f t e r 1 9 7 9 . T h e r e a r e 1 4 7 a v i a n s p e c i e s t h a t a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s p a r k , e s p e c i a l l y a l o n g t h e M o u r e l a r e g i o n i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f i t s f r o n t i e r . I n t h i s r e g i o n , a l t h o u g h i t m i g h t v a r y t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r ( g i v e n c l i m a t e a n d s e a s o n ) , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 6 s p e c i e s m a k e t h e i r n e s t s i n t h e a r e a . O f p a r t i c u l a r n o t e i n t h i s p a r k a r e t h e : h e n h a r r i e r ( " C i r c u s c y a n e u s " ) , E u r o p e a n h o n e y b u z z a r d ( " P e r n i s a p i v o r u s " ) , c o m m o n s n i p e ( " G a l l i n a g o g a l l i n a g o " ) , r e d - b a c k e d s h r i k e ( " L a n i u s c o l l u r i o " ) , y e l l o w h a m m e r ( " E m b e r i z a c i t r i n e l l a " ) , g a r d e n w a r b l e r ( " S y l v i a b o r i n " ) a n d w h i n c h a t ( " S a x i c o l a r u b e t r a " ) . F o r t h e w i n c h a t , t h e a r e a o f M o u r e l a i s t h e u n i q u e n e s t i n g g r o u n d i n P o r t u g a l , w h i l e t h e r e d - b a c k e d s h r i k e a n d y e l l o w h a m m e r a r e l i m i t e d t o C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o p l a t e a u a n d n o r t h e r n c o r n e r s o f t h e p a r k . A l s o i m p o r t a n t t o h i g h l i g h t i s t h e g o l d - s t r i p e d s a l a m a n d e r ( " C h i o g l o s s a l u s i t a n i c a " ) a s p e c i e s e n d e m i c t o t h e n o r t h w e s t I b e r i a n p e n i n s u l a , t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o u n t a i n o u s a r e a s w i t h e l e v a t e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n . T h e w a t e r s o f t h e p a r k t e e m w i t h v a r i o u s s p e c i e s , o f t e n c a l l e d " R i o s t r u t e i r o s " ( " T r o u t R i v e r s " ) f o r t h e a b u n d a n c e o f t r o u t . A l t h o u g h s t o c k s h a v e d i m i n i s h e d , t h e s a l m o n p o p u l a t i o n s s t i l l s p a w n s i n t h e r i v e r s o f t h e p a r k . S p e c i e s w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e b i o t o p e s o f P e n e d a - G e r ê s i n c l u d e : T h e 1 9 7 1 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f P e n e d a - G e r ê s a s a n a t i o n a l p a r k c a m e f r o m a g r o u p o f r u l e s / r e q u i r e m e n t s e s t a b l i s h e d t o a l l o w : t h e p r u d e n t u s e o f t h e p a r k ' s r e s o u r c e s , p r e s e r v a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g f l o r a a n d f a u n a s p e c i e s , a l l o w i n g f o r t h e c o n t i n u e d c o h a b i t a t i o n , w h i l e p r o v i d i n g a n e n v i r o n m e n t f o r s c i e n t i f i c , e d u c a t i o n a l a n d t o u r i s t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e s e s p e c i f i e d : I n 2 0 1 1 a n e w m a n a g e m e n t p l a n w a s p u b l i s h e d f o r P e n e d a - G e r ê s N P d e f i n i n g 5 l e v e l s o f p r o t e c t i o n : t o t a l p r o t e c t i o n a r e a , p a r t i a l p r o t e c t i o n a r e a s ( l e v e l s I a n d I I ) a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y p r o t e c t i o n a r e a s ( l e v e l s I a n d I I ) . T h i s m a n a g e m e n t p l a n w a s b a s e d o n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b i o d i v e r s i t y c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d w i l d e r n e s s p r o t e c t i o n a p p r o a c h e s . T h e p l a n w a s b a s e d o n a n u p - t o - d a t e s y n t h e s i s o f a l l i n f o r m a t i o n a n d l i t e r a t u r e a v a i l a b l e a b o u t t h e p r o t e c t e d a r e a . A l t h o u g h t h e r e h a s b e e n v a r i a b l e g r o w t h t h r o u g h o u t t h e N o r t e r e g i o n , t h e r e h a s b e e n a g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n d e c r e a s e i n t h o s e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s t h a t f e l l w i t h i n t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k ( 1 9 8 1 – 1 9 9 1 ) , i n t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f M e l g a ç o ( - 1 6 . 8 % ) , A r c o s d e V a l d e v e z ( - 1 3 . 4 % ) , P o n t e d a B a r c a ( - 6 . 1 % ) , T e r r a s d e B o u r o ( - 7 . 2 % ) , a n d M o n t a l e g r e ( - 2 0 . 3 % ) . T h e r e w a s a p o p u l a t i o n o f 9 , 0 9 9 a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 1 9 9 1 c e n s u s , a 1 6 % d e c r e a s e f r o m t h e 1 0 , 8 4 9 r e g i s t e r e d i n 1 9 8 1 . T h e r e a r e n o p o s i t i v e - n e g a t i v e v a r i a t i o n s b e t w e e n c i v i l p a r i s h e s ; o f t h o s e c i v i l p a r i s h e s t h a t f e l l w i t h i n t h e P N P G a u t h o r i t y , t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s d r o p p e d f r o m 0 . 8 % ( V i l a r d a V e i g a ) t o 3 8 . 6 % ( S e z e l h e ) . T h e s e r e s i d e n t s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d p r i m a r i l y i n v a r i o u s a g g l o m e r a t i o n s : s m a l l n u c l e i s e p a r a t e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r ; a n e x t e n s i o n o f b u i l d i n g s l o c a t e d a l o n g r o a d w a y s ; s o m e i s o l a t e d g r o u p s ; c o n s t r u c t i o n s a l o n g a g r i c u l t u r a l r o a d s i n p a s t u r e l a n d s ; a n d t h r e e o r m o r e h o m e s i s o l a t e d b y p a s t u r e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e a r e s i x h o m o g e n e o u s z o n e s : S o m e o f t h e v i l l a g e s i n t h e h i g h l a n d s a r e l o c a t e d n e a r t h e a r a b l e l a n d s . T e r r a c e s , b u i l t t o m a k e b e t t e r u s e o f t h e s e s c a r c e l a n d s , a n d t r a d i t i o n a l h o u s e s , w i t h g r a n i t e w a l l s a n d t h a t c h r o o f s , s h a p e t h e l a n d s c a p e w i t h a n i n d e l i b l e , h a r m o n i o u s , h u m a n m a r k i n s o m e o f t h e m o s t i s o l a t e d v i l l a g e s s u c h a s P i t õ e s d a s J ú n i a s a n d E r m i d a . O v e r t h e l a s t 5 0 y e a r s , t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k h a s b e e n o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s i t e s f o r e c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n P o r t u g a l , b u t a l s o f o r o t h e r n a t u r a l a n d s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . A n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d f r o m t h e P e n e d a F i e l d S t a t i o n i n C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o r u n b y P r o f . H e n r i q u e M . P e r e i r a . T h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e l o o k e d a t p a t t e r n s o f s p e c i e s d i v e r s i t y a t m u l t i p l e s c a l e s a n d t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o t h e h a b i t a t c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e l a n d s c a p e a n d m u l t i p l e l a n d - u s e s . T h e y h a v e a l s o d o c u m e n t e d a n e w m o t h s p e c i e s f o r s c i e n c e i n 2 0 1 5 , " I s o t r i a s p e n e d a n a " . T h e p r i m a r y e c o n o m i c s e c t o r d o m i n a t e s t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f r e s i d e n t s t h a t l i v e w i t h i n t h e p a r k ' s t e r r i t o r y . A l t h o u g h a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y r e m a i n s d i f f i c u l t , i t s t i l l o u t - p a c e s s e c o n d a r y a n d t e r t i a r y a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h , a p a r t f r o m t h e T e r r a s d e B o u r o a n d P o n t e d a B a r c a , h a v e b e e n i n s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y a n d d i m i n i s h e d e x t e r i o r i n v e s t m e n t p o t e n t i a l , h a s c o n c e n t r a t e d t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e r e g i o n p r i m a r i l y i n t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f f o r e s t r y , t h e s u p p o r t o f h y d r o - e l e c t r i c a l g e n e r a t i o n a n d t o u r i s m . B u t t h i s t o o i s l i m i t e d ; t o u r i s m i s c o n c e n t r a t e d g e n e r a l l y i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f C a l d a s d o G e r ê s , h y d r o - e l e c t r i c a l t r a n s m i s s i o n h a s n o t a f f e c t e d t h e l o c a l e c o n o m y , a n d a l o n g w i t h f o r e s t r y , h a s n o t s e e n a n a p p r e c i a b l e r e - i n v e s t m e n t o r r e - c a p i t a l i z a t i o n o f w e a l t h ( w i t h i n c o m e g e n e r a t e d t r a n s f e r r e d o u t s i d e t h e l o c a l m a r k e t ) . T h e p r i m a r y s e c t o r , a l t h o u g h t h e l a r g e s t c o n t r i b u t o r , i s s u b s i s t e n c e a t b e s t : s u p p o r t e d b y a n a g e i n g ( m o s t l y f e m a l e ) p o p u l a t i o n ; i n d i v i d u a l p a r c e l s a r e s m a l l a n d o v e r - s u b d i v i d e d ; p r o d u c e r s t h a t s u p p o r t f a m i l i a l o r l o c a l c l i e n t s ; a p r o d u c t i o n t h a t i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d o n p e r s o n a l c o n s u m p t i o n ; p o o r c o m m e r c i a l n e t w o r k s ; a n d p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n , w i t h l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n a l s u p p o r t s . B e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 7 0 % o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n i s s u p p o r t e d b y s u b s i d i e s . I n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e c i v i l p a r i s h e s w i t h i n t h e p a r k a r e p o o r l y d i v e r s i f i e d a n d s u p p o r t f a m i l i a l b u s i n e s s e s . C i v i l c o n s t r u c t i o n , a l t h o u g h o n e o f t h e l a r g e r e c o n o m i c s u p p o r t e r s , h a s l i t t l e e f f e c t o n l o c a l i n c o m e s , s i n c e a m a j o r i t y o f t h e e m p l o y e d c o m e f r o m o u t s i d e t h e r e g i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e a f e w l a r g e r o p e r a t i o n s ( b r e a d - m a k i n g , c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d s a w - m i l l i n g / c a r p e n t r y ) m o s t a r e s m a l l o w n e r - o p e r a t o r s , t h a t s u p p o r t l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n o r o c c a s i o n a l s a l e s . F r e q u e n t l y , a r t i s a n a l p r o d u c e r s h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d h a v e n o t b e e n r e p l a c e d b y m a s s - p r o d u c e d o r c o m p a r a b l e v e n d o r s . S i m i l a r l y , t e r t i a r y a c t i v i t i e s a r e l i m i t e d s m a l l o p e r a t o r s ; c o m m o n l y p o o r l y d i v e r s i f i e d , d o m i n a t e d b y c o m m e r c i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a n d f o c u s e d o n l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n , t h e y a r e o p e r a t e d b y f a m i l i e s a n d d o n o t g e n e r a t e m u c h i n e m p l o y m e n t . C a f é s a n d r e s t a u r a n t s , a r e a g o o d e x a m p l e o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , w i t h m a n y d o t t i n g t h e s e t t l e m e n t l a n d s c a p e o f t h e p a r k ' s l i m i t s , p r i m a r i l y i n t h e a r e a o f G e r ê s . O t h e r s e r v i c e s e c t o r a c t i v i t i e s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d w i t h i n t h e u r b a n i z e d m u n i c i p a l s e a t s a n d l a r g e r v i l l a g e s , w i t h m a n y o f t h e m o r e d y n a m i c n u c l e i t h e c e n t r e o f p o s t a l s e r v i c e s , b a n k s , p o s t s f o r t h e G . N . R . o r h e a l t h c e n t r e s . I n 2 0 1 8 t h e B a r r o s o A g r o - s y l v o - p a s t o r a l S y s t e m ( B A S P ) w h e r e t r e e s a r e c u l t i v a t e d a l o n g s i d e c r o p s w a s a m o n g s t t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s i t e s d e s i g n a t e d a s ' G l o b a l l y I m p o r t a n t A g r i c u l t u r a l H e r i t a g e S y s t e m ' ( G I A H S ) b y t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d a n d A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e B A S P i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e P e n e d a - G e r ê s N a t i o n a l P a r k a s i t i s f a r m i n g i n h a r m o n y w i t h n a t u r e . O f t h e 5 7 G I A H S t h a t e x i s t e d i n t h e w o r l d 2 0 1 8 , o n l y s i x w e r e d e s i g n a t e d i n E u r o p e . T h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s B a r r o s ã c a t t l e w i t h l o n g c u r v e d h o r n s , w h i c h c a n g r o w w e l l o v e r 1 0 0   c m i n l e n g t h . T h e a n i m a l s g r a z e f r e e l y o n t r a d i t i o n a l p a s t u r e s a n d m a r s h e s i n c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a r e i d e a l f o r t h e i r w e l f a r e . T h e c a t t l e e n j o y a p u r i t y o f n a t u r e t h a t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s e p l a c e s , c o n t r i b u t i n g g r e a t l y t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d b i o d i v e r s i t y o f t h e l a n d s c a p e a s w e l l a s t o t h e r u r a l e c o n o m i c s u s t a i n a b i l i t y . B a r r o s ã c a t t l e h a v e b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r a n c i e n t g e n e t i c h e r i t a g e . T h e p a r k t r i e s t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e n c o u r a g e a n d c o n t r o l t o u r i s m , s i n c e t h e p a r k ' s n a t u r e w o u l d n o t r e s i s t a m a s s i v e f l o w o f t o u r i s t s . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e r e a r e s i x s m a l l c a m p i n g s i t e s a n d s e v e r a l h i k i n g t r a i l s a r e m a r k e d , m a k i n g i t r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o f i n d m a n y o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g s p o t s , s u c h a s t h e c a s t r o s a t C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o a n d C a l c e d ó n i a a n d t h e m o n a s t e r y a t P i t õ e s d a s J ú n i a s . T h e t r a i l a t M é z i o a s a p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n i n d e s c r i b i n g s o m e o f t h e l o c a l f e a t u r e s . L o c a t i o n s n e a r t h e f e w m a j o r r o a d s a r e t h e m o s t v i s i t e d . M a n y o f t h e m a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e r e l i g i o u s n e s s o f t h e p e o p l e i n n o r t h e r n P o r t u g a l n a m e l y t h e s h r i n e s a t S e n h o r a d a P e n e d a a n d S ã o B e n t o d a P o r t a A b e r t a . O t h e r s , s u c h a s S o a j o a n d L i n d o s o , d i s p l a y s m a l l , t r a d i t i o n a l g r a n a r i e s b u i l t o f g r a n i t e , t h e " e s p i g u e i r o s " ( f r o m t h e P o r t u g u e s e " e s p i g a " , m e a n i n g " s p i k e " / e a r ) ) . S o a j o i s a t y p i c a l P o r t u g u e s e v i l l a g e , l o c a t e d o n o n e o f t h e s l o p e s o f P e n e d a M o u n t a i n s . T h e 2 4 e s p i g u e i r o s w e r e e r e c t e d o n a g r a n i t e s l a b a n d a r e s t i l l u s e d t o d a y f o r d r y i n g c o r n . P r o b a b l y t h e t w o m o s t k n o w n a n d v i s i t e d f e a t u r e s a r e t h e m a n y w a t e r f a l l s , m o s t l y t h e o n e n e a r t h e o l d f r o n t i e r s t a t i o n a t P o r t e l a d o H o m e m , a n d t h e V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s v i l l a g e , w h e n e v e r t h e V i l a r i n h o d a s F u r n a s D a m i s l o w e n o u g h . T h e d o m e s t i c a n i m a l s a l s o d e s e r v e b e i n g n o t e d . T h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s " B a r r o s ã " a n d t h e s m a l l e r " C a c h e n a " c a t t l e , u s e d i n a g r i c u l t u r e , i s n o w a d a y s e n d a n g e r e d b e c a u s e i t i s l o s i n g i t s u t i l i t y ; a s i s a l s o t h e C a s t r o L a b o r e i r o d o g , a h u n t i n g d o g .

Geography ; Biome ; Fauna

The geography of the Parque Nacional Peneda Gerês consists of elevated terrains, inclined spaces, and deep valleys formed through pluvial action. The region falls within a transitional zone between the Atlantic and Mediterranean environments, influenced by various climatic systems. The climate is characterized by micro-climates due to variations in altitude, topography, and human occupation. The biome of the park is diverse, with four distinct biomes: oak forest, shrubbery, marshes, and riparian vegetation. The floristic diversity includes 823 vascular taxa occurring in 128 types of natural vegetation. The park is home to three endemic species and is threatened by natural and man-made fires, habitat destruction, and agricultural use. The fauna of the park is equally diverse, with approximately 235 vertebrate species identified, including the Pyrenean desman, European otter, roe deer, and wild boar. The park is also known for its trout and salmon populations. Human settlements in the park are characterized by traditional houses with granite walls and thatched roofs, blending harmoniously into the landscape. The park has been an important site for ecological research and has been designated as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS) by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization.

within the elevated terrains and inclined spaces are non-existent, while the valleys are rich and deep, deposited and transported by pluvial action. These strata are textured, permeable, easily worked, albeit with a weak consistency, and marked by the peculiarities of local agriculture. The incorporation of biomass and elevated precipitation, along with the low autumn-winter temperatures give an origin to the alterations in pH levels. The elevated levels of incompletely decomposed organic material, low in phosphorus and intermittently low/high in potassium, are subject of alluvial deposition. The region of the Parque Nacional Peneda Gerês falls within a transitional zone between the Atlantic and Mediterranean environments, and is influenced by various climatic systems: Atlantic, Mediterranean and Continental. Its climate is greatly influenced by the topography; the mountains exert a barrier 12 to 28 °C (with an average of 20 °C), transitioning into a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate. Consequently, the area is prone to various micro-climates, affected by variations in altitude, topographic characteristics, human occupation, different exposures and thermal variation. Similarly, this difference has resulted in an interchange of vegetation characteristic of Mediterranean, Euro-Siberian and Alpine environments. Rivas-Martinez defined the foothills of both the Serra do Gerês and the Serra da Cabreira (lands below the Tâmega, Ave and Cávado watersheds) as the frontier between the Euro-Siberian and Mediterranean regions, granting a significant floral and phytogeographic importance to the National Park. Biomass coverage of the Serra do Gerês, Serra Amarela, Serra do Peneda and Serra do Soajo, as well as the Mourela and Castro Laboreiro plateaus, are dominated by four distinct biomes: oak forest, shrubbery, marshes and riparian vegetation. The floristic diversity includes 823 vascular taxa that occur in 128 types of natural vegetation. The oak forests which are common throughout the park, are especially concentrated in the Ramiscal, Peneda, Gerês and Beredo river valleys. These forested areas are dominated by an alliance between the Pyrenean ("Quercus pyrenaica") and European ("Quercus robur") oaks, which themselves are differentiated among the lower altitudes and exposed flanks (the "Rusceto-Quercetum roboris") and those of typical Atlantic environments ("Myretillo-Quercetum roboris"). The first association is commonly found with European oak ("Quercus rober"), cork oak ("Quercus suber"), butcher's broom ("Ruscus aculeatus"), maple ("Acer pseudoplatanus") and Portuguese laurel ("Prunus lusitanica"), while the second association unites the European and Pyrenean oaks with bilberry ("Vaccinium myrtillus"), strawberry tree ("Arbutus There are three endemic species. Those factors that have been identified that threaten these habitats include: natural and manmade fires, use of forest for fuel wood and agricultural use of habitats. Many of the studies conducted on the species that inhabitant the park have been concentrated in the area of Matas de Albergaria/Palheiros, traditionally identified as the "heart" of the park. Work by the Faculty of Sciences at the University of Porto and University of Minho have concentrated on a few mammals (Pyrenean desman, European otter, roe deer, and wild boar), reptiles and fish. These studies looked into the numbers of species and factors influencing their habitats. Approximately 235 vertebrate species were identified within the boundaries of the park, of which 200 are threatened or under protection. These truteiros" ("Trout Rivers") for the abundance of trout. Although stocks have diminished, the salmon populations still spawns in the rivers of the park. Species well represented in the biotopes of Peneda-Gerês include: The 1971 classification of Peneda-Gerês as a national park came from a group of rules/requirements established to allow: the prudent use of the park's resources, preservation of existing flora and fauna species, allowing for the continued cohabitation, while providing an environment for scientific, educational and touristic investigation. These specified: In 2011 a new management plan was published for Peneda-Gerês NP defining 5 levels of protection: total protection area, partial protection areas (levels I and II) and complementary protection areas (levels I and II). This management plan was based on a combination of biodiversity conservation and wilderness separated from each other; an extension of buildings located along roadways; some isolated groups; constructions along agricultural roads in pasturelands; and three or more homes isolated by pastures. Consequently, there are six homogeneous zones: Some of the villages in the high lands are located near the arable lands. Terraces, built to make better use of these scarce lands, and traditional houses, with granite walls and thatch roofs, shape the landscape with an indelible, harmonious, human mark in some of the most isolated villages such as Pitões das Júnias and Ermida. Over the last 50 years, the Peneda-Gerês National Park has been one of the most important sites for ecological research in Portugal, but also for other natural and social sciences. A number of studies have been conducted from nuclei the centre of postal services, banks, posts for the G.N.R. or health centres. In 2018 the Barroso Agro-sylvo-pastoral System (BASP) where trees are cultivated alongside crops was amongst the first European sites designated as 'Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System' (GIAHS) by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. The BASP is integrated into the Peneda-Gerês National Park as it is farming in harmony with nature. Of the 57 GIAHS that existed in the world 2018, only six were designated in Europe. The autochthonous Barrosã cattle with long curved horns, which can grow well over 100 cm in length. The animals graze freely on traditional pastures and marshes in conditions that are ideal for their welfare. The cattle enjoy a purity of nature that is characteristic of these places, contributing greatly to the preservation and biodiversity of the landscape as well as to the rural economic sustainability. Barrosã cattle have been extensively studied because of their ancient genetic heritage. The park tries to simultaneously encourage and control tourism, since the park's nature would not resist a massive flow of tourists. Accordingly, there are six small camping sites and several hikingtrails are marked, making it relatively easy to find many of the most interesting spots, such as the castros at Castro Laboreiro and Calcedónia and the monastery at Pitões das Júnias. The trail at Mézio as a particular concern in describing some of the local features. Locations near the few major roads are the most visited. Many of them are related to the religiousness of the people

Buckhurst Hill

T h e f i r s t m e n t i o n o f B u c k h u r s t H i l l i s i n 1 1 3 5 , w h e n r e f e r e n c e w a s m a d e t o " L a B o c h e r s t e " , b e c o m i n g i n l a t e r y e a r s " B u c k e t H i l l " , o r i g i n a l l y m e a n i n g a h i l l c o v e r e d w i t h b e e c h t r e e s . I t l a y i n E p p i n g F o r e s t a n d c o n s i s t e d o f o n l y a f e w s c a t t e r e d h o u s e s a l o n g t h e a n c i e n t r o a d f r o m W o o d f o r d t o L o u g h t o n . B e f o r e t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e r a i l w a y s , B u c k h u r s t H i l l w a s o n t h e s t a g e c o a c h r o u t e b e t w e e n L o n d o n a n d C a m b r i d g e , N o r w i c h , B u r y S t E d m u n d s a n d D u n m o w . O r i g i n a l l y i t w a s a p a r t o f t h e p a r i s h o f C h i g w e l l ; t h e r e w a s n o r o a d c o n n e c t i n g t h e t w o c o m m u n i t i e s a n d i n o r d e r t o g e t t o c h u r c h , p a r i s h i o n e r s h a d t o f o r d t h e R i v e r R o d i n g a t W o o d f o r d . T h e P a r i s h C h u r c h o f S t J o h n w a s b u i l t i n 1 8 3 8 a s a c h a p e l o f e a s e b u t B u c k h u r s t H i l l d i d n o t b e c o m e a s e p a r a t e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l p a r i s h u n t i l 1 8 6 7 . S t J o h n ' s N a t i o n a l S c h o o l w a s a l s o b u i l t i n 1 8 3 8 . T h e l o r d o f t h e m a n o r g a v e a s i t e n e x t t o t h e c h u r c h ; t h e b u i l d i n g c o s t £ 2 0 9 , m o s t o f w h i c h w a s d o n a t e d b y t h e c h u r c h c o n g r e g a t i o n . T h e o p e n i n g o f B u c k h u r s t H i l l s t a t i o n i n 1 8 5 6 s a w a r a p i d e x p a n s i o n i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e a r e a ; n e a r l y s i x h u n d r e d n e w h o u s e s h a d b e e n b u i l t n e a r t h e s t a t i o n b y 1 8 7 1 , l e a d i n g t o t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e P r i n c e ' s R o a d s c h o o l i n 1 8 7 2 . S o m e o f t h e l a n d f o r t h i s e x p a n s i o n w a s e n c l o s e d f r o m E p p i n g F o r e s t , b e f o r e t h i s p r a c t i c e w a s h a l t e d b y t h e E p p i n g F o r e s t A c t , 1 8 7 8 . T h e c i v i l p a r i s h o f B u c k h u r s t H i l l b e c a m e B u c k h u r s t H i l l U r b a n D i s t r i c t i n 1 8 9 4 . I n 1 9 3 3 , i t w a s m e r g e d w i t h t h e C h i g w e l l a n d L o u g h t o n U r b a n D i s t r i c t t o f o r m t h e C h i g w e l l U r b a n D i s t r i c t . A f u r t h e r m e r g e r w i t h E p p i n g U r b a n D i s t r i c t , W a l t h a m H o l y C r o s s U r b a n D i s t r i c t a n d m o s t o f E p p i n g a n d O n g a r R u r a l D i s t r i c t i n 1 9 7 4 b r o u g h t B u c k h u r s t H i l l i n t o E p p i n g F o r e s t D i s t r i c t , a n d i n 1 9 9 6 , B u c k h u r s t H i l l P a r i s h C o u n c i l w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s a f i r s t t i e r o f l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t . I t i s a t t h e w e s t e r n e d g e o f E s s e x , 1 0 . 7 m i l e s ( 1 7 . 2   k m ) n o r t h e a s t o f C h a r i n g C r o s s a n d b o r d e r i n g t h e L o n d o n B o r o u g h o f R e d b r i d g e . P a r t s o f E p p i n g F o r e s t i n B u c k h u r s t H i l l a r e i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s . B u c k h u r s t H i l l i s s e r v e d b y t w o L o n d o n U n d e r g r o u n d s t a t i o n s : B u c k h u r s t H i l l ( i n L o n d o n f a r e z o n e 5 ) a n d R o d i n g V a l l e y ( i n L o n d o n f a r e z o n e 4 ) , w h i c h a r e o n t h e C e n t r a l L i n e . T h e l i n e d i r e c t l y l i n k s t h e a r e a t o c e n t r a l L o n d o n , a s w e l l a s l o c a l a r e a s i n c l u d i n g W o o d f o r d , S o u t h W o o d f o r d , L e y t o n s t o n e , E p p i n g a n d L o u g h t o n . A l s o , f r o m n e a r b y C h i n g f o r d s t a t i o n , s e r v i c e s c a n b e u s e d t o r e a c h L o n d o n L i v e r p o o l S t r e e t v i a W a l t h a m s t o w a n d H a c k n e y . B u s s e r v i c e 3 9 7 c a n b e u s e d t o r e a c h C h i n g f o r d s t a t i o n . M o s t b u s r o u t e s s e r v i n g B u c k h u r s t H i l l a r e L o n d o n B u s e s s e r v i c e s ( d e s p i t e i t b e i n g o u t s i d e t h e L o n d o n B u s e s z o n e ) . L o u g h t o n R u g b y U n i o n F o o t b a l l C l u b h a s i t s c l u b h o u s e a n d p i t c h e s o n H o r n b e a m R d a t t h e s o u t h o f t h e t o w n . B u c k h u r s t H i l l F . C . i s o n R o d i n g L a n e a t t h e e a s t o f t h e t o w n . B u c k h u r s t H i l l C r i c k e t C l u b p l a y s i n t h e S h e p h e r d N e a m e E s s e x L e a g u e , a n d f i e l d s f o u r S a t u r d a y X I s , t w o S u n d a y X I s , a n d t e a m s i n a j u n i o r s e c t i o n . T h e c l u b p l a y s a t t w o c r i c k e t f i e l d s : o n e o f f R o d i n g L a n e a t t h e e a s t o f t h e t o w n ; a n d o n e a t t h e e d g e o f P o w e l l ' s F o r e s t ( p a r t o f E p p i n g F o r e s t ) , o f f H i g h R o a d a t t h e n o r t h o f t h e t o w n . P r i m a r y s c h o o l s i n B u c k h u r s t H i l l i n c l u d e B u c k h u r s t H i l l C o m m u n i t y P r i m a r y S c h o o l , ( B H C P S ) , S t J o h n ' s , a C o f E , ( C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d ) s c h o o l a n d W h i t e b r i d g e P r i m a r y S c h o o l . B r a e s i d e S c h o o l i s a n i n d e p e n d e n t s c h o o l , a s w e l l a s D a i g l e n S c h o o l , t w o p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s .

History

Buckhurst Hill's history dates back to 1135, initially known as "La Bocherste" or "Bucket Hill". It began as a small settlement in Epping Forest with a few scattered houses along the ancient road from Woodford to Loughton. Over time, the area expanded rapidly with the arrival of the railway in 1856, leading to significant growth and development. Today, Buckhurst Hill is a thriving community with various amenities, transportation links, and recreational facilities.

The first mention of Buckhurst Hill is in 1135, when reference was made to "La Bocherste", becoming in later years "Bucket Hill", originally meaning a hill covered with beech trees. It lay in Epping Forest and consisted of only a few scattered houses along the ancient road from Woodford to Loughton. Before the building of the railways, Buckhurst Hill was on the stagecoach route between London and Cambridge, Norwich, Bury St Edmunds and Dunmow. Originally it was a part of the parish of Chigwell; there was no road connecting the two communities and in order to get to church, parishioners had to ford the River Roding at Woodford. The Parish Church of St John was built in 1838 as a chapel of ease but Buckhurst Hill did not become a separate ecclesiastical parish until 1867. St John's National School was also built in 1838. The lord of the manor gave a site next to the church; the building cost £209, most of which was donated by the church congregation. The opening of Buckhurst Hill station in 1856 saw a rapid expansion in the population of the area; nearly six hundred new houses had been built near the station by 1871, leading to the opening of the Prince's Road school in 1872. Some of the land for this expansion was enclosed from Epping Forest, before this practice was halted by the Epping Forest Act, 1878. The civil parish of Buckhurst Hill became Buckhurst Hill Urban District in 1894. In 1933, it was merged with the Chigwell and Loughton Urban District to form the Chigwell Urban District. A further merger with Epping Urban District, Waltham Holy Cross Urban District and most of Epping and Ongar Rural District in 1974 brought Buckhurst Hill into Epping Forest District, and in 1996, Buckhurst Hill Parish Council was established as a first tier of local government. It is at the western edge of Essex, 10.7 miles (17.2 km) northeast of Charing Cross and bordering the London Borough of Redbridge. Parts of Epping Forest in Buckhurst Hill are intermingled with residential areas. Buckhurst Hill is served by two London Underground stations: Buckhurst Hill (in London fare zone 5) and Roding Valley (in London fare zone 4), which are on the Central Line. The line directly links the area to central London, as well as local areas including Woodford, South Woodford, Leytonstone, Epping and Loughton. Also, from nearby Chingford station, services can be used to reach London Liverpool Street via Walthamstow and Hackney. Bus service 397 can be used to reach Chingford station. Most bus routes serving Buckhurst Hill are London Buses services (despite it being outside the London Buses zone). Loughton Rugby Union Football Club has its clubhouse and pitches on Hornbeam Rd at the south of the town. Buckhurst Hill F.C. is on Roding Lane at the east of the town. Buckhurst Hill Cricket Club plays in the Shepherd Neame Essex League, and fields four Saturday XIs, two Sunday XIs, and teams in a junior section. The club plays at two cricket fields: one off Roding Lane at the east of the town; and one at the edge of Powell's Forest (part of Epping Forest), off High Road at the north of the town. Primary schools in Buckhurst Hill include Buckhurst Hill Community Primary School,(BHCPS),St John's, a CofE, (Church of England) school and Whitebridge Primary School. Braeside School is an independent school, as well as Daiglen School, two primary and secondary schools.

Lynn Ahrens

A h r e n s w a s b o r n i n N e w Y o r k C i t y . S h e g r e w u p i n N e p t u n e T o w n s h i p , N e w J e r s e y , w h e r e s h e g r a d u a t e d f r o m N e p t u n e H i g h S c h o o l o n t h e J e r s e y s h o r e i n 1 9 6 6 . S h e g r a d u a t e d f r o m S y r a c u s e U n i v e r s i t y w i t h a d e g r e e i n J o u r n a l i s m a n d E n g l i s h . S h e i s J e w i s h . S h e t h e n b e g a n a c a r e e r i n a d v e r t i s i n g a s a c o p y w r i t e r f o r M c C a f f r e y a n d M c C a l l . I t w a s h e r f i r s t j o b o u t o f c o l l e g e . S h e w a s l i v i n g w i t h h e r e x - h u s b a n d i n F l u s h i n g , s l e e p i n g o n t h e f l o o r o f h i s s i s t e r ' s a p a r t m e n t . W h i l e w o r k i n g a s a s e c r e t a r y / c o p y w r i t e r , s h e w o u l d b r i n g h e r g u i t a r t o p l a y a n d w r i t e s o n g s d u r i n g l u n c h . G e o r g e N e w a l l w a s p a s s i n g b y a n d a s k e d h e r c a s u a l l y t o w r i t e a s o n g f o r " S c h o o l h o u s e R o c k ! " . S h e w r o t e " T h e P r e a m b l e " , a n d i t w e n t o n t h e a i r w i t h A h r e n s s i n g i n g i t . A f t e r t h a t s h e b e g a n r e g u l a r l y w r i t i n g s o n g s f o r t h e s h o w . S h e s u b s e q u e n t l y w o r k e d a s a f r e e l a n c e c o m p o s e r a n d s i n g e r o f c o m m e r c i a l m u s i c , a n d w r o t e a n d p r o d u c e d a n u m b e r o f s o n g s f o r c h i l d r e n ' s t e l e v i s i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y " C a p t a i n K a n g a r o o " . S h e b e g a n w r i t i n g f o r t h e m u s i c a l t h e a t e r i n 1 9 8 2 . S h e m a r r i e d N e i l C o s t a i n 1 9 8 9 . A h r e n s m e t S t e p h e n F l a h e r t y a t t h e B M I W o r k s h o p i n 1 9 8 2 a n d t h e y s t a r t e d w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r . T h e i r f i r s t c o l l a b o r a t i o n w a s " B e d a z z l e d " , b a s e d o n t h e 1 9 6 7 f i l m o f t h e s a m e n a m e , b u t h a d t o a b a n d o n i t w h e n t h e y c o u l d n o t s e c u r e t h e r i g h t s . T h e y d i d s o m e w o r k s h o p s , w h e r e I r a W e i t z m a n n o t i c e d t h e m a n d h e w a s a b l e t o g e t t h e p a i r a N E A g r a n t . W e i t z m a n a l s o c o n n e c t e d t h e p a i r w i t h G e o r g e C . W o l f e , a n d t h e y c o l l a b o r a t e d o n a p i e c e c a l l e d " A n t l e r " , b u t a c c o r d i n g t o A h r e n s , " n o o n e c o u l d f i g u r e i t o u t . " T h e p a i r s ' f i r s t p r o d u c e d m u s i c a l w a s a c h i l d r e n ' s m u s i c a l , " T h e E m p e r o r ' s N e w C l o t h e s " f o r T h e a t r e w o r k s U S A . T h e i r f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l l y p r o d u c e d m u s i c a l t o g e t h e r w a s " L u c k y S t i f f " , w h i c h p r e m i e r e d O f f - B r o a d w a y a t P l a y w r i g h t s H o r i z o n s i n A p r i l 1 9 8 8 . T h e i r n e x t m u s i c a l w a s " O n c e o n T h i s I s l a n d " , w h i c h p r e m i e r e d o n B r o a d w a y i n 1 9 9 0 a n d w h i c h w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r e i g h t T o n y A w a r d s . " M y F a v o r i t e Y e a r " o p e n e d a t t h e V i v i a n B e a u m o n t T h e a t e r i n L i n c o l n C e n t e r i n O c t o b e r 1 9 9 2 a n d r a n f o r 3 6 p e r f o r m a n c e s , w i n n i n g t h e T o n y A w a r d f o r A n d r e a M a r t i n a s B e s t S u p p o r t i n g A c t r e s s . " R a g t i m e " f o l l o w e d , o p e n i n g o n B r o a d w a y i n J a n u a r y 1 9 9 8 a n d r u n n i n g f o r 8 3 4 p e r f o r m a n c e s . " R a g t i m e " w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r t w e l v e T o n y A w a r d s a n d w o n t h e B e s t O r i g i n a l S c o r e f o r L y n n A h r e n s a n d S t e p h e n F l a h e r t y i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e D r a m a D e s k A w a r d f o r O u t s t a n d i n g L y r i c s . " R a g t i m e " w a s r e v i v e d o n B r o a d w a y i n 2 0 0 9 , a n d w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r s e v e n T o n y A w a r d s . " S e u s s i c a l " o p e n e d o n B r o a d w a y i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 0 , a n d r e c e i v e d a G r a m m y n o m i n a t i o n . T h e m u s i c a l l a t e r r a n O f f - B r o a d w a y i n 2 0 0 7 , w h e r e i t w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r t h e L u c i l l e L o r t e l A w a r d a s O u t s t a n d i n g R e v i v a l a n d t h e D r a m a L e a g u e A w a r d a s D i s t i n g u i s h e d R e v i v a l o f a M u s i c a l . T h i s i s o n e o f t h e m o s t p e r f o r m e d m u s i c a l s i n t h e U S . A h r e n s a n d F l a h e r t y ' s n e x t m u s i c a l s , " A M a n o f N o I m p o r t a n c e " ( 2 0 0 2 ) , " D e s s a R o s e " ( 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d " T h e G l o r i o u s O n e s " ( 2 0 0 7 ) w e r e p r o d u c e d a t t h e M i t z i E . N e w h o u s e T h e a t e r i n L i n c o l n C e n t e r . T h e y h a v e f r e q u e n t l y w o r k e d w i t h d i r e c t o r a n d c h o r e o g r a p h e r G r a c i e l a D a n i e l e . T h e y w r o t e o r i g i n a l s o n g s f o r t h e C h i t a R i v e r a a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l s h o w , " C h i t a R i v e r a : T h e D a n c e r ' s L i f e " , i n 2 0 0 5 . T h e i r m u s i c a l v e r s i o n o f " R o c k y t h e M u s i c a l " p r e m i e r e d i n H a m b u r g , G e r m a n y i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 2 . T h e s h o w i s b a s e d o n t h e f i l m " R o c k y " a n d h a s a b o o k b y T h o m a s M e e h a n . " R o c k y t h e M u s i c a l " o p e n e d o n B r o a d w a y a t t h e W i n t e r G a r d e n T h e a t r e o n F e b r u a r y 1 1 , 2 0 1 4 ( p r e v i e w s ) , a n d o f f i c i a l l y o p e n e d o n M a r c h 1 3 , 2 0 1 4 . T h e m u s i c a l i s d i r e c t e d b y A l e x T i m b e r s , w i t h b o x i n g c h o r e o g r a p h y b y S t e v e n H o g g e t t a n d c h o r e o g r a p h y b y K e l l y D e v i n e . T h e f o r m e r o c c u p a n t o f t h e W i n t e r G a r d e n T h e a t r e , t h e m u s i c a l " M a m m a M i a ! " , t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e B r o a d h u r s t T h e a t r e i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 3 . A n d y K a r l a n d M a r g o S e i b e r t a r e f e a t u r e d a s R o c k y B a l b o a a n d A d r i a n . T h e y h a v e w r i t t e n a d a n c e m u s i c a l , " L i t t l e D a n c e r " , w i t h d i r e c t i o n a n d c h o r e o g r a p h y b y S u s a n S t r o m a n , a b o u t a b a l l e r i n a a n d E d g a r D e g a s , w h i c h h a d a r e a d i n g i n 2 0 1 0 a t L i n c o l n C e n t e r T h e a t e r a n d a d e v e l o p m e n t a l l a b p r o d u c t i o n i n J u n e 2 0 1 2 . " L i t t l e D a n c e r " p r e m i e r e d a t t h e K e n n e d y C e n t e r , E i s e n h o w e r T h e a t e r i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 a n d c l o s e d o n N o v e m b e r 3 0 , 2 0 1 4 . T h e c a s t s t a r r e d R e b e c c a L u k e r , B o y d G a i n e s a n d T i l e r P e c k . T h e m u s i c a l h a d a p r i v a t e r e a d i n g o n M a r c h 2 8 , 2 0 1 6 , a f t e r h a v i n g b e e n r e v i s e d . A h r e n s a n d F l a h e r t y h a v e w r i t t e n t h e s o n g s f o r t h e s t a g e a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e f i l m " A n a s t a s i a " . T h e m u s i c a l p r e m i e r e d a t H a r t f o r d S t a g e ( C o n n e c t i c u t ) f r o m M a y 1 2 , 2 0 1 6 t o J u n e 1 2 . T h e d i r e c t o r i s D a r k o T r e s n j a k , w h o s a i d , " W e ' v e k e p t , I t h i n k , s i x s o n g s f r o m t h e m o v i e , b u t t h e r e a r e 1 6 n e w n u m b e r s . W e ' v e k e p t t h e b e s t p a r t s o f t h e a n i m a t e d m o v i e , b u t i t r e a l l y i s a n e w m u s i c a l . " T h e b o o k i s b y T e r r e n c e M c N a l l y . W i t h a b o o k b y F r a n k G a l a t i , m u s i c b y F l a h e r t y , a n d l y r i c s b y A h r e n s , " K n o x v i l l e " w i l l p r e m i e r e a t t h e A s o l o R e p e r t o r y T h e a t r e i n S p r i n g 2 0 2 0 , b a s e d o n t h e P u l i t z e r P r i z e w i n n i n g b o o k " A D e a t h i n t h e F a m i l y " b y J a m e s A g e e a n d P u l i t z e r P r i z e w i n n i n g p l a y " A l l t h e W a y H o m e " b y T a d M o s e l . I t w i l l s t a r J a s o n D a n i e l e y a s A u t h o r . O n h e r w o r k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h F l a h e r t y , A h r e n s h a s c o m m e n t e d , " O u r l i v e s h a v e b e e n v e r y d i f f e r e n t . . . B u t o u r s e n s i b i l i t i e s a r e v e r y s i m i l a r . " I n 1 9 9 2 , F l a h e r t y a n d A h r e n s w e r e s i g n e d b y D i s n e y t o w r i t e " S o n g o f t h e S e a " , a c o m i n g o f a g e s t o r y a b o u t a w h a l e , i n t h e e r a o f D i s n e y f i l m s k n o w n a s t h e D i s n e y R e n a i s s a n c e . T h e p r o j e c t s t a l l e d a n d w a s n e v e r c o m p l e t e d . A h r e n s a n d F l a h e r t y a l s o c o l l a b o r a t e d o n s o n g s f o r t h e a n i m a t e d m o v i e " A n a s t a s i a " ( 1 9 9 7 ) , r e c e i v i n g t w o A c a d e m y A w a r d a n d G o l d e n G l o b e n o m i n a t i o n s f o r B e s t S o n g a n d B e s t S c o r e . T h e e n d t i t l e s o n g " A t T h e B e g i n n i n g " w e n t t o N u m b e r O n e , a n d t h e s o u n d t r a c k w e n t G o l d . A h r e n s h a s w r i t t e n m u s i c a n d l y r i c s f o r a n d p e r f o r m e d o n t h e a n i m a t e d t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s " S c h o o l h o u s e R o c k " f r o m 1 9 7 3 t o 2 0 0 9 . A h r e n s h a s a l s o w r i t t e n a f e w s o n g s f o r " C a p t a i n K a n g a r o o " s i n c e t h e m i d 1 9 7 0 s , i n c l u d i n g t h e 1 9 8 2 t h e m e s o n g , " H e r e C o m e s C a p t a i n K a n g a r o o " . A h r e n s w r o t e t h e t e l e p l a y f o r t h e 2 0 0 4 t e l e v i s i o n m u s i c a l " A C h r i s t m a s C a r o l " , s t a r r i n g K e l s e y G r a m m e r , J a n e K r a k o w s k i , a n d J a s o n A l e x a n d e r . W i t h c o m p o s e r M i c h a e l G o r e , s h e c o n t r i b u t e d t w o s o n g s , " H e r e ' s W h e r e I S t a n d " a n d " I S i n g F o r Y o u " , t o t h e I F C f e a t u r e f i l m , " C a m p " ( 2 0 0 3 ) . W i t h S t e p h e n F l a h e r t y , s h e w r o t e l y r i c s f o r t h e t i t l e s o n g f o r " A f t e r t h e S t o r m " , t h e d o c u m e n t a r y f i l m a b o u t y o u n g H u r r i c a n e K a t r i n a s u r v i v o r s p u t t i n g o n " O n c e O n T h i s I s l a n d " . A h r e n s w r i t e s s h o r t s t o r i e s w h i c h h a v e a p p e a r e d i n T h e K e n y o n R e v i e w , C a l y x , G l i m m e r T r a i n S t o r i e s a n d o t h e r s . H e r p e r s o n a l e s s a y s h a v e a p p e a r e d i n " N a r r a t i v e M a g a z i n e " a n d h a v e b e e n n o m i n a t e d f o r " B e s t A m e r i c a n E s s a y s " a n d t h e " P u s h c a r t A n t h o l o g y " . A h r e n s a n d F l a h e r t y g a v e a s e r i e s o f c o n c e r t s o f t h e i r w o r k i n H o b a r t , M e l b o u r n e a n d S y d n e y , A u s t r a l i a f r o m S e p t e m b e r 4 t o 1 3 , 2 0 0 9 . A h r e n s i s a l i f e t i m e m e m b e r o f t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e D r a m a t i s t s G u i l d o f A m e r i c a , a n d i s a f o u n d e r a n d c o - c h a i r o f t h e D r a m a t i s t s G u i l d F e l l o w s P r o g r a m f o r E m e r g i n g W r i t e r s . S h e w r o t e t e x t f o r t h e c o n c e r t p i e c e " W i t h V o i c e s R a i s e d " , ( c o m p o s e r , S t e p h e n F l a h e r t y ) w h i c h w a s c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e B o s t o n P o p s O r c h e s t r a i n 2 0 0 0 . S h e w r o t e t e x t f o r t h e c o n c e r t p i e c e " T h e D r e a m L i v e s O n : A P o r t r a i t o f t h e K e n n e d y B r o t h e r s " , ( c o m p o s e r , P e t e r B o y e r ) , w h i c h w a s c o m m i s s i o n e d a n d p e r f o r m e d b y t h e B o s t o n P o p s i n 2 0 0 9 , a n d n a r r a t e d b y R o b e r t D e N i r o , E d H a r r i s , M o r g a n F r e e m a n a n d C h e r r y J o n e s . S h e w a s t h e o r i g i n a l w r i t e r a n d s i n g e r o f n u m e r o u s j i n g l e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e l o n g - r u n n i n g " W h a t W o u l d Y o u D o F o r A K l o n d i k e B a r " a n d " B o u n t y , T h e Q u i c k e r P i c k e r U p p e r . " S h e w r o t e l y r i c s f o r t h e c h o r a l p i e c e , " T h e S o n g I S i n g , " ( c o m p o s e r , S t e p h e n F l a h e r t y ) , c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e Y o u n g P e o p l e ' s C h o r u s o f N e w Y o r k , a n d p e r f o r m e d a t C a r n e g i e H a l l b y a c h o r u s o f 1 0 0 0 c h i l d r e n . C h a r l e s I s h e r w o o d w r o t e o f A h r e n s a n d F l a h e r t y : " a f e w c o m p o s e r s a n d l y r i c i s t s c o n t i n u e t o r i s k i r r e l e v a n c e b y p u r s u i n g t h e i r o w n l o n e l y p a t h s . S t e p h e n F l a h e r t y a n d L y n n A h r e n s a r e a m o n g t h e m . M r . F l a h e r t y a n d M s . A h r e n s , b e s t k n o w n f o r t h e i r s c o r e f o r " R a g t i m e " , c o n t i n u e t o s e e t h e h u m a n i s t p o t e n t i a l i n t h e m e d i u m . T h e y i n s i s t o n w r i t i n g m u s i c a l s t h a t e x p l o r e t h e s t r u g g l e s o f m e n a n d w o m e n , a s o p p o s e d t o t h e s y n t h e t i c c r e a t u r e s r a z z l e - d a z z l i n g B r o a d w a y a u d i e n c e s w i t h t h e i r p r e e n i n g v u l g a r i t y a n d s e l f - d e v o u r i n g j o k e s . "

Biography ; Theatre

Lynn Ahrens is an American lyricist and composer. She began her career writing songs for children's television shows, including "Captain Kangaroo". She met her collaborator Stephen Flaherty at the BMI Workshop in 1982, and they went on to create several successful musicals, including "Once on This Island", "Ragtime", "Seussical", and "Rocky the Musical". Ahrens has won numerous awards for her work, including the Tony Award for Best Original Score for "Ragtime". She continues to work with Flaherty, creating new musicals and contributing to various projects.

After that she began regularly writing songs for the show. She subsequently worked as a freelance composer and singer of commercial music, and wrote and produced a number of songs for children's television, particularly "Captain Kangaroo". She began writing for the musical theater in 1982. She married Neil Costa in 1989. Ahrens met Stephen Flaherty at the BMI Workshop in 1982 and they started working together the following year. Their first collaboration was "Bedazzled", based on the 1967 film of the same name, but had to abandon it when they could not secure the rights. They did some workshops, where Ira Weitzman noticed them and he was able to get the pair a NEA grant. Weitzman also connected the pair with George C. Wolfe, and they collaborated on a piece called "Antler", but according to Ahrens, "no one could figure it out." The pairs' first produced musical was a children's musical, "The Emperor's New Clothes" for Theatreworks USA. Their first professionally produced musical together was "Lucky Stiff", which premiered Off-Broadway at Playwrights Horizons in April 1988. Their next musical was "Once on This Island", which premiered on Broadway in 1990 and which was nominated for eight Tony Awards. "My Favorite Year" opened at the Vivian Beaumont Theater in Lincoln Center in October 1992 and ran for 36 performances, winning the Tony Award for Andrea Martin as Best Supporting Actress. "Ragtime" followed, opening on Broadway in January 1998 and running for 834 performances. "Ragtime" was nominated for twelve Tony Awards and won the Best Original Scorefor Lynn Ahrens and Stephen Flahertyin addition to the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics. "Ragtime" was revived on Broadway in 2009, and was nominated for seven Tony Awards. "Seussical" opened on Broadway in November 2000, and received a Grammy nomination. The musical later ran Off-Broadway in 2007, where it was nominated for the Lucille Lortel Award as Outstanding Revival and the Drama League Award as Distinguished Revival of a Musical. This is one of the most performed musicals in the US. Ahrens and Flaherty's next musicals, "A Man of No Importance" (2002), "Dessa Rose" (2005), and "The Glorious Ones" (2007) were produced at the Mitzi E. Newhouse Theater in Lincoln Center. They have frequently worked with director and choreographer Graciela Daniele. They wrote original songs for the Chita Rivera autobiographical show, "Chita Rivera: The Dancer's Life", in 2005. Their musical version of "Rocky the Musical" premiered in Hamburg, Germany in October 2012. The show is based on the film "Rocky" and has a book by Thomas Meehan. "Rocky the Musical" opened on Broadway at the Winter Garden Theatre on February 11, 2014 (previews), and officially opened on March 13, 2014. The musical is directed by Alex Timbers, with boxing choreography by Steven Hoggett and choreography by Kelly Devine. The former occupant of the Winter Garden Theatre, the musical "Mamma Mia!", transferred to the Broadhurst Theatre in November 2013. Andy Karl and Margo Seibert are featured as Rocky Balboa and Adrian. They have written a dance musical, "Little Dancer", with direction and choreography by Susan Stroman, about a ballerina and Edgar Degas, which had a reading in 2010 at Lincoln Center Theater and a developmental lab production in June 2012. "Little Dancer" premiered at the Kennedy Center, Eisenhower Theater in October 2014 and closed on November 30, 2014. The cast starred Rebecca Luker, Boyd Gaines and Tiler Peck. The musical had a private reading on March 28, 2016, after having been revised. Ahrens and Flaherty have written the songs for the stage adaptation of the film "Anastasia". The musical premiered at Hartford Stage (Connecticut) from May 12, 2016 to June 12. The director is Darko Tresnjak, who said, "We've kept, I think, six songs from the movie, but there are 16 new numbers. We've kept the best parts of the animated movie, but it really is a new musical." The book is by Terrence McNally. With a book by Frank Galati, music by Flaherty, and lyrics by Ahrens, "Knoxville" will premiere at the Asolo Repertory Theatre in Spring 2020, based on the Pulitzer Prize winning book "A Death in the Family" by James Agee and Pulitzer Prize winning play "All the Way Home" by Tad Mosel. It will star Jason Danieley as Author. On her working relationship with Flaherty, Ahrens has commented, "Our lives have been very different ... But our sensibilities are very similar. " In 1992, Flaherty and Ahrens were signed by Disney to write "Song of the Sea", a coming of age story about a whale, in the era of Disney films known as the Disney Renaissance. The project stalled and IFC feature film, "Camp" (2003). With Stephen Flaherty, she wrote lyrics for the title song for "After the Storm", the documentary film about young Hurricane Katrina survivors putting on "Once On This Island". Ahrens writes short stories which have appeared in The Kenyon Review, Calyx, Glimmer Train Stories and others. Her personal essays have appeared in "Narrative Magazine" and have been nominated for "Best American Essays" and the "Pushcart Anthology". Ahrens and Flaherty gave a series of concerts of their work in Hobart, Melbourne and Sydney, Australia from September 4 to 13, 2009. Ahrens is a lifetime member of the Council of the Dramatists Guild of America, and is a founder and co-chair of the Dramatists Guild Fellows Program for Emerging Writers. She wrote text for the concert and Flaherty: "a few composers and lyricists continue to risk irrelevance by pursuing their own lonely paths. Stephen Flaherty and Lynn Ahrens are among them. Mr. Flaherty and Ms. Ahrens, best known for their score for "Ragtime", continue to see the humanist potential in the medium. They insist on writing musicals that explore the struggles of men and women, as opposed to the synthetic creatures razzle-dazzling Broadway audiences with their preening vulgarity and self-devouring jokes. "

Lynn Ahrens

A h r e n s w a s b o r n i n N e w Y o r k C i t y . S h e g r e w u p i n N e p t u n e T o w n s h i p , N e w J e r s e y , w h e r e s h e g r a d u a t e d f r o m N e p t u n e H i g h S c h o o l o n t h e J e r s e y s h o r e i n 1 9 6 6 . S h e g r a d u a t e d f r o m S y r a c u s e U n i v e r s i t y w i t h a d e g r e e i n J o u r n a l i s m a n d E n g l i s h . S h e i s J e w i s h . S h e t h e n b e g a n a c a r e e r i n a d v e r t i s i n g a s a c o p y w r i t e r f o r M c C a f f r e y a n d M c C a l l . I t w a s h e r f i r s t j o b o u t o f c o l l e g e . S h e w a s l i v i n g w i t h h e r e x - h u s b a n d i n F l u s h i n g , s l e e p i n g o n t h e f l o o r o f h i s s i s t e r ' s a p a r t m e n t . W h i l e w o r k i n g a s a s e c r e t a r y / c o p y w r i t e r , s h e w o u l d b r i n g h e r g u i t a r t o p l a y a n d w r i t e s o n g s d u r i n g l u n c h . G e o r g e N e w a l l w a s p a s s i n g b y a n d a s k e d h e r c a s u a l l y t o w r i t e a s o n g f o r " S c h o o l h o u s e R o c k ! " . S h e w r o t e " T h e P r e a m b l e " , a n d i t w e n t o n t h e a i r w i t h A h r e n s s i n g i n g i t . A f t e r t h a t s h e b e g a n r e g u l a r l y w r i t i n g s o n g s f o r t h e s h o w . S h e s u b s e q u e n t l y w o r k e d a s a f r e e l a n c e c o m p o s e r a n d s i n g e r o f c o m m e r c i a l m u s i c , a n d w r o t e a n d p r o d u c e d a n u m b e r o f s o n g s f o r c h i l d r e n ' s t e l e v i s i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y " C a p t a i n K a n g a r o o " . S h e b e g a n w r i t i n g f o r t h e m u s i c a l t h e a t e r i n 1 9 8 2 . S h e m a r r i e d N e i l C o s t a i n 1 9 8 9 . A h r e n s m e t S t e p h e n F l a h e r t y a t t h e B M I W o r k s h o p i n 1 9 8 2 a n d t h e y s t a r t e d w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r . T h e i r f i r s t c o l l a b o r a t i o n w a s " B e d a z z l e d " , b a s e d o n t h e 1 9 6 7 f i l m o f t h e s a m e n a m e , b u t h a d t o a b a n d o n i t w h e n t h e y c o u l d n o t s e c u r e t h e r i g h t s . T h e y d i d s o m e w o r k s h o p s , w h e r e I r a W e i t z m a n n o t i c e d t h e m a n d h e w a s a b l e t o g e t t h e p a i r a N E A g r a n t . W e i t z m a n a l s o c o n n e c t e d t h e p a i r w i t h G e o r g e C . W o l f e , a n d t h e y c o l l a b o r a t e d o n a p i e c e c a l l e d " A n t l e r " , b u t a c c o r d i n g t o A h r e n s , " n o o n e c o u l d f i g u r e i t o u t . " T h e p a i r s ' f i r s t p r o d u c e d m u s i c a l w a s a c h i l d r e n ' s m u s i c a l , " T h e E m p e r o r ' s N e w C l o t h e s " f o r T h e a t r e w o r k s U S A . T h e i r f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l l y p r o d u c e d m u s i c a l t o g e t h e r w a s " L u c k y S t i f f " , w h i c h p r e m i e r e d O f f - B r o a d w a y a t P l a y w r i g h t s H o r i z o n s i n A p r i l 1 9 8 8 . T h e i r n e x t m u s i c a l w a s " O n c e o n T h i s I s l a n d " , w h i c h p r e m i e r e d o n B r o a d w a y i n 1 9 9 0 a n d w h i c h w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r e i g h t T o n y A w a r d s . " M y F a v o r i t e Y e a r " o p e n e d a t t h e V i v i a n B e a u m o n t T h e a t e r i n L i n c o l n C e n t e r i n O c t o b e r 1 9 9 2 a n d r a n f o r 3 6 p e r f o r m a n c e s , w i n n i n g t h e T o n y A w a r d f o r A n d r e a M a r t i n a s B e s t S u p p o r t i n g A c t r e s s . " R a g t i m e " f o l l o w e d , o p e n i n g o n B r o a d w a y i n J a n u a r y 1 9 9 8 a n d r u n n i n g f o r 8 3 4 p e r f o r m a n c e s . " R a g t i m e " w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r t w e l v e T o n y A w a r d s a n d w o n t h e B e s t O r i g i n a l S c o r e f o r L y n n A h r e n s a n d S t e p h e n F l a h e r t y i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e D r a m a D e s k A w a r d f o r O u t s t a n d i n g L y r i c s . " R a g t i m e " w a s r e v i v e d o n B r o a d w a y i n 2 0 0 9 , a n d w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r s e v e n T o n y A w a r d s . " S e u s s i c a l " o p e n e d o n B r o a d w a y i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 0 , a n d r e c e i v e d a G r a m m y n o m i n a t i o n . T h e m u s i c a l l a t e r r a n O f f - B r o a d w a y i n 2 0 0 7 , w h e r e i t w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r t h e L u c i l l e L o r t e l A w a r d a s O u t s t a n d i n g R e v i v a l a n d t h e D r a m a L e a g u e A w a r d a s D i s t i n g u i s h e d R e v i v a l o f a M u s i c a l . T h i s i s o n e o f t h e m o s t p e r f o r m e d m u s i c a l s i n t h e U S . A h r e n s a n d F l a h e r t y ' s n e x t m u s i c a l s , " A M a n o f N o I m p o r t a n c e " ( 2 0 0 2 ) , " D e s s a R o s e " ( 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d " T h e G l o r i o u s O n e s " ( 2 0 0 7 ) w e r e p r o d u c e d a t t h e M i t z i E . N e w h o u s e T h e a t e r i n L i n c o l n C e n t e r . T h e y h a v e f r e q u e n t l y w o r k e d w i t h d i r e c t o r a n d c h o r e o g r a p h e r G r a c i e l a D a n i e l e . T h e y w r o t e o r i g i n a l s o n g s f o r t h e C h i t a R i v e r a a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l s h o w , " C h i t a R i v e r a : T h e D a n c e r ' s L i f e " , i n 2 0 0 5 . T h e i r m u s i c a l v e r s i o n o f " R o c k y t h e M u s i c a l " p r e m i e r e d i n H a m b u r g , G e r m a n y i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 2 . T h e s h o w i s b a s e d o n t h e f i l m " R o c k y " a n d h a s a b o o k b y T h o m a s M e e h a n . " R o c k y t h e M u s i c a l " o p e n e d o n B r o a d w a y a t t h e W i n t e r G a r d e n T h e a t r e o n F e b r u a r y 1 1 , 2 0 1 4 ( p r e v i e w s ) , a n d o f f i c i a l l y o p e n e d o n M a r c h 1 3 , 2 0 1 4 . T h e m u s i c a l i s d i r e c t e d b y A l e x T i m b e r s , w i t h b o x i n g c h o r e o g r a p h y b y S t e v e n H o g g e t t a n d c h o r e o g r a p h y b y K e l l y D e v i n e . T h e f o r m e r o c c u p a n t o f t h e W i n t e r G a r d e n T h e a t r e , t h e m u s i c a l " M a m m a M i a ! " , t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e B r o a d h u r s t T h e a t r e i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 3 . A n d y K a r l a n d M a r g o S e i b e r t a r e f e a t u r e d a s R o c k y B a l b o a a n d A d r i a n . T h e y h a v e w r i t t e n a d a n c e m u s i c a l , " L i t t l e D a n c e r " , w i t h d i r e c t i o n a n d c h o r e o g r a p h y b y S u s a n S t r o m a n , a b o u t a b a l l e r i n a a n d E d g a r D e g a s , w h i c h h a d a r e a d i n g i n 2 0 1 0 a t L i n c o l n C e n t e r T h e a t e r a n d a d e v e l o p m e n t a l l a b p r o d u c t i o n i n J u n e 2 0 1 2 . " L i t t l e D a n c e r " p r e m i e r e d a t t h e K e n n e d y C e n t e r , E i s e n h o w e r T h e a t e r i n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 a n d c l o s e d o n N o v e m b e r 3 0 , 2 0 1 4 . T h e c a s t s t a r r e d R e b e c c a L u k e r , B o y d G a i n e s a n d T i l e r P e c k . T h e m u s i c a l h a d a p r i v a t e r e a d i n g o n M a r c h 2 8 , 2 0 1 6 , a f t e r h a v i n g b e e n r e v i s e d . A h r e n s a n d F l a h e r t y h a v e w r i t t e n t h e s o n g s f o r t h e s t a g e a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e f i l m " A n a s t a s i a " . T h e m u s i c a l p r e m i e r e d a t H a r t f o r d S t a g e ( C o n n e c t i c u t ) f r o m M a y 1 2 , 2 0 1 6 t o J u n e 1 2 . T h e d i r e c t o r i s D a r k o T r e s n j a k , w h o s a i d , " W e ' v e k e p t , I t h i n k , s i x s o n g s f r o m t h e m o v i e , b u t t h e r e a r e 1 6 n e w n u m b e r s . W e ' v e k e p t t h e b e s t p a r t s o f t h e a n i m a t e d m o v i e , b u t i t r e a l l y i s a n e w m u s i c a l . " T h e b o o k i s b y T e r r e n c e M c N a l l y . W i t h a b o o k b y F r a n k G a l a t i , m u s i c b y F l a h e r t y , a n d l y r i c s b y A h r e n s , " K n o x v i l l e " w i l l p r e m i e r e a t t h e A s o l o R e p e r t o r y T h e a t r e i n S p r i n g 2 0 2 0 , b a s e d o n t h e P u l i t z e r P r i z e w i n n i n g b o o k " A D e a t h i n t h e F a m i l y " b y J a m e s A g e e a n d P u l i t z e r P r i z e w i n n i n g p l a y " A l l t h e W a y H o m e " b y T a d M o s e l . I t w i l l s t a r J a s o n D a n i e l e y a s A u t h o r . O n h e r w o r k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h F l a h e r t y , A h r e n s h a s c o m m e n t e d , " O u r l i v e s h a v e b e e n v e r y d i f f e r e n t . . . B u t o u r s e n s i b i l i t i e s a r e v e r y s i m i l a r . " I n 1 9 9 2 , F l a h e r t y a n d A h r e n s w e r e s i g n e d b y D i s n e y t o w r i t e " S o n g o f t h e S e a " , a c o m i n g o f a g e s t o r y a b o u t a w h a l e , i n t h e e r a o f D i s n e y f i l m s k n o w n a s t h e D i s n e y R e n a i s s a n c e . T h e p r o j e c t s t a l l e d a n d w a s n e v e r c o m p l e t e d . A h r e n s a n d F l a h e r t y a l s o c o l l a b o r a t e d o n s o n g s f o r t h e a n i m a t e d m o v i e " A n a s t a s i a " ( 1 9 9 7 ) , r e c e i v i n g t w o A c a d e m y A w a r d a n d G o l d e n G l o b e n o m i n a t i o n s f o r B e s t S o n g a n d B e s t S c o r e . T h e e n d t i t l e s o n g " A t T h e B e g i n n i n g " w e n t t o N u m b e r O n e , a n d t h e s o u n d t r a c k w e n t G o l d . A h r e n s h a s w r i t t e n m u s i c a n d l y r i c s f o r a n d p e r f o r m e d o n t h e a n i m a t e d t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s " S c h o o l h o u s e R o c k " f r o m 1 9 7 3 t o 2 0 0 9 . A h r e n s h a s a l s o w r i t t e n a f e w s o n g s f o r " C a p t a i n K a n g a r o o " s i n c e t h e m i d 1 9 7 0 s , i n c l u d i n g t h e 1 9 8 2 t h e m e s o n g , " H e r e C o m e s C a p t a i n K a n g a r o o " . A h r e n s w r o t e t h e t e l e p l a y f o r t h e 2 0 0 4 t e l e v i s i o n m u s i c a l " A C h r i s t m a s C a r o l " , s t a r r i n g K e l s e y G r a m m e r , J a n e K r a k o w s k i , a n d J a s o n A l e x a n d e r . W i t h c o m p o s e r M i c h a e l G o r e , s h e c o n t r i b u t e d t w o s o n g s , " H e r e ' s W h e r e I S t a n d " a n d " I S i n g F o r Y o u " , t o t h e I F C f e a t u r e f i l m , " C a m p " ( 2 0 0 3 ) . W i t h S t e p h e n F l a h e r t y , s h e w r o t e l y r i c s f o r t h e t i t l e s o n g f o r " A f t e r t h e S t o r m " , t h e d o c u m e n t a r y f i l m a b o u t y o u n g H u r r i c a n e K a t r i n a s u r v i v o r s p u t t i n g o n " O n c e O n T h i s I s l a n d " . A h r e n s w r i t e s s h o r t s t o r i e s w h i c h h a v e a p p e a r e d i n T h e K e n y o n R e v i e w , C a l y x , G l i m m e r T r a i n S t o r i e s a n d o t h e r s . H e r p e r s o n a l e s s a y s h a v e a p p e a r e d i n " N a r r a t i v e M a g a z i n e " a n d h a v e b e e n n o m i n a t e d f o r " B e s t A m e r i c a n E s s a y s " a n d t h e " P u s h c a r t A n t h o l o g y " . A h r e n s a n d F l a h e r t y g a v e a s e r i e s o f c o n c e r t s o f t h e i r w o r k i n H o b a r t , M e l b o u r n e a n d S y d n e y , A u s t r a l i a f r o m S e p t e m b e r 4 t o 1 3 , 2 0 0 9 . A h r e n s i s a l i f e t i m e m e m b e r o f t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e D r a m a t i s t s G u i l d o f A m e r i c a , a n d i s a f o u n d e r a n d c o - c h a i r o f t h e D r a m a t i s t s G u i l d F e l l o w s P r o g r a m f o r E m e r g i n g W r i t e r s . S h e w r o t e t e x t f o r t h e c o n c e r t p i e c e " W i t h V o i c e s R a i s e d " , ( c o m p o s e r , S t e p h e n F l a h e r t y ) w h i c h w a s c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e B o s t o n P o p s O r c h e s t r a i n 2 0 0 0 . S h e w r o t e t e x t f o r t h e c o n c e r t p i e c e " T h e D r e a m L i v e s O n : A P o r t r a i t o f t h e K e n n e d y B r o t h e r s " , ( c o m p o s e r , P e t e r B o y e r ) , w h i c h w a s c o m m i s s i o n e d a n d p e r f o r m e d b y t h e B o s t o n P o p s i n 2 0 0 9 , a n d n a r r a t e d b y R o b e r t D e N i r o , E d H a r r i s , M o r g a n F r e e m a n a n d C h e r r y J o n e s . S h e w a s t h e o r i g i n a l w r i t e r a n d s i n g e r o f n u m e r o u s j i n g l e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e l o n g - r u n n i n g " W h a t W o u l d Y o u D o F o r A K l o n d i k e B a r " a n d " B o u n t y , T h e Q u i c k e r P i c k e r U p p e r . " S h e w r o t e l y r i c s f o r t h e c h o r a l p i e c e , " T h e S o n g I S i n g , " ( c o m p o s e r , S t e p h e n F l a h e r t y ) , c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e Y o u n g P e o p l e ' s C h o r u s o f N e w Y o r k , a n d p e r f o r m e d a t C a r n e g i e H a l l b y a c h o r u s o f 1 0 0 0 c h i l d r e n . C h a r l e s I s h e r w o o d w r o t e o f A h r e n s a n d F l a h e r t y : " a f e w c o m p o s e r s a n d l y r i c i s t s c o n t i n u e t o r i s k i r r e l e v a n c e b y p u r s u i n g t h e i r o w n l o n e l y p a t h s . S t e p h e n F l a h e r t y a n d L y n n A h r e n s a r e a m o n g t h e m . M r . F l a h e r t y a n d M s . A h r e n s , b e s t k n o w n f o r t h e i r s c o r e f o r " R a g t i m e " , c o n t i n u e t o s e e t h e h u m a n i s t p o t e n t i a l i n t h e m e d i u m . T h e y i n s i s t o n w r i t i n g m u s i c a l s t h a t e x p l o r e t h e s t r u g g l e s o f m e n a n d w o m e n , a s o p p o s e d t o t h e s y n t h e t i c c r e a t u r e s r a z z l e - d a z z l i n g B r o a d w a y a u d i e n c e s w i t h t h e i r p r e e n i n g v u l g a r i t y a n d s e l f - d e v o u r i n g j o k e s . "

Biography ; Film and television

Lynn Ahrens is an American songwriter, composer, and lyricist. Born in New York City, she grew up in New Jersey and graduated from Syracuse University with a degree in Journalism and English. She began her career in advertising before transitioning to composing and singing for children's television shows like "Schoolhouse Rock!" and "Captain Kangaroo". Ahrens met collaborator Stephen Flaherty at the BMI Workshop in 1982, and they have since worked together on numerous projects, including "Ragtime", "Rocky the Musical", and "Anastasia". She has received multiple award nominations, including Academy Awards and Golden Globes, and has written short stories and personal essays published in various magazines.

Ahrens was born in New York City. She grew up in Neptune Township, New Jersey, where she graduated from Neptune High School on the Jersey shore in 1966. She graduated from Syracuse University with a degree in Journalism and English. She is Jewish. She then began a career in advertising as a copywriter for McCaffrey and McCall. It was her first job out of college. She was living with her ex-husband in Flushing, sleeping on the floor of his sister's apartment. While working as a secretary/copywriter, she would bring her guitar to play and write songs during lunch. George Newall was passing by and asked her casually to write a song for "Schoolhouse Rock!". She wrote "The Preamble", and it went on the air with Ahrens singing it. After that she began regularly writing songs for the show. She subsequently worked as a freelance composer and singer of commercial music, and wrote and produced a number of songs for children's television, particularly "Captain Kangaroo". She began writing for the musical theater in 1982. She married Neil Costa in 1989. Ahrens met Stephen Flaherty at the BMI Workshop in 1982 and they started working together the following year. Their first collaboration was "Bedazzled", based on the 1967 film of the same name, but had to abandon it when they could not secure the rights. They did some workshops, where Ira Weitzman noticed them and he was able to get the pair a NEA grant. Weitzman also connected the pair with George C. Wolfe, and they collaborated on autobiographical show, "Chita Rivera: The Dancer's Life", in 2005. Their musical version of "Rocky the Musical" premiered in Hamburg, Germany in October 2012. The show is based on the film "Rocky" and has a book by Thomas Meehan. "Rocky the Musical" opened on Broadway at the Winter Garden Theatre on February 11, 2014 (previews), and officially opened on March 13, 2014. The musical is directed by Alex Timbers, with boxing choreography by Steven Hoggett and choreography by Kelly Devine. The former occupant of the Winter Garden Theatre, the musical "Mamma Mia!", transferred to the Broadhurst Theatre in November 2013. Andy Karl and Margo Seibert are featured as Rocky Balboa and Adrian. They have written a dance musical, "Little Dancer", with direction and choreography by Susan Stroman, about a ballerina and Edgar Degas, which had a reading in 2010 at Lincoln Center Theater and a developmental lab production in June 2012. "Little Dancer" premiered at the Kennedy Center, Eisenhower Theater in October 2014 and closed on November 30, 2014. The cast starred Rebecca Luker, Boyd Gaines and Tiler Peck. The musical had a private reading on March 28, 2016, after having been revised. Ahrens and Flaherty have written the songs for the stage adaptation of the film "Anastasia". The musical premiered at Hartford Stage (Connecticut) from May 12, 2016 to June 12. The director is Darko Tresnjak, who said, "We've kept, I think, six songs from the movie, but there are 16 new numbers. We've kept the best parts of the animated movie, but it really is a new musical." The book is by Terrence McNally. With a book by Frank Galati, music by Flaherty, and lyrics by Ahrens, "Knoxville" will premiere at the Asolo Repertory Theatre in Spring 2020, based on the Pulitzer Prize winning book "A Death in the Family" by James Agee and Pulitzer Prize winning play "All the Way Home" by Tad Mosel. It will star Jason Danieley as Author. On her working relationship with Flaherty, Ahrens has commented, "Our lives have been very different ... But our sensibilities are very similar. " In 1992, Flaherty and Ahrens were signed by Disney to write "Song of the Sea", a coming of age story about a whale, in the era of Disney films known as the Disney Renaissance. The project stalled and was never completed. Ahrens and Flaherty also collaborated on songs for the animated movie "Anastasia" (1997), receiving two Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for Best Song and Best Score. The end title song "At The Beginning" went to Number One, and the soundtrack went Gold. Ahrens has written music and lyrics for and performed on the animated television series "Schoolhouse Rock" from 1973 to 2009. Ahrens has also written a few songs for "Captain Kangaroo" since the mid 1970s, including the 1982 theme song, "Here Comes Captain Kangaroo". Ahrens wrote the teleplay for the 2004 television musical "A Christmas Carol", starring Kelsey Grammer, Jane Krakowski, and Jason Alexander. With composer Michael Gore, she contributed two songs, "Here's Where I Stand" and "I Sing For You", to the IFC feature film, "Camp" (2003). With Stephen Flaherty, she wrote lyrics for the title song for "After the Storm", the documentary film about young Hurricane Katrina survivors putting on "Once On This Island". Ahrens writes short stories which have appeared in The Kenyon Review, Calyx, Glimmer Train Stories and others. Her personal essays have appeared in "Narrative Magazine" and have been nominated for "Best American Essays" and the "Pushcart Anthology". Ahrens and Flaherty gave a series of concerts of their work in Hobart, Melbourne and Sydney, Australia from September 4 to 13, 2009. Ahrens is a lifetime member of the Council of the Dramatists Guild of America, and is a founder and co-chair of the Dramatists Guild Fellows Program for Emerging Writers. She wrote text for the concert and Flaherty: "a few composers and lyricists continue to risk irrelevance by pursuing their own lonely paths. Stephen Flaherty and Lynn Ahrens are among them. Mr. Flaherty and Ms. Ahrens, best known for their score for "Ragtime", continue to see the humanist potential in the medium. They insist on writing musicals that explore the struggles of men and women, as opposed to the synthetic creatures razzle-dazzling Broadway audiences with their preening vulgarity and self-devouring jokes. "

German Historical School

T h e H i s t o r i c a l S c h o o l i s b a s e d o n t h e w r i t i n g s a n d t e a c h i n g s o f G u s t a v v o n H u g o a n d e s p e c i a l l y F r i e d r i c h C a r l v o n S a v i g n y . N a t u r a l l a w y e r s h e l d t h a t l a w c o u l d b e d i s c o v e r e d o n l y b y r a t i o n a l d e d u c t i o n f r o m t h e n a t u r e o f m a n . T h e b a s i c p r e m i s e o f t h e G e r m a n H i s t o r i c a l S c h o o l i s t h a t l a w i s n o t t o b e r e g a r d e d a s a n a r b i t r a r y g r o u p i n g o f r e g u l a t i o n s l a i d d o w n b y s o m e a u t h o r i t y . R a t h e r , t h o s e r e g u l a t i o n s a r e t o b e s e e n a s t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e c o n v i c t i o n s o f t h e p e o p l e , i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r a s l a n g u a g e , c u s t o m s a n d p r a c t i c e s a r e e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e p e o p l e . T h e l a w i s g r o u n d e d i n a f o r m o f p o p u l a r c o n s c i o u s n e s s c a l l e d t h e " V o l k s g e i s t " . L a w s c a n s t e m f r o m r e g u l a t i o n s b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , b u t m o r e c o m m o n l y t h e y e v o l v e i n a n o r g a n i c m a n n e r o v e r t i m e w i t h o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e e v e r - c h a n g i n g p r a c t i c a l n e e d s o f t h e p e o p l e p l a y a v e r y i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h i s c o n t i n u a l o r g a n i c d e v e l o p m e n t . I n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a l e g a l s y s t e m , i s i t t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l d u t y o f l a w y e r s – i n t h e s e n s e o f t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r i n s o c i e t y – t o b a s e t h e i r a c a d e m i c w o r k o n l a w o n a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e w i l l o f t h e p e o p l e . I n t h i s w a y , l a w y e r s e m b o d y t h e p o p u l a r w i l l . T h e G e r m a n H i s t o r i c a l S c h o o l w a s d i v i d e d i n t o R o m a n i s t s a n d t h e G e r m a n i s t s . T h e R o m a n i s t s , t o w h o m S a v i g n y a l s o b e l o n g e d , h e l d t h a t t h e " V o l k s g e i s t " s p r i n g s f r o m t h e r e c e p t i o n o f t h e R o m a n l a w . W h i l e t h e G e r m a n i s t s ( K a r l F r i e d r i c h E i c h h o r n , J a k o b G r i m m , G e o r g B e s e l e r , O t t o v o n G i e r k e ) s a w m e d i e v a l G e r m a n L a w a s t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e G e r m a n " V o l k s g e i s t " . T h e G e r m a n H i s t o r i c a l S c h o o l h a s h a d c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e o n t h e a c a d e m i c s t u d y o f l a w i n G e r m a n y . G e o r g F r i e d r i c h P u c h t a a n d B e r n h a r d W i n d s c h e i d c o n t i n u e d t h e R o m a n i s t v e i n f o u n d e d b y S a v i g n y , l e a d i n g t o t h e s o - c a l l e d " P a n d e k t e n w i s s e n s c h a f t " w h i c h i s s e e n a s " B e g r i f f s j u r i s p r u d e n z " ( c o n c e p t u a l j u r i s p r u d e n c e ) . K a r l M a r x d e v o t e d a n 1 8 4 2 e s s a y " T h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l m a n i f e s t o o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l s c h o o l o f l a w " t o c r i t i c i z i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l s c h o o l o f l a w , c a l l i n g i t t h e " s o l e f r i v o l o u s p r o d u c t " o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

Overview

The German Historical School of law emphasizes that laws are derived from the collective consciousness or "Volksgeist" of a people, rather than being imposed by authorities. This approach sees laws evolving organically over time, influenced by practical needs and shaped by the cultural heritage of a nation. Lawyers have a key role in discerning and articulating the popular will. The school was divided between Romanists, who saw Roman law as influential, and Germanists, who emphasized medieval German law. The approach has had significant impact on German legal academia, with notable critics including Karl Marx.

The Historical School is based on the writings and teachings of Gustav von Hugo and especially Friedrich Carl von Savigny. Natural lawyers held that law could be discovered only by rational deduction from the nature of man. The basic premise of the German Historical School is that law is not to be regarded as an arbitrary grouping of regulations laid down by some authority. Rather, those regulations are to be seen as the expression of the convictions of the people, in the same manner as language, customs and practices are expressions of the people. The law is grounded in a form of popular consciousness called the "Volksgeist". Laws can stem from regulations by the authorities, but more commonly they evolve in an organic manner over time without interference from the authorities. The ever-changing practical needs of the people play a very important role in this continual organic development. In the development of a legal system, is it the professional duty of lawyers – in the sense of the division of labor in society – to base their academic work on law on ascertaining the will of the people. In this way, lawyers embody the popular will. The German Historical School was divided into Romanists and the Germanists. The Romanists, to whom Savigny also belonged, held that the "Volksgeist" springs from the reception of the Roman law. While the Germanists (Karl Friedrich Eichhorn, Jakob Grimm, Georg Beseler, Otto von Gierke) saw medieval German Law as the expression of the German "Volksgeist". The German Historical School has had considerable influence on the academic study of law in Germany. Georg Friedrich Puchta and Bernhard Windscheid continued the Romanist vein founded by Savigny, leading to the so-called "Pandektenwissenschaft" which is seen as "Begriffsjurisprudenz" (conceptual jurisprudence). Karl Marx devoted an 1842 essay "The philosophical manifesto of the historical school of law" to criticizing the historical school of law, calling it the "sole frivolous product" of the eighteenth century.

Obie Award

T h e O b i e A w a r d s w e r e i n i t i a t e d b y E d w i n ( E d ) F a n c h e r , p u b l i s h e r o f " T h e V i l l a g e V o i c e , " w h o h a n d l e d t h e f i n a n c i n g a n d b u s i n e s s s i d e o f t h e p r o j e c t . T h e y w e r e f i r s t g i v e n i n 1 9 5 6 u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a t e r c r i t i c J e r r y T a l l m e r . I n i t i a l l y , o n l y o f f - B r o a d w a y p r o d u c t i o n s w e r e e l i g i b l e ; i n 1 9 6 4 , o f f - o f f - B r o a d w a y p r o d u c t i o n s w e r e m a d e e l i g i b l e . T h e f i r s t O b i e A w a r d s c e r e m o n y w a s h e l d a t H e l e n G e e ' s c a f e . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e L i f e t i m e A c h i e v e m e n t a n d B e s t N e w A m e r i c a n P l a y a w a r d s , t h e r e a r e n o f i x e d c a t e g o r i e s a t t h e O b i e A w a r d s , a n d t h e w i n n i n g a c t o r s a n d a c t r e s s e s a r e a l l i n a s i n g l e c a t e g o r y t i t l e d " P e r f o r m a n c e . " T h e r e a r e n o a n n o u n c e d n o m i n a t i o n s . A w a r d s i n t h e p a s t h a v e i n c l u d e d p e r f o r m a n c e , d i r e c t i o n , b e s t p r o d u c t i o n , d e s i g n , s p e c i a l c i t a t i o n s , a n d s u s t a i n e d a c h i e v e m e n t . N o t e v e r y c a t e g o r y i s a w a r d e d e v e r y y e a r . " T h e V i l l a g e V o i c e " a l s o a w a r d s a n n u a l O b i e g r a n t s t o s e l e c t e d c o m p a n i e s ; i n 2 0 1 1 , t h e s e g r a n t s w e r e $ 2 , 0 0 0 e a c h t o M e t r o p o l i t a n P l a y h o u s e a n d W a k k a W a k k a P r o d u c t i o n s . T h e r e i s a l s o a R o s s W e t z s t e o n G r a n t , n a m e d a f t e r i t s f o r m e r t h e a t e r e d i t o r , i n t h e a m o u n t o f $ 2 , 0 0 0 ( i n 2 0 0 9 ; i n 2 0 1 1 t h e g r a n t w a s $ 1 , 0 0 0 ) , f o r a t h e a t r e t h a t n u r t u r e s i n n o v a t i v e n e w p l a y s . T h e f i r s t a w a r d s i n 1 9 5 5 - 1 9 5 6 f o r p l a y s a n d m u s i c a l s w e r e g i v e n t o " A b s a l o m " ( L i o n e l A b e l ) a s B e s t N e w P l a y , " U n c l e V a n y a " , B e s t A l l - A r o u n d P r o d u c t i o n a n d " T h e T h r e e p e n n y O p e r a " a s B e s t M u s i c a l . O t h e r a w a r d s f o r o f f - B r o a d w a y t h e a t r e a r e t h e L u c i l l e L o r t e l A w a r d s , t h e D r a m a D e s k A w a r d s , t h e D r a m a L e a g u e A w a r d , a n d t h e O u t e r C r i t i c s C i r c l e A w a r d s . A s o f S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4 , t h e O b i e A w a r d s a r e j o i n t l y p r e s e n t e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n T h e a t r e W i n g a n d t h e " V i l l a g e V o i c e " , w i t h t h e W i n g h a v i n g " o v e r a l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r r u n n i n g " t h e A w a r d s . O b i e A w a r d c e r e m o n i e s h a v e b e e n h e l d a t W e b s t e r H a l l i n M a n h a t t a n ' s E a s t V i l l a g e s i n c e t h e 2 0 1 0 - 2 0 1 1 s e a s o n . 2 0 1 0 s 2 0 0 0 s O b i e G r a n t s a r e a w a r d e d e a c h y e a r t o s e l e c t t h e a t r e c o m p a n i e s . P r e v i o u s r e c i p i e n t s i n c l u d e : R o s s W e t z s t e o n A w a r d i s a $ 2 , 0 0 0 g r a n t a w a r d e d t o a t h e a t r e t h a t n u r t u r e i n n o v a t i v e n e w p l a y s . P r e v i o u s r e c i p i e n t s i n c l u d e :

Background

The Obie Awards, established in 1956, recognize excellence in Off-Broadway and Off-Off-Broadway productions. Founded by Edwin Fancher, publisher of "The Village Voice," the awards initially honored only Off-Broadway productions but expanded to include Off-Off-Broadway productions in 1964. The awards have no fixed categories, except for Lifetime Achievement and Best New American Play, and winners are chosen without prior nominations. Over the years, the Obies have recognized outstanding performances, direction, productions, designs, and special achievements. In addition to the awards, "The Village Voice" also presents annual grants to select theater companies, including the Ross Wetzsteon Grant, which supports innovative new play development.

The Obie Awards were initiated by Edwin (Ed) Fancher, publisher of "The Village Voice," who handled the financing and business side of the project. They were first given in 1956 under the direction of theater critic Jerry Tallmer. Initially, only off-Broadway productions were eligible; in 1964, off-off-Broadway productions were made eligible. The first Obie Awards ceremony was held at Helen Gee's cafe. With the exception of the Lifetime Achievement and Best New American Play awards, there are no fixed categories at the Obie Awards, and the winning actors and actresses are all in a single category titled "Performance." There are no announced nominations. Awards in the past have included performance, direction, best production, design, special citations, and sustained achievement. Not every category is awarded every year. "The Village Voice" also awards annual Obie grants to selected companies; in 2011, these grants were $2,000 each to Metropolitan Playhouse and Wakka Wakka Productions. There is also a Ross Wetzsteon Grant, named after its former theater editor, in the amount of $2,000 (in 2009; in 2011 the grant was $1,000), for a theatre that nurtures innovative new plays. The first awards in 1955-1956 for plays and musicals were given to "Absalom" (Lionel Abel) as Best New Play, "Uncle Vanya", Best All-Around Production and "The Threepenny Opera" as Best Musical. Other awards for off-Broadway theatre are the Lucille Lortel Awards, the Drama Desk Awards, the Drama League Award, and the Outer Critics Circle Awards. As of September 2014, the Obie Awards are jointly presented by the American Theatre Wing and the "Village Voice", with the Wing having "overall responsibility for running" the Awards. Obie Award ceremonies have been held at Webster Hall in Manhattan's East Village since the 2010-2011 season. 2010s 2000s Obie Grants are awarded each year to select theatre companies. Previous recipients include: Ross Wetzsteon Award is a $2,000 grant awarded to a theatre that nurture innovative new plays. Previous recipients include:

National Wine Centre of Australia

I t s d e v e l o p m e n t b y t h e O l s e n L i b e r a l S t a t e G o v e r n m e n t w a s s h r o u d e d i n c o n t r o v e r s y a n d i t w a s l a b e l l e d a s a w h i t e e l e p h a n t b y t h e O p p o s i t i o n . I t e v e n t u a l l y o p e n e d o n 6 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 1 a f t e r e n a b l i n g l e g i s l a t i o n c r e a t e d t h e c o n c e p t i n t h e " N a t i o n a l W i n e C e n t r e A c t ( 1 9 9 7 ) " . A f t e r a n u m b e r o f p r o b l e m s w i t h f u n d i n g , m a n a g e m e n t a n d p r o f i t a b i l i t y , t h e W i n e C e n t r e o p e r a t i o n w a s g i v e n t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A d e l a i d e o n 1 2 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 3 o n a 4 0 - y e a r l e a s e . I t n o w o f f e r s s o m e o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s o e n o l o g y c o u r s e s , a s w e l l a s t h e p u b l i c f a c e o f t h e w i n e i n d u s t r y i n A u s t r a l i a .

History

The National Wine Centre was developed by the Olsen Liberal State Government amidst controversy and criticism from the Opposition. Despite initial issues with funding, management, and profitability, the centre opened in 2001. In 2003, its operation was leased to the University of Adelaide for 40 years, where it now hosts oenology courses and serves as the public face of Australia's wine industry.

Its development by the Olsen Liberal State Government was shrouded in controversy and it was labelled as a white elephant by the Opposition. It eventually opened on 6 October 2001 after enabling legislation created the concept in the "National Wine Centre Act (1997)". After a number of problems with funding, management and profitability, the Wine Centre operation was given to the University of Adelaide on 12 September 2003 on a 40-year lease. It now offers some of the university's oenology courses, as well as the public face of the wine industry in Australia.

Girl power

I n 1 9 9 0 , U S p u n k b a n d B i k i n i K i l l s t a r t e d t o m a k e t h e i r o w n s e l f - t i t l e d f e m i n i s t z i n e . I t s f i r s t i s s u e h a d t h e s u b t i t l e , " A c o l o r a n d a c t i v i t y b o o k " . A y e a r l a t e r t h e b a n d p u b l i s h e d t h e s e c o n d i s s u e o f t h e i r " B i k i n i K i l l " z i n e , w i t h t h e n e w s u b t i t l e " G i r l P o w e r " . T h e b a n d ' s l e a d s i n g e r , K a t h l e e n H a n n a , s a i d w a s i n s p i r e d b y t h e B l a c k P o w e r s l o g a n . T h e t e r m b e c a m e p o p u l a r i n t h e e a r l y a n d m i d 9 0 s p u n k c u l t u r e . " T h e R o l l i n g S t o n e E n c y c l o p e d i a o f R o c k & R o l l " c r e d i t s t h e z i n e w i t h c o i n i n g t h e s l o g a n : " I n t h e i r f e m i n i s t f a n z i n e B i k i n i K i l l t h e y a r t i c u l a t e d a n a g e n d a f o r y o u n g w o m e n i n a n d o u t s i d e o f m u s i c ; t h e b a n d p u t t h o s e i d e a s t o p r a c t i c e . B i k i n i K i l l e a r n e d a r e p u t a t i o n i n t h e p u n k u n d e r g r o u n d f o r c o n f r o n t i n g c e r t a i n s t a n d a r d s o f t h a t g e n r e ; f o r e x a m p l e , a s k i n g p e o p l e t o s l a m a t t h e s i d e o f t h e s t a g e , s o t h a t w o m e n w o u l d n o t g e t p u s h e d o u t o f t h e f r o n t , a n d i n v i t i n g w o m e n t o t a k e t h e m i c a n d t a l k a b o u t s e x u a l a b u s e . T h e p h r a s e i s s o m e t i m e s s e n s a t i o n a l l y s p e l l e d " g r r r l p o w e r " , b a s e d o n t h e s p e l l i n g o f " r i o t g r r r l " . S o m e o t h e r m u s i c a l a r t i s t s w h o h a v e u s e d t h e s l o g a n i n t h e i r m u s i c a r e W e l s h b a n d H e l e n L o v e , w i t h i t a p p e a r i n g i n t h e c h o r u s o f t h e i r 1 9 9 2 s o n g “ F o r m u l a O n e R a c i n g G i r l s ” , a n d p o p - p u n k d u o S h a m p o o , w h o r e l e a s e d a n a l b u m a n d s i n g l e t i t l e d " G i r l P o w e r " i n 1 9 9 5 . B r i t i s h p o p q u i n t e t S p i c e G i r l s b r o u g h t t h e m a n t r a i n t o t h e m a i n s t r e a m c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n t h e m i d - 1 9 9 0 s . T h e S p i c e G i r l s ' v e r s i o n o f " g i r l p o w e r " f o c u s e d o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s t r o n g a n d l o y a l f r i e n d s h i p a m o n g f e m a l e s , w i t h a m e s s a g e o f e m p o w e r m e n t t h a t a p p e a l e d t o y o u n g g i r l s , a d o l e s c e n t s a n d a d u l t w o m e n . A c c o r d i n g t o " B i l l b o a r d " m a g a z i n e , t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e d r e a l , n o n c o m p e t i t i v e f e m a l e f r i e n d s h i p , s i n g i n g : " I f y o u w a n n a b e m y l o v e r , y o u g o t t a g e t w i t h m y f r i e n d s . M a k e i t l a s t f o r e v e r ; f r i e n d s h i p n e v e r e n d s . " I n a l l , t h e f o c u s e d , c o n s i s t e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f " g i r l p o w e r " f o r m e d t h e c e n t r e p i e c e o f t h e i r a p p e a l a s a b a n d . S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s c r e d i t t h e S p i c e G i r l s w i t h r e i n v i g o r a t i n g m a i n s t r e a m f e m i n i s m i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s , w i t h t h e " g i r l p o w e r " m a n t r a s e r v i n g a s a g a t e w a y t o f e m i n i s m f o r t h e i r y o u n g f a n s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s o m e c r i t i c s d i s m i s s e d " g i r l p o w e r " a s n o m o r e t h a n a s h a l l o w m a r k e t i n g t a c t i c , w h i l e o t h e r s t o o k i s s u e w i t h t h e e m p h a s i s o n p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e , c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t o n s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a n d / o r i m p r e s s i o n a b l e y o u n g s t e r s : A s A m e r i c a n f e m i n i s t J e n n i f e r P o z n e r f a m o u s l y r e m a r k e d , i t w a s " p r o b a b l y a f a i r a s s u m p t i o n t o s a y t h a t a ‘ z i g - a - z i g - a h ’ i s n o t S p i c e s h o r t h a n d f o r ‘ s u b v e r t t h e d o m i n a n t p a r a d i g m ’ . ” R e g a r d l e s s , t h e p h r a s e b e c a m e a c u l t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n , a d o p t e d a s t h e m a n t r a f o r m i l l i o n s o f g i r l s a n d e v e n m a k i n g i t i n t o t h e " O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y " . I n s u m m a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t , a u t h o r R y a n D a w s o n s a i d , " T h e S p i c e G i r l s c h a n g e d B r i t i s h c u l t u r e e n o u g h f o r G i r l P o w e r t o n o w s e e m c o m p l e t e l y u n r e m a r k a b l e . " I n 2 0 1 8 , " R o l l i n g S t o n e " n a m e d t h e S p i c e G i r l s ' b r a n d o f " g i r l p o w e r " o n " T h e M i l l e n n i a l 1 0 0 " , a l i s t o f 1 0 0 p e o p l e , m u s i c , c u l t u r a l t o u c h s t o n e s a n d m o v e m e n t s t h a t h a v e s h a p e d t h e M i l l e n n i a l g e n e r a t i o n . I n h e r 2 0 0 2 b o o k " G i r l H e r o e s : T h e N e w F o r c e i n P o p u l a r C u l t u r e " , P r o f e s s o r S u s a n H o p k i n s s u g g e s t e d a c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n " g i r l p o w e r " , S p i c e G i r l s , a n d f e m a l e a c t i o n h e r o e s a t t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y . A l a t e r b o o k , " G r o w i n g U p W i t h G i r l P o w e r , " b y P r o f e s s o r R e b e c c a H a i n s ( 2 0 1 9 ) f o u n d t h a t t h e p h r a s e " g i r l p o w e r " a n d t h e m e d i a a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t — s u c h a s t h e S p i c e G i r l s a n d g i r l h e r o e s — d i l u t e d t h e p h r a s e ' s i m p a c t f r o m t h e r i o t g r r r l s ' i n t e n t , m a k i n g i t m o r e a b o u t m a r k e t i n g a n d s e l l i n g t h e i d e a o f e m p o w e r m e n t t h a n a b o u t f u r t h e r i n g g i r l s ' a c t u a l e m p o w e r m e n t . T h e s l o g a n h a s a l s o b e e n e x a m i n e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e a c a d e m i c f i e l d , f o r e x a m p l e B u f f y s t u d i e s . M e d i a t h e o r i s t K a t h l e e n R o w e K a r l y n i n h e r a r t i c l e " S c r e a m , P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , a n d F e m i n i s m ' s T h i r d W a v e : I ' m N o t M y M o t h e r " a n d I r e n e K a r r a s i n " T h e T h i r d W a v e ' s F i n a l G i r l : B u f f y t h e V a m p i r e S l a y e r " s u g g e s t a l i n k w i t h t h i r d - w a v e f e m i n i s m . F r a n c e s E a r l y a n d K a t h l e e n K e n n e d y i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o " A t h e n a ’ s D a u g h t e r s : T e l e v i s i o n ’ s N e w W o m e n W a r r i o r s " , d i s c u s s w h a t t h e y d e s c r i b e a s a l i n k b e t w e e n g i r l p o w e r a n d a " n e w " i m a g e o f w o m e n w a r r i o r s i n p o p u l a r c u l t u r e . A 2 0 0 1 u p d a t e t o t h e " O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y " d e f i n e d " g i r l p o w e r " a s : T h e d i c t i o n a r y f u r t h e r o f f e r s a n e x a m p l e o f t h i s t e r m b y q u o t i n g f r o m " A n g e l D e l i g h t " , a n a r t i c l e i n t h e M a r c h 2 4 , 2 0 0 1 i s s u e o f " D r e a m w a t c h " a b o u t t h e t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s " D a r k A n g e l " : D r . D e b b i e G i n g , C h a i r o f t h e B A i n C o m m u n i c a t i o n s S t u d i e s i n D u b l i n C i t y U n i v e r s i t y , w a s c r i t i c a l o f t h e " g i r l p o w e r " i d e a l s , a n d l i n k e d i t t o t h e s e x u a l i s a t i o n o f y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n , g i r l s i n p a r t i c u l a r . D r . A m y M c C l u r e o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y w a r n s a g a i n s t p l a c i n g t o o m u c h h o p e o n g i r l p o w e r a s a n e m p o w e r i n g c o n c e p t . S h e s a y s , “ A n i d e o l o g y b a s e d o n c o n s u m e r i s m c a n n e v e r b e a r e v o l u t i o n a r y s o c i a l m o v e m e n t . T h e f a c t t h a t i t a p p e a r s t o b e a r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t i s a d a n g e r o u s l i e t h a t n o t o n l y m a r k e t e r s s e l l t o u s b u t t h a t w e o f t e n h a p p i l y s e l l t o o u r s e l v e s . ” D r . R e b e c c a H a i n s a l s o c r i t i c i z e d m a i n s t r e a m " g i r l p o w e r " f o r i t s c o m m e r c i a l f u n c t i o n , a r g u i n g i n W o m e n ' s S t u d i e s i n C o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t i t " u n d e r m i n e s t r u e w o r k t o w a r d s e q u a l i t y , s e r v i n g c o r p o r a t e i n t e r e s t s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f g i r l s ' p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s , " a n d c a l l e d i t a n " u p d a t e d v e r s i o n o f ' c o m m o d i t y f e m i n i s m . ' " M e d i a a n d t o y s c a n p r e s e n t a n a r r o w d e f i n i t i o n o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a g i r l , s u c h a s M a t t e l ' s B a r b i e . T h e “ I c a n b e ” B a r b i e e m b o d i e d t h i s c o n c e p t o f “ g i r l p o w e r ” : t h a t l i t t l e g i r l s c a n b e a n y t h i n g t h e y w a n t w h e n t h e y g r o w u p . A r g u a b l y , B a r b i e ' s i m a g e a l s o p r e s e n t s n a r r o w o p t i o n s w i t h w h i c h g i r l s c a n i d e n t i f y , l i m i t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l o f a n y " g i r l p o w e r " - t h e m e d l i n e . I n a d d i t i o n t o c o n c e r n s a b o u t g i r l p o w e r ' s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r g i r l s , s o m e c r i t i c s q u e s t i o n e d i t s u s e b y w o m e n . F o r e x a m p l e , H a n n a h J a n e P a r k i n s o n o f " T h e G u a r d i a n " c r i t i c i z e d t h e t e r m " g i r l p o w e r " a s s o m e t h i n g " y o u n g w o m e n [ t h a t ] a r e f e e l i n g m o r e c o n f i d e n t a b o u t c a l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s f e m i n i s t s a n d s t a n d i n g u p f o r p r i n c i p l e s o f e q u a l i t y " h i d e b e h i n d . S h e d e n o u n c e d t h e p h r a s e f o r i n c l u d i n g t h e w o r d " g i r l " , c l a i m i n g i t e n c o u r a g e d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e t e r m " g i r l " t o a d u l t w o m e n .

Early usage and origins

The term "girl power" originated in the early 1990s punk culture, specifically through the Riot Grrrl movement and the zine "Bikini Kill". It gained popularity through bands like Helen Love and Shampoo, before being brought into the mainstream by the Spice Girls. The phrase initially symbolized female empowerment and friendship, but critics argue it was watered down and commercialized, becoming a shallow marketing tactic. Despite this, "girl power" remains a cultural phenomenon, influencing popular culture and feminism.

In 1990, US punk band Bikini Kill started to make their own self-titled feminist zine. Its first issue had the subtitle, "A color and activity book". A year later the band published the second issue of their "Bikini Kill" zine, with the new subtitle "Girl Power". The band's lead singer, Kathleen Hanna, said was inspired by the Black Power slogan. The term became popular in the early and mid 90s punk culture. "The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll" credits the zine with coining the slogan: "In their feminist fanzine Bikini Kill they articulated an agenda for young women in and outside of music; the band put those ideas to practice. Bikini Kill earned a reputation in the punk underground for confronting certain standards of that genre; for example, asking people to slam at the side of the stage, so that women would not get pushed out of the front, and inviting women to take the mic and talk about sexual abuse. The phrase is sometimes sensationally spelled "grrrl power", based on the spelling of "riot grrrl". Some other musical artists who have used the slogan in their music are Welsh band Helen Love, with it appearing in the chorus of their 1992 song “Formula One Racing Girls”, and pop-punk duo Shampoo, who released an album and single titled "Girl Power" in 1995. British pop quintet Spice Girls brought the mantra into the mainstream consciousness in the mid-1990s. The Spice Girls' version of "girl power" focused on the importance of strong and loyal friendship among females, with a message of empowerment that appealed to young girls, adolescents and adult women. According to "Billboard" magazine, they demonstrated real, noncompetitive female friendship, singing: "If you wannabe my lover, you gotta get with my friends. Make it last forever; friendship never ends. " In all, the focused, consistent presentation of "girl power" formed the centrepiece of their appeal as a band. Some commentators credit the Spice Girls with reinvigorating mainstream feminism in the 1990s, with the "girl power" mantra serving as a gateway to feminism for their young fans. On the other hand, some critics dismissed "girl power" as no more than a shallow marketing tactic, while others took issue with the emphasis on physical appearance, concerned about the potential impact on self-conscious and/or impressionable youngsters: As American feminist Jennifer Pozner famously remarked, it was "probably a fair assumption to say that a ‘zig-a-zig-ah’ is not Spice shorthand for ‘subvert the dominant paradigm’.” Regardless, the phrase became a cultural phenomenon, adopted as the mantra for millions of girls and even making it into the "Oxford English Dictionary". In summation of the concept, author Ryan Dawson said, "The Spice Girls changed British culture enough for Girl Power to now seem completely unremarkable." In 2018, "Rolling Stone" named the Spice Girls' brand of "girl power" on "The Millennial 100", a list of 100 people, music, cultural touchstones and movements that have shaped the Millennial generation. In her 2002 book "Girl Heroes: The New Force in Popular Culture", Professor Susan Hopkins suggested a correlation between "girl power", Spice Girls, and female action heroes at the end of the 20th century. A later book, "Growing Up With Girl Power," by Professor Rebecca Hains (2019) found that the phrase "girl power" and the media associated with it—such as the Spice Girls and girl heroes—diluted the phrase's impact from the riot grrrls' intent, making it more about marketing and selling the idea of empowerment than about furthering girls' actual empowerment. The slogan has also been examined within the context of the academic field, for example Buffy studies. Media theorist Kathleen Rowe Karlyn in her article "Scream, Popular Culture, and Feminism's Third Wave: I'm Not My Mother" and Irene Karras in "The Third Wave's Final Girl: Buffy the Vampire Slayer" suggest a link with third-wave feminism. Frances Early and Kathleen Kennedy in the introduction to "Athena’s Daughters: Television’s New Women Warriors", discuss what they describe as a link between girl power and a "new" image of women warriors in popular culture. A 2001 update to the "Oxford English Dictionary" defined "girl power" as: The dictionary further offers an example of this term by quoting from "Angel Delight", an article in the March 24, 2001 issue of "Dreamwatch" about the television series "Dark Angel": Dr. Debbie Ging, Chair of the BA in Communications Studies in Dublin City University, was critical of the "girl power" ideals, and linked it to the sexualisation of younger children, girls in particular. Dr. Amy McClure of North Carolina State University warns against placing too much hope on girl power as an empowering concept. She says, “An ideology based on consumerism can never be a revolutionary social movement. The fact that it appears to be a revolutionary movement is a dangerous lie that not only marketers sell to us but that we often happily sell to ourselves.” Dr. Rebecca Hains also criticized mainstream "girl power" for its commercial function, arguing in Women's Studies in Communication that it "undermines true work towards equality, serving corporate interests at the expense of girls' personal interests," and called it an "updated version of 'commodity feminism.'" Media and toys can present a narrow definition of what it means to be a girl, such as Mattel's Barbie. The “I can be” Barbie embodied this concept of “girl power”: that little girls can be anything they want when they grow up. Arguably, Barbie's image also presents narrow options with which girls can identify, limiting the potential of any "girl power"-themed line. In addition to concerns about girl power's implications for girls, some critics questioned its use by women. For example, Hannah Jane Parkinson of "The Guardian" criticized the term "girl power" as something "young women [that] are feeling more confident about calling themselves feminists and standing up for principles of equality" hide behind. She denounced the phrase for including the word "girl", claiming it encouraged the application of the term "girl" to adult women.

Girl power

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" T h e R o l l i n g S t o n e E n c y c l o p e d i a o f R o c k & R o l l " c r e d i t s t h e z i n e w i t h c o i n i n g t h e s l o g a n : " I n t h e i r f e m i n i s t f a n z i n e B i k i n i K i l l t h e y a r t i c u l a t e d a n a g e n d a f o r y o u n g w o m e n i n a n d o u t s i d e o f m u s i c ; t h e b a n d p u t t h o s e i d e a s t o p r a c t i c e . B i k i n i K i l l e a r n e d a r e p u t a t i o n i n t h e p u n k u n d e r g r o u n d f o r c o n f r o n t i n g c e r t a i n s t a n d a r d s o f t h a t g e n r e ; f o r e x a m p l e , a s k i n g p e o p l e t o s l a m a t t h e s i d e o f t h e s t a g e , s o t h a t w o m e n w o u l d n o t g e t p u s h e d o u t o f t h e f r o n t , a n d i n v i t i n g w o m e n t o t a k e t h e m i c a n d t a l k a b o u t s e x u a l a b u s e . 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T h e S p i c e G i r l s ' v e r s i o n o f " g i r l p o w e r " f o c u s e d o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s t r o n g a n d l o y a l f r i e n d s h i p a m o n g f e m a l e s , w i t h a m e s s a g e o f e m p o w e r m e n t t h a t a p p e a l e d t o y o u n g g i r l s , a d o l e s c e n t s a n d a d u l t w o m e n . A c c o r d i n g t o " B i l l b o a r d " m a g a z i n e , t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e d r e a l , n o n c o m p e t i t i v e f e m a l e f r i e n d s h i p , s i n g i n g : " I f y o u w a n n a b e m y l o v e r , y o u g o t t a g e t w i t h m y f r i e n d s . M a k e i t l a s t f o r e v e r ; f r i e n d s h i p n e v e r e n d s . " I n a l l , t h e f o c u s e d , c o n s i s t e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f " g i r l p o w e r " f o r m e d t h e c e n t r e p i e c e o f t h e i r a p p e a l a s a b a n d . 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I n s u m m a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t , a u t h o r R y a n D a w s o n s a i d , " T h e S p i c e G i r l s c h a n g e d B r i t i s h c u l t u r e e n o u g h f o r G i r l P o w e r t o n o w s e e m c o m p l e t e l y u n r e m a r k a b l e . " I n 2 0 1 8 , " R o l l i n g S t o n e " n a m e d t h e S p i c e G i r l s ' b r a n d o f " g i r l p o w e r " o n " T h e M i l l e n n i a l 1 0 0 " , a l i s t o f 1 0 0 p e o p l e , m u s i c , c u l t u r a l t o u c h s t o n e s a n d m o v e m e n t s t h a t h a v e s h a p e d t h e M i l l e n n i a l g e n e r a t i o n . I n h e r 2 0 0 2 b o o k " G i r l H e r o e s : T h e N e w F o r c e i n P o p u l a r C u l t u r e " , P r o f e s s o r S u s a n H o p k i n s s u g g e s t e d a c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n " g i r l p o w e r " , S p i c e G i r l s , a n d f e m a l e a c t i o n h e r o e s a t t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y . A l a t e r b o o k , " G r o w i n g U p W i t h G i r l P o w e r , " b y P r o f e s s o r R e b e c c a H a i n s ( 2 0 1 9 ) f o u n d t h a t t h e p h r a s e " g i r l p o w e r " a n d t h e m e d i a a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t — s u c h a s t h e S p i c e G i r l s a n d g i r l h e r o e s — d i l u t e d t h e p h r a s e ' s i m p a c t f r o m t h e r i o t g r r r l s ' i n t e n t , m a k i n g i t m o r e a b o u t m a r k e t i n g a n d s e l l i n g t h e i d e a o f e m p o w e r m e n t t h a n a b o u t f u r t h e r i n g g i r l s ' a c t u a l e m p o w e r m e n t . T h e s l o g a n h a s a l s o b e e n e x a m i n e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e a c a d e m i c f i e l d , f o r e x a m p l e B u f f y s t u d i e s . M e d i a t h e o r i s t K a t h l e e n R o w e K a r l y n i n h e r a r t i c l e " S c r e a m , P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , a n d F e m i n i s m ' s T h i r d W a v e : I ' m N o t M y M o t h e r " a n d I r e n e K a r r a s i n " T h e T h i r d W a v e ' s F i n a l G i r l : B u f f y t h e V a m p i r e S l a y e r " s u g g e s t a l i n k w i t h t h i r d - w a v e f e m i n i s m . F r a n c e s E a r l y a n d K a t h l e e n K e n n e d y i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o " A t h e n a ’ s D a u g h t e r s : T e l e v i s i o n ’ s N e w W o m e n W a r r i o r s " , d i s c u s s w h a t t h e y d e s c r i b e a s a l i n k b e t w e e n g i r l p o w e r a n d a " n e w " i m a g e o f w o m e n w a r r i o r s i n p o p u l a r c u l t u r e . A 2 0 0 1 u p d a t e t o t h e " O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y " d e f i n e d " g i r l p o w e r " a s : T h e d i c t i o n a r y f u r t h e r o f f e r s a n e x a m p l e o f t h i s t e r m b y q u o t i n g f r o m " A n g e l D e l i g h t " , a n a r t i c l e i n t h e M a r c h 2 4 , 2 0 0 1 i s s u e o f " D r e a m w a t c h " a b o u t t h e t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s " D a r k A n g e l " : D r . D e b b i e G i n g , C h a i r o f t h e B A i n C o m m u n i c a t i o n s S t u d i e s i n D u b l i n C i t y U n i v e r s i t y , w a s c r i t i c a l o f t h e " g i r l p o w e r " i d e a l s , a n d l i n k e d i t t o t h e s e x u a l i s a t i o n o f y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n , g i r l s i n p a r t i c u l a r . D r . A m y M c C l u r e o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y w a r n s a g a i n s t p l a c i n g t o o m u c h h o p e o n g i r l p o w e r a s a n e m p o w e r i n g c o n c e p t . S h e s a y s , “ A n i d e o l o g y b a s e d o n c o n s u m e r i s m c a n n e v e r b e a r e v o l u t i o n a r y s o c i a l m o v e m e n t . T h e f a c t t h a t i t a p p e a r s t o b e a r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t i s a d a n g e r o u s l i e t h a t n o t o n l y m a r k e t e r s s e l l t o u s b u t t h a t w e o f t e n h a p p i l y s e l l t o o u r s e l v e s . ” D r . R e b e c c a H a i n s a l s o c r i t i c i z e d m a i n s t r e a m " g i r l p o w e r " f o r i t s c o m m e r c i a l f u n c t i o n , a r g u i n g i n W o m e n ' s S t u d i e s i n C o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t i t " u n d e r m i n e s t r u e w o r k t o w a r d s e q u a l i t y , s e r v i n g c o r p o r a t e i n t e r e s t s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f g i r l s ' p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s , " a n d c a l l e d i t a n " u p d a t e d v e r s i o n o f ' c o m m o d i t y f e m i n i s m . ' " M e d i a a n d t o y s c a n p r e s e n t a n a r r o w d e f i n i t i o n o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a g i r l , s u c h a s M a t t e l ' s B a r b i e . T h e “ I c a n b e ” B a r b i e e m b o d i e d t h i s c o n c e p t o f “ g i r l p o w e r ” : t h a t l i t t l e g i r l s c a n b e a n y t h i n g t h e y w a n t w h e n t h e y g r o w u p . A r g u a b l y , B a r b i e ' s i m a g e a l s o p r e s e n t s n a r r o w o p t i o n s w i t h w h i c h g i r l s c a n i d e n t i f y , l i m i t i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l o f a n y " g i r l p o w e r " - t h e m e d l i n e . I n a d d i t i o n t o c o n c e r n s a b o u t g i r l p o w e r ' s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r g i r l s , s o m e c r i t i c s q u e s t i o n e d i t s u s e b y w o m e n . F o r e x a m p l e , H a n n a h J a n e P a r k i n s o n o f " T h e G u a r d i a n " c r i t i c i z e d t h e t e r m " g i r l p o w e r " a s s o m e t h i n g " y o u n g w o m e n [ t h a t ] a r e f e e l i n g m o r e c o n f i d e n t a b o u t c a l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s f e m i n i s t s a n d s t a n d i n g u p f o r p r i n c i p l e s o f e q u a l i t y " h i d e b e h i n d . S h e d e n o u n c e d t h e p h r a s e f o r i n c l u d i n g t h e w o r d " g i r l " , c l a i m i n g i t e n c o u r a g e d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e t e r m " g i r l " t o a d u l t w o m e n .

Spice Girls

The Spice Girls popularized the term "girl power" in the mid-1990s, emphasizing strong female friendships and empowerment. While some see them as reviving mainstream feminism, others criticize the phrase as shallow marketing or limiting girls' potential.

In 1990, US punk band Bikini Kill started to make their own self-titled feminist zine. Its first issue had the subtitle, "A color and activity book". A year later the band published the second issue of their "Bikini Kill" zine, with the new subtitle "Girl Power". The band's lead singer, Kathleen Hanna, said was inspired by the Black Power slogan. The term became popular in the early and mid 90s punk culture. "The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll" credits the zine with coining the slogan: "In their feminist fanzine Bikini Kill they articulated an agenda for young women in and outside of music; the band put those ideas to practice. Bikini Kill earned a reputation in the punk underground for confronting certain standards of that genre; for example, asking people to slam at the side of the stage, so that women would not get pushed out of the front, and inviting women to take the mic and talk about sexual abuse. The phrase is sometimes sensationally spelled "grrrl power", based on the spelling of "riot grrrl". Some other musical artists who have used the slogan in their music are Welsh band Helen Love, with it appearing in the chorus of their 1992 song “Formula One Racing Girls”, and pop-punk duo Shampoo, who released an album and single titled "Girl Power" in 1995. British pop quintet Spice Girls brought the mantra into the mainstream consciousness in the mid-1990s. The Spice Girls' version of "girl power" focused on the importance of strong and loyal friendship among females, with a message of empowerment that appealed to young girls, adolescents and adult women. According to "Billboard" magazine, they demonstrated real, noncompetitive female friendship, singing: "If you wannabe my lover, you gotta get with my friends. Make it last forever; friendship never ends. " In all, the focused, consistent presentation of "girl power" formed the centrepiece of their appeal as a band. Some commentators credit the Spice Girls with reinvigorating mainstream feminism in the 1990s, with the "girl power" mantra serving as a gateway to feminism for their young fans. On the other hand, some critics dismissed "girl power" as no more than a shallow marketing tactic, while others took issue with the emphasis on physical appearance, concerned about the potential impact on self-conscious and/or impressionable youngsters: As American feminist Jennifer Pozner famously remarked, it was "probably a fair assumption to say that a ‘zig-a-zig-ah’ is not Spice shorthand for ‘subvert the dominant paradigm’.” Regardless, the phrase became a cultural phenomenon, adopted as the mantra for millions of girls and even making it into the "Oxford English Dictionary". In summation of the concept, author Ryan Dawson said, "The Spice Girls changed British culture enough for Girl Power to now seem completely unremarkable." In 2018, "Rolling Stone" named the Spice Girls' brand of "girl power" on "The Millennial 100", a list of 100 people, music, cultural touchstones and movements that have shaped the Millennial generation. In her 2002 book "Girl Heroes: The New Force in Popular Culture", Professor Susan Hopkins suggested a correlation between "girl power", Spice Girls, and female action heroes at the end of the 20th century. A later book, "Growing Up With Girl Power," by Professor Rebecca Hains (2019) found that the phrase "girl power" and the media associated with it—such as the Spice Girls and girl heroes—diluted the phrase's impact from the riot grrrls' intent, making it more about marketing and selling the idea of empowerment than about furthering girls' actual empowerment. The slogan has also been examined within the context of the academic field, for example Buffy studies. Media theorist Kathleen Rowe Karlyn in her article "Scream, Popular Culture, and Feminism's Third Wave: I'm Not My Mother" and Irene Karras in "The Third Wave's Final Girl: Buffy the Vampire Slayer" suggest a link with third-wave feminism. Frances Early and Kathleen Kennedy in the introduction to "Athena’s Daughters: Television’s New Women Warriors", discuss what they describe as a link between girl power and a "new" image of women warriors in popular culture. A 2001 update to the "Oxford English Dictionary" defined "girl power" as: The dictionary further offers an example of this term by quoting from "Angel Delight", an article in the March 24, 2001 issue of "Dreamwatch" about the television series "Dark Angel": Dr. Debbie Ging, Chair of the BA in Communications Studies in Dublin City University, was critical of the "girl power" ideals, and linked it to the sexualisation of younger children, girls in particular. Dr. Amy McClure of North Carolina State University warns against placing too much hope on girl power as an empowering concept. She says, “An ideology based on consumerism can never be a revolutionary social movement. The fact that it appears to be a revolutionary movement is a dangerous lie that not only marketers sell to us but that we often happily sell to ourselves.” Dr. Rebecca Hains also criticized mainstream "girl power" for its commercial function, arguing in Women's Studies in Communication that it "undermines true work towards equality, serving corporate interests at the expense of girls' personal interests," and called it an "updated version of 'commodity feminism.'" Media and toys can present a narrow definition of what it means to be a girl, such as Mattel's Barbie. The “I can be” Barbie embodied this concept of “girl power”: that little girls can be anything they want when they grow up. Arguably, Barbie's image also presents narrow options with which girls can identify, limiting the potential of any "girl power"-themed line. In addition to concerns about girl power's implications for girls, some critics questioned its use by women. For example, Hannah Jane Parkinson of "The Guardian" criticized the term "girl power" as something "young women [that] are feeling more confident about calling themselves feminists and standing up for principles of equality" hide behind. She denounced the phrase for including the word "girl", claiming it encouraged the application of the term "girl" to adult women.

Street luge

S t r e e t l u g e w a s b o r n i n S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a a s d o w n h i l l s k a t e b o a r d e r s f o u n d t h e y c o u l d r e a c h f a s t e r s p e e d s b y l y i n g d o w n o n t h e i r s k a t e b o a r d s . T h i s e a r l y f o r m o f t h e s p o r t i s n o w r e f e r r e d t o a s " l a y d o w n s k a t e b o a r d i n g " . I n 1 9 7 5 , t h e f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l r a c e w a s h e l d a t S i g n a l H i l l , C a l i f o r n i a , a n d h o s t e d b y t h e U . S . S k a t e b o a r d A s s o c i a t i o n . T h e r a c e w i n n e r w a s b a s e d o n t o p s p e e d . T h e b o a r d s u s e d i n t h i s r a c e v a r i e d f r o m b a s i c s k a t e b o a r d s t o c o m p l e x s k a t e c a r s i n w h i c h t h e r i d e r w a s c o m p l e t e l y e n c l o s e d b y p l a s t i c o r f i b e r g l a s s . T h e s p o r t w a s n o t c o m m o n l y r e f e r r e d t o a s s t r e e t l u g e a t t h i s t i m e b u t t h e t e r m l u g e w a s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e s o m e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' r i d i n g p o s i t i o n . M o s t c o n t e s t a n t s w e r e s t a n d i n g u p ; h o w e v e r , a n o p e n i n g i n t h e r u l e s e n a b l e d r i d e r s t o c h o o s e t h e i r o w n b o a r d p o s i t i o n , i n c l u d i n g s u p i n e . B y 1 9 7 8 , r e p e a t e d i n j u r i e s t o b o t h r i d e r s a n d s p e c t a t o r s h a l t e d t h e r a c e s a t S i g n a l H i l l . R o g e r H i c k e y a n d D o n B a u m e a f r o m t h e S i g n a l H i l l r a c e s k e p t t h e s p o r t a l i v e b y c o n t i n u i n g t o h o l d r a c e s i n S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a . A r o u n d t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s , b o t h u n d e r g r o u n d a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l r a c e s c o n t i n u e d t o b e h e l d i n S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a b y s u c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s t h e U n d e r g r o u n d R a c e r s A s s o c i a t i o n ( U R A ) , F e d e r a t i o n o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l G r a v i t y R a c i n g ( F I G R ) a n d R o a d R a c e r s A s s o c i a t i o n f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l L u g e ( R A I L ) . R a c e o r g a n i z e r s i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s s t a r t e d i m p l e m e n t i n g m a n y m o r e e q u i p m e n t , s a f e t y a n d r a c e r e g u l a t i o n s . M e a n w h i l e , i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s , s o m e A u s t r i a n s k a t e b o a r d e r s s t a r t e d s i t t i n g d o w n o n t h e i r s k a t e b o a r d s o n t h e w a y b a c k f r o m t e a c h i n g s k i i n g i n t h e A l p s . T h i s a c t i v i t y l e a d t o a c l a s s i c s t y l e s t r e e t l u g e r a c e i n t h e K a u n e r t a l V a l l e y , i n w e s t e r n A u s t r i a , c a l l e d H o t H e e l s . A t t h e o u t s e t , t h e f o u n d e r s s t a r t e d l y i n g d o w n o n w o o d e n b o a r d s c l o s e r t o l a r g e s k a t e b o a r d s t h a n t h e u s u a l s t r e e t l u g e , a n d w i t h s m a l l e r w h e e l s : t h i s c a m e t o b e k n o w n a s c l a s s i c l u g e , o r b u t t b o a r d . T h e r a c e , w h i c h r a n u n t i l 2 0 0 3 , c a m e t o f u n c t i o n a s a d e f a c t o w o r l d c h a m p i o n s h i p s , i n c l u d i n g a l l t h e d o w n h i l l d i s c i p l i n e s s u c h a s s t r e e t l u g e , s t a n d u p d o w n h i l l s k a t e b o a r d , c l a s s i c l u g e , g r a v i t y b i k i n g a n d i n l i n e s k a t i n g . T h e r e i s n o w a h e a l t h y s t r e e t l u g e r i d i n g a n d r a c i n g p r e s e n c e i n m a n y E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s ( s e e b e l o w ) . I n t h e m i d 1 9 9 0 s , E S P N ’ s X G a m e s s h o w c a s e d s t r e e t l u g e t o t h e w o r l d a n d t h e s p o r t w a s o r i g i n a l l y s a n c t i o n e d b y R A I L , t h e n b y t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l G r a v i t y S p o r t s A s s o c i a t i o n ( I G S A ) . N B C f o l l o w e d E S P N ’ s l e a d a n d c r e a t e d t h e G r a v i t y G a m e s i n w h i c h t h e s p o r t w a s s a n c t i o n e d b y E x t r e m e D o w n h i l l I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( E D I ) . S m a l l e r e v e n t s w e r e a l s o h e l d i n C a n a d a , S o u t h A f r i c a , A u s t r a l i a , S w i t z e r l a n d , G e r m a n y , S w e d e n a n d t h e U . K . Q u a l i f i c a t i o n c r i t e r i a f o r t h e s e e v e n t s v a r i e d a n d w e r e c o n t r o l l e d b y e a c h o f t h e s a n c t i o n i n g b o d i e s . A f t e r a m e d i a s p l u r g e t h r o u g h t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s a n d e a r l y 2 0 0 0 s , e x t r e m e s p o r t s l i k e s t r e e t l u g e h a v e t a k e n a l o w e r p r o f i l e . T h e X G a m e s h a s b e c o m e m o r e s t a d i u m - b a s e d f o r c o m m e r c i a l r e a s o n s . O t h e r s , s u c h a s t h e G r a v i t y G a m e s , H o t H e e l s a n d t h e A u s t r a l i a n X t r e m e G a m e s , h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d . W h i l e n o l o n g e r a s p o r t i n e i t h e r t h e X G a m e s o r G r a v i t y G a m e s , s t r e e t l u g e i s a b u r g e o n i n g s p o r t i n n u m e r o u s c o u n t r i e s w i t h c o m p e t i t i o n s a r o u n d t h e g l o b e . T h e r e a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 2 0 0 a c t i v e s t r e e t l u g e r i d e r s i n t h e w o r l d . O n S e p t e m b e r 1 0 , 2 0 1 6 , M i k e M c I n t y r e w e n t 1 6 4 . 1 2   k m / h ( 1 0 1 . 9 8   m p h ) a t l ' U l t i m e D e s c e n t e . S o u r c e S t r e e t l u g e r s r i d e b o a r d s i n t h e s u p i n e p o s i t i o n . T h e d e s i g n o f t h e s e b o a r d s i s b a s e d o n t h e r u l e s s e t f o r t h f r o m d i f f e r e n t g o v e r n i n g b o d i e s . C o n s i s t e n t d e s i g n e l e m e n t s i n c l u d e : # T h e u s e o f l e a n - a c t i v a t e d s t e e r i n g s k a t e b o a r d - s t y l e t r u c k s # T h e p r o h i b i t e d u s e o f m e c h a n i c a l b r a k e s # F r o n t a n d r e a r p a d d i n g # L e n g t h , w i d t h a n d w e i g h t r e s t r i c t i o n s - d e t a i l s d e p e n d o n s a n c t i o n i n g b o d y # T h e p r o h i b i t e d u s e o f p a r t s t h a t e n c l o s e t h e r i d e r ’ s b o d y o r h i n d e r b r a k i n g C u r r e n t s t r e e t l u g e b o a r d s a r e m a d e f r o m m a n y m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d i n g s t e e l , a l u m i n u m , w o o d , a n d c a r b o n f i b r e . T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s t r e e t l u g e b o a r d s i n t h e w o r l d a r e c u s t o m m a d e a l t h o u g h c o m m e r c i a l m o d e l s a r e n o w a v a i l a b l e . A c t u a l b o a r d d e s i g n s c a n v a r y a s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n r u l e s a r e v e r y o p e n a n d a l l o w f o r n u m e r o u s d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . A n o f f s h o o t o f s t r e e t l u g e i s c l a s s i c l u g e . W i t h m o r e r e g u l a t i o n s a n d l i m i t s t o c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d e q u i p m e n t i t w a s d e s i g n e d t o b e a s i m p l e r , l o w c o s t c l a s s a s c o m p a r e d t o s t r e e t l u g e . C l a s s i c L u g e b o a r d s a r e t y p i c a l l y m a d e f r o m w o o d , a r e l i m i t e d t o m a x i m u m d i m e n s i o n s o f 4 9 i n c h e s b y 1 2 i n c h e s ( 1 2 4   c m b y 3 0   c m ) a n d m a y o n l y h a v e f o u r w h e e l s . M a x i m u m w h e e l s d i a m e t e r m a y a l s o b e r e s t r i c t e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s a n c t i o n i n g b o d y a n d r a c e o r g a n i z e r . R i d e r s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s a n c t i o n e d r a c i n g e v e n t s a r e r e q u i r e d t o w e a r s a f e t y e q u i p m e n t i n c l u d i n g : # H a r d - s h e l l h e l m e t w i t h c h i n s t r a p a n d f a c e s h i e l d o r g o g g l e s # L e a t h e r o r K e v l a r r a c i n g s u i t # L e a t h e r o r K e v l a r g l o v e s # S t u r d y S h o e s R a c e c o u r s e s a r e u s u a l l y h e l d o n m o u n t a i n r o a d s b u t h a v e b e e n h e l d o n c i t y s t r e e t s a s w e l l . C o u r s e s c a n r a n g e i n l e n g t h f r o m 0 . 5 t o 3 m i l e s ( 1 t o 5   k m ) a n d v a r y i n l a y o u t ( n u m b e r a n d s e v e r i t y o f t u r n s ) . R a c i n g c a n t a k e t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m a t s : # S i n g l e e l i m i n a t i o n w i t h 2 , 4 , o r 6 r a c e r s a t a t i m e # D o u b l e e l i m i n a t i o n w i t h 2 , 4 , o r 6 r a c e r s a t a t i m e # T i m e d t r i a l s # N o e l i m i n a t i o n p o i n t s s y s t e m ( p o i n t s f o r e a c h f i n i s h i n g p o s i t i o n i n s e v e r a l h e a t s ) # M a s s r u n s , w i t h u p t o 2 0 r a c e r s a t a t i m e ( p o s i t i o n s a r e d e c i d e d b y t h e o r d e r t h e y c r o s s t h e f i n i s h l i n e ) T h e r e a r e c u r r e n t l y t w o w o r l d w i d e g o v e r n i n g b o d i e s f o r s t r e e t l u g e , t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l G r a v i t y S p o r t s A s s o c i a t i o n ( I G S A ) a n d t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l D o w n h i l l F e d e r a t i o n ( I D F ) . T h e r u l i n g b o d y f o r s t r e e t l u g e d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 7 – 2 0 0 1 X G a m e s w a s t h e I G S A .

History

Street luge originated in Southern California in the 1970s when downhill skateboarders discovered they could reach higher speeds by lying down on their boards. The first professional race was held in 1975, and the sport gained popularity throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Despite setbacks due to injuries and declining popularity, street luge continues to thrive globally with approximately 1200 active riders and various competitions around the world.

Street luge was born in Southern California as downhill skateboarders found they could reach faster speeds by lying down on their skateboards. This early form of the sport is now referred to as "laydown skateboarding". In 1975, the first professional race was held at Signal Hill, California, and hosted by the U.S. Skateboard Association. The race winner was based on top speed. The boards used in this race varied from basic skateboards to complex skate cars in which the rider was completely enclosed by plastic or fiberglass. The sport was not commonly referred to as street luge at this time but the term luge was used to describe some participants' riding position. Most contestants were standing up; however, an opening in the rules enabled riders to choose their own board position, including supine. By 1978, repeated injuries to both riders and spectators halted the races at Signal Hill. Roger Hickey and Don Baumea from the Signal Hill races kept the sport alive by continuing to hold races in Southern California. Around the early 1990s, both underground and professional races continued to be held in Southern California by such organizations as the Underground Racers Association (URA), Federation of International Gravity Racing (FIGR) and Road Racers Association for International Luge (RAIL). Race organizers in the 1980s and 1990s started implementing many more equipment, safety and race regulations. Meanwhile, in the early 1990s, some Austrian skateboarders started sitting down on their skateboards on the way back from teaching skiing in the Alps. This activity lead to a classic style street luge race in the Kaunertal Valley, in western Austria, called Hot Heels. At the outset, the founders started lying down on wooden boards closer to large skateboards than the usual street luge, and with smaller wheels: this came to be known as classic luge, or buttboard. The race, which ran until 2003, came to function as a de facto world championships, including all the downhill disciplines such as street luge, stand up downhill skateboard, classic luge, gravity biking and inline skating. There is now a healthy street luge riding and racing presence in many European countries (see below). In the mid 1990s, ESPN’s X Games showcased street luge to the world and the sport was originally sanctioned by RAIL, then by the International Gravity Sports Association (IGSA). NBC followed ESPN’s lead and created the Gravity Games in which the sport was sanctioned by Extreme Downhill International (EDI). Smaller events were also held in Canada, South Africa, Australia, Switzerland, Germany, Sweden and the U.K. Qualification criteria for these events varied and were controlled by each of the sanctioning bodies. After a media splurge through the late 1990s and early 2000s, extreme sports like street luge have taken a lower profile. The X Games has become more stadium-based for commercial reasons. Others, such as the Gravity Games, Hot Heels and the Australian Xtreme Games, have disappeared. While no longer a sport in either the X Games or Gravity Games, street luge is a burgeoning sport in numerous countries with competitions around the globe. There are approximately 1200 active street luge riders in the world. On September 10, 2016, Mike McIntyre went 164.12 km/h (101.98 mph) at l'Ultime Descente. Source Street lugers ride boards in the supine position. The design of these boards is based on the rules set forth from different governing bodies. Consistent design elements include: # The use of lean-activated steering skateboard-style trucks # The prohibited use of mechanical brakes # Front and rear padding # Length, width and weight restrictions - details depend on sanctioning body # The prohibited use of parts that enclose the rider’s body or hinder braking Current street luge boards are made from many materials including steel, aluminum, wood, and carbon fibre. The majority of the street luge boards in the world are custom made although commercial models are now available. Actual board designs can vary as the construction rules are very open and allow for numerous design considerations. An offshoot of street luge is classic luge. With more regulations and limits to construction and equipment it was designed to be a simpler, low cost class as compared to street luge. Classic Luge boards are typically made from wood, are limited to maximum dimensions of 49 inches by 12 inches (124 cm by 30 cm) and may only have four wheels. Maximum wheels diameter may also be restricted depending on the sanctioning body and race organizer. Riders participating in sanctioned racing events are required to wear safety equipment including: # Hard-shell helmet with chin strap and face shield or goggles # Leather or Kevlar racing suit # Leather or Kevlar gloves # Sturdy Shoes Race courses are usually held on mountain roads but have been held on city streets as well. Courses can range in length from 0.5 to 3 miles (1 to 5 km) and vary in layout (number and severity of turns). Racing can take the following formats: # Single elimination with 2, 4, or 6 racers at a time # Double elimination with 2, 4, or 6 racers at a time # Timed trials # No elimination points system (points for each finishing position in several heats) # Mass runs, with up to 20 racers at a time (positions are decided by the order they cross the finish line) There are currently two worldwide governing bodies for street luge, the International Gravity Sports Association (IGSA) and the International Downhill Federation (IDF). The ruling body for street luge during the 1997–2001 X Games was the IGSA.

Taiwanese opera

T a i w a n e s e o p e r a i s t h e o n l y f o r m o f H a n t r a d i t i o n a l d r a m a k n o w n t o h a v e o r i g i n a t e d i n T a i w a n , s p e c i f i c a l l y i n Y i l a n . I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s , m o s t H a n i m m i g r a n t s i n Y i l a n w e r e f r o m Z h a n g z h o u , F u j i a n , b r i n g i n g w i t h t h e m t h e H o k k i e n Z h a n g z h o u d i a l e c t . " K o a - á " w e r e s t o r y - t e l l i n g b a l l a d s s p o k e n i n H o k k i e n . E a c h l i n e c o u l d h a v e f i v e o r s e v e n c h a r a c t e r s , a n d e v e r y f o u r l i n e s c o n s t i t u t e d a p a r a g r a p h . " J i n g e " ( 錦 歌 ) i s t h e f o r e r u n n e r o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a . A s e a r l y a s s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i m m i g r a n t s f r o m s o u t h e r n F u j i a n , C h i n a b r o u g h t " J i n g e " , t h e p o p u l a r f o l k s o n g s t h a t s e t t h e p o e t r y i n l o c a l d i a l e c t t o T a i w a n . A r o u n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a m a t e u r s i n g e r s i n G i l a n m o d i f i e d " J i n g e " a n d g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d a n e w s t y l e c a l l e d " K u a - a " ( ) . O t h e r t h a n " J i n g e " , T a i w a n e s e o p e r a a b s o r b e d t h e s t y l e s o f f o r m a l o p e r a s i n c l u d i n g P e k i n g o p e r a , L u a n t a n o p e r a ( 亂 彈 戲 ) , S i p i n g o p e r a ( 四 平 戲 ) , L i y u a n o p e r a ( 梨 園 戲 ) , a n d G a o j i a o p e r a ( 高 甲 戲 ) . B e t w e e n 1 9 2 3 a n d 1 9 4 9 , P e k i n g o p e r a t r o u p e s f r o m S h a n g h a i a n d F u j i a n t o u r e d T a i w a n . S o m e a c t o r s s t a y e d i n T a i w a n a n d b e c a m e p e r f o r m i n g d i r e c t o r s o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s . T h e i n f l u e n c e s o f P e k i n g o p e r a s c a n b e s e e n i n r e p e r t o r y , g e s t u r e , m o v e m e n t , p e r c u s s i o n m u s i c a n d c o s t u m e . F i g h t i n g t h e m e s a n d a c r o b a t i c m o v e m e n t s b e c a m e s t a n d a r d s i n t h e o p e r a s . T a i w a n w a s u n d e r J a p a n e s e r u l e f r o m 1 8 9 5 t o 1 9 4 5 . I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e , J a p a n g o v e r n m e n t a l l o w e d t h e l o c a l c u s t o m s t o d e v e l o p w i t h o u t m u c h i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d T a i w a n e s e o p e r a c o n t i n u e d t o t h r i v e . I n H o - y i L i n ’ s b o o k “ T a i w a n e s e O p e r a ” , s h e d e s c r i b e s h o w T a i w a n e s e o p e r a t o o k r o o t i n C h i n a . S h e s t a t e d , “ I t ’ s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t i n 1 9 2 8 , t h e S a n L e H s u a n t r o u p e ( 三 樂 軒 班 ) , o n a p i l g r i m a g e t o W u W a n g T e m p l e i n s o u t h e r n F u j i a n , p e r f o r m e d w i t h g r e a t s u c c e s s i n B a i - c h i a o ( 白 礁 ) a n d X i a m e n … I n s u c c e s s i o n , T a i w a n e s e t r o u p e s s u c h a s N i S h e n g , N i K u a n , D a n F e n g , M u D a n a n d T u n Y i a l s o p e r f o r m e d i n F u j i a n p r o v i n c e . ” A f t e r t h e P a c i f i c W a r b r o k e o u t , t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t c h a n g e d t h e p r e v i o u s p o l i c y a n d i m p l e m e n t e d a " K ō m i n k a " p o l i c y t h a t e n c o u r a g e d J a p a n i s a t i o n . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t p r o h i b i t e d t h e p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a . E v e n t h o u g h m a n y t r o u p e s w e r e d i s b a n d e d a n d T a i w a n e s e o p e r a w i t n e s s e d i t s f i r s t d e c l i n e , l o c a l p e o p l e s t i l l t r i e d t o p e r f o r m T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s i n s e c r e c y . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , a l s o k n o w n a s " w a n g g u o d i a o " ( 亡 國 調 ; l i t e r a l l y , " m u s i c f r o m a d y i n g n a t i o n " ) p r o v i d e d a n o u t l e t f o r T a i w a n e s e p e o p l e t o s e a r c h f o r t h e i r i d e n t i f y a n d f i g h t f o r t h e " i n - b e t w e e n n e s s " o f c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s o f T a i w a n , J a p a n a n d C h i n a . S o m e d i s s i d e n t s l i k e t h e " R u i g u a n g T h e a t e r T r o u p e f r o m R u i f a n g i n n o r t h e r n T a i p e i P r e f e c t u r e p r e m i e r e d i t s o w n " n e w d r a m a " . " ( L e e D a w - M i n g , 1 5 8 ) J a p a n i s a t i o n f o r b a d e t r a d i t i o n a l T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , t h i s t r o u p e w o u l d s i m p l y p e r f o r m " n e w d r a m a " w h i c h w a s a m o d e r n v a r i a t i o n o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , w i t h m o d e r n c o s t u m e s . T h e " N e w D r a m a m o v e m e n t " f e v e r f i n a l l y s u b s i d e d i n 1 9 4 0 . " ( L e e - D a w - M i n g , 1 5 8 ) A f t e r T a i w a n w a s h a n d e d t o t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a , T a i w a n e s e o p e r a w a s r e v i v e d a n d m o r e t h a n o n e h u n d r e d t r o u p e s w e r e f o r m e d w i t h i n a y e a r . I n 1 9 4 9 , t h e r e w e r e o v e r f i v e h u n d r e d r e g i s t e r e d t r o u p e s . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s e n t e r e d i n t o i t s g o l d e n a g e . D u r i n g t h i s t i m e , C h e n C h e n g - s a n ( 陳 澄 三 ) f o u n d e d “ K u n g L e S h e ” ( 拱 樂 社 ) t r o u p e a n d b e c a m e t h e f i r s t p e r s o n t o u s e w r i t t e n s c r i p t s f o r p e r f o r m a n c e . H e c o m m i s s i o n e d C h e n S h o u - j i n g t o w r i t e s c r i p t s o f " B r o k e n D r e a m s o f t h e R e d C h a m b e r " ( 紅 樓 殘 夢 ) . E v e n d u r i n g i t s g o l d e n p e r i o d , T a i w a n e s e o p e r a c o n t i n u e d t o f a c e c h a l l e n g e s a n d a d a p t t o t h e c h a n g e s i n p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e r i s e o f t h e n e w b r o a d c a s t i n g m e d i a s i n c l u d i n g r a d i o , f i l m a n d t e l e v i s i o n s h o w , t h e i n f l u e n c e a n d p o p u l a r i t y o f w e s t e r n p o p s o n g s a n d m o v i e s d r e w t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c ’ s a t t e n t i o n a n d p r e s e n t e d s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t i o n . D u r i n g t h e m a r t i a l l a w f r o m 1 9 4 9 t o 1 9 8 7 , t h e K M T g o v e r n m e n t r e v i v e d t h e M a n d a r i n P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l a n d d i s c o u r a g e d o r , i n s o m e c a s e s , f o r b a d e t h e u s e o f H o k k i e n a n d o t h e r d i a l e c t s . T h i s a n d t h e s h i f t o f p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t p r o v i d e d l i t t l e s u p p o r t f o r t h e T a i w a n e s e - l a n g u a g e b a s e d a r t f o r m . T h e i n d o o r p e r f o r m a n c e s d e c r e a s e d a n d o p e r a t r o u p e s e x p e r i m e n t e d p e r f o r m i n g o n r a d i o , f i l m a n d t e l e v i s i o n a n d l a r g e o u t d o o r s e t t i n g s . S t a r t i n g i n 1 9 5 4 , T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s p e r f o r m e d o n r a d i o s . I n 1 9 5 5 , C h e n C h e n g - s a n f i l m e d t h e f i r s t w h i t e a n d b l a c k m o v i e o f T a i w a n e s e O p e r a “ X u e P i n - G u i a n d W a n g B a o - c h u a n ” ( 薛 平 貴 與 王 寶 釧 ) a n d t h e p r e m i e r w a s a h u g e s u c c e s s . I n 1 9 6 2 , T a i w a n T e l e v i s i o n w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a n d s t a r t e d b r o a d c a s t i n g T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s . I n 1 9 8 2 , C h i n e s e T e l e v i s i o n S y s t e m ( C T S ) T a i w a n e s e O p e r a T r o u p e p e r f o r m e d i n M a n d a r i n ( i n s t e a d o f H o k k i e n ) . T e l e v i s e d o p e r a s a r e s i m i l a r t o s o a p o p e r a s a n d g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s . H o w e v e r , c e r t a i n t r a d i t i o n a l e l e m e n t s a r e l o s t b e c a u s e t e l e v i s i o n s h o w s f e a t u r e l e s s s i n g i n g a n d b o d y m o v e m e n t s . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s T a i w a n e s e o p e r a w a s b r o u g h t t o t h e t e l e v i s i o n a u d i e n c e , w i t h I û ⁿ L ē - h o a a s i t s p o p u l a r f a c e . T h e a r t i s t i c e l e m e n t s r e m a i n e d l a r g e l y t r a d i t i o n a l , h o w e v e r . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , l i k e o t h e r f o r m s o f C h i n e s e o p e r a a n d t h e a t r e a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , o f t e n t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e s c r o s s - d r e s s e d p e r f o r m e r s ( 反 串 ; f ǎ n c h ù a n ; h ó a n - c h h ò a n ) , s p e c i f i c a l l y w o m e n p o r t r a y i n g m e n ' s r o l e s i n t h e c a s e o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a . M o d e r n a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l f o r m s s h o w s o m e p r o p e n s i t y f o r s y n c r e t i s m . W e s t e r n i n s t r u m e n t s s u c h a s t h e s a x o p h o n e a n d g u i t a r h a v e b e e n u s e d i n s o m e p e r f o r m a n c e s . L o o s e W e s t e r n a d a p t a t i o n s h a v e i n c l u d e d N i k o l a i G o g o l ' s " T h e G o v e r n m e n t I n s p e c t o r " . P e r h a p s d u e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e T a i w a n e s e l o c a l i s a t i o n m o v e m e n t , s t o r i e s s e t i n T a i w a n , a s w e l l a s a b o r i g i n a l c h a r a c t e r s a n d s t o r i e s , h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s . T a i w a n e s e f o r m s o f t h e H a k k a t e a - p i c k i n g o p e r a s h o w s o m e i n f l u e n c e . F a n s o f t h e o p e r a a t t r i b u t e i t s c o n t i n u i n g r e l e v a n c e t o a w i l l i n g n e s s o f p e r f o r m e r s t o a d a p t t o m o d e r n t i m e s i n t e r m s o f s t y l e a n d a r t i s t i c d i v e r s i t y . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a ' s s u c c e s s i n m o v i e a n d t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y i r o n i c a l l y b e c o m e s o n e o f c a u s e t h a t e v e n t u a l l y l e a d s t o t h e d e c l i n e o f i n d o o r s t a g e d p e r f o r m a n c e s . C h e n S h e n - F u , a g e n e r a l p r o d u c e r o f t h e M i n g H w a Y u a n A r t s a n d C u l t u r e G r o u p , s a i d : " A l t h o u g h w e k n o w e v e r y t h i n g t h e y d o i s f o r s u r v i v a l , t h a t i s n o t r i g h t . T h e y a r e d o i n g s o m e t h i n g t h a t w i l l k i l l t h e l i f e o f t h e o p e r a . " O t h e r f a c t o r s i n c l u d e p o l i t i c a l p o l i c y a n d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e c h a n g e s a n d w e s t e r n i n f l u e n c e s . T s a i s u m m a r i s e d t h e p e r i o d o f d e c l i n e : T h e m a i n s o c i a l c h a n g e s w e r e t h e r i s e o f m a n y f o r m s o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f s o c i e t y f r o m a g r i c u l t u r a l t o i n d u s t r i a l a n d c o m m e r c i a l i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s . G o v e r n m e n t p o l i c i e s t h a t w e r e d e t r i m e n t a l t o T a i w a n e s e o p e r a w e r e 1 ) t h e p r o m o t i o n o f o n l y n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e – P e k i n g O p e r a , 2 ) s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n o f p l a y s , a n d 3 ) L i m i t a t i o n s o n r e l i g i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e s a n d o n t h e u s e o f d i a l e c t s . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a i s c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f T a i w a n e s e h i s t o r y a n d t r a d i t i o n a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l i d e n t i t y c r i s i s o f T a i w a n s h a p e d i t s d e v e l o p m e n t . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a ' s h i s t o r y r e f l e c t s t h e g r o w t h a n d c h a n g e s i n T a i w a n s o c i e t y s t a r t i n g f r o m t h e e a r l i e r i m m i g r a t i o n i n f l u e n c e s , o p p r e s s i o n u n d e r t h e " K ō m i n k a " m o v e m e n t , t o l i t t l e s t a t e s u p p o r t d u r i n g t h e m a r t i a l l a w e r a a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f m o d e r n m e d i a s . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s t r u g g l e s t o r e m a i n i t s v i t a l i t y . T h e r e f i n e d o p e r a s i n m o d e r n c o n c e r t h a l l s e s t a b l i s h a n e w d i r e c t i o n o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a d e v e l o p m e n t . O n e o f t h e n o t a b l e t r o u p e s i s M i n g H w a Y u a n A r t s a n d C u l t u r e G r o u p ( M H Y ) : I n 1 9 8 3 , M H Y w a s t h e f i r s t a m o n g o t h e r f o l k t h e a t r e s t o a p p e a r o n t h e s t a g e o f a n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e , S u n Y a t - s e n M e m o r i a l H a l l . A m o r e t e l l i n g e x a m p l e i s i n 1 9 8 9 w h e n M H Y g o t p e r m i s s i o n t o p e r f o r m i n t h e Z h i h a n g a i r f o r c e b a s e . I n t h e p a s t , o n l y B e i j i n g o p e r a h a d b e e n c o n s i d e r e d p r o p e r e n o u g h t o t o u r m i l i t a r y b a s e s . T h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , M H Y t o u r e d m i l i t a r y s c h o o l s . T h e a u d i e n c e ' s r e s p o n s e w a s f a r m o r e e n t h u s i a s t i c t h a n i t w a s f o r B e i j i n g o p e r a . T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l s o r e f l e c t s o n t h e o p e r a s t o r y l i n e s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l p l o t s a r e h i s t o r i c a l a n d h e r o i c e v e n t s , l e g e n d s a n d m y t h s . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s g r a d u a l l y a d d e d m o r e r o m a n t i c e l e m e n t s . T h e i n t e n s e d r a m a a n d t h e l o v e - h a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e t h e f o c u s e s o f t h e t e l e v i s e d o p e r a s . " L e g e n d o f t h e W h i t e S n a k e " i s a t y p i c a l s t o r y t h a t c o m b i n e s t h e m y t h , r e l i g i o n , a n d r o m a n c e . O r i g i n a l l y t h e r e a r e t h r e e r o l e s i n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , " S h e n g " , " D a n " , a n d " C h o u " . L a t e r , a s T a i w a n e s e o p e r a b e g a n t o i n c o r p o r a t e m o r e s t y l e s f r o m o t h e r m a j o r o p e r a s , i t g r a d u a l l y e x p a n d e d t o i n c l u d e e i g h t m a j o r c h a r a c t e r s . " S h e n g " ( 生 ) . T h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a r e g e n t l e a n d b r a v e . i s a n o l d e r m a l e l e a d . O l d s h e n g s h a v e a c h a s t e a n d d e c e n t d i s p o s i t i o n . Y o u n g m a l e c h a r a c t e r s a r e k n o w n a s . I n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a t h e r e a r e f o u r s u b t y p e s i n " D a n " ( 旦 ) r o l e s . s i a o c h o u S t a g e p r o p e r t i e s a n d f i g u r e s a r e a p a r t o f d a n c i n g . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a a r e n o t g r a p h i c . S o m e t i m e s a c h a i r i n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s t a n d s f o r a f e n c e o r a b r i d g e . R a i s i n g r e d f l a g s s t a n d s f o r f i r e , r a i s i n g b l u e f l a g s s t a n d s f o r w a t e r , a n d r a i s i n g b l a c k f l a g s s t a n d s f o r w i n d . T h e r e a r e m a n y t y p e s o f f i g u r e s : T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a i s t h e m u s i c f o r v o i c e s . T h e u s e o f a w i d e r a n g e o f t r a d i t i o n a l m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s i n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a . T h e t h r e e - r o l e o p e r a i s k n o w n a s t h e s t o r y o f t e a - f a r m e r Z h a n g S a n l a n g p e r f o r m e d b y o n e c l o w n a n d t w o f e m a l e r o l e s a n d t h e p l o t a n d t h e s i n g i n g a r e f i x e d . T h e t h r e e - r o l e t e a - p i c k i n g o p e r a i s s i m p l e a n d d o e s n o t h a v e o f f i c i a l s t a g e . T h e s t a g e i s b u i l t b e f o r e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e .

History

Taiwanese opera originated in Yilan, Taiwan, influenced by Hokkien dialect and Chinese folk songs. It evolved through modifications and absorption of various opera styles, including Peking opera. Despite facing challenges and adaptations due to changing political and cultural environments, Taiwanese opera continues to struggle for vitality. Its history reflects Taiwan's societal growth and changes, from immigration influences to state support and modern media transformations.

Taiwanese opera is the only form of Han traditional drama known to have originated in Taiwan, specifically in Yilan. In the early stages, most Han immigrants in Yilan were from Zhangzhou, Fujian, bringing with them the Hokkien Zhangzhou dialect. "Koa-á" were story-telling ballads spoken in Hokkien. Each line could have five or seven characters, and every four lines constituted a paragraph. "Jinge" (錦歌) is the forerunner of Taiwanese opera. As early as seventeenth century, immigrants from southern Fujian, China brought "Jinge", the popular folk songs that set the poetry in local dialect to Taiwan. Around nineteenth century, amateur singers in Gilan modified "Jinge" and gradually developed a new style called "Kua-a" (). Other than "Jinge", Taiwanese opera absorbed the styles of formal operas including Peking opera, Luantan opera (亂彈戲), Siping opera (四平戲), Liyuan opera (梨園戲), and Gaojia opera (高甲戲). Between 1923 and 1949, Peking opera troupes from Shanghai and Fujian toured Taiwan. Some actors stayed in Taiwan and became performing directors of Taiwanese operas. The influences of Peking operas can be seen in repertory, gesture, movement, percussion music and costume. Fighting themes and acrobatic movements became standards in the operas. Taiwan was under Japanese rule from 1895 to 1945. In the early stage, Japan government allowed the local customs to develop without much interference and Taiwanese opera continued to thrive. In Ho-yi Lin’s book “Taiwanese Opera”, she describes how Taiwanese opera took root in China. She stated, “It’s worth noting that in 1928, the San Le Hsuan troupe (三樂軒班), on a pilgrimage to Wu Wang Temple Some dissidents like the "Ruiguang Theater Troupe from Ruifang in northern Taipei Prefecture premiered its own "new drama"." (Lee Daw-Ming, 158) Japanisation forbade traditional Taiwanese opera, this troupe would simply perform "new drama" which was a modern variation of Taiwanese opera, with modern costumes. The "New Drama movement" fever finally subsided in 1940." (Lee-Daw-Ming, 158) After Taiwan was handed to the Republic of China, Taiwanese opera was revived and more than one hundred troupes were formed within a year. In 1949, there were over five hundred registered troupes. Taiwanese operas entered into its golden age. During this time, Chen Cheng-san (陳澄三) founded “Kung Le She” (拱樂社) troupe and became the first person to use written scripts for performance. He commissioned Chen Shou-jing to write scripts of "Broken Dreams of the Red Chamber" (紅樓殘夢). Even during its golden period, Taiwanese opera continued to face challenges and adapt to the changes in political and cultural environment. The rise of the new broadcasting medias including radio, film and television show, the influence and popularity of western pop songs and movies drew the general public’s attention and presented serious competition. During the martial law from 1949 to 1987, the KMT government revived the Mandarin Promotion Council and discouraged or, in some cases, forbade the use of Hokkien and other dialects. This and the shift of political environment provided little support for the Taiwanese-language based art form. The indoor performances decreased and opera troupes experimented performing on radio, film and television and large outdoor settings. Starting in 1954, Taiwanese operas performed decline of indoor staged performances. Chen Shen-Fu, a general producer of the Ming Hwa Yuan Arts and Culture Group, said: "Although we know everything they do is for survival, that is not right. They are doing something that will kill the life of the opera." Other factors include political policy and social structure changes and western influences. Tsai summarised the period of decline: The main social changes were the rise of many forms of entertainment in the 1960s and the transformation of society from agricultural to industrial and commercial in the 1970s. Government policies that were detrimental to Taiwanese opera were 1) the promotion of only national theatre – Peking Opera, 2) standardisation of plays, and 3) Limitations on religious performances and on the use of dialects. Taiwanese opera is considered as the embodiment of Taiwanese history and tradition and the political identity crisis of Taiwan shaped its development. Taiwanese opera's history reflects the growth and changes in Taiwan society starting from the earlier immigration influences, oppression under the "Kōminka" movement, to little state support during the martial law era and the transformations of modern medias. Taiwanese opera struggles to remain its vitality. The refined operas in modern concert halls establish a new direction of Taiwanese opera development. One of the notable troupes is Ming Hwa Yuan Arts and Culture Group (MHY): In 1983, MHY was the first among other folk theatres to appear on the stage of a national theatre, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall. A more telling example is in 1989 when MHY got permission to perform in the Zhihang airforce base. In the past, only Beijing opera had been considered proper enough to tour military bases. Three years later, MHY toured military schools. The audience's response was far more enthusiastic than it was for Beijing opera. This transformation also reflects on the opera storylines. The traditional plots are historical and heroic events, legends and myths. Taiwanese operas gradually added more romantic elements. The intense drama and the love-hate relationships are the focuses of the televised operas. "Legend of the White Snake" is a typical story that combines the myth, religion, and romance. Originally there are three roles in Taiwanese opera, "Sheng", "Dan", and "Chou". Later, as Taiwanese opera began to incorporate more styles from other major operas, it gradually expanded to include eight major characters. "Sheng" (生). These characters are gentle and brave. is an older male lead. Old shengs have a chaste and decent disposition. Young male characters are known as . In Taiwanese opera there are four subtypes in "Dan" (旦) roles. siao chou Stage properties and figures are a part of dancing. Taiwanese opera are not graphic. Sometimes a chair in Taiwanese opera stands for a fence or a bridge. Raising red flags stands for fire, raising blue flags stands for water, and raising black flags stands for wind. There are many types of figures: The most important in Taiwanese opera is the music for voices. The use of a wide range of traditional musical instruments in Taiwanese opera. The three-role opera is known as the story

Taiwanese opera

T a i w a n e s e o p e r a i s t h e o n l y f o r m o f H a n t r a d i t i o n a l d r a m a k n o w n t o h a v e o r i g i n a t e d i n T a i w a n , s p e c i f i c a l l y i n Y i l a n . I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s , m o s t H a n i m m i g r a n t s i n Y i l a n w e r e f r o m Z h a n g z h o u , F u j i a n , b r i n g i n g w i t h t h e m t h e H o k k i e n Z h a n g z h o u d i a l e c t . " K o a - á " w e r e s t o r y - t e l l i n g b a l l a d s s p o k e n i n H o k k i e n . E a c h l i n e c o u l d h a v e f i v e o r s e v e n c h a r a c t e r s , a n d e v e r y f o u r l i n e s c o n s t i t u t e d a p a r a g r a p h . " J i n g e " ( 錦 歌 ) i s t h e f o r e r u n n e r o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a . A s e a r l y a s s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i m m i g r a n t s f r o m s o u t h e r n F u j i a n , C h i n a b r o u g h t " J i n g e " , t h e p o p u l a r f o l k s o n g s t h a t s e t t h e p o e t r y i n l o c a l d i a l e c t t o T a i w a n . A r o u n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a m a t e u r s i n g e r s i n G i l a n m o d i f i e d " J i n g e " a n d g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d a n e w s t y l e c a l l e d " K u a - a " ( ) . O t h e r t h a n " J i n g e " , T a i w a n e s e o p e r a a b s o r b e d t h e s t y l e s o f f o r m a l o p e r a s i n c l u d i n g P e k i n g o p e r a , L u a n t a n o p e r a ( 亂 彈 戲 ) , S i p i n g o p e r a ( 四 平 戲 ) , L i y u a n o p e r a ( 梨 園 戲 ) , a n d G a o j i a o p e r a ( 高 甲 戲 ) . B e t w e e n 1 9 2 3 a n d 1 9 4 9 , P e k i n g o p e r a t r o u p e s f r o m S h a n g h a i a n d F u j i a n t o u r e d T a i w a n . S o m e a c t o r s s t a y e d i n T a i w a n a n d b e c a m e p e r f o r m i n g d i r e c t o r s o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s . T h e i n f l u e n c e s o f P e k i n g o p e r a s c a n b e s e e n i n r e p e r t o r y , g e s t u r e , m o v e m e n t , p e r c u s s i o n m u s i c a n d c o s t u m e . F i g h t i n g t h e m e s a n d a c r o b a t i c m o v e m e n t s b e c a m e s t a n d a r d s i n t h e o p e r a s . T a i w a n w a s u n d e r J a p a n e s e r u l e f r o m 1 8 9 5 t o 1 9 4 5 . I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e , J a p a n g o v e r n m e n t a l l o w e d t h e l o c a l c u s t o m s t o d e v e l o p w i t h o u t m u c h i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d T a i w a n e s e o p e r a c o n t i n u e d t o t h r i v e . I n H o - y i L i n ’ s b o o k “ T a i w a n e s e O p e r a ” , s h e d e s c r i b e s h o w T a i w a n e s e o p e r a t o o k r o o t i n C h i n a . S h e s t a t e d , “ I t ’ s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t i n 1 9 2 8 , t h e S a n L e H s u a n t r o u p e ( 三 樂 軒 班 ) , o n a p i l g r i m a g e t o W u W a n g T e m p l e i n s o u t h e r n F u j i a n , p e r f o r m e d w i t h g r e a t s u c c e s s i n B a i - c h i a o ( 白 礁 ) a n d X i a m e n … I n s u c c e s s i o n , T a i w a n e s e t r o u p e s s u c h a s N i S h e n g , N i K u a n , D a n F e n g , M u D a n a n d T u n Y i a l s o p e r f o r m e d i n F u j i a n p r o v i n c e . ” A f t e r t h e P a c i f i c W a r b r o k e o u t , t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t c h a n g e d t h e p r e v i o u s p o l i c y a n d i m p l e m e n t e d a " K ō m i n k a " p o l i c y t h a t e n c o u r a g e d J a p a n i s a t i o n . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t p r o h i b i t e d t h e p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a . E v e n t h o u g h m a n y t r o u p e s w e r e d i s b a n d e d a n d T a i w a n e s e o p e r a w i t n e s s e d i t s f i r s t d e c l i n e , l o c a l p e o p l e s t i l l t r i e d t o p e r f o r m T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s i n s e c r e c y . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , a l s o k n o w n a s " w a n g g u o d i a o " ( 亡 國 調 ; l i t e r a l l y , " m u s i c f r o m a d y i n g n a t i o n " ) p r o v i d e d a n o u t l e t f o r T a i w a n e s e p e o p l e t o s e a r c h f o r t h e i r i d e n t i f y a n d f i g h t f o r t h e " i n - b e t w e e n n e s s " o f c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s o f T a i w a n , J a p a n a n d C h i n a . S o m e d i s s i d e n t s l i k e t h e " R u i g u a n g T h e a t e r T r o u p e f r o m R u i f a n g i n n o r t h e r n T a i p e i P r e f e c t u r e p r e m i e r e d i t s o w n " n e w d r a m a " . " ( L e e D a w - M i n g , 1 5 8 ) J a p a n i s a t i o n f o r b a d e t r a d i t i o n a l T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , t h i s t r o u p e w o u l d s i m p l y p e r f o r m " n e w d r a m a " w h i c h w a s a m o d e r n v a r i a t i o n o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , w i t h m o d e r n c o s t u m e s . T h e " N e w D r a m a m o v e m e n t " f e v e r f i n a l l y s u b s i d e d i n 1 9 4 0 . " ( L e e - D a w - M i n g , 1 5 8 ) A f t e r T a i w a n w a s h a n d e d t o t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a , T a i w a n e s e o p e r a w a s r e v i v e d a n d m o r e t h a n o n e h u n d r e d t r o u p e s w e r e f o r m e d w i t h i n a y e a r . I n 1 9 4 9 , t h e r e w e r e o v e r f i v e h u n d r e d r e g i s t e r e d t r o u p e s . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s e n t e r e d i n t o i t s g o l d e n a g e . D u r i n g t h i s t i m e , C h e n C h e n g - s a n ( 陳 澄 三 ) f o u n d e d “ K u n g L e S h e ” ( 拱 樂 社 ) t r o u p e a n d b e c a m e t h e f i r s t p e r s o n t o u s e w r i t t e n s c r i p t s f o r p e r f o r m a n c e . H e c o m m i s s i o n e d C h e n S h o u - j i n g t o w r i t e s c r i p t s o f " B r o k e n D r e a m s o f t h e R e d C h a m b e r " ( 紅 樓 殘 夢 ) . E v e n d u r i n g i t s g o l d e n p e r i o d , T a i w a n e s e o p e r a c o n t i n u e d t o f a c e c h a l l e n g e s a n d a d a p t t o t h e c h a n g e s i n p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e r i s e o f t h e n e w b r o a d c a s t i n g m e d i a s i n c l u d i n g r a d i o , f i l m a n d t e l e v i s i o n s h o w , t h e i n f l u e n c e a n d p o p u l a r i t y o f w e s t e r n p o p s o n g s a n d m o v i e s d r e w t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c ’ s a t t e n t i o n a n d p r e s e n t e d s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t i o n . D u r i n g t h e m a r t i a l l a w f r o m 1 9 4 9 t o 1 9 8 7 , t h e K M T g o v e r n m e n t r e v i v e d t h e M a n d a r i n P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l a n d d i s c o u r a g e d o r , i n s o m e c a s e s , f o r b a d e t h e u s e o f H o k k i e n a n d o t h e r d i a l e c t s . T h i s a n d t h e s h i f t o f p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t p r o v i d e d l i t t l e s u p p o r t f o r t h e T a i w a n e s e - l a n g u a g e b a s e d a r t f o r m . T h e i n d o o r p e r f o r m a n c e s d e c r e a s e d a n d o p e r a t r o u p e s e x p e r i m e n t e d p e r f o r m i n g o n r a d i o , f i l m a n d t e l e v i s i o n a n d l a r g e o u t d o o r s e t t i n g s . S t a r t i n g i n 1 9 5 4 , T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s p e r f o r m e d o n r a d i o s . I n 1 9 5 5 , C h e n C h e n g - s a n f i l m e d t h e f i r s t w h i t e a n d b l a c k m o v i e o f T a i w a n e s e O p e r a “ X u e P i n - G u i a n d W a n g B a o - c h u a n ” ( 薛 平 貴 與 王 寶 釧 ) a n d t h e p r e m i e r w a s a h u g e s u c c e s s . I n 1 9 6 2 , T a i w a n T e l e v i s i o n w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a n d s t a r t e d b r o a d c a s t i n g T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s . I n 1 9 8 2 , C h i n e s e T e l e v i s i o n S y s t e m ( C T S ) T a i w a n e s e O p e r a T r o u p e p e r f o r m e d i n M a n d a r i n ( i n s t e a d o f H o k k i e n ) . T e l e v i s e d o p e r a s a r e s i m i l a r t o s o a p o p e r a s a n d g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s . H o w e v e r , c e r t a i n t r a d i t i o n a l e l e m e n t s a r e l o s t b e c a u s e t e l e v i s i o n s h o w s f e a t u r e l e s s s i n g i n g a n d b o d y m o v e m e n t s . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s T a i w a n e s e o p e r a w a s b r o u g h t t o t h e t e l e v i s i o n a u d i e n c e , w i t h I û ⁿ L ē - h o a a s i t s p o p u l a r f a c e . T h e a r t i s t i c e l e m e n t s r e m a i n e d l a r g e l y t r a d i t i o n a l , h o w e v e r . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , l i k e o t h e r f o r m s o f C h i n e s e o p e r a a n d t h e a t r e a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , o f t e n t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e s c r o s s - d r e s s e d p e r f o r m e r s ( 反 串 ; f ǎ n c h ù a n ; h ó a n - c h h ò a n ) , s p e c i f i c a l l y w o m e n p o r t r a y i n g m e n ' s r o l e s i n t h e c a s e o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a . M o d e r n a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l f o r m s s h o w s o m e p r o p e n s i t y f o r s y n c r e t i s m . W e s t e r n i n s t r u m e n t s s u c h a s t h e s a x o p h o n e a n d g u i t a r h a v e b e e n u s e d i n s o m e p e r f o r m a n c e s . L o o s e W e s t e r n a d a p t a t i o n s h a v e i n c l u d e d N i k o l a i G o g o l ' s " T h e G o v e r n m e n t I n s p e c t o r " . P e r h a p s d u e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e T a i w a n e s e l o c a l i s a t i o n m o v e m e n t , s t o r i e s s e t i n T a i w a n , a s w e l l a s a b o r i g i n a l c h a r a c t e r s a n d s t o r i e s , h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s . T a i w a n e s e f o r m s o f t h e H a k k a t e a - p i c k i n g o p e r a s h o w s o m e i n f l u e n c e . F a n s o f t h e o p e r a a t t r i b u t e i t s c o n t i n u i n g r e l e v a n c e t o a w i l l i n g n e s s o f p e r f o r m e r s t o a d a p t t o m o d e r n t i m e s i n t e r m s o f s t y l e a n d a r t i s t i c d i v e r s i t y . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a ' s s u c c e s s i n m o v i e a n d t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y i r o n i c a l l y b e c o m e s o n e o f c a u s e t h a t e v e n t u a l l y l e a d s t o t h e d e c l i n e o f i n d o o r s t a g e d p e r f o r m a n c e s . C h e n S h e n - F u , a g e n e r a l p r o d u c e r o f t h e M i n g H w a Y u a n A r t s a n d C u l t u r e G r o u p , s a i d : " A l t h o u g h w e k n o w e v e r y t h i n g t h e y d o i s f o r s u r v i v a l , t h a t i s n o t r i g h t . T h e y a r e d o i n g s o m e t h i n g t h a t w i l l k i l l t h e l i f e o f t h e o p e r a . " O t h e r f a c t o r s i n c l u d e p o l i t i c a l p o l i c y a n d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e c h a n g e s a n d w e s t e r n i n f l u e n c e s . T s a i s u m m a r i s e d t h e p e r i o d o f d e c l i n e : T h e m a i n s o c i a l c h a n g e s w e r e t h e r i s e o f m a n y f o r m s o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f s o c i e t y f r o m a g r i c u l t u r a l t o i n d u s t r i a l a n d c o m m e r c i a l i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s . G o v e r n m e n t p o l i c i e s t h a t w e r e d e t r i m e n t a l t o T a i w a n e s e o p e r a w e r e 1 ) t h e p r o m o t i o n o f o n l y n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e – P e k i n g O p e r a , 2 ) s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n o f p l a y s , a n d 3 ) L i m i t a t i o n s o n r e l i g i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e s a n d o n t h e u s e o f d i a l e c t s . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a i s c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f T a i w a n e s e h i s t o r y a n d t r a d i t i o n a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l i d e n t i t y c r i s i s o f T a i w a n s h a p e d i t s d e v e l o p m e n t . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a ' s h i s t o r y r e f l e c t s t h e g r o w t h a n d c h a n g e s i n T a i w a n s o c i e t y s t a r t i n g f r o m t h e e a r l i e r i m m i g r a t i o n i n f l u e n c e s , o p p r e s s i o n u n d e r t h e " K ō m i n k a " m o v e m e n t , t o l i t t l e s t a t e s u p p o r t d u r i n g t h e m a r t i a l l a w e r a a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f m o d e r n m e d i a s . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s t r u g g l e s t o r e m a i n i t s v i t a l i t y . T h e r e f i n e d o p e r a s i n m o d e r n c o n c e r t h a l l s e s t a b l i s h a n e w d i r e c t i o n o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a d e v e l o p m e n t . O n e o f t h e n o t a b l e t r o u p e s i s M i n g H w a Y u a n A r t s a n d C u l t u r e G r o u p ( M H Y ) : I n 1 9 8 3 , M H Y w a s t h e f i r s t a m o n g o t h e r f o l k t h e a t r e s t o a p p e a r o n t h e s t a g e o f a n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e , S u n Y a t - s e n M e m o r i a l H a l l . A m o r e t e l l i n g e x a m p l e i s i n 1 9 8 9 w h e n M H Y g o t p e r m i s s i o n t o p e r f o r m i n t h e Z h i h a n g a i r f o r c e b a s e . I n t h e p a s t , o n l y B e i j i n g o p e r a h a d b e e n c o n s i d e r e d p r o p e r e n o u g h t o t o u r m i l i t a r y b a s e s . T h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , M H Y t o u r e d m i l i t a r y s c h o o l s . T h e a u d i e n c e ' s r e s p o n s e w a s f a r m o r e e n t h u s i a s t i c t h a n i t w a s f o r B e i j i n g o p e r a . T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l s o r e f l e c t s o n t h e o p e r a s t o r y l i n e s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l p l o t s a r e h i s t o r i c a l a n d h e r o i c e v e n t s , l e g e n d s a n d m y t h s . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s g r a d u a l l y a d d e d m o r e r o m a n t i c e l e m e n t s . T h e i n t e n s e d r a m a a n d t h e l o v e - h a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e t h e f o c u s e s o f t h e t e l e v i s e d o p e r a s . " L e g e n d o f t h e W h i t e S n a k e " i s a t y p i c a l s t o r y t h a t c o m b i n e s t h e m y t h , r e l i g i o n , a n d r o m a n c e . O r i g i n a l l y t h e r e a r e t h r e e r o l e s i n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , " S h e n g " , " D a n " , a n d " C h o u " . L a t e r , a s T a i w a n e s e o p e r a b e g a n t o i n c o r p o r a t e m o r e s t y l e s f r o m o t h e r m a j o r o p e r a s , i t g r a d u a l l y e x p a n d e d t o i n c l u d e e i g h t m a j o r c h a r a c t e r s . " S h e n g " ( 生 ) . T h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a r e g e n t l e a n d b r a v e . i s a n o l d e r m a l e l e a d . O l d s h e n g s h a v e a c h a s t e a n d d e c e n t d i s p o s i t i o n . Y o u n g m a l e c h a r a c t e r s a r e k n o w n a s . I n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a t h e r e a r e f o u r s u b t y p e s i n " D a n " ( 旦 ) r o l e s . s i a o c h o u S t a g e p r o p e r t i e s a n d f i g u r e s a r e a p a r t o f d a n c i n g . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a a r e n o t g r a p h i c . S o m e t i m e s a c h a i r i n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s t a n d s f o r a f e n c e o r a b r i d g e . R a i s i n g r e d f l a g s s t a n d s f o r f i r e , r a i s i n g b l u e f l a g s s t a n d s f o r w a t e r , a n d r a i s i n g b l a c k f l a g s s t a n d s f o r w i n d . T h e r e a r e m a n y t y p e s o f f i g u r e s : T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a i s t h e m u s i c f o r v o i c e s . T h e u s e o f a w i d e r a n g e o f t r a d i t i o n a l m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s i n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a . T h e t h r e e - r o l e o p e r a i s k n o w n a s t h e s t o r y o f t e a - f a r m e r Z h a n g S a n l a n g p e r f o r m e d b y o n e c l o w n a n d t w o f e m a l e r o l e s a n d t h e p l o t a n d t h e s i n g i n g a r e f i x e d . T h e t h r e e - r o l e t e a - p i c k i n g o p e r a i s s i m p l e a n d d o e s n o t h a v e o f f i c i a l s t a g e . T h e s t a g e i s b u i l t b e f o r e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e .

History ; Origin

Taiwanese opera has a rich history dating back to the 17th century when immigrants from southern Fujian, China brought "Jinge" folk songs to Taiwan. It evolved through influences from various Chinese operas, including Peking opera, and was shaped by Taiwan's complex political history, including Japanese rule and the subsequent revival after WWII. Despite facing decline due to changing societal values and limited state support, Taiwanese opera continues to evolve, incorporating new styles and themes while maintaining its cultural significance.

Taiwanese opera is the only form of Han traditional drama known to have originated in Taiwan, specifically in Yilan. In the early stages, most Han immigrants in Yilan were from Zhangzhou, Fujian, bringing with them the Hokkien Zhangzhou dialect. "Koa-á" were story-telling ballads spoken in Hokkien. Each line could have five or seven characters, and every four lines constituted a paragraph. "Jinge" (錦歌) is the forerunner of Taiwanese opera. As early as seventeenth century, immigrants from southern Fujian, China brought "Jinge", the popular folk songs that set the poetry in local dialect to Taiwan. Around nineteenth century, amateur singers in Gilan modified "Jinge" and gradually developed a new style called "Kua-a" (). Other than "Jinge", Taiwanese opera absorbed the styles of formal operas including Peking opera, Luantan opera (亂彈戲), Siping opera (四平戲), Liyuan opera (梨園戲), and Gaojia opera (高甲戲). Between 1923 and 1949, Peking opera troupes from Shanghai and Fujian toured Taiwan. Some actors stayed in Taiwan and became performing directors of Taiwanese operas. The influences of Peking operas can be seen in repertory, gesture, movement, percussion music and costume. Fighting themes and acrobatic movements became standards in the operas. Taiwan was under Japanese rule from 1895 to 1945. In the early stage, Japan government allowed the local customs to develop without much interference and Taiwanese opera continued to thrive. In Ho-yi Lin’s book “Taiwanese Opera”, she describes how Taiwanese opera took root in China. She stated, “It’s worth noting that in 1928, the San Le Hsuan troupe (三樂軒班), on a pilgrimage to Wu Wang Temple Some dissidents like the "Ruiguang Theater Troupe from Ruifang in northern Taipei Prefecture premiered its own "new drama"." (Lee Daw-Ming, 158) Japanisation forbade traditional Taiwanese opera, this troupe would simply perform "new drama" which was a modern variation of Taiwanese opera, with modern costumes. The "New Drama movement" fever finally subsided in 1940." (Lee-Daw-Ming, 158) After Taiwan was handed to the Republic of China, Taiwanese opera was revived and more than one hundred troupes were formed within a year. In 1949, there were over five hundred registered troupes. Taiwanese operas entered into its golden age. During this time, Chen Cheng-san (陳澄三) founded “Kung Le She” (拱樂社) troupe and became the first person to use written scripts for performance. He commissioned Chen Shou-jing to write scripts of "Broken Dreams decline of indoor staged performances. Chen Shen-Fu, a general producer of the Ming Hwa Yuan Arts and Culture Group, said: "Although we know everything they do is for survival, that is not right. They are doing something that will kill the life of the opera." Other factors include political policy and social structure changes and western influences. Tsai summarised the period of decline: The main social changes were the rise of many forms of entertainment in the 1960s and the transformation of society from agricultural to industrial and commercial in the 1970s. Government policies that were detrimental to Taiwanese opera were 1) the promotion of only national theatre – Peking Opera, 2) standardisation of plays, and 3) Limitations on religious performances and on the use of dialects. Taiwanese opera is considered as the embodiment of Taiwanese history and tradition and the political identity crisis of Taiwan shaped its development. Taiwanese opera's history reflects the growth and changes in Taiwan society starting from the earlier immigration influences, oppression under the "Kōminka" movement, to little state support during the martial law era and the transformations of modern medias. Taiwanese opera struggles to remain its vitality. The refined operas in modern concert halls establish a new direction of Taiwanese opera development. One of the notable troupes is Ming Hwa Yuan Arts and Culture Group (MHY): In 1983, MHY was the first among other folk theatres to appear on the stage of a national theatre, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall. A more telling example is in 1989 when MHY got permission to perform in the Zhihang airforce base. In the past, only Beijing opera had been considered proper enough to tour military bases. Three years later, MHY toured military schools. The audience's response was far more enthusiastic than it was for Beijing opera. This transformation also reflects on the opera storylines. The traditional plots are historical and heroic events, legends and myths. Taiwanese operas gradually added more romantic elements. The intense drama and the love-hate relationships are the focuses of the televised operas. "Legend of the White Snake" is a typical story that combines the myth, religion, and romance. Originally there are three roles in Taiwanese opera, "Sheng", "Dan", and "Chou". Later, as Taiwanese opera began to incorporate more styles from other major operas, it gradually expanded to include eight major characters. "Sheng" (生). These characters are gentle and brave. is an older male lead. Old shengs have a chaste and decent disposition. Young male characters are known as . In Taiwanese opera there are four subtypes in "Dan" (旦) roles. siao chou Stage properties and figures are a part of dancing. Taiwanese opera are not graphic. Sometimes a chair in Taiwanese opera stands for a fence or a bridge. Raising red flags stands for fire, raising blue flags stands for water, and raising black flags stands for wind. There are many types of figures: The most important in Taiwanese opera is the music for voices. The use of a wide range of traditional musical instruments in Taiwanese opera. The three-role opera is known as the story of tea-farmer Zhang Sanlang performed by one clown and two female roles and the plot and the singing are fixed. The three-role tea-picking opera is simple and does not have official stage. The stage is built before the performance.

Taiwanese opera

T a i w a n e s e o p e r a i s t h e o n l y f o r m o f H a n t r a d i t i o n a l d r a m a k n o w n t o h a v e o r i g i n a t e d i n T a i w a n , s p e c i f i c a l l y i n Y i l a n . I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s , m o s t H a n i m m i g r a n t s i n Y i l a n w e r e f r o m Z h a n g z h o u , F u j i a n , b r i n g i n g w i t h t h e m t h e H o k k i e n Z h a n g z h o u d i a l e c t . " K o a - á " w e r e s t o r y - t e l l i n g b a l l a d s s p o k e n i n H o k k i e n . E a c h l i n e c o u l d h a v e f i v e o r s e v e n c h a r a c t e r s , a n d e v e r y f o u r l i n e s c o n s t i t u t e d a p a r a g r a p h . " J i n g e " ( 錦 歌 ) i s t h e f o r e r u n n e r o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a . A s e a r l y a s s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i m m i g r a n t s f r o m s o u t h e r n F u j i a n , C h i n a b r o u g h t " J i n g e " , t h e p o p u l a r f o l k s o n g s t h a t s e t t h e p o e t r y i n l o c a l d i a l e c t t o T a i w a n . A r o u n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a m a t e u r s i n g e r s i n G i l a n m o d i f i e d " J i n g e " a n d g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d a n e w s t y l e c a l l e d " K u a - a " ( ) . O t h e r t h a n " J i n g e " , T a i w a n e s e o p e r a a b s o r b e d t h e s t y l e s o f f o r m a l o p e r a s i n c l u d i n g P e k i n g o p e r a , L u a n t a n o p e r a ( 亂 彈 戲 ) , S i p i n g o p e r a ( 四 平 戲 ) , L i y u a n o p e r a ( 梨 園 戲 ) , a n d G a o j i a o p e r a ( 高 甲 戲 ) . B e t w e e n 1 9 2 3 a n d 1 9 4 9 , P e k i n g o p e r a t r o u p e s f r o m S h a n g h a i a n d F u j i a n t o u r e d T a i w a n . S o m e a c t o r s s t a y e d i n T a i w a n a n d b e c a m e p e r f o r m i n g d i r e c t o r s o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s . T h e i n f l u e n c e s o f P e k i n g o p e r a s c a n b e s e e n i n r e p e r t o r y , g e s t u r e , m o v e m e n t , p e r c u s s i o n m u s i c a n d c o s t u m e . F i g h t i n g t h e m e s a n d a c r o b a t i c m o v e m e n t s b e c a m e s t a n d a r d s i n t h e o p e r a s . T a i w a n w a s u n d e r J a p a n e s e r u l e f r o m 1 8 9 5 t o 1 9 4 5 . I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e , J a p a n g o v e r n m e n t a l l o w e d t h e l o c a l c u s t o m s t o d e v e l o p w i t h o u t m u c h i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d T a i w a n e s e o p e r a c o n t i n u e d t o t h r i v e . I n H o - y i L i n ’ s b o o k “ T a i w a n e s e O p e r a ” , s h e d e s c r i b e s h o w T a i w a n e s e o p e r a t o o k r o o t i n C h i n a . S h e s t a t e d , “ I t ’ s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t i n 1 9 2 8 , t h e S a n L e H s u a n t r o u p e ( 三 樂 軒 班 ) , o n a p i l g r i m a g e t o W u W a n g T e m p l e i n s o u t h e r n F u j i a n , p e r f o r m e d w i t h g r e a t s u c c e s s i n B a i - c h i a o ( 白 礁 ) a n d X i a m e n … I n s u c c e s s i o n , T a i w a n e s e t r o u p e s s u c h a s N i S h e n g , N i K u a n , D a n F e n g , M u D a n a n d T u n Y i a l s o p e r f o r m e d i n F u j i a n p r o v i n c e . ” A f t e r t h e P a c i f i c W a r b r o k e o u t , t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t c h a n g e d t h e p r e v i o u s p o l i c y a n d i m p l e m e n t e d a " K ō m i n k a " p o l i c y t h a t e n c o u r a g e d J a p a n i s a t i o n . D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t p r o h i b i t e d t h e p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a . E v e n t h o u g h m a n y t r o u p e s w e r e d i s b a n d e d a n d T a i w a n e s e o p e r a w i t n e s s e d i t s f i r s t d e c l i n e , l o c a l p e o p l e s t i l l t r i e d t o p e r f o r m T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s i n s e c r e c y . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , a l s o k n o w n a s " w a n g g u o d i a o " ( 亡 國 調 ; l i t e r a l l y , " m u s i c f r o m a d y i n g n a t i o n " ) p r o v i d e d a n o u t l e t f o r T a i w a n e s e p e o p l e t o s e a r c h f o r t h e i r i d e n t i f y a n d f i g h t f o r t h e " i n - b e t w e e n n e s s " o f c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s o f T a i w a n , J a p a n a n d C h i n a . S o m e d i s s i d e n t s l i k e t h e " R u i g u a n g T h e a t e r T r o u p e f r o m R u i f a n g i n n o r t h e r n T a i p e i P r e f e c t u r e p r e m i e r e d i t s o w n " n e w d r a m a " . " ( L e e D a w - M i n g , 1 5 8 ) J a p a n i s a t i o n f o r b a d e t r a d i t i o n a l T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , t h i s t r o u p e w o u l d s i m p l y p e r f o r m " n e w d r a m a " w h i c h w a s a m o d e r n v a r i a t i o n o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , w i t h m o d e r n c o s t u m e s . T h e " N e w D r a m a m o v e m e n t " f e v e r f i n a l l y s u b s i d e d i n 1 9 4 0 . " ( L e e - D a w - M i n g , 1 5 8 ) A f t e r T a i w a n w a s h a n d e d t o t h e R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a , T a i w a n e s e o p e r a w a s r e v i v e d a n d m o r e t h a n o n e h u n d r e d t r o u p e s w e r e f o r m e d w i t h i n a y e a r . I n 1 9 4 9 , t h e r e w e r e o v e r f i v e h u n d r e d r e g i s t e r e d t r o u p e s . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s e n t e r e d i n t o i t s g o l d e n a g e . D u r i n g t h i s t i m e , C h e n C h e n g - s a n ( 陳 澄 三 ) f o u n d e d “ K u n g L e S h e ” ( 拱 樂 社 ) t r o u p e a n d b e c a m e t h e f i r s t p e r s o n t o u s e w r i t t e n s c r i p t s f o r p e r f o r m a n c e . H e c o m m i s s i o n e d C h e n S h o u - j i n g t o w r i t e s c r i p t s o f " B r o k e n D r e a m s o f t h e R e d C h a m b e r " ( 紅 樓 殘 夢 ) . E v e n d u r i n g i t s g o l d e n p e r i o d , T a i w a n e s e o p e r a c o n t i n u e d t o f a c e c h a l l e n g e s a n d a d a p t t o t h e c h a n g e s i n p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e r i s e o f t h e n e w b r o a d c a s t i n g m e d i a s i n c l u d i n g r a d i o , f i l m a n d t e l e v i s i o n s h o w , t h e i n f l u e n c e a n d p o p u l a r i t y o f w e s t e r n p o p s o n g s a n d m o v i e s d r e w t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c ’ s a t t e n t i o n a n d p r e s e n t e d s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t i o n . D u r i n g t h e m a r t i a l l a w f r o m 1 9 4 9 t o 1 9 8 7 , t h e K M T g o v e r n m e n t r e v i v e d t h e M a n d a r i n P r o m o t i o n C o u n c i l a n d d i s c o u r a g e d o r , i n s o m e c a s e s , f o r b a d e t h e u s e o f H o k k i e n a n d o t h e r d i a l e c t s . T h i s a n d t h e s h i f t o f p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t p r o v i d e d l i t t l e s u p p o r t f o r t h e T a i w a n e s e - l a n g u a g e b a s e d a r t f o r m . T h e i n d o o r p e r f o r m a n c e s d e c r e a s e d a n d o p e r a t r o u p e s e x p e r i m e n t e d p e r f o r m i n g o n r a d i o , f i l m a n d t e l e v i s i o n a n d l a r g e o u t d o o r s e t t i n g s . S t a r t i n g i n 1 9 5 4 , T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s p e r f o r m e d o n r a d i o s . I n 1 9 5 5 , C h e n C h e n g - s a n f i l m e d t h e f i r s t w h i t e a n d b l a c k m o v i e o f T a i w a n e s e O p e r a “ X u e P i n - G u i a n d W a n g B a o - c h u a n ” ( 薛 平 貴 與 王 寶 釧 ) a n d t h e p r e m i e r w a s a h u g e s u c c e s s . I n 1 9 6 2 , T a i w a n T e l e v i s i o n w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a n d s t a r t e d b r o a d c a s t i n g T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s . I n 1 9 8 2 , C h i n e s e T e l e v i s i o n S y s t e m ( C T S ) T a i w a n e s e O p e r a T r o u p e p e r f o r m e d i n M a n d a r i n ( i n s t e a d o f H o k k i e n ) . T e l e v i s e d o p e r a s a r e s i m i l a r t o s o a p o p e r a s a n d g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s . H o w e v e r , c e r t a i n t r a d i t i o n a l e l e m e n t s a r e l o s t b e c a u s e t e l e v i s i o n s h o w s f e a t u r e l e s s s i n g i n g a n d b o d y m o v e m e n t s . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s T a i w a n e s e o p e r a w a s b r o u g h t t o t h e t e l e v i s i o n a u d i e n c e , w i t h I û ⁿ L ē - h o a a s i t s p o p u l a r f a c e . T h e a r t i s t i c e l e m e n t s r e m a i n e d l a r g e l y t r a d i t i o n a l , h o w e v e r . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , l i k e o t h e r f o r m s o f C h i n e s e o p e r a a n d t h e a t r e a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , o f t e n t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e s c r o s s - d r e s s e d p e r f o r m e r s ( 反 串 ; f ǎ n c h ù a n ; h ó a n - c h h ò a n ) , s p e c i f i c a l l y w o m e n p o r t r a y i n g m e n ' s r o l e s i n t h e c a s e o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a . M o d e r n a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l f o r m s s h o w s o m e p r o p e n s i t y f o r s y n c r e t i s m . W e s t e r n i n s t r u m e n t s s u c h a s t h e s a x o p h o n e a n d g u i t a r h a v e b e e n u s e d i n s o m e p e r f o r m a n c e s . L o o s e W e s t e r n a d a p t a t i o n s h a v e i n c l u d e d N i k o l a i G o g o l ' s " T h e G o v e r n m e n t I n s p e c t o r " . P e r h a p s d u e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e T a i w a n e s e l o c a l i s a t i o n m o v e m e n t , s t o r i e s s e t i n T a i w a n , a s w e l l a s a b o r i g i n a l c h a r a c t e r s a n d s t o r i e s , h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s . T a i w a n e s e f o r m s o f t h e H a k k a t e a - p i c k i n g o p e r a s h o w s o m e i n f l u e n c e . F a n s o f t h e o p e r a a t t r i b u t e i t s c o n t i n u i n g r e l e v a n c e t o a w i l l i n g n e s s o f p e r f o r m e r s t o a d a p t t o m o d e r n t i m e s i n t e r m s o f s t y l e a n d a r t i s t i c d i v e r s i t y . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a ' s s u c c e s s i n m o v i e a n d t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y i r o n i c a l l y b e c o m e s o n e o f c a u s e t h a t e v e n t u a l l y l e a d s t o t h e d e c l i n e o f i n d o o r s t a g e d p e r f o r m a n c e s . C h e n S h e n - F u , a g e n e r a l p r o d u c e r o f t h e M i n g H w a Y u a n A r t s a n d C u l t u r e G r o u p , s a i d : " A l t h o u g h w e k n o w e v e r y t h i n g t h e y d o i s f o r s u r v i v a l , t h a t i s n o t r i g h t . T h e y a r e d o i n g s o m e t h i n g t h a t w i l l k i l l t h e l i f e o f t h e o p e r a . " O t h e r f a c t o r s i n c l u d e p o l i t i c a l p o l i c y a n d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e c h a n g e s a n d w e s t e r n i n f l u e n c e s . T s a i s u m m a r i s e d t h e p e r i o d o f d e c l i n e : T h e m a i n s o c i a l c h a n g e s w e r e t h e r i s e o f m a n y f o r m s o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f s o c i e t y f r o m a g r i c u l t u r a l t o i n d u s t r i a l a n d c o m m e r c i a l i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s . G o v e r n m e n t p o l i c i e s t h a t w e r e d e t r i m e n t a l t o T a i w a n e s e o p e r a w e r e 1 ) t h e p r o m o t i o n o f o n l y n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e – P e k i n g O p e r a , 2 ) s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n o f p l a y s , a n d 3 ) L i m i t a t i o n s o n r e l i g i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e s a n d o n t h e u s e o f d i a l e c t s . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a i s c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e e m b o d i m e n t o f T a i w a n e s e h i s t o r y a n d t r a d i t i o n a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l i d e n t i t y c r i s i s o f T a i w a n s h a p e d i t s d e v e l o p m e n t . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a ' s h i s t o r y r e f l e c t s t h e g r o w t h a n d c h a n g e s i n T a i w a n s o c i e t y s t a r t i n g f r o m t h e e a r l i e r i m m i g r a t i o n i n f l u e n c e s , o p p r e s s i o n u n d e r t h e " K ō m i n k a " m o v e m e n t , t o l i t t l e s t a t e s u p p o r t d u r i n g t h e m a r t i a l l a w e r a a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f m o d e r n m e d i a s . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s t r u g g l e s t o r e m a i n i t s v i t a l i t y . T h e r e f i n e d o p e r a s i n m o d e r n c o n c e r t h a l l s e s t a b l i s h a n e w d i r e c t i o n o f T a i w a n e s e o p e r a d e v e l o p m e n t . O n e o f t h e n o t a b l e t r o u p e s i s M i n g H w a Y u a n A r t s a n d C u l t u r e G r o u p ( M H Y ) : I n 1 9 8 3 , M H Y w a s t h e f i r s t a m o n g o t h e r f o l k t h e a t r e s t o a p p e a r o n t h e s t a g e o f a n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e , S u n Y a t - s e n M e m o r i a l H a l l . A m o r e t e l l i n g e x a m p l e i s i n 1 9 8 9 w h e n M H Y g o t p e r m i s s i o n t o p e r f o r m i n t h e Z h i h a n g a i r f o r c e b a s e . I n t h e p a s t , o n l y B e i j i n g o p e r a h a d b e e n c o n s i d e r e d p r o p e r e n o u g h t o t o u r m i l i t a r y b a s e s . T h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , M H Y t o u r e d m i l i t a r y s c h o o l s . T h e a u d i e n c e ' s r e s p o n s e w a s f a r m o r e e n t h u s i a s t i c t h a n i t w a s f o r B e i j i n g o p e r a . T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l s o r e f l e c t s o n t h e o p e r a s t o r y l i n e s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l p l o t s a r e h i s t o r i c a l a n d h e r o i c e v e n t s , l e g e n d s a n d m y t h s . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s g r a d u a l l y a d d e d m o r e r o m a n t i c e l e m e n t s . T h e i n t e n s e d r a m a a n d t h e l o v e - h a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e t h e f o c u s e s o f t h e t e l e v i s e d o p e r a s . " L e g e n d o f t h e W h i t e S n a k e " i s a t y p i c a l s t o r y t h a t c o m b i n e s t h e m y t h , r e l i g i o n , a n d r o m a n c e . O r i g i n a l l y t h e r e a r e t h r e e r o l e s i n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a , " S h e n g " , " D a n " , a n d " C h o u " . L a t e r , a s T a i w a n e s e o p e r a b e g a n t o i n c o r p o r a t e m o r e s t y l e s f r o m o t h e r m a j o r o p e r a s , i t g r a d u a l l y e x p a n d e d t o i n c l u d e e i g h t m a j o r c h a r a c t e r s . " S h e n g " ( 生 ) . T h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a r e g e n t l e a n d b r a v e . i s a n o l d e r m a l e l e a d . O l d s h e n g s h a v e a c h a s t e a n d d e c e n t d i s p o s i t i o n . Y o u n g m a l e c h a r a c t e r s a r e k n o w n a s . I n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a t h e r e a r e f o u r s u b t y p e s i n " D a n " ( 旦 ) r o l e s . s i a o c h o u S t a g e p r o p e r t i e s a n d f i g u r e s a r e a p a r t o f d a n c i n g . T a i w a n e s e o p e r a a r e n o t g r a p h i c . S o m e t i m e s a c h a i r i n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a s t a n d s f o r a f e n c e o r a b r i d g e . R a i s i n g r e d f l a g s s t a n d s f o r f i r e , r a i s i n g b l u e f l a g s s t a n d s f o r w a t e r , a n d r a i s i n g b l a c k f l a g s s t a n d s f o r w i n d . T h e r e a r e m a n y t y p e s o f f i g u r e s : T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a i s t h e m u s i c f o r v o i c e s . T h e u s e o f a w i d e r a n g e o f t r a d i t i o n a l m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s i n T a i w a n e s e o p e r a . T h e t h r e e - r o l e o p e r a i s k n o w n a s t h e s t o r y o f t e a - f a r m e r Z h a n g S a n l a n g p e r f o r m e d b y o n e c l o w n a n d t w o f e m a l e r o l e s a n d t h e p l o t a n d t h e s i n g i n g a r e f i x e d . T h e t h r e e - r o l e t e a - p i c k i n g o p e r a i s s i m p l e a n d d o e s n o t h a v e o f f i c i a l s t a g e . T h e s t a g e i s b u i l t b e f o r e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e .

History ; Future

Taiwanese opera has a rich history influenced by Chinese Peking opera, Japanese colonial rule, and Western cultural influences. It thrived in the post-war era but declined due to government policies, social changes, and the rise of new media. Despite these challenges, Taiwanese opera continues to evolve, incorporating new styles and themes while maintaining its traditional roots. Modern troupes like Ming Hwa Yuan Arts and Culture Group are leading the way in revitalizing this unique art form.

(亂彈戲), Siping opera (四平戲), Liyuan opera (梨園戲), and Gaojia opera (高甲戲). Between 1923 and 1949, Peking opera troupes from Shanghai and Fujian toured Taiwan. Some actors stayed in Taiwan and became performing directors of Taiwanese operas. The influences of Peking operas can be seen in repertory, gesture, movement, percussion music and costume. Fighting themes and acrobatic movements became standards in the operas. Taiwan was under Japanese rule from 1895 to 1945. In the early stage, Japan government allowed the local customs to develop without much interference and Taiwanese opera continued to thrive. In Ho-yi Lin’s book “Taiwanese Opera”, she describes how Taiwanese opera took root in China. She stated, “It’s worth noting that in 1928, the San Le Hsuan troupe (三樂軒班), on a pilgrimage to Wu Wang Temple Some dissidents like the "Ruiguang Theater Troupe from Ruifang in northern Taipei Prefecture premiered its own "new drama"." (Lee Daw-Ming, 158) Japanisation forbade traditional Taiwanese opera, this troupe would simply perform "new drama" which was a modern variation of Taiwanese opera, with modern costumes. The "New Drama movement" fever finally subsided in 1940." (Lee-Daw-Ming, 158) After Taiwan was handed to the Republic of China, Taiwanese opera was revived and more than one hundred troupes were formed within a year. In 1949, there were over five hundred registered troupes. Taiwanese operas entered into its golden age. During this time, Chen Cheng-san (陳澄三) founded “Kung Le She” (拱樂社) troupe and became the first person to use written scripts for performance. He commissioned Chen Shou-jing to write scripts of "Broken Dreams of the Red Chamber" (紅樓殘夢). Even during its golden period, Taiwanese opera continued to face challenges and adapt to the changes in political and cultural environment. The rise of the new broadcasting medias including radio, film and television show, the influence and popularity of western pop songs and movies drew the general public’s attention and presented serious competition. During the martial law from 1949 to 1987, the KMT government revived the Mandarin Promotion Council and discouraged or, in some cases, forbade the use of Hokkien and other dialects. This and the shift of political environment provided little support for the Taiwanese-language based art form. The indoor performances decreased and opera troupes experimented performing on radio, film and television and large outdoor settings. Starting in 1954, Taiwanese operas performed decline of indoor staged performances. Chen Shen-Fu, a general producer of the Ming Hwa Yuan Arts and Culture Group, said: "Although we know everything they do is for survival, that is not right. They are doing something that will kill the life of the opera." Other factors include political policy and social structure changes and western influences. Tsai summarised the period of decline: The main social changes were the rise of many forms of entertainment in the 1960s and the transformation of society from agricultural to industrial and commercial in the 1970s. Government policies that were detrimental to Taiwanese opera were 1) the promotion of only national theatre – Peking Opera, 2) standardisation of plays, and 3) Limitations on religious performances and on the use of dialects. Taiwanese opera is considered as the embodiment of Taiwanese history and tradition and the political identity crisis of Taiwan shaped its development. Taiwanese opera's history reflects the growth and changes in Taiwan society starting from the earlier immigration influences, oppression under the "Kōminka" movement, to little state support during the martial law era and the transformations of modern medias. Taiwanese opera struggles to remain its vitality. The refined operas in modern concert halls establish a new direction of Taiwanese opera development. One of the notable troupes is Ming Hwa Yuan Arts and Culture Group (MHY): In 1983, MHY was the first among other folk theatres to appear on the stage of a national theatre, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall. A more telling example is in 1989 when MHY got permission to perform in the Zhihang airforce base. In the past, only Beijing opera had been considered proper enough to tour military bases. Three years later, MHY toured military schools. The audience's response was far more enthusiastic than it was for Beijing opera. This transformation also reflects on the opera storylines. The traditional plots are historical and heroic events, legends and myths. Taiwanese operas gradually added more romantic elements. The intense drama and the love-hate relationships are the focuses of the televised operas. "Legend of the White Snake" is a typical story that combines the myth, religion, and romance. Originally there are three roles in Taiwanese opera, "Sheng", "Dan", and "Chou". Later, as Taiwanese opera began to incorporate more styles from other major operas, it gradually expanded to include eight major characters. "Sheng" (生). These characters are gentle and brave. is an older male lead. Old shengs have a chaste and decent disposition. Young male characters are known as . In Taiwanese opera there are four subtypes in "Dan" (旦) roles. siao chou Stage properties and figures are a part of dancing. Taiwanese opera are not graphic. Sometimes a chair in Taiwanese opera stands for a fence or a bridge. Raising red flags stands for fire, raising blue flags stands for water, and raising black flags stands for wind. There are many types of figures: The most important in Taiwanese opera is the music for voices. The use of a wide range of traditional musical instruments in Taiwanese opera. The three-role opera is known as the story of tea-farmer Zhang Sanlang performed by one clown and two female roles and the plot and the singing are fixed. The three-role tea-picking opera is simple and does not have official stage. The stage is built before the performance.

Superkart

P o w e r e d b y a t w o - s t r o k e 2 5 0   c c e n g i n e p r o d u c i n g f o r a n o v e r a l l w e i g h t i n c l u d i n g t h e d r i v e r o f 2 0 5 k i l o g r a m s ( 4 5 2 l b ) , s u p e r k a r t s h a v e a p o w e r / w e i g h t r a t i o ( i n c l u d i n g t h e d r i v e r ) o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 6 5 W / k g ( 4 9 0   h p / t o n n e ) ( 0 . 2 2   h p / l b ) , o r c l o s e r t o 7 3 0   W / k g ( 9 8 0   h p / t o n n e ) ( 0 . 4 4   h p / l b ) w i t h o u t t h e d r i v e r , w h i c h i s a b o u t t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f a m i d g e t c a r , o r a n o p e n - w h e e l A 1 G r a n d P r i x c a r . S u p e r k a r t s c a n a c c e l e r a t e f r o m 0 t o i n l e s s t h a n 3   s e c o n d s w i t h a t o p s p e e d o f . T h e i r l o w w e i g h t a n d g o o d d o w n f o r c e m a k e f o r e x c e l l e n t c o r n e r i n g a n d b r a k i n g a b i l i t i e s . A s u p e r k a r t i s c a p a b l e o f b r a k i n g f r o m t o s t a n d s t i l l i n a r o u n d 2   s e c o n d s , a n d t a k i n g c o r n e r s a t n e a r l y 3 " " g " " ( 3 0   m / s ² ) . B r i t i s h s u p e r k a r t d i v i s i o n s : A u s t r a l i a n s u p e r k a r t d i v i s i o n s : S u p e r k a r t r a c i n g i n A u s t r a l i a h a s , s i n c e 1 9 8 9 , r e f e r r e d t o a n y f o r m o f r a c i n g k a r t t o r a c e o n f u l l - s i z e m o t o r r a c i n g c i r c u i t s , u s u a l l y a s s a n c t i o n e d b y t h e A u s t r a l i a n A S N , C A M S . U n i t e d S t a t e s s u p e r k a r t c l a s s e s : " R o a d & T r a c k " r e p o r t s t h a t s u p e r k a r t s c o s t b e t w e e n $ 1 5 , 0 0 0 t o U S D $ 2 0 , 0 0 0 i n 2 0 0 5 . E n t r i e s o f 6 0 o r m o r e a r e c o m m o n i n B r i t a i n . O v e r t a k i n g t e n d s t o b e e a s y , a s t h e r e i s r o o m t o g e t p a s t , s o t h e r a c e s t e n d t o b e f u l l o f a c t i o n . R a c e l e n g t h s t e n d t o b e a r o u n d 2 0 – 2 5   m i l e s ( 3 0 – 4 0   k m ) , b e c a u s e t h e f u e l t a n k s a r e q u i t e s m a l l , s o a t m o s t m e e t i n g s t h a t f e a t u r e s u p e r k a r t s , t h e k a r t s r a c e i s o f t e n a b r i e f , s p e c t a c u l a r h i g h l i g h t ( U . S . s u p e r k a r t r a c e s a r e t i m e d 3 0 - m i n u t e r a c e s ; p r e - f i n a l o n S a t u r d a y , f i n a l o n S u n d a y ) . A g l o b a l c a t e g o r y , s u p e r k a r t s a r e e n d o r s e d b y t h e F I A , a n d w e r e f e a t u r e d a s a s u p p o r t c a t e g o r y t o t h e F r e n c h F o r m u l a 1 G r a n d P r i x a t M a g n y - C o u r s i n 2 0 0 7 w h e r e t h e y b e t t e r e d P o r s c h e S u p e r c u p l a p t i m e s .

Performance

Superkarts are high-performance go-karts powered by 250cc engines, weighing 205kg with a driver. They boast a remarkable power-to-weight ratio, accelerating from 0-100km/h in under 3 seconds and reaching speeds of over 160km/h. With exceptional cornering and braking capabilities, superkarts provide thrilling races with frequent overtaking opportunities. Popular in the UK, Australia, and the US, these karts can cost between $15,000-$20,000 and often attract large entries, making them a highlight of motorsport events.

Powered by a two-stroke 250 cc engine producing for an overall weight including the driver of 205 kilograms (452 lb), superkarts have a power/weight ratio (including the driver) of approximately 365 W/kg (490 hp/tonne)(0.22 hp/lb), or closer to 730 W/kg (980 hp/tonne)(0.44 hp/lb) without the driver, which is about the equivalent of a midget car, or an open-wheel A1 Grand Prix car. Superkarts can accelerate from 0 to in less than 3 seconds with a top speed of . Their low weight and good downforce make for excellent cornering and braking abilities. A superkart is capable of braking from to standstill in around 2 seconds, and taking corners at nearly 3 ""g"" (30 m/s²). British superkart divisions : Australian superkart divisions : Superkart racing in Australia has, since 1989, referred to any form of racing kart to race on full-size motor racing circuits, usually as sanctioned by the Australian ASN, CAMS. United States superkart classes: "Road & Track" reports that superkarts cost between $15,000 to USD$20,000 in 2005. Entries of 60 or more are common in Britain. Overtaking tends to be easy, as there is room to get past, so the races tend to be full of action. Race lengths tend to be around 20–25 miles (30–40 km), because the fuel tanks are quite small, so at most meetings that feature superkarts, the karts race is often a brief, spectacular highlight (U.S. superkart races are timed 30-minute races; pre-final on Saturday, final on Sunday). A global category, superkarts are endorsed by the FIA, and were featured as a support category to the French Formula 1 Grand Prix at Magny-Cours in 2007 where they bettered Porsche Supercup lap times.

William Strong (Pennsylvania judge)

S t r o n g w a s b o r n i n S o m e r s , C o n n e c t i c u t a n d l a t e r m o v e d t o P e n n s y l v a n i a . H e w a s t h e e l d e s t o f e l e v e n c h i l d r e n o f W i l l i a m L i g h t b o u r n S t r o n g , a d e s c e n d a n t o f E l d e r J o h n S t r o n g a n d H a r r i e t ( D e m i n g ) S t r o n g . H e w a s t h e b r o t h e r o f N e w t o n D e m i n g S t r o n g a n d t h e c o u s i n o f U . S . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e T h e r o n R u d d S t r o n g o f N e w Y o r k . W i l l i a m S t r o n g a t t e n d e d t h e M o n s o n A c a d e m y i n M a s s a c h u s e t t s , a n d g r a d u a t e d f r o m Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y i n 1 8 2 8 P h i B e t a K a p p a . H e t a u g h t s c h o o l i n B u r l i n g t o n , N e w J e r s e y w h i l e s t u d y i n g l a w w i t h G a r r e t D . W a l l , a n d t h e n c o m p l e t e d h i s l e g a l e d u c a t i o n w i t h a s i x - m o n t h c o u r s e a t Y a l e L a w S c h o o l . A f t e r b e i n g a d m i t t e d t o t h e b a r S t r o n g s t a r t e d a l e g a l p r a c t i c e i n R e a d i n g , P e n n s y l v a n i a , r e m a i n i n g i n p r a c t i c e f r o m 1 8 3 2 t o 1 8 5 7 . H e w a s e l e c t e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e A m e r i c a n P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y i n 1 8 6 6 . I n 1 8 4 6 , S t r o n g w a s e l e c t e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a s a n a b o l i t i o n i s t D e m o c r a t . S t r o n g s e r v e d t w o t e r m s i n t h e H o u s e , a n d w a s t h e c h a i r m a n o f t h e U . S . H o u s e C o m m i t t e e o n E l e c t i o n s d u r i n g h i s s e c o n d t e r m . H e d i d n o t s e e k r e e l e c t i o n i n 1 8 5 0 , b u t r e t u r n e d t o p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e . S t r o n g w a s e l e c t e d t o t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t o f P e n n s y l v a n i a i n 1 8 5 7 a s a D e m o c r a t . S t r o n g s w i t c h e d t o t h e R e p u b l i c a n P a r t y s o o n a f t e r t a k i n g t h e b e n c h . H e r e s i g n e d f r o m t h e c o u r t i n 1 8 6 8 t o r e t u r n t o a l u c r a t i v e p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e i n P h i l a d e l p h i a . I n D e c e m b e r 1 8 6 9 , J u s t i c e R o b e r t C . G r i e r a n n o u n c e d h i s i n t e n t i o n t o r e t i r e f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t e f f e c t i v e F e b r u a r y 1 , 1 8 7 0 . P r e s i d e n t U l y s s e s S . G r a n t w a s h e a v i l y l o b b i e d t o n o m i n a t e f o r m e r S e c r e t a r y o f W a r E d w i n S t a n t o n . S t a n t o n w a s n o m i n a t e d , a n d c o n f i r m e d b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e o n D e c e m b e r 2 0 , 1 8 6 9 , b u t h e d i e d j u s t f o u r d a y s l a t e r w i t h o u t h a v i n g s e r v e d o n t h e C o u r t . A f t e r G r i e r r e t i r e d , G r a n t n o m i n a t e d S t r o n g t o s u c c e e d h i m . H e w a s c o n f i r m e d b y t h e S e n a t e o n F e b r u a r y 1 8 , 1 8 7 0 , a n d w a s s w o r n i n o n M a r c h 1 4 , 1 8 7 0 . S t r o n g r u l e d f o r s t a t e s r i g h t s a n d a g a i n s t t h e C i v i l R i g h t s A c t o f 1 8 6 6 , w h i c h h a d a l l o w e d A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s t o t e s t i f y a g a i n s t W h i t e s , i n " B y l e w v . U n i t e d S t a t e s " . I n " U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G i v e n " , 2 5 F . C a s . 1 3 2 4 ( C . C . D . D e l . 1 8 7 3 ) , S t r o n g , r i d i n g o n c i r c u i t , u p h e l d a n i n d i c t m e n t u n d e r t h e E n f o r c e m e n t A c t o f 1 8 7 0 w h e n e l e c t i o n o f f i c i a l s p r e v e n t e d b l a c k A m e r i c a n s f r o m v o t i n g . S t r o n g h e l d t h a t t h e R e c o n s t r u c t i o n A m e n d m e n t s a l l o w e d C o n g r e s s t o e n a c t l e g i s l a t i o n p u n i s h i n g p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s w h e n a s t a t e f a i l e d t o p r o t e c t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s . S t r o n g w r o t e t h e o p i n i o n f o r a n e a r l y e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n c a s e i n " S t r a u d e r v . W e s t V i r g i n i a " , 1 0 0 U . S . 3 0 3 ( 1 8 7 9 ) . S t r o n g w a s o n e o f f i v e S u p r e m e C o u r t j u s t i c e s w h o s a t o n t h e E l e c t o r a l C o m m i s s i o n t h a t w a s c o n v e n e d t o r e s o l v e t h e d i s p u t e d e l e c t o r a l v o t e s i n t h e U . S . p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n o f 1 8 7 6 . S t r o n g v o t e d a l o n g w i t h h i s f e l l o w R e p u b l i c a n s , w h o h e l d t h e m a j o r i t y o n t h e C o m m i s s i o n , t o a w a r d e v e r y d i s p u t e d v o t e t o R u t h e r f o r d B . H a y e s , t h e R e p u b l i c a n c a n d i d a t e , t h u s e n s u r i n g h i s p r e s i d e n c y . S t r o n g s e r v e d o n t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t u n t i l D e c e m b e r 1 4 , 1 8 8 0 , w h e n h e r e t i r e d d e s p i t e s t i l l b e i n g i n g o o d h e a l t h , p a r t l y t o s e t a n e x a m p l e f o r s e v e r a l i n f i r m j u s t i c e s w h o r e f u s e d t o g i v e u p t h e i r s e a t s . H e r e s u m e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f l a w a n d p u r s u e d r e l i g i o u s c a u s e s u n t i l h i s d e a t h , a t L a k e M i n n e w a s k a i n U l s t e r C o u n t y , N e w Y o r k , o n A u g u s t 1 9 , 1 8 9 5 . F o l l o w i n g f u n e r a l s e r v i c e s a t t h e c h a p e l o f t h e C h a r l e s E v a n s C e m e t e r y i n R e a d i n g , P e n n s y l v a n i a , h e w a s l a i d t o r e s t a t t h a t c e m e t e r y . T h e H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y o f B e r k s C o u n t y h a s i n i t s c o l l e c t i o n a f e w p i e c e s r e l a t i n g t o J u s t i c e S t r o n g . A f t e r h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t , S t r o n g s e r v e d a s a n a r b i t r a t o r f o r a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s p u t e b e t w e e n H a i t i a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a c c o r d i n g t o a 1 8 8 4 a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e t w o n a t i o n s . T w o A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s c l a i m e d d a m a g e s d u e t o t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e H a i t i a n g o v e r n m e n t . H e i s s u e d h i s a w a r d o n J u n e 1 3 , 1 8 8 5 . J u s t i c e W i l l i a m S t r o n g ' s g r a n d s o n , L i e u t e n a n t W i l l i a m S t r o n g , J r . , o f W a s h i n g t o n , D C , s e r v e d i n t h e C a n a d i a n A r m y d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I a n d , w h i l e i n P a s a d e n a , C a l i f o r n i a f o r r e c o v e r y , d i e d f r o m c o m p l i c a t i o n s f r o m e x p o s u r e t o p o i s o n g a s o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d s o f Y p r e s a n d V i m y R i d g e . " T h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t " d e s c r i b e s h i m a s t h e f i r s t A m e r i c a n c a s u a l t y o f W W I .

Judicial service

William Strong was a US Supreme Court Justice serving from 1870-1880. Prior to this, he was a lawyer, teacher, and politician, serving in the US House of Representatives from 1847-1850. He was also a judge on the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania from 1857-1868. During his time on the Supreme Court, he made notable rulings on states' rights, civil rights, and equal protection cases.

Strong was born in Somers, Connecticut and later moved to Pennsylvania. He was the eldest of eleven children of William Lightbourn Strong, a descendant of Elder John Strong and Harriet (Deming) Strong. He was the brother of Newton Deming Strong and the cousin of U.S. Representative Theron Rudd Strong of New York. William Strong attended the Monson Academy in Massachusetts, and graduated from Yale University in 1828 Phi Beta Kappa. He taught school in Burlington, New Jersey while studying law with Garret D. Wall, and then completed his legal education with a six-month course at Yale Law School. After being admitted to the bar Strong started a legal practice in Reading, Pennsylvania, remaining in practice from 1832 to 1857. He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1866. In 1846, Strong was elected to the United States House of Representatives as an abolitionist Democrat. Strong served two terms in the House, and was the chairman of the U.S. House Committee on Elections during his second term. He did not seek reelection in 1850, but returned to private practice. Strong was elected to the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania in 1857 as a Democrat. Strong switched to the Republican Party soon after taking the bench. He resigned from the court in 1868 to return to a lucrative private practice in Philadelphia. In December 1869, Justice Robert C. Grier announced his intention to retire from the United States Supreme Court effective February 1, 1870. President Ulysses S. Grant was heavily lobbied to nominate former Secretary of War Edwin Stanton. Stanton was nominated, and confirmed by the United States Senate on December 20, 1869, but he died just four days later without having served on the Court. After Grier retired, Grant nominated Strong to succeed him. He was confirmed by the Senate on February 18, 1870, and was sworn in on March 14, 1870. Strong ruled for states rights and against the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which had allowed African Americans to testify against Whites, in "Bylew v. United States". In "United States v. Given", 25 F. Cas. 1324 (C.C.D. Del. 1873), Strong, riding on circuit, upheld an indictment under the Enforcement Act of 1870 when election officials prevented black Americans from voting. Strong held that the Reconstruction Amendments allowed Congress to enact legislation punishing private individuals when a state failed to protect constitutional rights. Strong wrote the opinion for an early equal protection case in "Strauder v. West Virginia", 100 U.S. 303 (1879). Strong was one of five Supreme Court justices who sat on the Electoral Commission that was convened to resolve the disputed electoral votes in the U.S. presidential election of 1876. Strong voted along with his fellow Republicans, who held the majority on the Commission, to award every disputed vote to Rutherford B. Hayes, the Republican candidate, thus ensuring his presidency. Strong served on the Supreme Court until December 14, 1880, when he retired despite still being in good health, partly to set an example for several infirm justices who refused to give up their seats. He resumed the practice of law and pursued religious causes until his death, at Lake Minnewaska in Ulster County, New York, on August 19, 1895. Following funeral services at the chapel of the Charles Evans Cemetery in Reading, Pennsylvania, he was laid to rest at that cemetery. The Historical Society of Berks County has in its collection a few pieces relating to Justice Strong. After his retirement from the Supreme Court, Strong served as an arbitrator for an international dispute between Haiti and the United States, according to a 1884 agreement between the two nations. Two American citizens claimed damages due to the conduct of the Haitian government. He issued his award on June 13, 1885. Justice William Strong's grandson, Lieutenant William Strong, Jr., of Washington, DC, served in the Canadian Army during World War I and, while in Pasadena, California for recovery, died from complications from exposure to poison gas on the battlefields of Ypres and Vimy Ridge. "The Washington Post" describes him as the first American casualty of WWI.

William Strong (Pennsylvania judge)

S t r o n g w a s b o r n i n S o m e r s , C o n n e c t i c u t a n d l a t e r m o v e d t o P e n n s y l v a n i a . H e w a s t h e e l d e s t o f e l e v e n c h i l d r e n o f W i l l i a m L i g h t b o u r n S t r o n g , a d e s c e n d a n t o f E l d e r J o h n S t r o n g a n d H a r r i e t ( D e m i n g ) S t r o n g . H e w a s t h e b r o t h e r o f N e w t o n D e m i n g S t r o n g a n d t h e c o u s i n o f U . S . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e T h e r o n R u d d S t r o n g o f N e w Y o r k . W i l l i a m S t r o n g a t t e n d e d t h e M o n s o n A c a d e m y i n M a s s a c h u s e t t s , a n d g r a d u a t e d f r o m Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y i n 1 8 2 8 P h i B e t a K a p p a . H e t a u g h t s c h o o l i n B u r l i n g t o n , N e w J e r s e y w h i l e s t u d y i n g l a w w i t h G a r r e t D . W a l l , a n d t h e n c o m p l e t e d h i s l e g a l e d u c a t i o n w i t h a s i x - m o n t h c o u r s e a t Y a l e L a w S c h o o l . A f t e r b e i n g a d m i t t e d t o t h e b a r S t r o n g s t a r t e d a l e g a l p r a c t i c e i n R e a d i n g , P e n n s y l v a n i a , r e m a i n i n g i n p r a c t i c e f r o m 1 8 3 2 t o 1 8 5 7 . H e w a s e l e c t e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e A m e r i c a n P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y i n 1 8 6 6 . I n 1 8 4 6 , S t r o n g w a s e l e c t e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a s a n a b o l i t i o n i s t D e m o c r a t . S t r o n g s e r v e d t w o t e r m s i n t h e H o u s e , a n d w a s t h e c h a i r m a n o f t h e U . S . H o u s e C o m m i t t e e o n E l e c t i o n s d u r i n g h i s s e c o n d t e r m . H e d i d n o t s e e k r e e l e c t i o n i n 1 8 5 0 , b u t r e t u r n e d t o p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e . S t r o n g w a s e l e c t e d t o t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t o f P e n n s y l v a n i a i n 1 8 5 7 a s a D e m o c r a t . S t r o n g s w i t c h e d t o t h e R e p u b l i c a n P a r t y s o o n a f t e r t a k i n g t h e b e n c h . H e r e s i g n e d f r o m t h e c o u r t i n 1 8 6 8 t o r e t u r n t o a l u c r a t i v e p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e i n P h i l a d e l p h i a . I n D e c e m b e r 1 8 6 9 , J u s t i c e R o b e r t C . G r i e r a n n o u n c e d h i s i n t e n t i o n t o r e t i r e f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t e f f e c t i v e F e b r u a r y 1 , 1 8 7 0 . P r e s i d e n t U l y s s e s S . G r a n t w a s h e a v i l y l o b b i e d t o n o m i n a t e f o r m e r S e c r e t a r y o f W a r E d w i n S t a n t o n . S t a n t o n w a s n o m i n a t e d , a n d c o n f i r m e d b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e o n D e c e m b e r 2 0 , 1 8 6 9 , b u t h e d i e d j u s t f o u r d a y s l a t e r w i t h o u t h a v i n g s e r v e d o n t h e C o u r t . A f t e r G r i e r r e t i r e d , G r a n t n o m i n a t e d S t r o n g t o s u c c e e d h i m . H e w a s c o n f i r m e d b y t h e S e n a t e o n F e b r u a r y 1 8 , 1 8 7 0 , a n d w a s s w o r n i n o n M a r c h 1 4 , 1 8 7 0 . S t r o n g r u l e d f o r s t a t e s r i g h t s a n d a g a i n s t t h e C i v i l R i g h t s A c t o f 1 8 6 6 , w h i c h h a d a l l o w e d A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s t o t e s t i f y a g a i n s t W h i t e s , i n " B y l e w v . U n i t e d S t a t e s " . I n " U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G i v e n " , 2 5 F . C a s . 1 3 2 4 ( C . C . D . D e l . 1 8 7 3 ) , S t r o n g , r i d i n g o n c i r c u i t , u p h e l d a n i n d i c t m e n t u n d e r t h e E n f o r c e m e n t A c t o f 1 8 7 0 w h e n e l e c t i o n o f f i c i a l s p r e v e n t e d b l a c k A m e r i c a n s f r o m v o t i n g . S t r o n g h e l d t h a t t h e R e c o n s t r u c t i o n A m e n d m e n t s a l l o w e d C o n g r e s s t o e n a c t l e g i s l a t i o n p u n i s h i n g p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s w h e n a s t a t e f a i l e d t o p r o t e c t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s . S t r o n g w r o t e t h e o p i n i o n f o r a n e a r l y e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n c a s e i n " S t r a u d e r v . W e s t V i r g i n i a " , 1 0 0 U . S . 3 0 3 ( 1 8 7 9 ) . S t r o n g w a s o n e o f f i v e S u p r e m e C o u r t j u s t i c e s w h o s a t o n t h e E l e c t o r a l C o m m i s s i o n t h a t w a s c o n v e n e d t o r e s o l v e t h e d i s p u t e d e l e c t o r a l v o t e s i n t h e U . S . p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n o f 1 8 7 6 . S t r o n g v o t e d a l o n g w i t h h i s f e l l o w R e p u b l i c a n s , w h o h e l d t h e m a j o r i t y o n t h e C o m m i s s i o n , t o a w a r d e v e r y d i s p u t e d v o t e t o R u t h e r f o r d B . H a y e s , t h e R e p u b l i c a n c a n d i d a t e , t h u s e n s u r i n g h i s p r e s i d e n c y . S t r o n g s e r v e d o n t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t u n t i l D e c e m b e r 1 4 , 1 8 8 0 , w h e n h e r e t i r e d d e s p i t e s t i l l b e i n g i n g o o d h e a l t h , p a r t l y t o s e t a n e x a m p l e f o r s e v e r a l i n f i r m j u s t i c e s w h o r e f u s e d t o g i v e u p t h e i r s e a t s . H e r e s u m e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f l a w a n d p u r s u e d r e l i g i o u s c a u s e s u n t i l h i s d e a t h , a t L a k e M i n n e w a s k a i n U l s t e r C o u n t y , N e w Y o r k , o n A u g u s t 1 9 , 1 8 9 5 . F o l l o w i n g f u n e r a l s e r v i c e s a t t h e c h a p e l o f t h e C h a r l e s E v a n s C e m e t e r y i n R e a d i n g , P e n n s y l v a n i a , h e w a s l a i d t o r e s t a t t h a t c e m e t e r y . T h e H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y o f B e r k s C o u n t y h a s i n i t s c o l l e c t i o n a f e w p i e c e s r e l a t i n g t o J u s t i c e S t r o n g . A f t e r h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t , S t r o n g s e r v e d a s a n a r b i t r a t o r f o r a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s p u t e b e t w e e n H a i t i a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a c c o r d i n g t o a 1 8 8 4 a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e t w o n a t i o n s . T w o A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s c l a i m e d d a m a g e s d u e t o t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e H a i t i a n g o v e r n m e n t . H e i s s u e d h i s a w a r d o n J u n e 1 3 , 1 8 8 5 . J u s t i c e W i l l i a m S t r o n g ' s g r a n d s o n , L i e u t e n a n t W i l l i a m S t r o n g , J r . , o f W a s h i n g t o n , D C , s e r v e d i n t h e C a n a d i a n A r m y d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I a n d , w h i l e i n P a s a d e n a , C a l i f o r n i a f o r r e c o v e r y , d i e d f r o m c o m p l i c a t i o n s f r o m e x p o s u r e t o p o i s o n g a s o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d s o f Y p r e s a n d V i m y R i d g e . " T h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t " d e s c r i b e s h i m a s t h e f i r s t A m e r i c a n c a s u a l t y o f W W I .

Judicial service ; United States Supreme Court

William Strong was a US Supreme Court Justice from 1870-1880. Prior to this, he served in the US House of Representatives from 1847-1851 and on the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania from 1857-1868. During his time on the Supreme Court, he made notable decisions including ruling for states' rights and against the Civil Rights Act of 1866. He also served on the Electoral Commission in 1876, helping to decide the disputed presidential election. After retiring from the Supreme Court, Strong continued to work as an arbitrator and lawyer, passing away in 1895.

Strong was born in Somers, Connecticut and later moved to Pennsylvania. He was the eldest of eleven children of William Lightbourn Strong, a descendant of Elder John Strong and Harriet (Deming) Strong. He was the brother of Newton Deming Strong and the cousin of U.S. Representative Theron Rudd Strong of New York. William Strong attended the Monson Academy in Massachusetts, and graduated from Yale University in 1828 Phi Beta Kappa. He taught school in Burlington, New Jersey while studying law with Garret D. Wall, and then completed his legal education with a six-month course at Yale Law School. After being admitted to the bar Strong started a legal practice in Reading, Pennsylvania, remaining in practice from 1832 to 1857. He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1866. In 1846, Strong was elected to the United States House of Representatives as an abolitionist Democrat. Strong served two terms in the House, and was the chairman of the U.S. House Committee on Elections during his second term. He did not seek reelection in 1850, but returned to private practice. Strong was elected to the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania in 1857 as a Democrat. Strong switched to the Republican Party soon after taking the bench. He resigned from the court in 1868 to return to a lucrative private practice in Philadelphia. In December 1869, Justice Robert C. Grier announced his intention to retire from the United States Supreme Court effective February 1, 1870. President Ulysses S. Grant was heavily lobbied to nominate former Secretary of War Edwin Stanton. Stanton was nominated, and confirmed by the United States Senate on December 20, 1869, but he died just four days later without having served on the Court. After Grier retired, Grant nominated Strong to succeed him. He was confirmed by the Senate on February 18, 1870, and was sworn in on March 14, 1870. Strong ruled for states rights and against the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which had allowed African Americans to testify against Whites, in "Bylew v. United States". In "United States v. Given", 25 F. Cas. 1324 (C.C.D. Del. 1873), Strong, riding on circuit, upheld an indictment under the Enforcement Act of 1870 when election officials prevented black Americans from voting. Strong held that the Reconstruction Amendments allowed Congress to enact legislation punishing private individuals when a state failed to protect constitutional rights. Strong wrote the opinion for an early equal protection case in "Strauder v. West Virginia", 100 U.S. 303 (1879). Strong was one of five Supreme Court justices who sat on the Electoral Commission that was convened to resolve the disputed electoral votes in the U.S. presidential election of 1876. Strong voted along with his fellow Republicans, who held the majority on the Commission, to award every disputed vote to Rutherford B. Hayes, the Republican candidate, thus ensuring his presidency. Strong served on the Supreme Court until December 14, 1880, when he retired despite still being in good health, partly to set an example for several infirm justices who refused to give up their seats. He resumed the practice of law and pursued religious causes until his death, at Lake Minnewaska in Ulster County, New York, on August 19, 1895. Following funeral services at the chapel of the Charles Evans Cemetery in Reading, Pennsylvania, he was laid to rest at that cemetery. The Historical Society of Berks County has in its collection a few pieces relating to Justice Strong. After his retirement from the Supreme Court, Strong served as an arbitrator for an international dispute between Haiti and the United States, according to a 1884 agreement between the two nations. Two American citizens claimed damages due to the conduct of the Haitian government. He issued his award on June 13, 1885. Justice William Strong's grandson, Lieutenant William Strong, Jr., of Washington, DC, served in the Canadian Army during World War I and, while in Pasadena, California for recovery, died from complications from exposure to poison gas on the battlefields of Ypres and Vimy Ridge. "The Washington Post" describes him as the first American casualty of WWI.

William Strong (Pennsylvania judge)

S t r o n g w a s b o r n i n S o m e r s , C o n n e c t i c u t a n d l a t e r m o v e d t o P e n n s y l v a n i a . H e w a s t h e e l d e s t o f e l e v e n c h i l d r e n o f W i l l i a m L i g h t b o u r n S t r o n g , a d e s c e n d a n t o f E l d e r J o h n S t r o n g a n d H a r r i e t ( D e m i n g ) S t r o n g . H e w a s t h e b r o t h e r o f N e w t o n D e m i n g S t r o n g a n d t h e c o u s i n o f U . S . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e T h e r o n R u d d S t r o n g o f N e w Y o r k . W i l l i a m S t r o n g a t t e n d e d t h e M o n s o n A c a d e m y i n M a s s a c h u s e t t s , a n d g r a d u a t e d f r o m Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y i n 1 8 2 8 P h i B e t a K a p p a . H e t a u g h t s c h o o l i n B u r l i n g t o n , N e w J e r s e y w h i l e s t u d y i n g l a w w i t h G a r r e t D . W a l l , a n d t h e n c o m p l e t e d h i s l e g a l e d u c a t i o n w i t h a s i x - m o n t h c o u r s e a t Y a l e L a w S c h o o l . A f t e r b e i n g a d m i t t e d t o t h e b a r S t r o n g s t a r t e d a l e g a l p r a c t i c e i n R e a d i n g , P e n n s y l v a n i a , r e m a i n i n g i n p r a c t i c e f r o m 1 8 3 2 t o 1 8 5 7 . H e w a s e l e c t e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e A m e r i c a n P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y i n 1 8 6 6 . I n 1 8 4 6 , S t r o n g w a s e l e c t e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a s a n a b o l i t i o n i s t D e m o c r a t . S t r o n g s e r v e d t w o t e r m s i n t h e H o u s e , a n d w a s t h e c h a i r m a n o f t h e U . S . H o u s e C o m m i t t e e o n E l e c t i o n s d u r i n g h i s s e c o n d t e r m . H e d i d n o t s e e k r e e l e c t i o n i n 1 8 5 0 , b u t r e t u r n e d t o p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e . S t r o n g w a s e l e c t e d t o t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t o f P e n n s y l v a n i a i n 1 8 5 7 a s a D e m o c r a t . S t r o n g s w i t c h e d t o t h e R e p u b l i c a n P a r t y s o o n a f t e r t a k i n g t h e b e n c h . H e r e s i g n e d f r o m t h e c o u r t i n 1 8 6 8 t o r e t u r n t o a l u c r a t i v e p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e i n P h i l a d e l p h i a . I n D e c e m b e r 1 8 6 9 , J u s t i c e R o b e r t C . G r i e r a n n o u n c e d h i s i n t e n t i o n t o r e t i r e f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t e f f e c t i v e F e b r u a r y 1 , 1 8 7 0 . P r e s i d e n t U l y s s e s S . G r a n t w a s h e a v i l y l o b b i e d t o n o m i n a t e f o r m e r S e c r e t a r y o f W a r E d w i n S t a n t o n . S t a n t o n w a s n o m i n a t e d , a n d c o n f i r m e d b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e o n D e c e m b e r 2 0 , 1 8 6 9 , b u t h e d i e d j u s t f o u r d a y s l a t e r w i t h o u t h a v i n g s e r v e d o n t h e C o u r t . A f t e r G r i e r r e t i r e d , G r a n t n o m i n a t e d S t r o n g t o s u c c e e d h i m . H e w a s c o n f i r m e d b y t h e S e n a t e o n F e b r u a r y 1 8 , 1 8 7 0 , a n d w a s s w o r n i n o n M a r c h 1 4 , 1 8 7 0 . S t r o n g r u l e d f o r s t a t e s r i g h t s a n d a g a i n s t t h e C i v i l R i g h t s A c t o f 1 8 6 6 , w h i c h h a d a l l o w e d A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s t o t e s t i f y a g a i n s t W h i t e s , i n " B y l e w v . U n i t e d S t a t e s " . I n " U n i t e d S t a t e s v . G i v e n " , 2 5 F . C a s . 1 3 2 4 ( C . C . D . D e l . 1 8 7 3 ) , S t r o n g , r i d i n g o n c i r c u i t , u p h e l d a n i n d i c t m e n t u n d e r t h e E n f o r c e m e n t A c t o f 1 8 7 0 w h e n e l e c t i o n o f f i c i a l s p r e v e n t e d b l a c k A m e r i c a n s f r o m v o t i n g . S t r o n g h e l d t h a t t h e R e c o n s t r u c t i o n A m e n d m e n t s a l l o w e d C o n g r e s s t o e n a c t l e g i s l a t i o n p u n i s h i n g p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s w h e n a s t a t e f a i l e d t o p r o t e c t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s . S t r o n g w r o t e t h e o p i n i o n f o r a n e a r l y e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n c a s e i n " S t r a u d e r v . W e s t V i r g i n i a " , 1 0 0 U . S . 3 0 3 ( 1 8 7 9 ) . S t r o n g w a s o n e o f f i v e S u p r e m e C o u r t j u s t i c e s w h o s a t o n t h e E l e c t o r a l C o m m i s s i o n t h a t w a s c o n v e n e d t o r e s o l v e t h e d i s p u t e d e l e c t o r a l v o t e s i n t h e U . S . p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n o f 1 8 7 6 . S t r o n g v o t e d a l o n g w i t h h i s f e l l o w R e p u b l i c a n s , w h o h e l d t h e m a j o r i t y o n t h e C o m m i s s i o n , t o a w a r d e v e r y d i s p u t e d v o t e t o R u t h e r f o r d B . H a y e s , t h e R e p u b l i c a n c a n d i d a t e , t h u s e n s u r i n g h i s p r e s i d e n c y . S t r o n g s e r v e d o n t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t u n t i l D e c e m b e r 1 4 , 1 8 8 0 , w h e n h e r e t i r e d d e s p i t e s t i l l b e i n g i n g o o d h e a l t h , p a r t l y t o s e t a n e x a m p l e f o r s e v e r a l i n f i r m j u s t i c e s w h o r e f u s e d t o g i v e u p t h e i r s e a t s . H e r e s u m e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f l a w a n d p u r s u e d r e l i g i o u s c a u s e s u n t i l h i s d e a t h , a t L a k e M i n n e w a s k a i n U l s t e r C o u n t y , N e w Y o r k , o n A u g u s t 1 9 , 1 8 9 5 . F o l l o w i n g f u n e r a l s e r v i c e s a t t h e c h a p e l o f t h e C h a r l e s E v a n s C e m e t e r y i n R e a d i n g , P e n n s y l v a n i a , h e w a s l a i d t o r e s t a t t h a t c e m e t e r y . T h e H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y o f B e r k s C o u n t y h a s i n i t s c o l l e c t i o n a f e w p i e c e s r e l a t i n g t o J u s t i c e S t r o n g . A f t e r h i s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t , S t r o n g s e r v e d a s a n a r b i t r a t o r f o r a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s p u t e b e t w e e n H a i t i a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a c c o r d i n g t o a 1 8 8 4 a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e t w o n a t i o n s . T w o A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s c l a i m e d d a m a g e s d u e t o t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e H a i t i a n g o v e r n m e n t . H e i s s u e d h i s a w a r d o n J u n e 1 3 , 1 8 8 5 . J u s t i c e W i l l i a m S t r o n g ' s g r a n d s o n , L i e u t e n a n t W i l l i a m S t r o n g , J r . , o f W a s h i n g t o n , D C , s e r v e d i n t h e C a n a d i a n A r m y d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I a n d , w h i l e i n P a s a d e n a , C a l i f o r n i a f o r r e c o v e r y , d i e d f r o m c o m p l i c a t i o n s f r o m e x p o s u r e t o p o i s o n g a s o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d s o f Y p r e s a n d V i m y R i d g e . " T h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t " d e s c r i b e s h i m a s t h e f i r s t A m e r i c a n c a s u a l t y o f W W I .

Judicial service ; United States Supreme Court ; 1876 election

William Strong was a US Supreme Court justice serving from 1870-1880. Prior to this, he was a lawyer, congressman, and judge in PA. He was known for his decisions on states' rights and civil rights cases. He retired from the court in 1880 and went back to practicing law.

Strong was born in Somers, Connecticut and later moved to Pennsylvania. He was the eldest of eleven children of William Lightbourn Strong, a descendant of Elder John Strong and Harriet (Deming) Strong. He was the brother of Newton Deming Strong and the cousin of U.S. Representative Theron Rudd Strong of New York. William Strong attended the Monson Academy in Massachusetts, and graduated from Yale University in 1828 Phi Beta Kappa. He taught school in Burlington, New Jersey while studying law with Garret D. Wall, and then completed his legal education with a six-month course at Yale Law School. After being admitted to the bar Strong started a legal practice in Reading, Pennsylvania, remaining in practice from 1832 to 1857. He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1866. In 1846, Strong was elected to the United States House of Representatives as an abolitionist Democrat. Strong served two terms in the House, and was the chairman of the U.S. House Committee on Elections during his second term. He did not seek reelection in 1850, but returned to private practice. Strong was elected to the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania in 1857 as a Democrat. Strong switched to the Republican Party soon after taking the bench. He resigned from the court in 1868 to return to a lucrative private practice in Philadelphia. In December 1869, Justice Robert C. Grier announced his intention to retire from the United States Supreme Court effective February 1, 1870. President Ulysses S. Grant was heavily lobbied to nominate former Secretary of War Edwin Stanton. Stanton was nominated, and confirmed by the United States Senate on December 20, 1869, but he died just four days later without having served on the Court. After Grier retired, Grant nominated Strong to succeed him. He was confirmed by the Senate on February 18, 1870, and was sworn in on March 14, 1870. Strong ruled for states rights and against the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which had allowed African Americans to testify against Whites, in "Bylew v. United States". In "United States v. Given", 25 F. Cas. 1324 (C.C.D. Del. 1873), Strong, riding on circuit, upheld an indictment under the Enforcement Act of 1870 when election officials prevented black Americans from voting. Strong held that the Reconstruction Amendments allowed Congress to enact legislation punishing private individuals when a state failed to protect constitutional rights. Strong wrote the opinion for an early equal protection case in "Strauder v. West Virginia", 100 U.S. 303 (1879). Strong was one of five Supreme Court justices who sat on the Electoral Commission that was convened to resolve the disputed electoral votes in the U.S. presidential election of 1876. Strong voted along with his fellow Republicans, who held the majority on the Commission, to award every disputed vote to Rutherford B. Hayes, the Republican candidate, thus ensuring his presidency. Strong served on the Supreme Court until December 14, 1880, when he retired despite still being in good health, partly to set an example for several infirm justices who refused to give up their seats. He resumed the practice of law and pursued religious causes until his death, at Lake Minnewaska in Ulster County, New York, on August 19, 1895. Following funeral services at the chapel of the Charles Evans Cemetery in Reading, Pennsylvania, he was laid to rest at that cemetery. The Historical Society of Berks County has in its collection a few pieces relating to Justice Strong. After his retirement from the Supreme Court, Strong served as an arbitrator for an international dispute between Haiti and the United States, according to a 1884 agreement between the two nations. Two American citizens claimed damages due to the conduct of the Haitian government. He issued his award on June 13, 1885. Justice William Strong's grandson, Lieutenant William Strong, Jr., of Washington, DC, served in the Canadian Army during World War I and, while in Pasadena, California for recovery, died from complications from exposure to poison gas on the battlefields of Ypres and Vimy Ridge. "The Washington Post" describes him as the first American casualty of WWI.

Tsui

T s u i m a y b e a n a l t e r n a t i v e t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n o f t w o s e p a r a t e C h i n e s e s u r n a m e s , l i s t e d b e l o w b y t h e i r H a n y u P i n y i n t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n ( w h i c h r e f l e c t s t h e M a n d a r i n p r o n u n c i a t i o n ) : T h e 2 0 1 0 U n i t e d S t a t e s C e n s u s f o u n d 3 , 1 6 8 p e o p l e w i t h t h e s u r n a m e T s u i , m a k i n g i t t h e 1 0 , 1 8 0 t h - m o s t - c o m m o n n a m e i n t h e c o u n t r y . T h i s r e p r e s e n t e d a n i n c r e a s e f r o m 2 , 7 2 5 ( 1 0 , 7 4 8 t h - m o s t - c o m m o n ) i n t h e 2 0 0 0 C e n s u s . I n b o t h c e n s u s e s , m o r e t h a n n i n e - t e n t h s o f t h e b e a r e r s o f t h e s u r n a m e i d e n t i f i e d a s A s i a n , a n d r o u g h l y t w o p e r c e n t a s W h i t e .

Origins

Tsui is a Chinese surname that can refer to two different names, with varying pronunciations. According to US census data, there were approximately 3,168 individuals with this surname in 2010, primarily identifying as Asian.

Tsui may be an alternative transliteration of two separate Chinese surnames, listed below by their Hanyu Pinyin transliteration (which reflects the Mandarin pronunciation): The 2010 United States Census found 3,168 people with the surname Tsui, making it the 10,180th-most-common name in the country. This represented an increase from 2,725 (10,748th-most-common) in the 2000 Census. In both censuses, more than nine-tenths of the bearers of the surname identified as Asian, and roughly two percent as White.

Villa Giulia

T h e v i l l a w a s b u i l t i n a n a r e a o f R o m e k n o w n a s t h e ' V i g n a V e c c h i a ' ( w h i c h w a s o n c e a g a i n s t t h e c i t y w a l l s ) , l y i n g o n t h e s l o p e s o f " M o n t e P a r i o l i " , a s a ' V i l l a S u b u r b a n a ' a n d a p l a c e o f r e p o s e . T h e p o p e , a h i g h l y l i t e r a t e c o n n o i s s e u r o f t h e a r t s , a s s i g n e d t h e i n i t i a l d e s i g n o f t h e b u i l d i n g t o G i a c o m o B a r o z z i d a V i g n o l a i n 1 5 5 1 – 1 5 5 3 . T h e n y m p h a e u m a n d o t h e r g a r d e n s t r u c t u r e s , h o w e v e r , w e r e d e s i g n e d b y B a r t o l o m e o A m m a n a t i , a l l u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f G i o r g i o V a s a r i . M i c h e l a n g e l o a l s o w o r k e d t h e r e . P o p e J u l i u s t o o k a d i r e c t i n t e r e s t i n t h e v i l l a ' s d e s i g n a n d d e c o r a n d s p e n t v a s t a m o u n t s o f m o n e y o n e n h a n c i n g i t s b e a u t i e s . V i l l a G i u l i a b e c a m e o n e o f t h e m o s t d e l i c a t e e x a m p l e s o f M a n n e r i s t a r c h i t e c t u r e . O n l y a s m a l l p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l p r o p e r t y h a s s u r v i v e d i n t a c t , c o m p r i s i n g t h r e e v i n e y a r d s w h i c h e x t e n d e d d o w n t o t h e T i b e r , a n d t o w h i c h t h e p o p e t r a v e l e d o f t e n b y b o a t . T h e v i l l a , a s w a s c u s t o m a r y , h a d a n u r b a n e n t r a n c e ( o n t h e R o m a n V i a F l a m i n i a ) a n d a f o r m a l b u t r u r a l g a r d e n e n t r a n c e . T h e v i l l a i t s e l f w a s o n t h e t h r e s h o l d b e t w e e n t w o w o r l d s , t h a t o f t h e c i t y a n d t h a t o f t h e c o u n t r y , a n e s s e n t i a l l y R o m a n c o n c e p t . A m e d a l s t r u c k i n 1 9 3 5 s h o w s t h e v i l l a a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o m p l e t e , b u t w i t h a p a i r o f c u p o l a s w h i c h w e r e n e v e r e x e c u t e d . V i g n o l a ' s u r b a n f r o n t o f t h e b u i l d i n g i s a s o m b e r t w o - s t o r y f a c a d e w i t h e a c h s t o r y b e i n g g i v e n e q u a l v a l u e . I t h a s a t i t s c e n t r e t h e t r i p l e r h y t h m o f a r i c h l y d e t a i l e d r u s t i c a t e d t r i u m p h a l a r c h f l a n k e d b y s y m m e t r i c a l w i n g s o f t w o b a y s o n l y . T h e f a c a d e i s t e r m i n a t e d a t e a c h e n d b y D o r i c p i l a s t e r s . I n t h i s f a c a d e o f t h e V i l l a G i u l i a i s t h e g e n e s i s o f t h e s e v e n - b a y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y G e o r g i a n v i l l a , w h i c h w a s r e p r o d u c e d a s f a r a w a y a s t h e T i d e w a t e r r e g i o n o f V i r g i n i a . T h e r e a r o f t h e b u i l d i n g h a s V i g n o l a ' s l a r g e h e m i s p h e r i c a l l o g g i a o v e r l o o k i n g t h e f i r s t o f t h r e e c o u r t y a r d s , l a i d o u t a s a s i m p l e p a r t e r r e . A t i t s r e a r t h e v i s i t o r p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e " c a s i n a " , w h i c h a g a i n h a s a h e m i s p h e r i c a l r e a r f a c a d e , e n c l o s i n g p a i r e d f l i g h t s o f r e - e n t r a n t m a r b l e s t e p s t h a t g i v e a c c e s s t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e v i l l a c o m p l e x : a t w o - s t o r y N y m p h e u m f o r a l f r e s c o d i n i n g d u r i n g t h e h e a t o f t h e s u m m e r . T h i s t h r e e - l e v e l l e d s t r u c t u r e o f c o v e r e d l o g g i a s , d e c o r a t e d w i t h m a r b l e s t a t u a r y , r e c l i n i n g r i v e r g o d s i n n i c h e s , a n d b a l u s t r a d i n g , i s c o n s t r u c t e d a r o u n d a c e n t r a l f o u n t a i n . H e r e i n t h i s c o o l e n v i r o n m e n t , s h e l t e r e d f r o m t h e b l a z i n g s u n , d a y - l o n g p i c n i c s w o u l d b e h e l d . T h e c e n t r a l f o u n t a i n , " F o n t a n a d e l l ' A c q u a V e r g i n e " , w a s d e s i g n e d a n d s c u l p t e d b y V a s a r i a n d A m m a n n a t i : i t d e p i c t s r i v e r g o d s a n d c a r y a t i d s . T h e f o u n t a i n ' s s o u r c e , t h e A c q u a V e r g i n e , a l s o s u p p l i e s t h e T r e v i F o u n t a i n i n R o m e . T h e " C a s i n o d e l l a V i g n a " ( " l i t t l e h o u s e i n t h e v i n e y a r d " ) , a s i t w a s s o m e t i m e s k n o w n , a n d i t s g a r d e n s w e r e s e t i n t h e m i d s t o f v i n e y a r d s , w h i c h c o u l d b e v i e w e d f r o m s h a d e d a r c a d e s o n t h e o u t s i d e s o f t h e g a r d e n w a l l s . P a p a l p a r t i e s e m b a r k e d o n b o a t s a t t h e g a t e s o f t h e V a t i c a n a n d w e r e t r a n s p o r t e d u p t h e T i b e r t o t h e v i l l a ' s l o n g - g o n e p r i v a t e l a n d i n g s t a g e . F o l l o w i n g P o p e J u l i u s ' d e a t h , h i s s u c c e s s o r P o p e P a u l I V c o n f i s c a t e d a l l t h e p r o p e r t i e s h e h a d a s s e m b l e d ; t h e v i l l a w a s d i v i d e d , a n d t h e m a i n b u i l d i n g a n d p a r t o f t h e g a r d e n s b e c a m e t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e C a m e r a a p o s t o l i c a . T h e V i l l a w a s r e s e r v e d f o r t h e u s e o f t h e n e w p o p e ' s B o r r o m e o n e p h e w s . I t w a s r e s t o r e d i n 1 7 6 9 o n t h e i n i t i a t i v e o f P o p e C l e m e n t X I V , c o n f i s c a t e d b y t h e n e w s t a t e o f I t a l y i n 1 8 7 0 , a n d g i v e n o v e r t o t h e N a t i o n a l E t r u s c a n M u s e u m i n t h e e a r l y 2 0 t h c e n t u r y .

History

The Villa Giulia was built in Rome in the 16th century as a suburban retreat for Pope Julius III. Designed by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, Bartolomeo Ammanati, and Michelangelo, the villa showcases Mannerist architecture. The property featured a grand facade, courtyards, a nympheum, and beautiful gardens. Over time, the villa changed hands several times, eventually becoming the home of the National Etruscan Museum in the 20th century.

The villa was built in an area of Rome known as the 'Vigna Vecchia' (which was once against the city walls), lying on the slopes of "Monte Parioli", as a 'Villa Suburbana' and a place of repose. The pope, a highly literate connoisseur of the arts, assigned the initial design of the building to Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola in 1551–1553. The nymphaeum and other garden structures, however, were designed by Bartolomeo Ammanati, all under the supervision of Giorgio Vasari. Michelangelo also worked there. Pope Julius took a direct interest in the villa's design and decor and spent vast amounts of money on enhancing its beauties. Villa Giulia became one of the most delicate examples of Mannerist architecture. Only a small part of the original property has survived intact, comprising three vineyards which extended down to the Tiber, and to which the pope traveled often by boat. The villa, as was customary, had an urban entrance (on the Roman Via Flaminia) and a formal but rural garden entrance. The villa itself was on the threshold between two worlds, that of the city and that of the country, an essentially Roman concept. A medal struck in 1935 shows the villa as substantially complete, but with a pair of cupolas which were never executed. Vignola's urban front of the building is a somber two-story facade with each story being given equal value. It has at its centre the triple rhythm of a richly detailed rusticated triumphal arch flanked by symmetrical wings of two bays only. The facade is terminated at each end by Doric pilasters. In this facade of the Villa Giulia is the genesis of the seven-bay 18th century Georgian villa, which was reproduced as far away as the Tidewater region of Virginia. The rear of the building has Vignola's large hemispherical loggia overlooking the first of three courtyards, laid out as a simple parterre. At its rear the visitor passes through the "casina", which again has a hemispherical rear facade, enclosing paired flights of re-entrant marble steps that give access to the heart of the villa complex: a two-story Nympheum for alfresco dining during the heat of the summer. This three-levelled structure of covered loggias, decorated with marble statuary, reclining river gods in niches, and balustrading, is constructed around a central fountain. Here in this cool environment, sheltered from the blazing sun, day-long picnics would be held. The central fountain, "Fontana dell'Acqua Vergine", was designed and sculpted by Vasari and Ammannati: it depicts river gods and caryatids. The fountain's source, the Acqua Vergine, also supplies the Trevi Fountain in Rome. The "Casino della Vigna" ("little house in the vineyard"), as it was sometimes known, and its gardens were set in the midst of vineyards, which could be viewed from shaded arcades on the outsides of the garden walls. Papal parties embarked on boats at the gates of the Vatican and were transported up the Tiber to the villa's long-gone private landing stage. Following Pope Julius' death, his successor Pope Paul IV confiscated all the properties he had assembled; the villa was divided, and the main building and part of the gardens became the property of the Camera apostolica. The Villa was reserved for the use of the new pope's Borromeo nephews. It was restored in 1769 on the initiative of Pope Clement XIV, confiscated by the new state of Italy in 1870, and given over to the National Etruscan Museum in the early 20th century.

Villa Giulia

T h e v i l l a w a s b u i l t i n a n a r e a o f R o m e k n o w n a s t h e ' V i g n a V e c c h i a ' ( w h i c h w a s o n c e a g a i n s t t h e c i t y w a l l s ) , l y i n g o n t h e s l o p e s o f " M o n t e P a r i o l i " , a s a ' V i l l a S u b u r b a n a ' a n d a p l a c e o f r e p o s e . T h e p o p e , a h i g h l y l i t e r a t e c o n n o i s s e u r o f t h e a r t s , a s s i g n e d t h e i n i t i a l d e s i g n o f t h e b u i l d i n g t o G i a c o m o B a r o z z i d a V i g n o l a i n 1 5 5 1 – 1 5 5 3 . T h e n y m p h a e u m a n d o t h e r g a r d e n s t r u c t u r e s , h o w e v e r , w e r e d e s i g n e d b y B a r t o l o m e o A m m a n a t i , a l l u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f G i o r g i o V a s a r i . M i c h e l a n g e l o a l s o w o r k e d t h e r e . P o p e J u l i u s t o o k a d i r e c t i n t e r e s t i n t h e v i l l a ' s d e s i g n a n d d e c o r a n d s p e n t v a s t a m o u n t s o f m o n e y o n e n h a n c i n g i t s b e a u t i e s . V i l l a G i u l i a b e c a m e o n e o f t h e m o s t d e l i c a t e e x a m p l e s o f M a n n e r i s t a r c h i t e c t u r e . O n l y a s m a l l p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l p r o p e r t y h a s s u r v i v e d i n t a c t , c o m p r i s i n g t h r e e v i n e y a r d s w h i c h e x t e n d e d d o w n t o t h e T i b e r , a n d t o w h i c h t h e p o p e t r a v e l e d o f t e n b y b o a t . T h e v i l l a , a s w a s c u s t o m a r y , h a d a n u r b a n e n t r a n c e ( o n t h e R o m a n V i a F l a m i n i a ) a n d a f o r m a l b u t r u r a l g a r d e n e n t r a n c e . T h e v i l l a i t s e l f w a s o n t h e t h r e s h o l d b e t w e e n t w o w o r l d s , t h a t o f t h e c i t y a n d t h a t o f t h e c o u n t r y , a n e s s e n t i a l l y R o m a n c o n c e p t . A m e d a l s t r u c k i n 1 9 3 5 s h o w s t h e v i l l a a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o m p l e t e , b u t w i t h a p a i r o f c u p o l a s w h i c h w e r e n e v e r e x e c u t e d . V i g n o l a ' s u r b a n f r o n t o f t h e b u i l d i n g i s a s o m b e r t w o - s t o r y f a c a d e w i t h e a c h s t o r y b e i n g g i v e n e q u a l v a l u e . I t h a s a t i t s c e n t r e t h e t r i p l e r h y t h m o f a r i c h l y d e t a i l e d r u s t i c a t e d t r i u m p h a l a r c h f l a n k e d b y s y m m e t r i c a l w i n g s o f t w o b a y s o n l y . T h e f a c a d e i s t e r m i n a t e d a t e a c h e n d b y D o r i c p i l a s t e r s . I n t h i s f a c a d e o f t h e V i l l a G i u l i a i s t h e g e n e s i s o f t h e s e v e n - b a y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y G e o r g i a n v i l l a , w h i c h w a s r e p r o d u c e d a s f a r a w a y a s t h e T i d e w a t e r r e g i o n o f V i r g i n i a . T h e r e a r o f t h e b u i l d i n g h a s V i g n o l a ' s l a r g e h e m i s p h e r i c a l l o g g i a o v e r l o o k i n g t h e f i r s t o f t h r e e c o u r t y a r d s , l a i d o u t a s a s i m p l e p a r t e r r e . A t i t s r e a r t h e v i s i t o r p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e " c a s i n a " , w h i c h a g a i n h a s a h e m i s p h e r i c a l r e a r f a c a d e , e n c l o s i n g p a i r e d f l i g h t s o f r e - e n t r a n t m a r b l e s t e p s t h a t g i v e a c c e s s t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e v i l l a c o m p l e x : a t w o - s t o r y N y m p h e u m f o r a l f r e s c o d i n i n g d u r i n g t h e h e a t o f t h e s u m m e r . T h i s t h r e e - l e v e l l e d s t r u c t u r e o f c o v e r e d l o g g i a s , d e c o r a t e d w i t h m a r b l e s t a t u a r y , r e c l i n i n g r i v e r g o d s i n n i c h e s , a n d b a l u s t r a d i n g , i s c o n s t r u c t e d a r o u n d a c e n t r a l f o u n t a i n . H e r e i n t h i s c o o l e n v i r o n m e n t , s h e l t e r e d f r o m t h e b l a z i n g s u n , d a y - l o n g p i c n i c s w o u l d b e h e l d . T h e c e n t r a l f o u n t a i n , " F o n t a n a d e l l ' A c q u a V e r g i n e " , w a s d e s i g n e d a n d s c u l p t e d b y V a s a r i a n d A m m a n n a t i : i t d e p i c t s r i v e r g o d s a n d c a r y a t i d s . T h e f o u n t a i n ' s s o u r c e , t h e A c q u a V e r g i n e , a l s o s u p p l i e s t h e T r e v i F o u n t a i n i n R o m e . T h e " C a s i n o d e l l a V i g n a " ( " l i t t l e h o u s e i n t h e v i n e y a r d " ) , a s i t w a s s o m e t i m e s k n o w n , a n d i t s g a r d e n s w e r e s e t i n t h e m i d s t o f v i n e y a r d s , w h i c h c o u l d b e v i e w e d f r o m s h a d e d a r c a d e s o n t h e o u t s i d e s o f t h e g a r d e n w a l l s . P a p a l p a r t i e s e m b a r k e d o n b o a t s a t t h e g a t e s o f t h e V a t i c a n a n d w e r e t r a n s p o r t e d u p t h e T i b e r t o t h e v i l l a ' s l o n g - g o n e p r i v a t e l a n d i n g s t a g e . F o l l o w i n g P o p e J u l i u s ' d e a t h , h i s s u c c e s s o r P o p e P a u l I V c o n f i s c a t e d a l l t h e p r o p e r t i e s h e h a d a s s e m b l e d ; t h e v i l l a w a s d i v i d e d , a n d t h e m a i n b u i l d i n g a n d p a r t o f t h e g a r d e n s b e c a m e t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e C a m e r a a p o s t o l i c a . T h e V i l l a w a s r e s e r v e d f o r t h e u s e o f t h e n e w p o p e ' s B o r r o m e o n e p h e w s . I t w a s r e s t o r e d i n 1 7 6 9 o n t h e i n i t i a t i v e o f P o p e C l e m e n t X I V , c o n f i s c a t e d b y t h e n e w s t a t e o f I t a l y i n 1 8 7 0 , a n d g i v e n o v e r t o t h e N a t i o n a l E t r u s c a n M u s e u m i n t h e e a r l y 2 0 t h c e n t u r y .

History ; Location

The Villa Giulia was built in Rome in the 16th century as a suburban retreat for Pope Julius III. Designed by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, Bartolomeo Ammanati, and Michelangelo, the villa showcases Mannerist architecture. The property featured a grand facade, courtyards, a nympheum, and beautiful gardens surrounded by vineyards. The villa was used for papal parties and was later confiscated and divided among various owners before becoming a museum in the 20th century.

The villa was built in an area of Rome known as the 'Vigna Vecchia' (which was once against the city walls), lying on the slopes of "Monte Parioli", as a 'Villa Suburbana' and a place of repose. The pope, a highly literate connoisseur of the arts, assigned the initial design of the building to Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola in 1551–1553. The nymphaeum and other garden structures, however, were designed by Bartolomeo Ammanati, all under the supervision of Giorgio Vasari. Michelangelo also worked there. Pope Julius took a direct interest in the villa's design and decor and spent vast amounts of money on enhancing its beauties. Villa Giulia became one of the most delicate examples of Mannerist architecture. Only a small part of the original property has survived intact, comprising three vineyards which extended down to the Tiber, and to which the pope traveled often by boat. The villa, as was customary, had an urban entrance (on the Roman Via Flaminia) and a formal but rural garden entrance. The villa itself was on the threshold between two worlds, that of the city and that of the country, an essentially Roman concept. A medal struck in 1935 shows the villa as substantially complete, but with a pair of cupolas which were never executed. Vignola's urban front of the building is a somber two-story facade with each story being given equal value. It has at its centre the triple rhythm of a richly detailed rusticated triumphal arch flanked by symmetrical wings of two bays only. The facade is terminated at each end by Doric pilasters. In this facade of the Villa Giulia is the genesis of the seven-bay 18th century Georgian villa, which was reproduced as far away as the Tidewater region of Virginia. The rear of the building has Vignola's large hemispherical loggia overlooking the first of three courtyards, laid out as a simple parterre. At its rear the visitor passes through the "casina", which again has a hemispherical rear facade, enclosing paired flights of re-entrant marble steps that give access to the heart of the villa complex: a two-story Nympheum for alfresco dining during the heat of the summer. This three-levelled structure of covered loggias, decorated with marble statuary, reclining river gods in niches, and balustrading, is constructed around a central fountain. Here in this cool environment, sheltered from the blazing sun, day-long picnics would be held. The central fountain, "Fontana dell'Acqua Vergine", was designed and sculpted by Vasari and Ammannati: it depicts river gods and caryatids. The fountain's source, the Acqua Vergine, also supplies the Trevi Fountain in Rome. The "Casino della Vigna" ("little house in the vineyard"), as it was sometimes known, and its gardens were set in the midst of vineyards, which could be viewed from shaded arcades on the outsides of the garden walls. Papal parties embarked on boats at the gates of the Vatican and were transported up the Tiber to the villa's long-gone private landing stage. Following Pope Julius' death, his successor Pope Paul IV confiscated all the properties he had assembled; the villa was divided, and the main building and part of the gardens became the property of the Camera apostolica. The Villa was reserved for the use of the new pope's Borromeo nephews. It was restored in 1769 on the initiative of Pope Clement XIV, confiscated by the new state of Italy in 1870, and given over to the National Etruscan Museum in the early 20th century.

Villa Giulia

T h e v i l l a w a s b u i l t i n a n a r e a o f R o m e k n o w n a s t h e ' V i g n a V e c c h i a ' ( w h i c h w a s o n c e a g a i n s t t h e c i t y w a l l s ) , l y i n g o n t h e s l o p e s o f " M o n t e P a r i o l i " , a s a ' V i l l a S u b u r b a n a ' a n d a p l a c e o f r e p o s e . T h e p o p e , a h i g h l y l i t e r a t e c o n n o i s s e u r o f t h e a r t s , a s s i g n e d t h e i n i t i a l d e s i g n o f t h e b u i l d i n g t o G i a c o m o B a r o z z i d a V i g n o l a i n 1 5 5 1 – 1 5 5 3 . T h e n y m p h a e u m a n d o t h e r g a r d e n s t r u c t u r e s , h o w e v e r , w e r e d e s i g n e d b y B a r t o l o m e o A m m a n a t i , a l l u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f G i o r g i o V a s a r i . M i c h e l a n g e l o a l s o w o r k e d t h e r e . P o p e J u l i u s t o o k a d i r e c t i n t e r e s t i n t h e v i l l a ' s d e s i g n a n d d e c o r a n d s p e n t v a s t a m o u n t s o f m o n e y o n e n h a n c i n g i t s b e a u t i e s . V i l l a G i u l i a b e c a m e o n e o f t h e m o s t d e l i c a t e e x a m p l e s o f M a n n e r i s t a r c h i t e c t u r e . O n l y a s m a l l p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l p r o p e r t y h a s s u r v i v e d i n t a c t , c o m p r i s i n g t h r e e v i n e y a r d s w h i c h e x t e n d e d d o w n t o t h e T i b e r , a n d t o w h i c h t h e p o p e t r a v e l e d o f t e n b y b o a t . T h e v i l l a , a s w a s c u s t o m a r y , h a d a n u r b a n e n t r a n c e ( o n t h e R o m a n V i a F l a m i n i a ) a n d a f o r m a l b u t r u r a l g a r d e n e n t r a n c e . T h e v i l l a i t s e l f w a s o n t h e t h r e s h o l d b e t w e e n t w o w o r l d s , t h a t o f t h e c i t y a n d t h a t o f t h e c o u n t r y , a n e s s e n t i a l l y R o m a n c o n c e p t . A m e d a l s t r u c k i n 1 9 3 5 s h o w s t h e v i l l a a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o m p l e t e , b u t w i t h a p a i r o f c u p o l a s w h i c h w e r e n e v e r e x e c u t e d . V i g n o l a ' s u r b a n f r o n t o f t h e b u i l d i n g i s a s o m b e r t w o - s t o r y f a c a d e w i t h e a c h s t o r y b e i n g g i v e n e q u a l v a l u e . I t h a s a t i t s c e n t r e t h e t r i p l e r h y t h m o f a r i c h l y d e t a i l e d r u s t i c a t e d t r i u m p h a l a r c h f l a n k e d b y s y m m e t r i c a l w i n g s o f t w o b a y s o n l y . T h e f a c a d e i s t e r m i n a t e d a t e a c h e n d b y D o r i c p i l a s t e r s . I n t h i s f a c a d e o f t h e V i l l a G i u l i a i s t h e g e n e s i s o f t h e s e v e n - b a y 1 8 t h c e n t u r y G e o r g i a n v i l l a , w h i c h w a s r e p r o d u c e d a s f a r a w a y a s t h e T i d e w a t e r r e g i o n o f V i r g i n i a . T h e r e a r o f t h e b u i l d i n g h a s V i g n o l a ' s l a r g e h e m i s p h e r i c a l l o g g i a o v e r l o o k i n g t h e f i r s t o f t h r e e c o u r t y a r d s , l a i d o u t a s a s i m p l e p a r t e r r e . A t i t s r e a r t h e v i s i t o r p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e " c a s i n a " , w h i c h a g a i n h a s a h e m i s p h e r i c a l r e a r f a c a d e , e n c l o s i n g p a i r e d f l i g h t s o f r e - e n t r a n t m a r b l e s t e p s t h a t g i v e a c c e s s t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e v i l l a c o m p l e x : a t w o - s t o r y N y m p h e u m f o r a l f r e s c o d i n i n g d u r i n g t h e h e a t o f t h e s u m m e r . T h i s t h r e e - l e v e l l e d s t r u c t u r e o f c o v e r e d l o g g i a s , d e c o r a t e d w i t h m a r b l e s t a t u a r y , r e c l i n i n g r i v e r g o d s i n n i c h e s , a n d b a l u s t r a d i n g , i s c o n s t r u c t e d a r o u n d a c e n t r a l f o u n t a i n . H e r e i n t h i s c o o l e n v i r o n m e n t , s h e l t e r e d f r o m t h e b l a z i n g s u n , d a y - l o n g p i c n i c s w o u l d b e h e l d . T h e c e n t r a l f o u n t a i n , " F o n t a n a d e l l ' A c q u a V e r g i n e " , w a s d e s i g n e d a n d s c u l p t e d b y V a s a r i a n d A m m a n n a t i : i t d e p i c t s r i v e r g o d s a n d c a r y a t i d s . T h e f o u n t a i n ' s s o u r c e , t h e A c q u a V e r g i n e , a l s o s u p p l i e s t h e T r e v i F o u n t a i n i n R o m e . T h e " C a s i n o d e l l a V i g n a " ( " l i t t l e h o u s e i n t h e v i n e y a r d " ) , a s i t w a s s o m e t i m e s k n o w n , a n d i t s g a r d e n s w e r e s e t i n t h e m i d s t o f v i n e y a r d s , w h i c h c o u l d b e v i e w e d f r o m s h a d e d a r c a d e s o n t h e o u t s i d e s o f t h e g a r d e n w a l l s . P a p a l p a r t i e s e m b a r k e d o n b o a t s a t t h e g a t e s o f t h e V a t i c a n a n d w e r e t r a n s p o r t e d u p t h e T i b e r t o t h e v i l l a ' s l o n g - g o n e p r i v a t e l a n d i n g s t a g e . F o l l o w i n g P o p e J u l i u s ' d e a t h , h i s s u c c e s s o r P o p e P a u l I V c o n f i s c a t e d a l l t h e p r o p e r t i e s h e h a d a s s e m b l e d ; t h e v i l l a w a s d i v i d e d , a n d t h e m a i n b u i l d i n g a n d p a r t o f t h e g a r d e n s b e c a m e t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e C a m e r a a p o s t o l i c a . T h e V i l l a w a s r e s e r v e d f o r t h e u s e o f t h e n e w p o p e ' s B o r r o m e o n e p h e w s . I t w a s r e s t o r e d i n 1 7 6 9 o n t h e i n i t i a t i v e o f P o p e C l e m e n t X I V , c o n f i s c a t e d b y t h e n e w s t a t e o f I t a l y i n 1 8 7 0 , a n d g i v e n o v e r t o t h e N a t i o n a l E t r u s c a n M u s e u m i n t h e e a r l y 2 0 t h c e n t u r y .

History ; Design

The Villa Giulia was built in Rome in the 16th century as a suburban retreat for Pope Julius III. Designed by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, Bartolomeo Ammanati, and Michelangelo, it features Mannerist architecture and beautiful gardens. The villa was used for papal parties and picnics, and its design influenced later architectural styles. After changing hands several times, it now houses the National Etruscan Museum.

The villa was built in an area of Rome known as the 'Vigna Vecchia' (which was once against the city walls), lying on the slopes of "Monte Parioli", as a 'Villa Suburbana' and a place of repose. The pope, a highly literate connoisseur of the arts, assigned the initial design of the building to Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola in 1551–1553. The nymphaeum and other garden structures, however, were designed by Bartolomeo Ammanati, all under the supervision of Giorgio Vasari. Michelangelo also worked there. Pope Julius took a direct interest in the villa's design and decor and spent vast amounts of money on enhancing its beauties. Villa Giulia became one of the most delicate examples of Mannerist architecture. Only a small part of the original property has survived intact, comprising three vineyards which extended down to the Tiber, and to which the pope traveled often by boat. The villa, as was customary, had an urban entrance (on the Roman Via Flaminia) and a formal but rural garden entrance. The villa itself was on the threshold between two worlds, that of the city and that of the country, an essentially Roman concept. A medal struck in 1935 shows the villa as substantially complete, but with a pair of cupolas which were never executed. Vignola's urban front of the building is a somber two-story facade with each story being given equal value. It has at its centre the triple rhythm of a richly detailed rusticated triumphal arch flanked by symmetrical wings of two bays only. The facade is terminated at each end by Doric pilasters. In this facade of the Villa Giulia is the genesis of the seven-bay 18th century Georgian villa, which was reproduced as far away as the Tidewater region of Virginia. The rear of the building has Vignola's large hemispherical loggia overlooking the first of three courtyards, laid out as a simple parterre. At its rear the visitor passes through the "casina", which again has a hemispherical rear facade, enclosing paired flights of re-entrant marble steps that give access to the heart of the villa complex: a two-story Nympheum for alfresco dining during the heat of the summer. This three-levelled structure of covered loggias, decorated with marble statuary, reclining river gods in niches, and balustrading, is constructed around a central fountain. Here in this cool environment, sheltered from the blazing sun, day-long picnics would be held. The central fountain, "Fontana dell'Acqua Vergine", was designed and sculpted by Vasari and Ammannati: it depicts river gods and caryatids. The fountain's source, the Acqua Vergine, also supplies the Trevi Fountain in Rome. The "Casino della Vigna" ("little house in the vineyard"), as it was sometimes known, and its gardens were set in the midst of vineyards, which could be viewed from shaded arcades on the outsides of the garden walls. Papal parties embarked on boats at the gates of the Vatican and were transported up the Tiber to the villa's long-gone private landing stage. Following Pope Julius' death, his successor Pope Paul IV confiscated all the properties he had assembled; the villa was divided, and the main building and part of the gardens became the property of the Camera apostolica. The Villa was reserved for the use of the new pope's Borromeo nephews. It was restored in 1769 on the initiative of Pope Clement XIV, confiscated by the new state of Italy in 1870, and given over to the National Etruscan Museum in the early 20th century.

Apollo GT

F r a n k R e i s n e r , a f o r m e r c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r b o r n i n H u n g a r y , r a i s e d i n C a n a d a a n d e d u c a t e d i n A m e r i c a , e s t a b l i s h e d a c o m p a n y t h a t l a t e r p r o d u c e d c o m p l e t e b o d i e s — p a i n t e d a n d t r i m m e d — f o r t h e A p o l l o a s w e l l a s t h e T e x a s - b u i l t V e t t a V e n t u r a ( w h i c h w a s t h e s a m e c a r w i t h a d i f f e r e n t n a m e ) . R e i s n e r , o n h o l i d a y i n I t a l y i n 1 9 5 9 , d e c i d e d t h a t h e l o v e d T u r i n a n d s e t u p s h o p t h e r e a s I n t e r m e c c a n i c a p r o d u c i n g t u n i n g k i t s f o r R e n a u l t s , P e u g e o t s , a n d S i m c a s . T h e A p o l l o p r o j e c t w a s t h e d r e a m o f a y o u n g C a l i f o r n i a e n g i n e e r , M i l t B r o w n , w h o d e s i r e d t o b u i l d a n A m e r i c a n a n s w e r t o E u r o p e a n G T s , s u c h a s t h e A s t o n M a r t i n D B 4 a n d F e r r a r i c o u p e s . B r o w n , w h o w a s l o o k i n g f o r a c o a c h b u i l d e r , m e t R e i s n e r a t t h e M o n a c o G r a n d P r i x i n 1 9 6 0 . A d e a l w a s m a d e a n d t h e f i r s t A p o l l o s w e r e b u i l t b y e a r l y 1 9 6 3 b y B r o w n ' s I n t e r n a t i o n a l M o t o r C a r s . I n t e r m e c c a n i c a h a n d f o r m e d a n d t r i m m e d t h e b o d i e s i n T u r i n , I t a l y , a n d t h e n s h i p p e d t h e m b y s e a t o O a k l a n d , C a l i f o r n i a , w h e r e t h e d r i v e t r a i n w a s i n s t a l l e d . T h e p r o t o t y p e ' s d e s i g n w a s b y M i l t B r o w n ' s f r i e n d , R o n P l e s c i a , b u t t h e n o s e w a s t o o l o n g a n d t h e r e a r v i s i o n l i m i t e d , s o R e i s n e r c o m m i s s i o n e d f o r m e r B e r t o n e s t y l i s t F r a n c o S c a g l i o n e t o r e v i s e i t . T h e p r o t o t y p e s f e a t u r e d a l l a l u m i n u m b o d i e s , b u t t h e p r o d u c t i o n v e r s i o n s w e r e m a i n l y s t e e l w i t h a l u m i n u m h o o d s a n d d o o r s . T h e f i n i s h e d c a r , s o l d b y B r o w n ' s I n t e r n a t i o n a l M o t o r c a r s o f O a k l a n d , w a s w e l l r e c e i v e d a n d h a d f a m o u s o w n e r s s u c h a s P a t B o o n e . T h e b a s e p r i c e w a s $ 6 0 0 0 a n d t h e t o p s p e e d w a s c l a i m e d t o b e 1 5 0   m p h ( 2 4 0   k m / h ) . A p r o t o t y p e 2 + 2 w a s s h o w n i n N e w Y o r k i n 1 9 6 5 . I t w a s s h o w n a g a i n i n 1 9 6 6 a s t h e G r i f f t h G T . I n t e r n a t i o n a l M o t o r C a r s s o l d 4 2 c a r s ( 4 0 c o u p e s a n d o n e s p y d e r , i n c l u d i n g t h e p r o t o t y p e ) b e f o r e p r o d u c t i o n s t o p p e d i n m i d - 1 9 6 4 d u e t o l a c k o f f i n a n c i n g . I M C t h e n m a d e a c o n t r a c t w i t h R e i s n e r ( t o k e e p h i s o p e r a t i o n g o i n g ) a l l o w i n g I n t e r m e c c a n i c a t o s u p p l y b o d y / c h a s s i s u n i t s t o F r e d R i c k e t t s , o w n e r o f V a n g u a r d I n d u s t r i e s , a n a f t e r m a r k e t s u p p l i e r o f a u t o a i r c o n d i t i o n e r s i n D a l l a s , T e x a s . V a n g u a r d s o l d i t a s t h e V e t t a V e n t u r a . T h e i n t e n t w a s t o g i v e I M C t i m e t o f i n d n e w f i n a n c i n g a s w e l l a s k e e p I n t e r m e c c a n i c a a l i v e . V a n g u a r d b u i l t o n l y 1 1 c a r s , w i t h s h o p f o r e m a n T o m J o h n s o n p u r c h a s i n g t h e l e f t o v e r 1 1 b o d y / c h a s s i s u n i t s a n d c o m p l e t i n g t h e m a s l a t e a s 1 9 7 1 . A t h i r d a t t e m p t t o p r o d u c e t h e A p o l l o w a s b y a t t o r n e y R o b e r t S t e v e n s . H i s A p o l l o I n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a n y o f P a s a d e n a , C a l i f o r n i a c o m p l e t e d o n l y 1 4 c a r s , w i t h f o r e m a n O t t o B e c k e r f i n i s h i n g a n o t h e r s i x . F o u r b o d y c h a s s i s / u n i t s w e r e n e v e r c l a i m e d b y A p o l l o I n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d w e r e s o l d b y U S C u s t o m s t o K e n D u m i e r e . A p a i r o f A p o l l o 3 5 0 0 G T s w e r e u s e d t o p o r t r a y t h e T h o r n d y k e S p e c i a l r a c e c a r w h i c h w a s f e a t u r e d i n " T h e L o v e B u g " , a 1 9 6 8 D i s n e y m o v i e . O n e o f t h e p a i r h a s b e e n f u l l y r e s t o r e d . F o l l o w i n g t h i s v e n t u r e , I n t e r m e c c a n i c a d e c i d e d t o m o v e a l l p r o d u c t i o n i n - h o u s e , r a t h e r t h a n e x p o r t i n g r o l l i n g c h a s s i s e s f o r c o m p l e t i o n . R e i s n e r l a t e r d e v e l o p e d p r o j e c t s s u c h a s t h e G r i f f i t h , t h e M u r e n a G T , a n d t h e I t a l i a b y I n t e r m e c c a n i c a . I n t e r m e c c a n i c a w e n t o n t o p r o d u c e t h e V e l t r o 1 5 0 0 , t h e G r i f f i n ( w h i c h w a s a v e r s i o n o f t h e p r o t o t y p e A p o l l o 2 + 2 ) , t h e P h o e n i x , a n d t h e O m e g a a m o n g o t h e r s .

History

Frank Reisner founded Intermeccanica in Turin, Italy after meeting Milt Brown, who wanted to create an American GT car. They collaborated on the Apollo project, with Intermeccanica building the bodies and shipping them to California for assembly. After financial issues halted production, Intermeccanica supplied bodies to other companies, leading to variations like the Vetta Ventura. Despite multiple attempts to revive the Apollo, Intermeccanica eventually focused on in-house production, creating models like the Griffith and Italia.

Frank Reisner, a former chemical engineer born in Hungary, raised in Canada and educated in America, established a company that later produced complete bodies—painted and trimmed—for the Apollo as well as the Texas-built Vetta Ventura (which was the same car with a different name). Reisner, on holiday in Italy in 1959, decided that he loved Turin and set up shop there as Intermeccanica producing tuning kits for Renaults, Peugeots, and Simcas. The Apollo project was the dream of a young California engineer, Milt Brown, who desired to build an American answer to European GTs, such as the Aston Martin DB4 and Ferrari coupes. Brown, who was looking for a coachbuilder, met Reisner at the Monaco Grand Prix in 1960. A deal was made and the first Apollos were built by early 1963 by Brown's International Motor Cars. Intermeccanica hand formed and trimmed the bodies in Turin, Italy, and then shipped them by sea to Oakland, California, where the drive train was installed. The prototype's design was by Milt Brown's friend, Ron Plescia, but the nose was too long and the rear vision limited, so Reisner commissioned former Bertone stylist Franco Scaglione to revise it. The prototypes featured all aluminum bodies, but the production versions were mainly steel with aluminum hoods and doors. The finished car, sold by Brown's International Motorcars of Oakland, was well received and had famous owners such as Pat Boone. The base price was $6000 and the top speed was claimed to be 150 mph (240 km/h). A prototype 2 + 2 was shown in New York in 1965. It was shown again in 1966 as the Griffth GT. International Motor Cars sold 42 cars (40 coupes and one spyder, including the prototype) before production stopped in mid-1964 due to lack of financing. IMC then made a contract with Reisner (to keep his operation going) allowing Intermeccanica to supply body/chassis units to Fred Ricketts, owner of Vanguard Industries, an aftermarket supplier of auto air conditioners in Dallas, Texas. Vanguard sold it as the Vetta Ventura. The intent was to give IMC time to find new financing as well as keep Intermeccanica alive. Vanguard built only 11 cars, with shop foreman Tom Johnson purchasing the leftover 11 body/chassis units and completing them as late as 1971. A third attempt to produce the Apollo was by attorney Robert Stevens. His Apollo International company of Pasadena, California completed only 14 cars, with foreman Otto Becker finishing another six. Four body chassis/units were never claimed by Apollo International and were sold by US Customs to Ken Dumiere. A pair of Apollo 3500 GTs were used to portray the Thorndyke Special race car which was featured in "The Love Bug", a 1968 Disney movie. One of the pair has been fully restored. Following this venture, Intermeccanica decided to move all production in-house, rather than exporting rolling chassises for completion. Reisner later developed projects such as the Griffith, the Murena GT, and the Italia by Intermeccanica. Intermeccanica went on to produce the Veltro 1500, the Griffin (which was a version of the prototype Apollo 2+2), the Phoenix, and the Omega among others.

Boondall railway station

B o o n d a l l s t a t i o n i s s e r v e d b y a l l s t o p s S h o r n c l i f f e l i n e s e r v i c e s f r o m S h o r n c l i f f e t o R o m a S t r e e t , C a n n o n H i l l , M a n l y a n d C l e v e l a n d .

Services

The station has a single platform with a pedestrian bridge connecting it to the adjacent road. It is serviced by trains running on the Shorncliffe railway line, which includes all stops services between Shorncliffe and Roma Street, as well as services that continue on to Cannon Hill, Manly, and Cleveland.

Boondall station is served by all stops Shorncliffe line services from Shorncliffe to Roma Street, Cannon Hill, Manly and Cleveland.

Vytautas Magnus University

T h e b e g i n n i n g s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n L i t h u a n i a g o b a c k t o t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y w h e n i n 1 5 7 9 t h e c o l l e g e f o u n d e d b y J e s u i t s i n V i l n i u s b e c a m e a h i g h e r s c h o o l o f e d u c a t i o n – " A c a d e m i a e t U n i v e r s i t a s V i l n e n s i s " . I n 1 8 3 2 i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e N o v e m b e r U p r i s i n g , C z a r N i c h o l a s I c l o s e d t h e u n i v e r s i t y . H o w e v e r , i n 1 9 1 8 w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t R e p u b l i c o f L i t h u a n i a , t h e S t a t e C o u n c i l d e c i d e d t o r e e s t a b l i s h V i l n i u s U n i v e r s i t y . S i n c e V i l n i u s w a s l a t e r u n d e r P o l i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d t h e L i t h u a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t h a d t o b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o K a u n a s , t h i s d e c i s i o n w a s n o t p u t i n t o e f f e c t . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1 9 2 0 , H i g h e r C o u r s e s o f S t u d y w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n K a u n a s , l a y i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a u n i v e r s i t y . T h e L i t h u a n i a n C a b i n e t o f M i n i s t e r s d e c i d e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f L i t h u a n i a i n K a u n a s , F e b r u a r y 1 3 , 1 9 2 2 . T h e c e r e m o n i a l o p e n i n g o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y t o o k p l a c e F e b r u a r y 1 6 , 1 9 2 2 , w h i l e o n t h e 1 2 t h o f A p r i l t h e P r e s i d e n t o f L i t h u a n i a c o n f i r m e d t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s S t a t u t e a l o n g w i t h s i x f a c u l t i e s : T h e o l o g y - P h i l o s o p h y , H u m a n i t i e s , L a w , M a t h e m a t i c s a n d S c i e n c e s , M e d i c i n e a n d T e c h n i c a l S t u d i e s . T h e a f f i l i a t e A g r i c u l t u r a l A c a d e m y w a s f o u n d e d i n 1 9 2 4 o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e A g r o n o m y a n d F o r e s t r y s e c t i o n s o f t h e F a c u l t y o f M a t h e m a t i c s a n d S c i e n c e s ; i n 1 9 3 6 t h e V e t e r i n a r y A c a d e m y w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e V e t e r i n a r y s e c t i o n o f t h e F a c u l t y o f M e d i c i n e . O n J u n e 7 , 1 9 3 0 c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e 5 0 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e d e a t h o f V y t a u t a s t h e G r e a t , t h e U n i v e r s i t y w a s r e n a m e d i n h i s h o n o r ( , ) . I n 1 9 4 0 , V y t a u t a s M a g n u s U n i v e r s i t y c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f V i l n i u s U n i v e r s i t y . I n t h e w i n t e r , t h e f a c u l t i e s o f H u m a n i t i e s a n d L a w w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o V i l n i u s w h i l s t t h e F a c u l t y o f M a t h e m a t i c s a n d S c i e n c e s w a s m o v e d i n t h e s u m m e r . T h e o c c u p a t i o n o f L i t h u a n i a b y t h e S o v i e t U n i o n f o r c e d t h e u n i v e r s i t y t o b e n a m e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f K a u n a s i n s u m m e r 1 9 4 0 . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1 9 4 1 , u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s t o o k a n a c t i v e r o l e i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e L i t h u a n i a n A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s . T h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l L i t h u a n i a n P r o v i s i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t r e s t o r e d t h e n a m e o f V y t a u t a s M a g n u s t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y a f t e r t h e N a z i i n v a s i o n o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n s u m m e r 1 9 4 1 . T h e G e r m a n o c c u p a t i o n g o v e r n m e n t c l o s e d t h e u n i v e r s i t y i n M a r c h 1 9 4 3 , a f t e r s o m e L i t h u a n i a n s r e f u s e d t o f o r m a n S S b a t t a l i o n . T h e u n i v e r s i t y w a s r e o p e n e d b y t h e S o v i e t a u t h o r i t i e s o f L i t h u a n i a i n f a l l 1 9 4 4 . F o u r f a c u l t i e s o f H i s t o r y - P h i l o l o g y , M e d i c i n e , C o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d T e c h n o l o g y w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e t r a n s f e r o f t h e F a c u l t y o f P h i l o s o p h y t o V i l n i u s w a s t h e r e a s o n w h y t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f K a u n a s w a s c l o s e d i n f a l l 1 9 4 9 . T h e u n i v e r s i t y w a s r e s t r u c t u r e d i n t o K a u n a s P o l y t e c h n i c I n s t i t u t e a n d t h e K a u n a s M e d i c a l I n s t i t u t e o n O c t o b e r 3 1 , 1 9 5 0 . T h e a c t o f r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g V y t a u t a s M a g n u s U n i v e r s i t y w a s p r o c l a i m e d A p r i l 2 8 , 1 9 8 9 . T h e S u p r e m e S o v i e t o f L i t h u a n i a p a s s e d t h e l a w r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e u n i v e r s i t y o n J u l y 4 , 1 9 8 9 , w h i l e t h e C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s r e g i s t e r e d t h e t e m p o r a r y S t a t u t e f o r t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s p e r i o d o f r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t o n J u l y 2 2 . T h e f i r s t a c a d e m i c y e a r b e g a n i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s r e - e s t a b l i s h e d F a c u l t i e s o f E c o n o m i c s , H u m a n i t i e s a n d S c i e n c e s S e p t e m b e r 1 , 1 9 8 9 . T h e r e - e s t a b l i s h e d u n i v e r s i t y w a s t h e s e c o n d i n t h e n S o v i e t - o c c u p i e d L i t h u a n i a , a n d t h e f i r s t s c h o o l o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n t h a t w a s i n d e p e n d e n t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s a c t i v i t y b e c a m e a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m , w h i l e i t s m a i n p u r p o s e w a s t o p r e p a r e g r a d u a t e s w i t h a b r o a d h u m a n i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n f o r L i t h u a n i a ' s n e e d s i n r e s e a r c h , c u l t u r e , e d u c a t i o n a n d e c o n o m y . A c o m m o n p r o g r a m o f s t u d y i n h u m a n i t i e s a n d g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e f i r s t t w o y e a r s o f s t u d y f o r a l l s t u d e n t s a p p e a r e d i n 1 9 9 0 . I t s a i m w a s t o d e v e l o p w e l l - r o u n d e d i n d i v i d u a l s w h o w e r e f r e e a n d c r e a t i v e . I n 1 9 9 1 t h e u n i v e r s i t y w a s t h e f i r s t i n L i t h u a n i a t o e s t a b l i s h i n a s y s t e m o f s t u d y b a s e d o n s e v e r a l l e v e l s , t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n t h e g r a n t i n g o f B a c h e l o r ' s o r M a s t e r ' s d e g r e e s , a s w e l l a s D o c t o r a l d e g r e e s . T h e f e a t u r e o f t h i s u n i v e r s i t y s t i l l r e m a i n s e x c e p t i o n a l i n L i t h u a n i a t o d a y : t h i s i s a l i b e r a l p o l i c y f o r s t u d i e s , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h s t u d e n t s a r e a d m i t t e d n o t i n t o s p e c i f i c s p e c i a l i z a t i o n s b u t i n t o f i e l d s o f s t u d y . T h e s t u d e n t s t h e m s e l v e s p u t t o g e t h e r t h e i r p l a n o f s t u d y a n d m a k e a f i n a l c h o i c e o f t h e i r p r o g r a m a f t e r t h e f i r s t t w o y e a r s o f s t u d y . P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s a n d c o m p u t e r s k i l l s , m a k i n g t h i s u n i v e r s i t y d i f f e r e n t f r o m o t h e r s c h o o l s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y . D u r i n g t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s f i r s t d e c a d e t h e n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s g r e w m o r e t h a n t w e n t y t i m e s . I t h a s b e c o m e t h e c e n t e r f o r a c a d e m i c w o r k i n t h e H u m a n i t i e s a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , T h e o l o g y a n d F i n e A r t s , P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e s a n d L a w i n K a u n a s . M o d e r n p r o g r a m s h a v e b e e n e x p a n d i n g i n I n f o r m a t i c s , E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e s , B i o l o g y , M a t h e m a t i c s a n d P h y s i c s . M a s t e r ' s a n d D o c t o r a l s t u d i e s b e c a m e a p r i o r i t y a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y a n d d e m a n d e d a p e d a g o g i c a l s t a f f w i t h h i g h q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e u n i v e r s i t y i n v i t e d t o i t s c l a s s r o o m s a n d l a b o r a t o r i e s t h e m o s t c e l e b r a t e d o f s c h o l a r s f r o m L i t h u a n i a ' s r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s , c r e a t i n g i n 1 9 9 3 t h e f i r s t R e s e a r c h a n d S t u d y A s s o c i a t i o n i n L i t h u a n i a . T e n L i t h u a n i a n r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s f o r m e d t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e u n i v e r s i t y : t h e I n s t i t u t e s f o r L i t h u a n i a n H i s t o r y , L i t h u a n i a n L a n g u a g e , L i t h u a n i a n L i t e r a t u r e a n d F o l k l o r e , L i t h u a n i a n P h i l o s o p h y a n d S o c i o l o g y , b i o c h e m i s t r y , M a t h e m a t i c s a n d I n f o r m a t i c s , S e m i c o n d u c t o r P h y s i c s , P s y c h o p h y s i o l o g y a n d R e h a b i l i t a t i o n , A r c h i t e c t u r e a n d C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , a n d L i t h u a n i a n F o r e s t r y . T h e u n i v e r s i t y h a s t h e r i g h t t o g r a n t d o c t o r a l d e g r e e s i n n i n e t e e n s c h o l a r l y f i e l d s a n d t h e i r b r a n c h e s a n d t h e D o c t o r H a b i l i t u s i n e i g h t f i e l d s . T h e p e d a g o g i c a l t i t l e s o f p r o f e s s o r a n d a s s o c i a t e p r o f e s s o r m a y b e g r a n t e d i n t h e f i e l d s o f H u m a n i t i e s , S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , P h y s i c s a n d B i o m e d i c i n e . T h e r e a r e 1 3 a c a d e m i c d i v i s i o n s ( o f t h e m 1 0 f a c u l t i e s ) : V y t a u t a s M a g n u s U n i v e r s i t y i s c u r r e n t l y r a n k e d 8 0 1 - 1 0 0 0 a m o n g W o r l d t o p u n i v e r s i t i e s b y 2 0 2 0 Q S W o r l d U n i v e r s i t y R a n k i n g s . T h e u n i v e r s i t y h a s t i e s w i t h n u m e r o u s u n i v e r s i t i e s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e , a s w e l l a s E a s t A s i a . S p e c i a l s t u d e n t a n d t e a c h e r e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m s h a v e b e e n s e t u p w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g u n i v e r s i t i e s : A p r o g r a m i n B a l t i c S t u d i e s f o r f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s w a s i n i t i a t e d a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y i n 1 9 9 7 . Q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g s t u d e n t s ' a c a d e m i c , s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l r i g h t s a r e r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h t h e S t u d e n t C o u n c i l . A b o u t t h i r t y s t u d e n t c o r p o r a t i o n s a n d c l u b s a r e a c t i v e i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y . T h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s a r t i s t i c g r o u p s – t h e W o m e n ' s C h a m b e r C h o i r , t h e d a n c e g r o u p " Ž i l v i t i s " , t h e f o l k l o r i c e n s e m b l e " L i n a g o " a n d t h e R h e t o r i c a l T h e a t r e – h a v e w o n v a r i o u s c o n t e s t s i n L i t h u a n i a a n d a b r o a d .

History

The history of higher education in Lithuania dates back to the 16th century with the founding of Vilnius University in 1579. After multiple closures and reestablishments, Vytautas Magnus University was officially founded in Kaunas in 1922. The university underwent significant changes during World War II and the Soviet occupation, including name changes and faculty transfers. In 1989, the university was re-established, prioritizing academic freedom and preparing graduates with a broad humanistic orientation. Today, Vytautas Magnus University is a leading institution in Lithuania, known for its liberal study policies, strong programs in humanities and social sciences, and international partnerships.

The beginnings of higher education in Lithuania go back to the 16th century when in 1579 the college founded by Jesuits in Vilnius became a higher school of education – "Academia et Universitas Vilnensis". In 1832 in the aftermath of the November Uprising, Czar Nicholas I closed the university. However, in 1918 with the establishment of the independent Republic of Lithuania, the State Council decided to reestablish Vilnius University. Since Vilnius was later under Polish administration and the Lithuanian government had to be transferred to Kaunas, this decision was not put into effect. At the beginning of 1920, Higher Courses of Study were established in Kaunas, laying the foundation for the establishment of a university. The Lithuanian Cabinet of Ministers decided to establish the University of Lithuania in Kaunas, February 13, 1922. The ceremonial opening of the university took place February 16, 1922, while on the 12th of April the President of Lithuania confirmed the university's Statute along with six faculties: Theology-Philosophy, Humanities, Law, Mathematics and Sciences, Medicine and Technical Studies. The affiliate Agricultural Academy was founded in 1924 on the basis of the Agronomy and Forestry sections of the Faculty of Mathematics and Sciences; in 1936 the Veterinary Academy was established in a similar fashion on the basis of the Veterinary section of the Faculty of Medicine. On June 7, 1930 commemorating the 500th anniversary of the death of Vytautas the Great, the University was renamed in his honor (, ). In 1940, Vytautas Magnus University contributed to the reestablishment of Vilnius University. In the winter, the faculties of Humanities and Law were transferred to Vilnius whilst the Faculty of Mathematics and Sciences was moved in the summer. The occupation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union forced the university to be named the University of Kaunas in summer 1940. At the beginning of 1941, university professors took an active role in establishing the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. The controversial Lithuanian Provisional Government restored the name of Vytautas Magnus to the university after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in summer 1941. The German occupation government closed the university in March 1943, after some Lithuanians refused to form an SS battalion. The university was reopened by the Soviet authorities of Lithuania in fall 1944. Four faculties of History-Philology, Medicine, Construction, and Technology were established. The transfer of the Faculty of Philosophy to Vilnius was the reason why the University of Kaunas was closed in fall 1949. The university was restructured into Kaunas Polytechnic Institute and the Kaunas Medical Institute on October 31, 1950. The act of re-establishing Vytautas Magnus University was proclaimed April 28, 1989. The Supreme Soviet of Lithuania passed the law re-establishing the university on July 4, 1989, while the Council of Ministers registered the temporary Statute for the university's period of re-establishment on July 22. The first academic year began in the university's re-established Faculties of Economics, Humanities and Sciences September 1, 1989. The re-established university was the second in then Soviet-occupied Lithuania, and the first school of higher education that was independent of governmental institutions. The most important principle in the university's activity became academic freedom, while its main purpose was to prepare graduates with a broad humanistic orientation for Lithuania's needs in research, culture, education and economy. A common program of study in humanities and general education for the first two years of study for all students appeared in 1990. Its aim was to develop well-rounded individuals who were free and creative. In 1991 the university was the first in Lithuania to establish in a system of study based on several levels, the completion of which resulted in the granting of Bachelor's or Master's degrees, as well as Doctoral degrees. The feature of this university still remains exceptional in Lithuania today: this is a liberal policy for studies, according to which students are admitted not into specific specializations but into fields of study. The students themselves put together their plan of study and make a final choice of their program after the first two years of study. Particular attention is given to foreign languages and computer skills, making this university different from other schools of higher education in the country. During the university's first decade the number of students and teachers grew more than twenty times. It has become the center for academic work in the Humanities and Social Sciences, Theology and Fine Arts, Political Sciences and Law in Kaunas. Modern programs have been expanding in Informatics, Environmental Sciences, Biology, Mathematics and Physics. Master's and Doctoral studies became a priority at the university and demanded a pedagogical staff with high qualifications. Therefore, the university invited to its classrooms and laboratories the most celebrated of scholars from Lithuania's research institutes, creating in 1993 the first Research and Study Association in Lithuania. Ten Lithuanian research institutes formed this association together with the university: the Institutes for Lithuanian History, Lithuanian Language, Lithuanian Literature and Folklore, Lithuanian Philosophy and Sociology, biochemistry, Mathematics and Informatics, Semiconductor Physics, Psychophysiology and Rehabilitation, Architecture and Civil Engineering, and Lithuanian Forestry. The university has the right to grant doctoral degrees in nineteen scholarly fields and their branches and the Doctor Habilitus in eight fields. The pedagogical titles of professor and associate professor may be granted in the fields of Humanities, Social Sciences, Physics and Biomedicine. There are 13 academic divisions (of them 10 faculties): Vytautas Magnus University is currently ranked 801-1000 among World top universities by 2020 QS World University Rankings. The university has ties with numerous universities of North America and Europe, as well as East Asia. Special student and teacher exchange programs have been set up with the following universities: A program in Baltic Studies for foreign students was initiated at the university in 1997. Questions concerning students' academic, social and cultural rights are resolved through the Student Council. About thirty student corporations and clubs are active in the university. The university's artistic groups – the Women's Chamber Choir, the dance group "Žilvitis", the folkloric ensemble "Linago" and the Rhetorical Theatre – have won various contests in Lithuania and abroad.

Vytautas Magnus University

T h e b e g i n n i n g s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n L i t h u a n i a g o b a c k t o t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y w h e n i n 1 5 7 9 t h e c o l l e g e f o u n d e d b y J e s u i t s i n V i l n i u s b e c a m e a h i g h e r s c h o o l o f e d u c a t i o n – " A c a d e m i a e t U n i v e r s i t a s V i l n e n s i s " . I n 1 8 3 2 i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e N o v e m b e r U p r i s i n g , C z a r N i c h o l a s I c l o s e d t h e u n i v e r s i t y . H o w e v e r , i n 1 9 1 8 w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t R e p u b l i c o f L i t h u a n i a , t h e S t a t e C o u n c i l d e c i d e d t o r e e s t a b l i s h V i l n i u s U n i v e r s i t y . S i n c e V i l n i u s w a s l a t e r u n d e r P o l i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d t h e L i t h u a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t h a d t o b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o K a u n a s , t h i s d e c i s i o n w a s n o t p u t i n t o e f f e c t . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1 9 2 0 , H i g h e r C o u r s e s o f S t u d y w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n K a u n a s , l a y i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a u n i v e r s i t y . T h e L i t h u a n i a n C a b i n e t o f M i n i s t e r s d e c i d e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f L i t h u a n i a i n K a u n a s , F e b r u a r y 1 3 , 1 9 2 2 . T h e c e r e m o n i a l o p e n i n g o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y t o o k p l a c e F e b r u a r y 1 6 , 1 9 2 2 , w h i l e o n t h e 1 2 t h o f A p r i l t h e P r e s i d e n t o f L i t h u a n i a c o n f i r m e d t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s S t a t u t e a l o n g w i t h s i x f a c u l t i e s : T h e o l o g y - P h i l o s o p h y , H u m a n i t i e s , L a w , M a t h e m a t i c s a n d S c i e n c e s , M e d i c i n e a n d T e c h n i c a l S t u d i e s . T h e a f f i l i a t e A g r i c u l t u r a l A c a d e m y w a s f o u n d e d i n 1 9 2 4 o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e A g r o n o m y a n d F o r e s t r y s e c t i o n s o f t h e F a c u l t y o f M a t h e m a t i c s a n d S c i e n c e s ; i n 1 9 3 6 t h e V e t e r i n a r y A c a d e m y w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e V e t e r i n a r y s e c t i o n o f t h e F a c u l t y o f M e d i c i n e . O n J u n e 7 , 1 9 3 0 c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e 5 0 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e d e a t h o f V y t a u t a s t h e G r e a t , t h e U n i v e r s i t y w a s r e n a m e d i n h i s h o n o r ( , ) . I n 1 9 4 0 , V y t a u t a s M a g n u s U n i v e r s i t y c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f V i l n i u s U n i v e r s i t y . I n t h e w i n t e r , t h e f a c u l t i e s o f H u m a n i t i e s a n d L a w w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o V i l n i u s w h i l s t t h e F a c u l t y o f M a t h e m a t i c s a n d S c i e n c e s w a s m o v e d i n t h e s u m m e r . T h e o c c u p a t i o n o f L i t h u a n i a b y t h e S o v i e t U n i o n f o r c e d t h e u n i v e r s i t y t o b e n a m e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f K a u n a s i n s u m m e r 1 9 4 0 . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1 9 4 1 , u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s t o o k a n a c t i v e r o l e i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e L i t h u a n i a n A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s . T h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l L i t h u a n i a n P r o v i s i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t r e s t o r e d t h e n a m e o f V y t a u t a s M a g n u s t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y a f t e r t h e N a z i i n v a s i o n o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n s u m m e r 1 9 4 1 . T h e G e r m a n o c c u p a t i o n g o v e r n m e n t c l o s e d t h e u n i v e r s i t y i n M a r c h 1 9 4 3 , a f t e r s o m e L i t h u a n i a n s r e f u s e d t o f o r m a n S S b a t t a l i o n . T h e u n i v e r s i t y w a s r e o p e n e d b y t h e S o v i e t a u t h o r i t i e s o f L i t h u a n i a i n f a l l 1 9 4 4 . F o u r f a c u l t i e s o f H i s t o r y - P h i l o l o g y , M e d i c i n e , C o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d T e c h n o l o g y w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e t r a n s f e r o f t h e F a c u l t y o f P h i l o s o p h y t o V i l n i u s w a s t h e r e a s o n w h y t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f K a u n a s w a s c l o s e d i n f a l l 1 9 4 9 . T h e u n i v e r s i t y w a s r e s t r u c t u r e d i n t o K a u n a s P o l y t e c h n i c I n s t i t u t e a n d t h e K a u n a s M e d i c a l I n s t i t u t e o n O c t o b e r 3 1 , 1 9 5 0 . T h e a c t o f r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g V y t a u t a s M a g n u s U n i v e r s i t y w a s p r o c l a i m e d A p r i l 2 8 , 1 9 8 9 . T h e S u p r e m e S o v i e t o f L i t h u a n i a p a s s e d t h e l a w r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e u n i v e r s i t y o n J u l y 4 , 1 9 8 9 , w h i l e t h e C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s r e g i s t e r e d t h e t e m p o r a r y S t a t u t e f o r t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s p e r i o d o f r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t o n J u l y 2 2 . T h e f i r s t a c a d e m i c y e a r b e g a n i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s r e - e s t a b l i s h e d F a c u l t i e s o f E c o n o m i c s , H u m a n i t i e s a n d S c i e n c e s S e p t e m b e r 1 , 1 9 8 9 . T h e r e - e s t a b l i s h e d u n i v e r s i t y w a s t h e s e c o n d i n t h e n S o v i e t - o c c u p i e d L i t h u a n i a , a n d t h e f i r s t s c h o o l o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n t h a t w a s i n d e p e n d e n t o f g o v e r n m e n t a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s a c t i v i t y b e c a m e a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m , w h i l e i t s m a i n p u r p o s e w a s t o p r e p a r e g r a d u a t e s w i t h a b r o a d h u m a n i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n f o r L i t h u a n i a ' s n e e d s i n r e s e a r c h , c u l t u r e , e d u c a t i o n a n d e c o n o m y . A c o m m o n p r o g r a m o f s t u d y i n h u m a n i t i e s a n d g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e f i r s t t w o y e a r s o f s t u d y f o r a l l s t u d e n t s a p p e a r e d i n 1 9 9 0 . I t s a i m w a s t o d e v e l o p w e l l - r o u n d e d i n d i v i d u a l s w h o w e r e f r e e a n d c r e a t i v e . I n 1 9 9 1 t h e u n i v e r s i t y w a s t h e f i r s t i n L i t h u a n i a t o e s t a b l i s h i n a s y s t e m o f s t u d y b a s e d o n s e v e r a l l e v e l s , t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n t h e g r a n t i n g o f B a c h e l o r ' s o r M a s t e r ' s d e g r e e s , a s w e l l a s D o c t o r a l d e g r e e s . T h e f e a t u r e o f t h i s u n i v e r s i t y s t i l l r e m a i n s e x c e p t i o n a l i n L i t h u a n i a t o d a y : t h i s i s a l i b e r a l p o l i c y f o r s t u d i e s , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h s t u d e n t s a r e a d m i t t e d n o t i n t o s p e c i f i c s p e c i a l i z a t i o n s b u t i n t o f i e l d s o f s t u d y . T h e s t u d e n t s t h e m s e l v e s p u t t o g e t h e r t h e i r p l a n o f s t u d y a n d m a k e a f i n a l c h o i c e o f t h e i r p r o g r a m a f t e r t h e f i r s t t w o y e a r s o f s t u d y . P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s a n d c o m p u t e r s k i l l s , m a k i n g t h i s u n i v e r s i t y d i f f e r e n t f r o m o t h e r s c h o o l s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y . D u r i n g t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s f i r s t d e c a d e t h e n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s g r e w m o r e t h a n t w e n t y t i m e s . I t h a s b e c o m e t h e c e n t e r f o r a c a d e m i c w o r k i n t h e H u m a n i t i e s a n d S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , T h e o l o g y a n d F i n e A r t s , P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e s a n d L a w i n K a u n a s . M o d e r n p r o g r a m s h a v e b e e n e x p a n d i n g i n I n f o r m a t i c s , E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e s , B i o l o g y , M a t h e m a t i c s a n d P h y s i c s . M a s t e r ' s a n d D o c t o r a l s t u d i e s b e c a m e a p r i o r i t y a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y a n d d e m a n d e d a p e d a g o g i c a l s t a f f w i t h h i g h q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e u n i v e r s i t y i n v i t e d t o i t s c l a s s r o o m s a n d l a b o r a t o r i e s t h e m o s t c e l e b r a t e d o f s c h o l a r s f r o m L i t h u a n i a ' s r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s , c r e a t i n g i n 1 9 9 3 t h e f i r s t R e s e a r c h a n d S t u d y A s s o c i a t i o n i n L i t h u a n i a . T e n L i t h u a n i a n r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s f o r m e d t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e u n i v e r s i t y : t h e I n s t i t u t e s f o r L i t h u a n i a n H i s t o r y , L i t h u a n i a n L a n g u a g e , L i t h u a n i a n L i t e r a t u r e a n d F o l k l o r e , L i t h u a n i a n P h i l o s o p h y a n d S o c i o l o g y , b i o c h e m i s t r y , M a t h e m a t i c s a n d I n f o r m a t i c s , S e m i c o n d u c t o r P h y s i c s , P s y c h o p h y s i o l o g y a n d R e h a b i l i t a t i o n , A r c h i t e c t u r e a n d C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , a n d L i t h u a n i a n F o r e s t r y . T h e u n i v e r s i t y h a s t h e r i g h t t o g r a n t d o c t o r a l d e g r e e s i n n i n e t e e n s c h o l a r l y f i e l d s a n d t h e i r b r a n c h e s a n d t h e D o c t o r H a b i l i t u s i n e i g h t f i e l d s . T h e p e d a g o g i c a l t i t l e s o f p r o f e s s o r a n d a s s o c i a t e p r o f e s s o r m a y b e g r a n t e d i n t h e f i e l d s o f H u m a n i t i e s , S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , P h y s i c s a n d B i o m e d i c i n e . T h e r e a r e 1 3 a c a d e m i c d i v i s i o n s ( o f t h e m 1 0 f a c u l t i e s ) : V y t a u t a s M a g n u s U n i v e r s i t y i s c u r r e n t l y r a n k e d 8 0 1 - 1 0 0 0 a m o n g W o r l d t o p u n i v e r s i t i e s b y 2 0 2 0 Q S W o r l d U n i v e r s i t y R a n k i n g s . T h e u n i v e r s i t y h a s t i e s w i t h n u m e r o u s u n i v e r s i t i e s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d E u r o p e , a s w e l l a s E a s t A s i a . S p e c i a l s t u d e n t a n d t e a c h e r e x c h a n g e p r o g r a m s h a v e b e e n s e t u p w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g u n i v e r s i t i e s : A p r o g r a m i n B a l t i c S t u d i e s f o r f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s w a s i n i t i a t e d a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y i n 1 9 9 7 . Q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g s t u d e n t s ' a c a d e m i c , s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l r i g h t s a r e r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h t h e S t u d e n t C o u n c i l . A b o u t t h i r t y s t u d e n t c o r p o r a t i o n s a n d c l u b s a r e a c t i v e i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y . T h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s a r t i s t i c g r o u p s – t h e W o m e n ' s C h a m b e r C h o i r , t h e d a n c e g r o u p " Ž i l v i t i s " , t h e f o l k l o r i c e n s e m b l e " L i n a g o " a n d t h e R h e t o r i c a l T h e a t r e – h a v e w o n v a r i o u s c o n t e s t s i n L i t h u a n i a a n d a b r o a d .

History ; Establishment of University

The history of higher education in Lithuania dates back to the 16th century when the Jesuit-founded college in Vilnius became a higher school of education. After multiple closures and reestablishments, the University of Lithuania was officially established in Kaunas in 1922. Renamed Vytautas Magnus University in 1930, it played a significant role in the reestablishment of Vilnius University in 1940. During WWII, the university underwent multiple name changes and closures before being reestablished in 1989. Today, Vytautas Magnus University is a leading institution in Lithuania, known for its liberal policies, emphasis on foreign languages and computer skills, and strong research programs.

The beginnings of higher education in Lithuania go back to the 16th century when in 1579 the college founded by Jesuits in Vilnius became a higher school of education – "Academia et Universitas Vilnensis". In 1832 in the aftermath of the November Uprising, Czar Nicholas I closed the university. However, in 1918 with the establishment of the independent Republic of Lithuania, the State Council decided to reestablish Vilnius University. Since Vilnius was later under Polish administration and the Lithuanian government had to be transferred to Kaunas, this decision was not put into effect. At the beginning of 1920, Higher Courses of Study were established in Kaunas, laying the foundation for the establishment of a university. The Lithuanian Cabinet of Ministers decided to establish the University of Lithuania in Kaunas, February 13, 1922. The ceremonial opening of the university took place February 16, 1922, while on the 12th of April the President of Lithuania confirmed the university's Statute along with six faculties: Theology-Philosophy, Humanities, Law, Mathematics and Sciences, Medicine and Technical Studies. The affiliate Agricultural Academy was founded in 1924 on the basis of the Agronomy and Forestry sections of the Faculty of Mathematics and Sciences; in 1936 the Veterinary Academy was established in a similar fashion on the basis of the Veterinary section of the Faculty of Medicine. On June 7, 1930 commemorating the 500th anniversary of the death of Vytautas the Great, the University was renamed in his honor (, ). In 1940, Vytautas Magnus University contributed to the reestablishment of Vilnius University. In the winter, the faculties of Humanities and Law were transferred to Vilnius whilst the Faculty of Mathematics and Sciences was moved in the summer. The occupation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union forced the university to be named the University of Kaunas in summer 1940. At the beginning of 1941, university professors took an active role in establishing the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. The controversial Lithuanian Provisional Government restored the name of Vytautas Magnus to the university after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in summer 1941. The German occupation government closed the university in March 1943, after some Lithuanians refused to form an SS battalion. The university was reopened by the Soviet authorities of Lithuania in fall 1944. Four faculties of History-Philology, Medicine, Construction, and Technology were established. The transfer of the Faculty of Philosophy to Vilnius was the reason why the University of Kaunas was closed in fall 1949. The university was restructured into Kaunas Polytechnic Institute and the Kaunas Medical Institute on October 31, 1950. The act of re-establishing Vytautas Magnus University was proclaimed April 28, 1989. The Supreme Soviet of Lithuania passed the law re-establishing the university on July 4, 1989, while the Council of Ministers registered the temporary Statute for the university's period of re-establishment on July 22. The first academic year began in the university's re-established Faculties of Economics, Humanities and Sciences September 1, 1989. The re-established university was the second in then Soviet-occupied Lithuania, and the first school of higher education that was independent of governmental institutions. The most important principle in the university's activity became academic freedom, while its main purpose was to prepare graduates with a broad humanistic orientation for Lithuania's needs in research, culture, education and economy. A common program of study in humanities and general education for the first two years of study for all students appeared in 1990. Its aim was to develop well-rounded individuals who were free and creative. In 1991 the university was the first in Lithuania to establish in a system of study based on several levels, the completion of which resulted in the granting of Bachelor's or Master's degrees, as well as Doctoral degrees. The feature of this university still remains exceptional in Lithuania today: this is a liberal policy for studies, according to which students are admitted not into specific specializations but into fields of study. The students themselves put together their plan of study and make a final choice of their program after the first two years of study. Particular attention is given to foreign languages and computer skills, making this university different from other schools of higher education in the country. During the university's first decade the number of students and teachers grew more than twenty times. It has become the center for academic work in the Humanities and Social Sciences, Theology and Fine Arts, Political Sciences and Law in Kaunas. Modern programs have been expanding in Informatics, Environmental Sciences, Biology, Mathematics and Physics. Master's and Doctoral studies became a priority at the university and demanded a pedagogical staff with high qualifications. Therefore, the university invited to its classrooms and laboratories the most celebrated of scholars from Lithuania's research institutes, creating in 1993 the first Research and Study Association in Lithuania. Ten Lithuanian research institutes formed this association together with the university: the Institutes for Lithuanian History, Lithuanian Language, Lithuanian Literature and Folklore, Lithuanian Philosophy and Sociology, biochemistry, Mathematics and Informatics, Semiconductor Physics, Psychophysiology and Rehabilitation, Architecture and Civil Engineering, and Lithuanian Forestry. The university has the right to grant doctoral degrees in nineteen scholarly fields and their branches and the Doctor Habilitus in eight fields. The pedagogical titles of professor and associate professor may be granted in the fields of Humanities, Social Sciences, Physics and Biomedicine. There are 13 academic divisions (of them 10 faculties): Vytautas Magnus University is currently ranked 801-1000 among World top universities by 2020 QS World University Rankings. The university has ties with numerous universities of North America and Europe, as well as East Asia. Special student and teacher exchange programs have been set up with the following universities: A program in Baltic Studies for foreign students was initiated at the university in 1997. Questions concerning students' academic, social and cultural rights are resolved through the Student Council. About thirty student corporations and clubs are active in the university. The university's artistic groups – the Women's Chamber Choir, the dance group "Žilvitis", the folkloric ensemble "Linago" and the Rhetorical Theatre – have won various contests in Lithuania and abroad.

Tripartite classification of authority

C h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y g r o w s o u t o f t h e p e r s o n a l c h a r m o r t h e s t r e n g t h o f a n i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y . I t w a s d e s c r i b e d b y W e b e r i n a l e c t u r e a s " t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y a n d p e r s o n a l g i f t o f g r a c e ( c h a r i s m a ) " ; h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i t f r o m t h e o t h e r f o r m s o f a u t h o r i t y b y s t a t i n g " M e n d o n o t o b e y h i m [ t h e c h a r i s m a t i c r u l e r ] b y v i r t u e o f t r a d i t i o n o r s t a t u t e , b u t b e c a u s e t h e y b e l i e v e i n h i m . " T h u s t h e a c t u a l p o w e r o r c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e l e a d e r a r e i r r e l e v a n t , a s l o n g a s t h e f o l l o w e r s b e l i e v e t h a t s u c h p o w e r e x i s t s . T h u s , a c c o r d i n g t o W e b e r , i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t f o r c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r a u t h o r i t y b e c a u s e t h e f o l l o w e r s m u s t c o n t i n u e t o l e g i t i m i z e t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e l e a d e r . C h a r i s m a t i c d o m i n a t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m l e g a l - r a t i o n a l a n d t r a d i t i o n a l p o w e r i n s o f a r a s i t d o e s n o t d e v e l o p f r o m e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n b u t r a t h e r f r o m t h e b e l i e f t h e f o l l o w e r s h a v e i n t h e l e a d e r . A c c o r d i n g t o W e b e r , o n c e t h e l e a d e r l o s e s h i s c h a r i s m a o r d i e s , s y s t e m s b a s e d o n c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y t e n d t o t r a n s f o r m i n t o t r a d i t i o n a l o r l e g a l - r a t i o n a l s y s t e m s . I n t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y , t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e a u t h o r i t y c o m e s f r o m t r a d i t i o n o r c u s t o m ; W e b e r d e s c r i b e d i t a s " t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e e t e r n a l y e s t e r d a y " a n d i d e n t i f i e d i t a s t h e s o u r c e o f a u t h o r i t y f o r m o n a r c h i e s . I n t h i s t y p e o f d o m i n a t i o n , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r i g h t s o f a p o w e r f u l i n d i v i d u a l o r g r o u p a r e a c c e p t e d b y t h e s u b o r d i n a t e , o r a t l e a s t n o t c h a l l e n g e d . T h e d o m i n a n t i n d i v i d u a l c o u l d b e a c l a n l e a d e r , e l d e s t , t h e h e a d o f a f a m i l y , a p a t r i a r c h a l f i g u r e o r d o m i n a n t e l i t e . H i s t o r i c a l l y t h i s h a s b e e n t h e m o s t c o m m o n t y p e o f g o v e r n m e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o W e b e r , i n e q u a l i t i e s a r e c r e a t e d a n d p r e s e r v e d b y t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y . S h o u l d t h i s a u t h o r i t y n o t b e c h a l l e n g e d , t h e d o m i n a n t l e a d e r o r g r o u p w i l l s t a y i n p o w e r . F o r W e b e r , t r a d i t i o n a l p o w e r b l o c k e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r a t i o n a l - l e g a l a u t h o r i t y . L e g a l a u t h o r i t y , a l s o k n o w n a s r a t i o n a l - l e g a l a u t h o r i t y , i s w h e r e a n i n d i v i d u a l o r i n s t i t u t i o n e x e r t s p o w e r b y v i r t u e o f t h e l e g a l o f f i c e t h a t t h e y h o l d . I t i s t h e a u t h o r i t y t h a t d e m a n d s o b e d i e n c e t o t h e o f f i c e r a t h e r t h a n t h e o f f i c e h o l d e r ; o n c e t h e y l e a v e o f f i c e , t h e i r r a t i o n a l - l e g a l a u t h o r i t y i s l o s t . W e b e r i d e n t i f i e d " r a t i o n a l l y - c r e a t e d r u l e s " a s t h e c e n t r a l f e a t u r e o f t h i s f o r m o f a u t h o r i t y . M o d e r n d e m o c r a c i e s c o n t a i n m a n y e x a m p l e s o f l e g a l - r a t i o n a l r e g i m e s . T h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t w a y s i n w h i c h l e g a l a u t h o r i t y c a n d e v e l o p . M a n y s o c i e t i e s h a v e d e v e l o p e d a s y s t e m o f l a w s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s a n d t h e r e e x i s t m a n y d i f f e r e n t p r i n c i p l e s o f l e g a l i t y . W i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a l e g a l - r a t i o n a l s y s t e m , t h e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m i s l i k e l y t o b e r a t i o n a l i z e d s i m i l a r l y . C o n s t i t u t i o n s , w r i t t e n d o c u m e n t s , e s t a b l i s h e d o f f i c e s a n d r e g u l a r e l e c t i o n s a r e o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o d e r n l e g a l - r a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s . T h e s e i n t h e p a s t h a v e t e n d e d t o d e v e l o p i n o p p o s i t i o n t o e a r l i e r t r a d i t i o n a l s y s t e m s s u c h a s m o n a r c h i e s , w h e r e t h e s e t o f r u l e s a r e n o t w e l l d e v e l o p e d . A s t h e s e s y s t e m s d e v e l o p i n a r a t i o n a l m a n n e r , a u t h o r i t y t a k e s o n a l e g a l - r a t i o n a l f o r m . T h o s e w h o g o v e r n h a v e t h e l e g i t i m a t e l e g a l r i g h t t o d o s o a n d t h o s e s u b o r d i n a t e d a c c e p t t h e l e g a l i t y o f t h e r u l e r s . A l b e i t r a t i o n a l - l e g a l a u t h o r i t y m a y b e c h a l l e n g e d b y t h o s e s u b o r d i n a t e d , i t i s u n l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n a q u i c k c h a n g e i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s y s t e m . S u c h p o w e r s t r u g g l e s , a c c o r d i n g t o W e b e r , a r e m o s t l y p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e s a n d m a y b e b a s e d o n n a t i o n a l i s m o r e t h n i c i t y . W e b e r a l s o n o t e s t h a t l e g a l d o m i n a t i o n i s t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d , a n d t h a t s o c i e t i e s e v o l v e f r o m h a v i n g m o s t l y t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t i e s t o m o s t l y r a t i o n a l a n d l e g a l o n e s , b e c a u s e t h e i n s t a b i l i t y o f c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y i n e v i t a b l y f o r c e s i t t o " r o u t i n i z e " i n t o a m o r e s t r u c t u r e d f o r m o f a u t h o r i t y . L i k e w i s e h e n o t e s t h a t i n a p u r e t y p e o f t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e , s u f f i c i e n t r e s i s t a n c e t o a m a s t e r c a n l e a d t o a " t r a d i t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n " . T h u s h e a l l u d e s t o a n i n e v i t a b l e m o v e t o w a r d s a r a t i o n a l - l e g a l s t r u c t u r e o f a u t h o r i t y , u t i l i z i n g a b u r e a u c r a t i c s t r u c t u r e . T h i s t i e s t o h i s b r o a d e r c o n c e p t o f r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n b y s u g g e s t i n g t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f a m o v e i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n . T h u s t h i s t h e o r y c a n b e s o m e t i m e s v i e w e d a s p a r t o f t h e s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n i s m t h e o r y . I n t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y , t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e a u t h o r i t y c o m e s f r o m t r a d i t i o n , i n c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y f r o m t h e p e r s o n a l i t y a n d l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ( c h a r i s m a ) , a n d i n l e g a l ( o r r a t i o n a l - l e g a l ) a u t h o r i t y f r o m p o w e r s t h a t a r e b u r e a u c r a t i c a l l y a n d l e g a l l y a t t a c h e d t o c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s . A c l a s s i c e x a m p l e o f t h e s e t h r e e t y p e s m a y b e f o u n d i n r e l i g i o n : p r i e s t s ( t r a d i t i o n a l ) , J e s u s ( c h a r i s m a t i c ) , a n d t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c C h u r c h ( l e g a l - r a t i o n a l ) . W e b e r a l s o c o n c e i v e d o f t h e s e t h r e e t y p e s w i t h i n h i s t h r e e p r i m a r y m o d e s o f c o n f l i c t : t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n s t a t u s g r o u p s , c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n c l a s s , a n d l e g a l - r a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n p a r t y o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I n h i s v i e w e v e r y h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n r u l e r s a n d r u l e d c o n t a i n e d e l e m e n t s t h a t c a n b e a n a l y z e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e a b o v e d i s t i n c t i o n .

Charismatic domination

Charismatic authority arises from an individual's exceptional qualities, leading to followers' belief in their power. Unlike traditional and legal-rational authority, charismatic authority doesn't stem from established customs or laws. Instead, it relies on the followers' continuous validation of the leader's authority. Once the leader loses charisma or passes away, charismatic systems often transition into traditional or legal-rational structures.

Charismatic authority grows out of the personal charm or the strength of an individual personality. It was described by Weber in a lecture as "the authority of the extraordinary and personal gift of grace (charisma)"; he distinguished it from the other forms of authority by stating "Men do not obey him [the charismatic ruler] by virtue of tradition or statute, but because they believe in him." Thus the actual power or capabilities of the leader are irrelevant, as long as the followers believe that such power exists. Thus, according to Weber, it is particularly difficult for charismatic leaders to maintain their authority because the followers must continue to legitimize the authority of the leader. Charismatic domination is different from legal-rational and traditional power insofar as it does not develop from established tradition but rather from the belief the followers have in the leader. According to Weber, once the leader loses his charisma or dies, systems based on charismatic authority tend to transform into traditional or legal-rational systems. In traditional authority, the legitimacy of the authority comes from tradition or custom; Weber described it as "the authority of the eternal yesterday" and identified it as the source of authority for monarchies. In this type of domination, the traditional rights of a powerful individual or group are accepted by the subordinate, or at least not challenged. The dominant individual could be a clan leader, eldest, the head of a family, a patriarchal figure or dominant elite. Historically this has been the most common type of government. According to Weber, inequalities are created and preserved by traditional authority. Should this authority not be challenged, the dominant leader or group will stay in power. For Weber, traditional power blocked the development of rational-legal authority. Legal authority, also known as rational-legal authority, is where an individual or institution exerts power by virtue of the legal office that they hold. It is the authority that demands obedience to the office rather than the officeholder; once they leave office, their rational-legal authority is lost. Weber identified "rationally-created rules" as the central feature of this form of authority. Modern democracies contain many examples of legal-rational regimes. There are different ways in which legal authority can develop. Many societies have developed a system of laws and regulations and there exist many different principles of legality. With the development of a legal-rational system, the political system is likely to be rationalized similarly. Constitutions, written documents, established offices and regular elections are often associated with modern legal-rational political systems. These in the past have tended to develop in opposition to earlier traditional systems such as monarchies, where the set of rules are not well developed. As these systems develop in a rational manner, authority takes on a legal-rational form. Those who govern have the legitimate legal right to do so and those subordinated accept the legality of the rulers. Albeit rational-legal authority may be challenged by those subordinated, it is unlikely to result in a quick change in the nature of the system. Such power struggles, according to Weber, are mostly political struggles and may be based on nationalism or ethnicity. Weber also notes that legal domination is the most advanced, and that societies evolve from having mostly traditional and charismatic authorities to mostly rational and legal ones, because the instability of charismatic authority inevitably forces it to "routinize" into a more structured form of authority. Likewise he notes that in a pure type of traditional rule, sufficient resistance to a master can lead to a "traditional revolution". Thus he alludes to an inevitable move towards a rational-legal structure of authority, utilizing a bureaucratic structure. This ties to his broader concept of rationalization by suggesting the inevitability of a move in this direction. Thus this theory can be sometimes viewed as part of the social evolutionism theory. In traditional authority, the legitimacy of the authority comes from tradition, in charismatic authority from the personality and leadership qualities of the individual (charisma), and in legal (or rational-legal) authority from powers that are bureaucratically and legally attached to certain positions. A classic example of these three types may be found in religion: priests (traditional), Jesus (charismatic), and the Roman Catholic Church (legal-rational). Weber also conceived of these three types within his three primary modes of conflict: traditional authority within status groups, charismatic authority within class, and legal-rational authority within party organizations. In his view every historical relation between rulers and ruled contained elements that can be analyzed on the basis of the above distinction.

AnimeSuki

T h e s i t e o n l y l i n k e d t o a n i m e t h a t h a d n o t b e e n l i c e n s e d b y a n y A m e r i c a n c o m p a n i e s . O n c e a t i t l e w a s l i c e n s e d , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f a n s u b l i n k s w e r e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s i t e a n d t h e s e r i e s w a s l i s t e d o n i t s l i c e n s e d l i s t . N o n e t h e l e s s , a l t h o u g h n o n e o f t h e f i l e s w e r e h o s t e d o n t h e s i t e i t s e l f , A n i m e S u k i c o u l d b e h e l d a c c o u n t a b l e f o r v i o l a t i n g c o p y r i g h t l a w , a s l i n k i n g t o s i t e s t h a t t h e m s e l v e s i n f r i n g e o n t h e l a w h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a f o r m o f c o n t r i b u t o r y i n f r i n g e m e n t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( I n t e l l e c t u a l R e s e r v e v . U t a h L i g h t h o u s e M i n i s t r y ) . T h o u g h f a n s u b s a r e t e c h n i c a l l y c o p y r i g h t v i o l a t i o n s , A n i m e S u k i ' s l e g a l p a g e a l l e g e s t h a t t h e W T O T R I P S A g r e e m e n t s p e c i f i e s t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o p y r i g h t e d m a t e r i a l i s o n l y n e c e s s a r i l y i l l e g a l w h e n d o n e o n a c o m m e r c i a l s c a l e , t h u s m a k i n g i t d i f f i c u l t f o r a n y o n e b e s i d e s t h e c o p y r i g h t h o l d e r t o p r o s e c u t e f a n s u b b e r s . T o d a t e , o n l y o n e J a p a n e s e c o m p a n y , M e d i a F a c t o r y , h a s r e q u e s t e d i t s c o n t e n t r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s i t e . H o w e v e r , F u n i m a t i o n a n d K a d o k a w a P i c t u r e s U S A h a v e a l s o s e n t t h e m s e p a r a t e c e a s e a n d d e s i s t l e t t e r s c o n c e r n i n g s e v e r a l t i t l e s , w h i c h w e r e p r o m p t l y r e m o v e d . I n S i n g a p o r e , O d e x h a s t a r g e t e d A n i m e S u k i ' s u s e r s w i t h l e g a l a c t i o n . A n i m e S u k i w a s a l s o k n o w n f o r e r r i n g o n t h e s i d e o f c a u t i o n r e g a r d i n g l i c e n s e s . E v e n t h o u g h s o m e s e r i e s s u c h a s " H a n a u k y o M a i d s " w e r e n o t i n i t i a l l y l i c e n s e d , A n i m e S u k i k e p t t h e m f r o m b e i n g l i s t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t G e n e o n w o u l d s e c u r e t h e r i g h t s t o i t . O v e r t i m e , A n i m e S u k i e x p e r i e n c e d a d e c l i n e i n n e w f a n s u b e n t r i e s , d u e t o v a r i o u s c h a n g e s i n o n l i n e a n i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n , s u c h a s p r e f e r e n c e t o d o w n l o a d e p i s o d e s d i r e c t l y f r o m t r a n s l a t o r s ' w e b s i t e s , c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r d a t a b a s e w e b s i t e s , f r e q u e n t u p d a t e s , a n d d i s b a n d m e n t o f t r a n s l a t i o n g r o u p s . F a n t r a n s l a t i o n s h a v e f u r t h e r d e c l i n e d , a s m o r e a n i m e b e c a m e l i c e n s e d a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l l y t r a n s l a t e d f o r o f f i c i a l r e l e a s e w o r l d w i d e . A n d s i n c e t h e g r o w i n g p o p u l a r i t y o f v i d e o s t r e a m i n g w e b s i t e s s u c h a s C r u n c h y r o l l , H I D I V E , A m a z o n P r i m e V i d e o a n d N e t f l i x , w h i c h p r o v i d e l i c e n s e d a n i m e a n d c a n s t r e a m t o s m a r t p h o n e s , A n i m e S u k i h a s c e a s e d a l l u p d a t e s a n d a c t i v i t y . A s o f F e b r u a r y 1 5 , 2 0 1 9 , t h e m a i n w e b s i t e i s c l o s e d . H o w e v e r , a s o f 2 0 2 2 , t h e d i s c u s s i o n b o a r d s r e m a i n a c t i v e .

Legal status

AnimeSuki, an anime fan-site, operated in a gray area of legality, linking to unauthorized fansubs while removing links once titles were officially licensed. Although potentially liable for copyright infringement, the site argued that non-commercial distribution was permissible under WTO TRIPS Agreement. Despite receiving cease-and-desist letters, AnimeSuki erred on the side of caution, eventually ceasing updates and closing its main website in 2019, while its discussion boards remain active as of 2022.

The site only linked to anime that had not been licensed by any American companies. Once a title was licensed, the corresponding fansub links were removed from the site and the series was listed on its licensed list. Nonetheless, although none of the files were hosted on the site itself, AnimeSuki could be held accountable for violating copyright law, as linking to sites that themselves infringe on the law has been considered a form of contributory infringement in the United States (Intellectual Reserve v. Utah Lighthouse Ministry). Though fansubs are technically copyright violations, AnimeSuki's legal page alleges that the WTO TRIPS Agreement specifies that the distribution of copyrighted material is only necessarily illegal when done on a commercial scale, thus making it difficult for anyone besides the copyright holder to prosecute fansubbers. To date, only one Japanese company, Media Factory, has requested its content removed from the site. However, Funimation and Kadokawa Pictures USA have also sent them separate cease and desist letters concerning several titles, which were promptly removed. In Singapore, Odex has targeted AnimeSuki's users with legal action. AnimeSuki was also known for erring on the side of caution regarding licenses. Even though some series such as "Hanaukyo Maids" were not initially licensed, AnimeSuki kept them from being listed because of the likelihood that Geneon would secure the rights to it. Over time, AnimeSuki experienced a decline in new fansub entries, due to various changes in online anime distribution, such as preference to download episodes directly from translators' websites, competition with other database websites, frequent updates, and disbandment of translation groups. Fan translations have further declined, as more anime became licensed and professionally translated for official release worldwide. And since the growing popularity of video streaming websites such as Crunchyroll, HIDIVE, Amazon Prime Video and Netflix, which provide licensed anime and can stream to smartphones, AnimeSuki has ceased all updates and activity. As of February 15, 2019, the main website is closed. However, as of 2022, the discussion boards remain active.

A Shot in the Dark (1964 film)

A t n i g h t i n t h e s e r v a n t s ' q u a r t e r s o f a g r a n d h o u s e , s e v e r a l m e n a n d w o m e n a r e m o v i n g a b o u t : s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y c l i m b i n g u p s t a i r s a n d d o w n ; e n t e r i n g r o o m s a n d l e a v i n g ; h i d i n g f r o m , a n d s p y i n g o n , o n e a n o t h e r . T h e n t h e r e a r e g u n s h o t s . I t i s t h e c o u n t r y h o m e o f m i l l i o n a i r e B e n j a m i n B a l l o n ( G e o r g e S a n d e r s ) , w h o s e h o u s e h o l d c o n s i s t s o f B e n j a m i n B a l l o n a n d h i s w i f e M a d a m e B a l l o n , H e n r i L a f a r g e t h e h e a d b u t l e r a n d h i s w i f e M a d a m e L a f a r g e t h e c o o k , M i g u e l O s t o s t h e h e a d c h a u f f e u r , M a r i a G a m b r e l l i t h e t h i r d m a i d , P i e r r e t h e s e c o n d c h a u f f e u r a n d h i s w i f e D u d o t h e h e a d m a i d , G e o r g e s t h e g a r d e n e r a n d h i s w i f e S i m o n e t h e s e c o n d m a i d , a n d M a u r i c e t h e s e c o n d b u t l e r . I n s p e c t o r C l o u s e a u ( P e t e r S e l l e r s ) o f t h e S û r e t é , t h e F r e n c h n a t i o n a l p o l i c e , i s c a l l e d t h e r e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e m u r d e r o f t h e c h a u f f e u r , M i g u e l O s t o s , w h o w a s h a v i n g a n a f f a i r w i t h o n e o f t h e m a i d s , M a r i a G a m b r e l l i ( E l k e S o m m e r ) , a n d a t t a c k e d h e r i n h e r b e d r o o m a f t e r s h e b r o k e o f f w i t h h i m . M i g u e l w a s s h o t a n d k i l l e d t h e r e a n d M a r i a w a s f o u n d w i t h t h e s m o k i n g g u n i n h e r h a n d , b u t c l a i m s n o k n o w l e d g e o f h o w i t g o t t h e r e a s s h e m a i n t a i n s s h e w a s k n o c k e d u n c o n s c i o u s . A l l e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o M a r i a a s t h e k i l l e r , b u t C l o u s e a u i s c o n v i n c e d o f h e r i n n o c e n c e b e c a u s e h e i s i m m e d i a t e l y a t t r a c t e d t o h e r . R e a l i z i n g C l o u s e a u h a s b e e n i n a d v e r t e n t l y a s s i g n e d t o a h i g h - p r o f i l e c a s e , C o m m i s s i o n e r D r e y f u s ( H e r b e r t L o m ) h a s h i m r e m o v e d a n d p e r s o n a l l y t a k e s c h a r g e o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . D e j e c t e d , C l o u s e a u r e t u r n s h o m e . H e i s a w a k e n e d e a r l y i n t h e m o r n i n g b y a n a p p a r e n t a t t e m p t o n h i s l i f e b y a C h i n e s e a s s a s s i n . W h e n t h e p h o n e r i n g s , t h e l i f e o r d e a t h s t r u g g l e c e a s e s a n d i t b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t t h a t h i s a s s a i l a n t i s h i s v a l e t , C a t o ( B u r t K w o u k ) . I n o r d e r t o k e e p h i s s e n s e s s h a r p , C l o u s e a u h a s i n s t r u c t e d C a t o t o a t t a c k h i m w h e n h e l e a s t e x p e c t s i t . T h e I n s p e c t o r i s r e i n s t a t e d t o t h e B a l l o n c a s e a n d i m m e d i a t e l y o r d e r s M a r i a G a m b r e l l i ' s r e l e a s e f r o m p r i s o n , a s h e i s c o n v i n c e d s h e i s s h i e l d i n g t h e r e a l k i l l e r , w h o C l o u s e a u s u s p e c t s i s B a l l o n h i m s e l f . A s e r i e s o f a d d i t i o n a l m u r d e r s o f t h e B a l l o n s t a f f f o l l o w s . E a c h t i m e t h e e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o M a r i a , w h o i s c o n t i n u a l l y a r r e s t e d , o n l y t o h a v e C l o u s e a u r e l e a s e h e r a g a i n d e s p i t e t h e g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f m u r d e r c h a r g e s a g a i n s t h e r . C l o u s e a u ' s a c t i o n s e m b a r r a s s t h e S û r e t é i n t h e p r e s s , b u t C o m m i s s i o n e r D r e y f u s i s u n a b l e t o r e m o v e h i m f r o m t h e c a s e b e c a u s e B a l l o n h a s e x e r t e d p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e t o k e e p t h e u n o r t h o d o x a n d s e e m i n g l y i n c o m p e t e n t d e t e c t i v e a s s i g n e d t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A s C l o u s e a u c o n t i n u e s t o b u n g l e t h e c a s e , C o m m i s s i o n e r D r e y f u s b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y u n h i n g e d a n d s u f f e r s a n e r v o u s b r e a k d o w n t h a t r e d u c e s h i m t o a d e l u s i o n a l p s y c h o t i c . H e s t a l k s C l o u s e a u i n o r d e r t o a s s a s s i n a t e h i m , b u t a c c i d e n t a l l y k i l l s a s e r i e s o f i n n o c e n t b y s t a n d e r s i n s t e a d a n d a d d s f u r t h e r n o t o r i e t y t o t h e c a s e . W h e n C l o u s e a u c o n f r o n t s t h e B a l l o n h o u s e h o l d i n a n a t t e m p t t o t r i c k t h e m u r d e r e r i n t o u n m a s k i n g h i m s e l f o r h e r s e l f , i t i s r e v e a l e d t h a t e v e r y b o d y w a s i n v o l v e d i n t h e m u r d e r s — e a c h o f t h e m h a s k i l l e d a t l e a s t o n e o f t h e e a r l i e r v i c t i m s d u e t o c r i m e s o f p a s s i o n a n d / o r s u b s e q u e n t b l a c k m a i l a t t e m p t s — " e x c e p t " M a r i a , w h o i s i n n o c e n t o f a n y c r i m e . B a l l o n e v e n t u a l l y r e v e a l s t h a t h i s w i f e w a s a t t e m p t i n g t o s h o o t M a r i a , t h i n k i n g s h e w o u l d c a t c h t h e t w o h a v i n g a n a f f a i r , b u t s h o t M i g u e l b y a c c i d e n t . B a l l o n h a d b e e n h i d i n g i n t h e c l o s e t w h i l e t h e s h o o t i n g o c c u r r e d a n d k n o c k e d M a r i a u n c o n s c i o u s w i t h t h e c l o s e t d o o r k n o b , s u b s e q u e n t l y p l a c i n g t h e g u n i n h e r h a n d t o p r o t e c t h i s w i f e . A s a m a s s i v e r o w b r e a k s o u t a m o n g e m p l o y e r s a n d s t a f f , t h e l i g h t s a r e c u t ( a n a r r a n g e m e n t C l o u s e a u h a d m a d e w i t h h i s a s s i s t a n t ) , a n d t h e g u i l t y t a k e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o p i l e i n t o C l o u s e a u ' s c a r a n d e s c a p e . T h e y a r e a l l k i l l e d w h e n t h e c a r i s d e s t r o y e d b y a b o m b t h a t h a d b e e n p l a n t e d b y C o m m i s s i o n e r D r e y f u s i n a n o t h e r a t t e m p t t o k i l l C l o u s e a u . W i t n e s s i n g t h i s r e s u l t , D r e y f u s i s r e d u c e d t o a n a n i m a l i s t i c f u r y a n d i s t a k e n a w a y b y C l o u s e a u ' s a s s i s t a n t . F i n a l l y , C l o u s e a u a n d M a r i a c e l e b r a t e t h e c l e a r i n g o f h e r n a m e w i t h a l o n g a n d p a s s i o n a t e k i s s — w h i c h i s s w i f t l y i n t e r r u p t e d b y a n o t h e r s n e a k a t t a c k b y C a t o . T h e t o t a l b o d y c o u n t o f t h e m o v i e w a s 1 4 h u m a n s a n d o n e c r o w : t h r e e k i l l e d i n t h e B a l l o n m a n s i o n , o n e i n t h e n u d i s t c o l o n y , f o u r b y D r e y f u s d u r i n g C l o u s e a u a n d M a r i a ' s d a t e , a n d s i x k i l l e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e m o v i e b y t h e b o m b D r e y f u s p u t i n C l o u s e a u ' s c a r . A l l o t h e r m u r d e r s w e r e c o m m i t t e d b y D r e y f u s . S e l l e r s w a s a t t a c h e d t o s t a r i n t h e a d a p t a t i o n o f H a r r y K u r n i t z ' s B r o a d w a y h i t b e f o r e t h e r e l e a s e a n d s u c c e s s o f " T h e P i n k P a n t h e r " , b u t w a s n o t p l e a s e d w i t h t h e s c r i p t b y A l e c C o p p e l a n d N o r m a n K r a s n a . W a l t e r M i r i s c h a p p r o a c h e d B l a k e E d w a r d s a n d a s k e d h i m t o t a k e o v e r a s d i r e c t o r o f " A S h o t i n t h e D a r k " f r o m A n a t o l e L i t v a k . E d w a r d s d e c l i n e d i n i t i a l l y , b u t e v e n t u a l l y r e l e n t e d u n d e r p r e s s u r e o n t h e c o n d i t i o n h e c o u l d r e w r i t e t h e s c r i p t a n d s u b s t i t u t e I n s p e c t o r C l o u s e a u f o r t h e l e a d c h a r a c t e r a n d c h o r e o g r a p h c o m i c s c e n e s o n t h e f l y a s h e a n d S e l l e r s h a d s u c c e s s f u l l y d o n e f o r t h e i r p r e v i o u s f i l m . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n E d w a r d s a n d S e l l e r s d e t e r i o r a t e d t o s u c h a p o i n t t h a t a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e f i l m t h e y v o w e d n e v e r t o w o r k t o g e t h e r a g a i n . T h e y e v e n t u a l l y r e c o n c i l e d t o c o l l a b o r a t e s u c c e s s f u l l y f o u r y e a r s l a t e r o n " T h e P a r t y " , a n d o n t h r e e m o r e " P i n k P a n t h e r " f i l m s i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s . A s w i t h m o s t o f t h e o t h e r C l o u s e a u f i l m s , " A S h o t i n t h e D a r k " f e a t u r e s a n a n i m a t e d o p e n i n g t i t l e s s e q u e n c e p r o d u c e d b y D e P a t i e - F r e l e n g E n t e r p r i s e s u t i l i z i n g a n a n i m a t e d v e r s i o n o f I n s p e c t o r C l o u s e a u . T h i s f i l m a n d " I n s p e c t o r C l o u s e a u " a r e t h e o n l y C l o u s e a u f i l m s n o t t o f e a t u r e t h e P i n k P a n t h e r c h a r a c t e r i n t h e o p e n i n g t i t l e s . H e n r y M a n c i n i ' s t h e m e f o r t h i s f i l m s e r v e s a s o p e n i n g t h e m e a n d i n c i d e n t a l m u s i c i n " T h e I n s p e c t o r " c a r t o o n s h o r t s m a d e b y D e P a t i e - F r e l e n g f r o m 1 9 6 5 t o 1 9 6 9 . T h e t i t l e s o n g ' T h e S h a d o w s o f P a r i s ' w a s w r i t t e n b y H e n r y M a n c i n i . T h e s i n g e r i s n o t c r e d i t e d b u t c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a d e r e p o r t s c o n f i r m i t w a s D e c c a R e c o r d s r e c o r d i n g a r t i s t G i n a C a r r o l l . B o s l e y C r o w t h e r o f " T h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s " w r o t e , " I t i s m a d , b u t t h e w o n d e r f u l d e x t e r i t y a n d t h e a i r o f p e r p e t u a l l y b u t t r e s s e d d i g n i t y w i t h w h i c h M r . S e l l e r s p l a y s h i s r o l e m a k e w h a t c o u l d q u i c k l y b e m o n o t o n o u s e n j o y a b l e t o t h e e n d . " " V a r i e t y " w r o t e : " W i s d o m r e m a i n s t o b e s e e n o f p r o j e c t i n g a s e c o n d a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e h i l a r i o u s l y i n e p t d e t e c t i v e s o s o o n a f t e r t h e s t i l l - c u r r e n t f i r s t r u n s h o w i n g o f ' P a n t h e r , ' s i n c e s o m e o f t h e s p o n t a n e o u s n o v e l t y m a y h a v e w o r n o f f , b u t t h e l a u g h s a r e s t i l l t h e r e a b u n d a n t l y t h r o u g h i m a g i n a t i v e b i t s o f b u s i n e s s a n d a f e w s t r i k e b e l l y p r o p o r t i o n s . " P h i l i p K . S c h e u e r o f t h e " L o s A n g e l e s T i m e s " w r o t e t h a t t h e f i l m " i s a l l v a r i a t i o n s o f f a l l i n g d o w n a n d g o i n g b o o m . . . I w o n ' t s a y ' a d n a u s e u m ' [ s i c ] b e c a u s e S e l l e r s i s a c l e v e r c o m e d i a n a n d n e v e r t h a t p a i n f u l t o t a k e . B u t e n o u g h i s e n o u g h a l r e a d y . " R i c h a r d L . C o e o f " T h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t " c a l l e d i t " a h a r d w o r k i n g c o m e d y , " a d d i n g " W h i l e t h e l i n e s a r e b r i g h t a n d s o m e t i m e s b l u e , t h e r e a l f u n c o m e s f r o m s i g h t g a g s , a n o l d i f n e g l e c t e d f i l m i n g r e d i e n t . " " T h e M o n t h l y F i l m B u l l e t i n " w r o t e , " W h e r e " T h e P i n k P a n t h e r " h a d s t y l e a n d a c e r t a i n s u b t l e t y , i t s s u c c e s s o r . . . c a n s u b s t i t u t e o n l y s l a p s t i c k o f t h e c r u d e s t k i n d . A s t h e b u m b l i n g i n s p e c t o r , S e l l e r s i s t h i s t i m e a b s o l u t e l y o u t o f h a n d , h i s p r i n c i p a l — a n d e n d l e s s l y r e p e a t e d — g a g b e i n g t o f a l l w i t h a r e s o u n d i n g s p l a s h i n t o l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f w a t e r . " J o h n M c C a r t e n o f " T h e N e w Y o r k e r " w r o t e , " ' A S h o t i n t h e D a r k ' a s d o n e o n B r o a d w a y w a s a m e d i o c r e c o m e d y , b u t B l a k e E d w a r d s , w h o d i r e c t e d t h e f i l m a n d c o l l a b o r a t e d o n t h e s c r i p t w i t h W i l l i a m P e t e r B l a t t y , h a d t h e g o o d s e n s e t o t o s s t h e f o u n d a t i o n s t o c k o u t t h e w i n d o w a n d l e t M r . S e l l e r s r u n a m o k . . . A l l i n a l l , e x t r e m e l y j o l l y . " T h e m o v i e w a s o n e o f t h e 1 3 m o s t p o p u l a r f i l m s i n t h e U K i n 1 9 6 5 . T h e f i l m w a s w e l l r e c e i v e d b y c r i t i c s . , i t h a s 9 4 % f a v o u r a b l e r e v i e w s o n r e v i e w a g g r e g a t o r R o t t e n T o m a t o e s o u t o f 3 2 r e v i e w s c o u n t e d . T h e a v e r a g e r a t i n g g i v e n b y c r i t i c s i s 8 . 1 o u t o f 1 0 . T h e c r i t i c a l c o n s e n s u s r e a d s : " " A S h o t i n t h e D a r k " i s o f t e n r e g a r d e d a s t h e b e s t o f t h e " P i n k P a n t h e r " s e q u e l s , a n d P e t e r S e l l e r s g i v e s a t o p - n o t c h p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t m a k e s s l a p s t i c k b u f f o o n e r y m e m o r a b l e . " I n 2 0 0 6 , t h e f i l m w a s v o t e d t h e 3 8 t h g r e a t e s t c o m e d y f i l m o f a l l t i m e i n C h a n n e l 4 ' s 5 0 G r e a t e s t C o m e d y F i l m s T h e f i l m i s r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n F i l m I n s t i t u t e i n t h e s e l i s t s :

Plot

The plot revolves around Inspector Clouseau, who is tasked with solving a murder case involving the wealthy Ballon family. Despite his incompetence, Clouseau manages to uncover a web of deceit and ultimately exposes the true culprits. Along the way, he faces numerous challenges, including attacks from his own valet, Cato, and interference from his superior, Commissioner Dreyfus.

assassin. When the phone rings, the life or death struggle ceases and it becomes apparent that his assailant is his valet, Cato (Burt Kwouk). In order to keep his senses sharp, Clouseau has instructed Cato to attack him when he least expects it. The Inspector is reinstated to the Ballon case and immediately orders Maria Gambrelli's release from prison, as he is convinced she is shielding the real killer, who Clouseau suspects is Ballon himself. A series of additional murders of the Ballon staff follows. Each time the evidence points to Maria, who is continually arrested, only to have Clouseau release her again despite the growing number of murder charges against her. Clouseau's actions embarrass the Sûreté in the press, but Commissioner Dreyfus is unable to remove him from the case because Ballon has exerted political influence to keep the unorthodox and seemingly incompetent detective assigned to the investigation. As Clouseau continues to bungle the case, Commissioner Dreyfus becomes increasingly unhinged and suffers a nervous breakdown that reduces him to a delusional psychotic. He stalks Clouseau in order to assassinate him, but accidentally kills a series of innocent bystanders instead and adds further notoriety to the case. When Clouseau confronts the Ballon household in an attempt to trick the murderer into unmasking himself or herself, it is revealed that everybody was involved in the murders—each of them has killed at least one of the earlier victims due to crimes of passion and/or subsequent blackmail attempts—"except" Maria, who is innocent of any crime. Ballon eventually reveals that his wife was attempting to shoot Maria, thinking she would catch the two having an affair, but shot Miguel by accident. Ballon had been hiding in the closet while the shooting occurred and knocked Maria unconscious with the closet door knob, subsequently placing the gun in her hand to protect his wife. As a massive row breaks out among employers and staff, the lights are cut (an arrangement Clouseau had made with his assistant), and the guilty take the opportunity to pile into Clouseau's car and escape. They are all killed when the car is destroyed by a bomb that had been planted by Commissioner Dreyfus in another attempt to kill Clouseau. Witnessing this result, Dreyfus is reduced to an animalistic fury and is taken away by Clouseau's assistant. Finally, Clouseau and Maria celebrate the clearing of her name with a long and passionate kiss — which is swiftly interrupted by another sneak attack by Cato. The total body count of the movie was 14 humans and one crow: three killed in the Ballon mansion, one in the nudist colony, four by Dreyfus during Clouseau and Maria's date, and six killed at the end of the movie by the bomb Dreyfus put in Clouseau's car. All other murders were committed by Dreyfus. Sellers was attached to star in the adaptation of Harry Kurnitz's Broadway hit before the release and success of "The Pink Panther", but was not pleased with the script by Alec Coppel and Norman Krasna. Walter Mirisch approached Blake Edwards and asked him to take over as director of "A Shot in the Dark" from Anatole Litvak. Edwards declined initially, but eventually relented under pressure on the condition he could rewrite the script and substitute Inspector Clouseau for the lead character and choreograph comic scenes on the fly as he and Sellers had successfully done for their previous film. The relationship between Edwards and Sellers deteriorated to such a point that at the conclusion of the film they vowed never to work together again. They eventually reconciled to collaborate successfully four years later on "The Party", and on three more "Pink Panther" films in the 1970s. As with most of the other Clouseau films, "A Shot in the Dark" features an animated opening titles sequence produced by DePatie-Freleng Enterprises utilizing an animated a second appearance of the hilariously inept detective so soon after the still-current firstrun showing of 'Panther,' since some of the spontaneous novelty may have worn off, but the laughs are still there abundantly through imaginative bits of business and a few strike belly proportions." Philip K. Scheuer of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that the film "is all variations of falling down and going boom ... I won't say 'ad nauseum' [sic] because Sellers is a clever comedian and never that painful to take. But enough is enough already." Richard L. Coe of "The Washington Post" called it "a hardworking comedy," adding "While the lines are bright and sometimes blue, the real fun comes from sight gags, an old if neglected film ingredient." "The Monthly Film Bulletin" wrote, "Where "The Pink Panther" had style and a certain subtlety, its successor ... can substitute only slapstick of the crudest kind. As the bumbling inspector, Sellers is this time absolutely out of hand, his principal—and endlessly repeated—gag being to fall with a resounding splash into large quantities of water." John McCarten of "The New Yorker" wrote, "'A Shot in the Dark' as done on Broadway was a mediocre comedy, but Blake Edwards, who directed the film and collaborated on the script with William Peter Blatty, had the good sense to toss the foundation stock out the window and let Mr. Sellers run amok ... All in all, extremely jolly. " The movie was one of the 13 most popular films in the UK in 1965. The film was well received by critics. , it has 94% favourable reviews on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes out of 32 reviews counted. The average rating given by critics is 8.1 out of 10. The critical consensus reads: ""A Shot in the Dark" is often regarded as the best of the "Pink Panther" sequels, and Peter Sellers gives a top-notch performance that makes slapstick buffoonery memorable." In 2006, the film was voted the 38th greatest comedy film of all time in Channel 4's 50 Greatest Comedy Films The film is recognized by the American Film Institute in these lists:

A Shot in the Dark (1964 film)

A t n i g h t i n t h e s e r v a n t s ' q u a r t e r s o f a g r a n d h o u s e , s e v e r a l m e n a n d w o m e n a r e m o v i n g a b o u t : s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y c l i m b i n g u p s t a i r s a n d d o w n ; e n t e r i n g r o o m s a n d l e a v i n g ; h i d i n g f r o m , a n d s p y i n g o n , o n e a n o t h e r . T h e n t h e r e a r e g u n s h o t s . I t i s t h e c o u n t r y h o m e o f m i l l i o n a i r e B e n j a m i n B a l l o n ( G e o r g e S a n d e r s ) , w h o s e h o u s e h o l d c o n s i s t s o f B e n j a m i n B a l l o n a n d h i s w i f e M a d a m e B a l l o n , H e n r i L a f a r g e t h e h e a d b u t l e r a n d h i s w i f e M a d a m e L a f a r g e t h e c o o k , M i g u e l O s t o s t h e h e a d c h a u f f e u r , M a r i a G a m b r e l l i t h e t h i r d m a i d , P i e r r e t h e s e c o n d c h a u f f e u r a n d h i s w i f e D u d o t h e h e a d m a i d , G e o r g e s t h e g a r d e n e r a n d h i s w i f e S i m o n e t h e s e c o n d m a i d , a n d M a u r i c e t h e s e c o n d b u t l e r . I n s p e c t o r C l o u s e a u ( P e t e r S e l l e r s ) o f t h e S û r e t é , t h e F r e n c h n a t i o n a l p o l i c e , i s c a l l e d t h e r e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e m u r d e r o f t h e c h a u f f e u r , M i g u e l O s t o s , w h o w a s h a v i n g a n a f f a i r w i t h o n e o f t h e m a i d s , M a r i a G a m b r e l l i ( E l k e S o m m e r ) , a n d a t t a c k e d h e r i n h e r b e d r o o m a f t e r s h e b r o k e o f f w i t h h i m . M i g u e l w a s s h o t a n d k i l l e d t h e r e a n d M a r i a w a s f o u n d w i t h t h e s m o k i n g g u n i n h e r h a n d , b u t c l a i m s n o k n o w l e d g e o f h o w i t g o t t h e r e a s s h e m a i n t a i n s s h e w a s k n o c k e d u n c o n s c i o u s . A l l e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o M a r i a a s t h e k i l l e r , b u t C l o u s e a u i s c o n v i n c e d o f h e r i n n o c e n c e b e c a u s e h e i s i m m e d i a t e l y a t t r a c t e d t o h e r . R e a l i z i n g C l o u s e a u h a s b e e n i n a d v e r t e n t l y a s s i g n e d t o a h i g h - p r o f i l e c a s e , C o m m i s s i o n e r D r e y f u s ( H e r b e r t L o m ) h a s h i m r e m o v e d a n d p e r s o n a l l y t a k e s c h a r g e o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . D e j e c t e d , C l o u s e a u r e t u r n s h o m e . H e i s a w a k e n e d e a r l y i n t h e m o r n i n g b y a n a p p a r e n t a t t e m p t o n h i s l i f e b y a C h i n e s e a s s a s s i n . W h e n t h e p h o n e r i n g s , t h e l i f e o r d e a t h s t r u g g l e c e a s e s a n d i t b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t t h a t h i s a s s a i l a n t i s h i s v a l e t , C a t o ( B u r t K w o u k ) . I n o r d e r t o k e e p h i s s e n s e s s h a r p , C l o u s e a u h a s i n s t r u c t e d C a t o t o a t t a c k h i m w h e n h e l e a s t e x p e c t s i t . T h e I n s p e c t o r i s r e i n s t a t e d t o t h e B a l l o n c a s e a n d i m m e d i a t e l y o r d e r s M a r i a G a m b r e l l i ' s r e l e a s e f r o m p r i s o n , a s h e i s c o n v i n c e d s h e i s s h i e l d i n g t h e r e a l k i l l e r , w h o C l o u s e a u s u s p e c t s i s B a l l o n h i m s e l f . A s e r i e s o f a d d i t i o n a l m u r d e r s o f t h e B a l l o n s t a f f f o l l o w s . E a c h t i m e t h e e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o M a r i a , w h o i s c o n t i n u a l l y a r r e s t e d , o n l y t o h a v e C l o u s e a u r e l e a s e h e r a g a i n d e s p i t e t h e g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f m u r d e r c h a r g e s a g a i n s t h e r . C l o u s e a u ' s a c t i o n s e m b a r r a s s t h e S û r e t é i n t h e p r e s s , b u t C o m m i s s i o n e r D r e y f u s i s u n a b l e t o r e m o v e h i m f r o m t h e c a s e b e c a u s e B a l l o n h a s e x e r t e d p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e t o k e e p t h e u n o r t h o d o x a n d s e e m i n g l y i n c o m p e t e n t d e t e c t i v e a s s i g n e d t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A s C l o u s e a u c o n t i n u e s t o b u n g l e t h e c a s e , C o m m i s s i o n e r D r e y f u s b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y u n h i n g e d a n d s u f f e r s a n e r v o u s b r e a k d o w n t h a t r e d u c e s h i m t o a d e l u s i o n a l p s y c h o t i c . H e s t a l k s C l o u s e a u i n o r d e r t o a s s a s s i n a t e h i m , b u t a c c i d e n t a l l y k i l l s a s e r i e s o f i n n o c e n t b y s t a n d e r s i n s t e a d a n d a d d s f u r t h e r n o t o r i e t y t o t h e c a s e . W h e n C l o u s e a u c o n f r o n t s t h e B a l l o n h o u s e h o l d i n a n a t t e m p t t o t r i c k t h e m u r d e r e r i n t o u n m a s k i n g h i m s e l f o r h e r s e l f , i t i s r e v e a l e d t h a t e v e r y b o d y w a s i n v o l v e d i n t h e m u r d e r s — e a c h o f t h e m h a s k i l l e d a t l e a s t o n e o f t h e e a r l i e r v i c t i m s d u e t o c r i m e s o f p a s s i o n a n d / o r s u b s e q u e n t b l a c k m a i l a t t e m p t s — " e x c e p t " M a r i a , w h o i s i n n o c e n t o f a n y c r i m e . B a l l o n e v e n t u a l l y r e v e a l s t h a t h i s w i f e w a s a t t e m p t i n g t o s h o o t M a r i a , t h i n k i n g s h e w o u l d c a t c h t h e t w o h a v i n g a n a f f a i r , b u t s h o t M i g u e l b y a c c i d e n t . B a l l o n h a d b e e n h i d i n g i n t h e c l o s e t w h i l e t h e s h o o t i n g o c c u r r e d a n d k n o c k e d M a r i a u n c o n s c i o u s w i t h t h e c l o s e t d o o r k n o b , s u b s e q u e n t l y p l a c i n g t h e g u n i n h e r h a n d t o p r o t e c t h i s w i f e . A s a m a s s i v e r o w b r e a k s o u t a m o n g e m p l o y e r s a n d s t a f f , t h e l i g h t s a r e c u t ( a n a r r a n g e m e n t C l o u s e a u h a d m a d e w i t h h i s a s s i s t a n t ) , a n d t h e g u i l t y t a k e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o p i l e i n t o C l o u s e a u ' s c a r a n d e s c a p e . T h e y a r e a l l k i l l e d w h e n t h e c a r i s d e s t r o y e d b y a b o m b t h a t h a d b e e n p l a n t e d b y C o m m i s s i o n e r D r e y f u s i n a n o t h e r a t t e m p t t o k i l l C l o u s e a u . W i t n e s s i n g t h i s r e s u l t , D r e y f u s i s r e d u c e d t o a n a n i m a l i s t i c f u r y a n d i s t a k e n a w a y b y C l o u s e a u ' s a s s i s t a n t . F i n a l l y , C l o u s e a u a n d M a r i a c e l e b r a t e t h e c l e a r i n g o f h e r n a m e w i t h a l o n g a n d p a s s i o n a t e k i s s — w h i c h i s s w i f t l y i n t e r r u p t e d b y a n o t h e r s n e a k a t t a c k b y C a t o . T h e t o t a l b o d y c o u n t o f t h e m o v i e w a s 1 4 h u m a n s a n d o n e c r o w : t h r e e k i l l e d i n t h e B a l l o n m a n s i o n , o n e i n t h e n u d i s t c o l o n y , f o u r b y D r e y f u s d u r i n g C l o u s e a u a n d M a r i a ' s d a t e , a n d s i x k i l l e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e m o v i e b y t h e b o m b D r e y f u s p u t i n C l o u s e a u ' s c a r . A l l o t h e r m u r d e r s w e r e c o m m i t t e d b y D r e y f u s . S e l l e r s w a s a t t a c h e d t o s t a r i n t h e a d a p t a t i o n o f H a r r y K u r n i t z ' s B r o a d w a y h i t b e f o r e t h e r e l e a s e a n d s u c c e s s o f " T h e P i n k P a n t h e r " , b u t w a s n o t p l e a s e d w i t h t h e s c r i p t b y A l e c C o p p e l a n d N o r m a n K r a s n a . W a l t e r M i r i s c h a p p r o a c h e d B l a k e E d w a r d s a n d a s k e d h i m t o t a k e o v e r a s d i r e c t o r o f " A S h o t i n t h e D a r k " f r o m A n a t o l e L i t v a k . E d w a r d s d e c l i n e d i n i t i a l l y , b u t e v e n t u a l l y r e l e n t e d u n d e r p r e s s u r e o n t h e c o n d i t i o n h e c o u l d r e w r i t e t h e s c r i p t a n d s u b s t i t u t e I n s p e c t o r C l o u s e a u f o r t h e l e a d c h a r a c t e r a n d c h o r e o g r a p h c o m i c s c e n e s o n t h e f l y a s h e a n d S e l l e r s h a d s u c c e s s f u l l y d o n e f o r t h e i r p r e v i o u s f i l m . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n E d w a r d s a n d S e l l e r s d e t e r i o r a t e d t o s u c h a p o i n t t h a t a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e f i l m t h e y v o w e d n e v e r t o w o r k t o g e t h e r a g a i n . T h e y e v e n t u a l l y r e c o n c i l e d t o c o l l a b o r a t e s u c c e s s f u l l y f o u r y e a r s l a t e r o n " T h e P a r t y " , a n d o n t h r e e m o r e " P i n k P a n t h e r " f i l m s i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s . A s w i t h m o s t o f t h e o t h e r C l o u s e a u f i l m s , " A S h o t i n t h e D a r k " f e a t u r e s a n a n i m a t e d o p e n i n g t i t l e s s e q u e n c e p r o d u c e d b y D e P a t i e - F r e l e n g E n t e r p r i s e s u t i l i z i n g a n a n i m a t e d v e r s i o n o f I n s p e c t o r C l o u s e a u . T h i s f i l m a n d " I n s p e c t o r C l o u s e a u " a r e t h e o n l y C l o u s e a u f i l m s n o t t o f e a t u r e t h e P i n k P a n t h e r c h a r a c t e r i n t h e o p e n i n g t i t l e s . H e n r y M a n c i n i ' s t h e m e f o r t h i s f i l m s e r v e s a s o p e n i n g t h e m e a n d i n c i d e n t a l m u s i c i n " T h e I n s p e c t o r " c a r t o o n s h o r t s m a d e b y D e P a t i e - F r e l e n g f r o m 1 9 6 5 t o 1 9 6 9 . T h e t i t l e s o n g ' T h e S h a d o w s o f P a r i s ' w a s w r i t t e n b y H e n r y M a n c i n i . T h e s i n g e r i s n o t c r e d i t e d b u t c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a d e r e p o r t s c o n f i r m i t w a s D e c c a R e c o r d s r e c o r d i n g a r t i s t G i n a C a r r o l l . B o s l e y C r o w t h e r o f " T h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s " w r o t e , " I t i s m a d , b u t t h e w o n d e r f u l d e x t e r i t y a n d t h e a i r o f p e r p e t u a l l y b u t t r e s s e d d i g n i t y w i t h w h i c h M r . S e l l e r s p l a y s h i s r o l e m a k e w h a t c o u l d q u i c k l y b e m o n o t o n o u s e n j o y a b l e t o t h e e n d . " " V a r i e t y " w r o t e : " W i s d o m r e m a i n s t o b e s e e n o f p r o j e c t i n g a s e c o n d a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e h i l a r i o u s l y i n e p t d e t e c t i v e s o s o o n a f t e r t h e s t i l l - c u r r e n t f i r s t r u n s h o w i n g o f ' P a n t h e r , ' s i n c e s o m e o f t h e s p o n t a n e o u s n o v e l t y m a y h a v e w o r n o f f , b u t t h e l a u g h s a r e s t i l l t h e r e a b u n d a n t l y t h r o u g h i m a g i n a t i v e b i t s o f b u s i n e s s a n d a f e w s t r i k e b e l l y p r o p o r t i o n s . " P h i l i p K . S c h e u e r o f t h e " L o s A n g e l e s T i m e s " w r o t e t h a t t h e f i l m " i s a l l v a r i a t i o n s o f f a l l i n g d o w n a n d g o i n g b o o m . . . I w o n ' t s a y ' a d n a u s e u m ' [ s i c ] b e c a u s e S e l l e r s i s a c l e v e r c o m e d i a n a n d n e v e r t h a t p a i n f u l t o t a k e . B u t e n o u g h i s e n o u g h a l r e a d y . " R i c h a r d L . C o e o f " T h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t " c a l l e d i t " a h a r d w o r k i n g c o m e d y , " a d d i n g " W h i l e t h e l i n e s a r e b r i g h t a n d s o m e t i m e s b l u e , t h e r e a l f u n c o m e s f r o m s i g h t g a g s , a n o l d i f n e g l e c t e d f i l m i n g r e d i e n t . " " T h e M o n t h l y F i l m B u l l e t i n " w r o t e , " W h e r e " T h e P i n k P a n t h e r " h a d s t y l e a n d a c e r t a i n s u b t l e t y , i t s s u c c e s s o r . . . c a n s u b s t i t u t e o n l y s l a p s t i c k o f t h e c r u d e s t k i n d . A s t h e b u m b l i n g i n s p e c t o r , S e l l e r s i s t h i s t i m e a b s o l u t e l y o u t o f h a n d , h i s p r i n c i p a l — a n d e n d l e s s l y r e p e a t e d — g a g b e i n g t o f a l l w i t h a r e s o u n d i n g s p l a s h i n t o l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f w a t e r . " J o h n M c C a r t e n o f " T h e N e w Y o r k e r " w r o t e , " ' A S h o t i n t h e D a r k ' a s d o n e o n B r o a d w a y w a s a m e d i o c r e c o m e d y , b u t B l a k e E d w a r d s , w h o d i r e c t e d t h e f i l m a n d c o l l a b o r a t e d o n t h e s c r i p t w i t h W i l l i a m P e t e r B l a t t y , h a d t h e g o o d s e n s e t o t o s s t h e f o u n d a t i o n s t o c k o u t t h e w i n d o w a n d l e t M r . S e l l e r s r u n a m o k . . . A l l i n a l l , e x t r e m e l y j o l l y . " T h e m o v i e w a s o n e o f t h e 1 3 m o s t p o p u l a r f i l m s i n t h e U K i n 1 9 6 5 . T h e f i l m w a s w e l l r e c e i v e d b y c r i t i c s . , i t h a s 9 4 % f a v o u r a b l e r e v i e w s o n r e v i e w a g g r e g a t o r R o t t e n T o m a t o e s o u t o f 3 2 r e v i e w s c o u n t e d . T h e a v e r a g e r a t i n g g i v e n b y c r i t i c s i s 8 . 1 o u t o f 1 0 . T h e c r i t i c a l c o n s e n s u s r e a d s : " " A S h o t i n t h e D a r k " i s o f t e n r e g a r d e d a s t h e b e s t o f t h e " P i n k P a n t h e r " s e q u e l s , a n d P e t e r S e l l e r s g i v e s a t o p - n o t c h p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t m a k e s s l a p s t i c k b u f f o o n e r y m e m o r a b l e . " I n 2 0 0 6 , t h e f i l m w a s v o t e d t h e 3 8 t h g r e a t e s t c o m e d y f i l m o f a l l t i m e i n C h a n n e l 4 ' s 5 0 G r e a t e s t C o m e d y F i l m s T h e f i l m i s r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n F i l m I n s t i t u t e i n t h e s e l i s t s :

Production

The film opens with a murder taking place at the Ballon estate. The victim is Miguel, the lover of Madame Ballon. The police investigation is led by Inspector Jacques Clouseau, who is determined to solve the case. However, his methods are unorthodox and often lead to chaos and destruction. Meanwhile, Clouseau becomes infatuated with Maria Gambrelli, a beautiful servant at the estate who is accused of the crime. Despite the mounting evidence against her, Clouseau believes she is innocent and sets out to uncover the true culprit. Along the way, he must contend with his own incompetence, as well as the attempts of his superior, Commissioner Dreyfus, to sabotage his efforts. In the end, Clouseau uncovers a surprising twist and brings the perpetrators to justice.

assassin. When the phone rings, the life or death struggle ceases and it becomes apparent that his assailant is his valet, Cato (Burt Kwouk). In order to keep his senses sharp, Clouseau has instructed Cato to attack him when he least expects it. The Inspector is reinstated to the Ballon case and immediately orders Maria Gambrelli's release from prison, as he is convinced she is shielding the real killer, who Clouseau suspects is Ballon himself. A series of additional murders of the Ballon staff follows. Each time the evidence points to Maria, who is continually arrested, only to have Clouseau release her again despite the growing number of murder charges against her. Clouseau's actions embarrass the Sûreté in the press, but Commissioner Dreyfus is unable to remove him his wife was attempting to shoot Maria, thinking she would catch the two having an affair, but shot Miguel by accident. Ballon had been hiding in the closet while the shooting occurred and knocked Maria unconscious with the closet door knob, subsequently placing the gun in her hand to protect his wife. As a massive row breaks out among employers and staff, the lights are cut (an arrangement Clouseau had made with his assistant), and the guilty take the opportunity to pile into Clouseau's car and escape. They are all killed when the car is destroyed by a bomb that had been planted by Commissioner Dreyfus in another attempt to kill Clouseau. Witnessing this result, Dreyfus is reduced to an animalistic fury and is taken away by Clouseau's assistant. Finally, Clouseau and Maria celebrate the clearing of her name with a long and passionate kiss — which is swiftly interrupted by another sneak attack by Cato. The total body count of the movie was 14 humans and one crow: three killed in the Ballon mansion, one in the nudist colony, four by Dreyfus during Clouseau and Maria's date, and six killed at the end of the movie by the bomb Dreyfus put in Clouseau's car. All other murders were committed by Dreyfus. Sellers was attached to star in the adaptation of Harry Kurnitz's Broadway hit before the release and success of "The Pink Panther", but was not pleased with the script by Alec Coppel and Norman Krasna. Walter Mirisch approached Blake Edwards and asked him to take over as director of "A Shot in the Dark" from Anatole Litvak. Edwards declined initially, but eventually relented under pressure on the condition he could rewrite the script and substitute Inspector Clouseau for the lead character and choreograph comic scenes on the fly as he and Sellers had successfully done for their previous film. The relationship between Edwards and Sellers deteriorated to such a point that at the conclusion of the film they vowed never to work together again. They eventually reconciled to collaborate successfully four years later on "The Party", and on three more "Pink Panther" films in the 1970s. As with most of the other Clouseau films, "A Shot in the Dark" features an animated opening titles sequence produced by DePatie-Freleng Enterprises utilizing an animated version of Inspector Clouseau. This film and "Inspector Clouseau" are the only Clouseau films not to feature the Pink Panther character in the opening titles. Henry Mancini's theme for this film serves as opening theme and incidental music in "The Inspector" cartoon shorts made by DePatie-Freleng from 1965 to 1969. The title song 'The Shadows of Paris' was written by Henry Mancini. The singer is not credited but contemporary trade reports confirm it was Decca Records recording artist Gina Carroll. Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" wrote, "It is mad, but the wonderful dexterity and the air of perpetually buttressed dignity with which Mr. Sellers plays his role make what could quickly be monotonous enjoyable to the end." "Variety" wrote: "Wisdom remains to be seen of projecting a second appearance of the hilariously inept detective so soon after the still-current firstrun showing of 'Panther,' since some of the spontaneous novelty may have worn off, but the laughs are still there abundantly through imaginative bits of business and a few strike belly proportions." Philip K. Scheuer of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that the film "is all variations of falling down and going boom ... I won't say 'ad nauseum' [sic] because Sellers is a clever comedian and never that painful to take. But enough is enough already." Richard L. Coe of "The Washington Post" called it "a hardworking comedy," adding "While the lines are bright and sometimes blue, the real fun comes from sight gags, an old if neglected film ingredient." "The Monthly Film Bulletin" wrote, "Where "The Pink Panther" had style and a certain subtlety, its successor ... can substitute only slapstick of the crudest kind. As the bumbling inspector, Sellers is this time absolutely out of hand, his principal—and endlessly repeated—gag being to fall with a resounding splash into large quantities of water." John McCarten of "The New Yorker" wrote, "'A Shot in the Dark' as done on Broadway was a mediocre comedy, but Blake Edwards, who directed the film and collaborated on the script with William Peter Blatty, had the good sense to toss the foundation stock out the window and let Mr. Sellers run amok ... All in all, extremely jolly. " The movie was one of the 13 most popular films in the UK in 1965. The film was well received by critics. , it has 94% favourable reviews on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes out of 32 reviews counted. The average rating given by critics is 8.1 out of 10. The critical consensus reads: ""A Shot in the Dark" is often regarded as the best of the "Pink Panther" sequels, and Peter Sellers gives a top-notch performance that makes slapstick buffoonery memorable." In 2006, the film was voted the 38th greatest comedy film of all time in Channel 4's 50 Greatest Comedy Films The film is recognized by the American Film Institute in these lists:

A Shot in the Dark (1964 film)

A t n i g h t i n t h e s e r v a n t s ' q u a r t e r s o f a g r a n d h o u s e , s e v e r a l m e n a n d w o m e n a r e m o v i n g a b o u t : s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y c l i m b i n g u p s t a i r s a n d d o w n ; e n t e r i n g r o o m s a n d l e a v i n g ; h i d i n g f r o m , a n d s p y i n g o n , o n e a n o t h e r . T h e n t h e r e a r e g u n s h o t s . 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I n s p e c t o r C l o u s e a u ( P e t e r S e l l e r s ) o f t h e S û r e t é , t h e F r e n c h n a t i o n a l p o l i c e , i s c a l l e d t h e r e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e m u r d e r o f t h e c h a u f f e u r , M i g u e l O s t o s , w h o w a s h a v i n g a n a f f a i r w i t h o n e o f t h e m a i d s , M a r i a G a m b r e l l i ( E l k e S o m m e r ) , a n d a t t a c k e d h e r i n h e r b e d r o o m a f t e r s h e b r o k e o f f w i t h h i m . M i g u e l w a s s h o t a n d k i l l e d t h e r e a n d M a r i a w a s f o u n d w i t h t h e s m o k i n g g u n i n h e r h a n d , b u t c l a i m s n o k n o w l e d g e o f h o w i t g o t t h e r e a s s h e m a i n t a i n s s h e w a s k n o c k e d u n c o n s c i o u s . A l l e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o M a r i a a s t h e k i l l e r , b u t C l o u s e a u i s c o n v i n c e d o f h e r i n n o c e n c e b e c a u s e h e i s i m m e d i a t e l y a t t r a c t e d t o h e r . R e a l i z i n g C l o u s e a u h a s b e e n i n a d v e r t e n t l y a s s i g n e d t o a h i g h - p r o f i l e c a s e , C o m m i s s i o n e r D r e y f u s ( H e r b e r t L o m ) h a s h i m r e m o v e d a n d p e r s o n a l l y t a k e s c h a r g e o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . D e j e c t e d , C l o u s e a u r e t u r n s h o m e . H e i s a w a k e n e d e a r l y i n t h e m o r n i n g b y a n a p p a r e n t a t t e m p t o n h i s l i f e b y a C h i n e s e a s s a s s i n . W h e n t h e p h o n e r i n g s , t h e l i f e o r d e a t h s t r u g g l e c e a s e s a n d i t b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t t h a t h i s a s s a i l a n t i s h i s v a l e t , C a t o ( B u r t K w o u k ) . I n o r d e r t o k e e p h i s s e n s e s s h a r p , C l o u s e a u h a s i n s t r u c t e d C a t o t o a t t a c k h i m w h e n h e l e a s t e x p e c t s i t . T h e I n s p e c t o r i s r e i n s t a t e d t o t h e B a l l o n c a s e a n d i m m e d i a t e l y o r d e r s M a r i a G a m b r e l l i ' s r e l e a s e f r o m p r i s o n , a s h e i s c o n v i n c e d s h e i s s h i e l d i n g t h e r e a l k i l l e r , w h o C l o u s e a u s u s p e c t s i s B a l l o n h i m s e l f . A s e r i e s o f a d d i t i o n a l m u r d e r s o f t h e B a l l o n s t a f f f o l l o w s . E a c h t i m e t h e e v i d e n c e p o i n t s t o M a r i a , w h o i s c o n t i n u a l l y a r r e s t e d , o n l y t o h a v e C l o u s e a u r e l e a s e h e r a g a i n d e s p i t e t h e g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f m u r d e r c h a r g e s a g a i n s t h e r . C l o u s e a u ' s a c t i o n s e m b a r r a s s t h e S û r e t é i n t h e p r e s s , b u t C o m m i s s i o n e r D r e y f u s i s u n a b l e t o r e m o v e h i m f r o m t h e c a s e b e c a u s e B a l l o n h a s e x e r t e d p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e t o k e e p t h e u n o r t h o d o x a n d s e e m i n g l y i n c o m p e t e n t d e t e c t i v e a s s i g n e d t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A s C l o u s e a u c o n t i n u e s t o b u n g l e t h e c a s e , C o m m i s s i o n e r D r e y f u s b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y u n h i n g e d a n d s u f f e r s a n e r v o u s b r e a k d o w n t h a t r e d u c e s h i m t o a d e l u s i o n a l p s y c h o t i c . H e s t a l k s C l o u s e a u i n o r d e r t o a s s a s s i n a t e h i m , b u t a c c i d e n t a l l y k i l l s a s e r i e s o f i n n o c e n t b y s t a n d e r s i n s t e a d a n d a d d s f u r t h e r n o t o r i e t y t o t h e c a s e . W h e n C l o u s e a u c o n f r o n t s t h e B a l l o n h o u s e h o l d i n a n a t t e m p t t o t r i c k t h e m u r d e r e r i n t o u n m a s k i n g h i m s e l f o r h e r s e l f , i t i s r e v e a l e d t h a t e v e r y b o d y w a s i n v o l v e d i n t h e m u r d e r s — e a c h o f t h e m h a s k i l l e d a t l e a s t o n e o f t h e e a r l i e r v i c t i m s d u e t o c r i m e s o f p a s s i o n a n d / o r s u b s e q u e n t b l a c k m a i l a t t e m p t s — " e x c e p t " M a r i a , w h o i s i n n o c e n t o f a n y c r i m e . B a l l o n e v e n t u a l l y r e v e a l s t h a t h i s w i f e w a s a t t e m p t i n g t o s h o o t M a r i a , t h i n k i n g s h e w o u l d c a t c h t h e t w o h a v i n g a n a f f a i r , b u t s h o t M i g u e l b y a c c i d e n t . B a l l o n h a d b e e n h i d i n g i n t h e c l o s e t w h i l e t h e s h o o t i n g o c c u r r e d a n d k n o c k e d M a r i a u n c o n s c i o u s w i t h t h e c l o s e t d o o r k n o b , s u b s e q u e n t l y p l a c i n g t h e g u n i n h e r h a n d t o p r o t e c t h i s w i f e . A s a m a s s i v e r o w b r e a k s o u t a m o n g e m p l o y e r s a n d s t a f f , t h e l i g h t s a r e c u t ( a n a r r a n g e m e n t C l o u s e a u h a d m a d e w i t h h i s a s s i s t a n t ) , a n d t h e g u i l t y t a k e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o p i l e i n t o C l o u s e a u ' s c a r a n d e s c a p e . T h e y a r e a l l k i l l e d w h e n t h e c a r i s d e s t r o y e d b y a b o m b t h a t h a d b e e n p l a n t e d b y C o m m i s s i o n e r D r e y f u s i n a n o t h e r a t t e m p t t o k i l l C l o u s e a u . W i t n e s s i n g t h i s r e s u l t , D r e y f u s i s r e d u c e d t o a n a n i m a l i s t i c f u r y a n d i s t a k e n a w a y b y C l o u s e a u ' s a s s i s t a n t . F i n a l l y , C l o u s e a u a n d M a r i a c e l e b r a t e t h e c l e a r i n g o f h e r n a m e w i t h a l o n g a n d p a s s i o n a t e k i s s — w h i c h i s s w i f t l y i n t e r r u p t e d b y a n o t h e r s n e a k a t t a c k b y C a t o . T h e t o t a l b o d y c o u n t o f t h e m o v i e w a s 1 4 h u m a n s a n d o n e c r o w : t h r e e k i l l e d i n t h e B a l l o n m a n s i o n , o n e i n t h e n u d i s t c o l o n y , f o u r b y D r e y f u s d u r i n g C l o u s e a u a n d M a r i a ' s d a t e , a n d s i x k i l l e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e m o v i e b y t h e b o m b D r e y f u s p u t i n C l o u s e a u ' s c a r . A l l o t h e r m u r d e r s w e r e c o m m i t t e d b y D r e y f u s . S e l l e r s w a s a t t a c h e d t o s t a r i n t h e a d a p t a t i o n o f H a r r y K u r n i t z ' s B r o a d w a y h i t b e f o r e t h e r e l e a s e a n d s u c c e s s o f " T h e P i n k P a n t h e r " , b u t w a s n o t p l e a s e d w i t h t h e s c r i p t b y A l e c C o p p e l a n d N o r m a n K r a s n a . W a l t e r M i r i s c h a p p r o a c h e d B l a k e E d w a r d s a n d a s k e d h i m t o t a k e o v e r a s d i r e c t o r o f " A S h o t i n t h e D a r k " f r o m A n a t o l e L i t v a k . E d w a r d s d e c l i n e d i n i t i a l l y , b u t e v e n t u a l l y r e l e n t e d u n d e r p r e s s u r e o n t h e c o n d i t i o n h e c o u l d r e w r i t e t h e s c r i p t a n d s u b s t i t u t e I n s p e c t o r C l o u s e a u f o r t h e l e a d c h a r a c t e r a n d c h o r e o g r a p h c o m i c s c e n e s o n t h e f l y a s h e a n d S e l l e r s h a d s u c c e s s f u l l y d o n e f o r t h e i r p r e v i o u s f i l m . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n E d w a r d s a n d S e l l e r s d e t e r i o r a t e d t o s u c h a p o i n t t h a t a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e f i l m t h e y v o w e d n e v e r t o w o r k t o g e t h e r a g a i n . T h e y e v e n t u a l l y r e c o n c i l e d t o c o l l a b o r a t e s u c c e s s f u l l y f o u r y e a r s l a t e r o n " T h e P a r t y " , a n d o n t h r e e m o r e " P i n k P a n t h e r " f i l m s i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s . A s w i t h m o s t o f t h e o t h e r C l o u s e a u f i l m s , " A S h o t i n t h e D a r k " f e a t u r e s a n a n i m a t e d o p e n i n g t i t l e s s e q u e n c e p r o d u c e d b y D e P a t i e - F r e l e n g E n t e r p r i s e s u t i l i z i n g a n a n i m a t e d v e r s i o n o f I n s p e c t o r C l o u s e a u . T h i s f i l m a n d " I n s p e c t o r C l o u s e a u " a r e t h e o n l y C l o u s e a u f i l m s n o t t o f e a t u r e t h e P i n k P a n t h e r c h a r a c t e r i n t h e o p e n i n g t i t l e s . H e n r y M a n c i n i ' s t h e m e f o r t h i s f i l m s e r v e s a s o p e n i n g t h e m e a n d i n c i d e n t a l m u s i c i n " T h e I n s p e c t o r " c a r t o o n s h o r t s m a d e b y D e P a t i e - F r e l e n g f r o m 1 9 6 5 t o 1 9 6 9 . T h e t i t l e s o n g ' T h e S h a d o w s o f P a r i s ' w a s w r i t t e n b y H e n r y M a n c i n i . T h e s i n g e r i s n o t c r e d i t e d b u t c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a d e r e p o r t s c o n f i r m i t w a s D e c c a R e c o r d s r e c o r d i n g a r t i s t G i n a C a r r o l l . B o s l e y C r o w t h e r o f " T h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s " w r o t e , " I t i s m a d , b u t t h e w o n d e r f u l d e x t e r i t y a n d t h e a i r o f p e r p e t u a l l y b u t t r e s s e d d i g n i t y w i t h w h i c h M r . S e l l e r s p l a y s h i s r o l e m a k e w h a t c o u l d q u i c k l y b e m o n o t o n o u s e n j o y a b l e t o t h e e n d . " " V a r i e t y " w r o t e : " W i s d o m r e m a i n s t o b e s e e n o f p r o j e c t i n g a s e c o n d a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e h i l a r i o u s l y i n e p t d e t e c t i v e s o s o o n a f t e r t h e s t i l l - c u r r e n t f i r s t r u n s h o w i n g o f ' P a n t h e r , ' s i n c e s o m e o f t h e s p o n t a n e o u s n o v e l t y m a y h a v e w o r n o f f , b u t t h e l a u g h s a r e s t i l l t h e r e a b u n d a n t l y t h r o u g h i m a g i n a t i v e b i t s o f b u s i n e s s a n d a f e w s t r i k e b e l l y p r o p o r t i o n s . " P h i l i p K . S c h e u e r o f t h e " L o s A n g e l e s T i m e s " w r o t e t h a t t h e f i l m " i s a l l v a r i a t i o n s o f f a l l i n g d o w n a n d g o i n g b o o m . . . I w o n ' t s a y ' a d n a u s e u m ' [ s i c ] b e c a u s e S e l l e r s i s a c l e v e r c o m e d i a n a n d n e v e r t h a t p a i n f u l t o t a k e . B u t e n o u g h i s e n o u g h a l r e a d y . " R i c h a r d L . C o e o f " T h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t " c a l l e d i t " a h a r d w o r k i n g c o m e d y , " a d d i n g " W h i l e t h e l i n e s a r e b r i g h t a n d s o m e t i m e s b l u e , t h e r e a l f u n c o m e s f r o m s i g h t g a g s , a n o l d i f n e g l e c t e d f i l m i n g r e d i e n t . " " T h e M o n t h l y F i l m B u l l e t i n " w r o t e , " W h e r e " T h e P i n k P a n t h e r " h a d s t y l e a n d a c e r t a i n s u b t l e t y , i t s s u c c e s s o r . . . c a n s u b s t i t u t e o n l y s l a p s t i c k o f t h e c r u d e s t k i n d . A s t h e b u m b l i n g i n s p e c t o r , S e l l e r s i s t h i s t i m e a b s o l u t e l y o u t o f h a n d , h i s p r i n c i p a l — a n d e n d l e s s l y r e p e a t e d — g a g b e i n g t o f a l l w i t h a r e s o u n d i n g s p l a s h i n t o l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f w a t e r . " J o h n M c C a r t e n o f " T h e N e w Y o r k e r " w r o t e , " ' A S h o t i n t h e D a r k ' a s d o n e o n B r o a d w a y w a s a m e d i o c r e c o m e d y , b u t B l a k e E d w a r d s , w h o d i r e c t e d t h e f i l m a n d c o l l a b o r a t e d o n t h e s c r i p t w i t h W i l l i a m P e t e r B l a t t y , h a d t h e g o o d s e n s e t o t o s s t h e f o u n d a t i o n s t o c k o u t t h e w i n d o w a n d l e t M r . S e l l e r s r u n a m o k . . . A l l i n a l l , e x t r e m e l y j o l l y . " T h e m o v i e w a s o n e o f t h e 1 3 m o s t p o p u l a r f i l m s i n t h e U K i n 1 9 6 5 . T h e f i l m w a s w e l l r e c e i v e d b y c r i t i c s . , i t h a s 9 4 % f a v o u r a b l e r e v i e w s o n r e v i e w a g g r e g a t o r R o t t e n T o m a t o e s o u t o f 3 2 r e v i e w s c o u n t e d . T h e a v e r a g e r a t i n g g i v e n b y c r i t i c s i s 8 . 1 o u t o f 1 0 . T h e c r i t i c a l c o n s e n s u s r e a d s : " " A S h o t i n t h e D a r k " i s o f t e n r e g a r d e d a s t h e b e s t o f t h e " P i n k P a n t h e r " s e q u e l s , a n d P e t e r S e l l e r s g i v e s a t o p - n o t c h p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t m a k e s s l a p s t i c k b u f f o o n e r y m e m o r a b l e . " I n 2 0 0 6 , t h e f i l m w a s v o t e d t h e 3 8 t h g r e a t e s t c o m e d y f i l m o f a l l t i m e i n C h a n n e l 4 ' s 5 0 G r e a t e s t C o m e d y F i l m s T h e f i l m i s r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n F i l m I n s t i t u t e i n t h e s e l i s t s :

Reception

The reception of "A Shot in the Dark" was overwhelmingly positive, with many praising Peter Sellers' comedic performance as Inspector Clouseau. Critics noted that the film's humor came from its clever sight gags and physical comedy, making it a standout in the "Pink Panther" franchise. The film holds a high rating on Rotten Tomatoes and has been recognized by various organizations, including the American Film Institute.

At night in the servants' quarters of a grand house, several men and women are moving about: surreptitiously climbing upstairs and down; entering rooms and leaving; hiding from, and spying on, one another. Then there are gunshots. It is the country home of millionaire Benjamin Ballon (George Sanders), whose household consists of Benjamin Ballon and his wife Madame Ballon, Henri Lafarge the head butler and his wife Madame Lafarge the cook, Miguel Ostos the head chauffeur, Maria Gambrelli the third maid, Pierre the second chauffeur and his wife Dudo the head maid, Georges the gardener and his wife Simone the second maid, and Maurice the second butler. Inspector Clouseau (Peter Sellers) of the Sûreté, the French national police, is called there to investigate the murder of the chauffeur, assassin. When the phone rings, the life or death struggle ceases and it becomes apparent that his assailant is his valet, Cato (Burt Kwouk). In order to keep his senses sharp, Clouseau has instructed Cato to attack him when he least expects it. The Inspector is reinstated to the Ballon case and immediately orders Maria Gambrelli's release from prison, as he is convinced she is shielding the real killer, who Clouseau suspects is Ballon himself. A series of additional murders of the Ballon staff follows. Each time the evidence points to Maria, who is continually arrested, only to have Clouseau release her again despite the growing number of murder charges against her. Clouseau's actions embarrass the Sûreté in the press, but Commissioner Dreyfus is unable to remove him from the case because Ballon has exerted political influence to keep the unorthodox and seemingly incompetent detective assigned to the investigation. As Clouseau continues to bungle the case, Commissioner Dreyfus becomes increasingly unhinged and suffers a nervous breakdown that reduces him to a delusional psychotic. He stalks Clouseau in order to assassinate him, but accidentally kills a series of innocent bystanders instead and adds further notoriety to the case. When Clouseau confronts the Ballon household in an attempt to trick the murderer into unmasking himself or herself, it is revealed that everybody was involved in the murders—each of them has killed at least one of the earlier victims due to crimes of passion and/or subsequent blackmail attempts—"except" Maria, who is innocent of any crime. Ballon eventually reveals that his wife was attempting to shoot Maria, thinking she would catch the two having an affair, but shot Miguel by accident. Ballon had been hiding in the closet while the shooting occurred and knocked Maria unconscious with the closet door knob, subsequently placing the gun in her hand to protect his wife. As a massive row breaks out among employers and staff, the lights are cut (an arrangement Clouseau had made with his assistant), and the guilty take the opportunity to pile into Clouseau's car and escape. They are all killed when the car is destroyed by a bomb that had been planted by Commissioner Dreyfus in another attempt to kill Clouseau. Witnessing this result, Dreyfus is reduced to an animalistic fury and is taken away by Clouseau's assistant. Finally, Clouseau and Maria celebrate the clearing of her name with a long and passionate kiss — which is swiftly interrupted by another sneak attack by Cato. The total body count of the movie was 14 humans and one crow: three killed in the Ballon mansion, one in the nudist colony, four by Dreyfus during Clouseau and Maria's date, and six killed at the end of the movie by the bomb Dreyfus put in Clouseau's car. All other murders were committed by Dreyfus. Sellers was attached to star in the adaptation of Harry Kurnitz's Broadway hit before the release and success of "The Pink Panther", but was not pleased with the script by Alec Coppel and Norman Krasna. Walter Mirisch approached Blake Edwards and asked him to take over as director of "A Shot in the Dark" from Anatole Litvak. Edwards declined initially, but eventually relented under pressure on the condition he could rewrite the script and substitute Inspector Clouseau for the lead character and choreograph comic scenes on the fly as he and Sellers had successfully done for their previous film. The relationship between Edwards and Sellers deteriorated to such a point that at the conclusion of the film they vowed never to work together again. They eventually reconciled to collaborate successfully four years later on "The Party", and on three more "Pink Panther" films in the 1970s. As with most of the other Clouseau films, "A Shot in the Dark" features an animated opening titles sequence produced by DePatie-Freleng Enterprises utilizing an animated a second appearance of the hilariously inept detective so soon after the still-current firstrun showing of 'Panther,' since some of the spontaneous novelty may have worn off, but the laughs are still there abundantly through imaginative bits of business and a few strike belly proportions." Philip K. Scheuer of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that the film "is all variations of falling down and going boom ... I won't say 'ad nauseum' [sic] because Sellers is a clever comedian and never that painful to take. But enough is enough already." Richard L. Coe of "The Washington Post" called it "a hardworking comedy," adding "While the lines are bright and sometimes blue, the real fun comes from sight gags, an old if neglected film ingredient." "The Monthly Film Bulletin" was well received by critics. , it has 94% favourable reviews on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes out of 32 reviews counted. The average rating given by critics is 8.1 out of 10. The critical consensus reads: ""A Shot in the Dark" is often regarded as the best of the "Pink Panther" sequels, and Peter Sellers gives a top-notch performance that makes slapstick buffoonery memorable." In 2006, the film was voted the 38th greatest comedy film of all time in Channel 4's 50 Greatest Comedy Films The film is recognized by the American Film Institute in these lists:

Maribel Vinson

M a r i b e l V i n s o n w a s t h e d a u g h t e r o f T h o m a s a n d G e r t r u d e V i n s o n o f W i n c h e s t e r , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . B o t h o f h e r p a r e n t s w e r e f i g u r e s k a t e r s a n d M a r i b e l w a s m a d e a n h o n o r a r y m e m b e r o f t h e C a m b r i d g e S k a t i n g C l u b a t b i r t h . A g o o d s t u d e n t , V i n s o n s t u d i e d a t R a d c l i f f e C o l l e g e , g r a d u a t i n g i n 1 9 3 3 , a l l t h e w h i l e p u r s u i n g a n i n t e r e s t i n i c e s k a t i n g . S h e m a r r i e d C a n a d i a n s k a t e r G u y O w e n a n d t h e y h a d t w o d a u g h t e r s , M a r i b e l Y e r x a O w e n ( 1 9 4 0 ) a n d L a u r e n c e R o c h o n O w e n ( 1 9 4 4 ) . T h e y d i v o r c e d i n 1 9 4 9 , a n d G u y O w e n d i e d t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r a t a g e 3 8 . F o l l o w i n g h e r f a t h e r ' s d e a t h , a l s o i n 1 9 5 2 , s h e a n d h e r d a u g h t e r s m o v e d b a c k e a s t t o W i n c h e s t e r a n d l i v e d w i t h h e r m o t h e r . I n F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 1 , M a r i b e l V i n s o n - O w e n w a s k i l l e d a l o n g w i t h b o t h d a u g h t e r s i n t h e S a b e n a F l i g h t 5 4 8 c r a s h i n B e l g i u m . V i n s o n b e g a n t o t a k e l e s s o n s w i t h c o a c h W i l l i e F r i c k a t t h e B o s t o n A r e n a a t t h e a g e o f n i n e . S h e w o n t h e U . S . j u n i o r l a d i e s ' t i t l e a t t h e a g e o f 1 2 . F r o m 1 9 2 8 t o 1 9 3 7 , V i n s o n w o n t h e w o m e n ' s s i n g l e s t i t l e a t t h e U . S . C h a m p i o n s h i p s e v e r y y e a r e x c e p t f o r 1 9 3 4 . S h e a l s o t e a m e d u p w i t h T h o r n t o n L . C o o l i d g e t o w i n t h e U . S . p a i r s ' t i t l e i n 1 9 2 8 a n d 1 9 2 9 , a n d w i t h G e o r g e E . B . H i l l t o w i n f o u r t i t l e s i n 1 9 3 3 , 1 9 3 5 , 1 9 3 6 , a n d 1 9 3 7 . A t t h e 1 9 3 2 W i n t e r O l y m p i c G a m e s i n L a k e P l a c i d , N e w Y o r k , V i n s o n e a r n e d t h e b r o n z e m e d a l b e h i n d t h e N o r w e g i a n c h a m p i o n S o n j a H e n i e a n d t h e A u s t r i a n r u n n e r u p , F r i t z i B u r g e r . W h i l e s t i l l c o m p e t i n g , i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s , V i n s o n b e c a m e t h e f i r s t w o m a n s p o r t s w r i t e r a t t h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s n e w s p a p e r . F o l l o w i n g h e r r e t i r e m e n t f r o m a m a t e u r i c e s k a t i n g , V i n s o n t o u r e d p r o f e s s i o n a l l y w i t h h e r h u s b a n d G u y O w e n i n s h o w s . F o l l o w i n g t h e b i r t h o f h e r t w o d a u g h t e r s , V i n s o n - O w e n b e g a n c o a c h i n g i n B e r k e l e y , C a l i f o r n i a . S h e d i v o r c e d O w e n i n 1 9 4 9 a n d a f t e r h e r f a t h e r ' s d e a t h i n 1 9 5 2 , s h e l i v e d i n h e r n a t i v e W i n c h e s t e r , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , a n d c o a c h e d a t r i n k s i n t h e B o s t o n a r e a . H e r d a u g h t e r s d e v e l o p e d a l o v e f o r i c e s k a t i n g a n d s h e t r a i n e d t h e m i n t h e s p o r t . V i n s o n - O w e n c o a c h e d T e n l e y A l b r i g h t t o f i v e U . S . t i t l e s a n d t h e n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' f i r s t O l y m p i c g o l d m e d a l i n l a d i e s ' s i n g l e s . S h e a l s o t a u g h t F r a n k C a r r o l l , w h o h i m s e l f w e n t o n t o b e o n e o f A m e r i c a ' s t o p s k a t i n g i n s t r u c t o r s , c o a c h i n g M i c h e l l e K w a n t o h e r n u m e r o u s w o r l d a n d n a t i o n a l t i t l e s a n d E v a n L y s a c e k t o h i s O l y m p i c g o l d m e d a l . D u r i n g h e r l i f e t i m e , V i n s o n - O w e n a u t h o r e d s e v e r a l b o o k s o n h e r s p o r t : A t t h e 1 9 6 1 U . S . C h a m p i o n s h i p s , h e r d a u g h t e r a n d n a m e s a k e , M a r i b e l , w o n t h e n a t i o n a l p a i r s k a t i n g t i t l e w i t h p a r t n e r D u d l e y S . R i c h a r d s , w h i l e h e r y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r , 1 6 - y e a r - o l d L a u r e n c e , w o n t h e l a d i e s ' s i n g l e t i t l e . I t w a s t h e f i r s t t i m e C B S b r o a d c a s t t h e U . S . n a t i o n a l c h a m p i o n s h i p s o n t e l e v i s i o n a n d t h e O w e n f a m i l y b e c a m e i n s t a n t c e l e b r i t i e s . V i n s o n - O w e n , a s a c o a c h , a n d h e r t w o d a u g h t e r s , a s c o m p e t i t o r s , w e r e a l l p a r t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t e a m s c h e d u l e d t o a p p e a r a t t h e 1 9 6 1 W o r l d C h a m p i o n s h i p s i n P r a g u e , C z e c h o s l o v a k i a . T h e y b o a r d e d S a b e n a F l i g h t 5 4 8 a t N e w Y o r k C i t y ' s I d l e w i l d I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t a l o n g w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e A m e r i c a n t e a m . T h e o v e r n i g h t f l i g h t h a d a s t o p o v e r s c h e d u l e d f o r B r u s s e l s , B e l g i u m a n d o n i t s a r r i v a l i n t h e c l e a r m i d - m o r n i n g o f F e b r u a r y 1 5 , t h e c a p t a i n h a d t o a b o r t t h e a p p r o a c h a n d c i r c l e a r o u n d f o r a s e c o n d a t t e m p t t o l a n d o n a d i f f e r e n t r u n w a y . T h e p l a n e , a B o e i n g 7 0 7 , n e v e r m a d e i t b a c k t o t h e a i r p o r t ; i n s t e a d , i t p l u n g e d i n t o t h e w o o d e d f a r m l a n d o f t h e v i l l a g e o f B e r g , B e l g i u m , t a k i n g t h e l i v e s o f a l l 7 2 p a s s e n g e r s a n d c r e w p l u s a f a r m e r a t w o r k i n h i s f i e l d s . A l l 1 8 m e m b e r s o f t h e A m e r i c a n f i g u r e s k a t i n g t e a m p l u s 1 6 o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e s , f r i e n d s , a n d c o a c h e s w e r e a m o n g t h e d e a d . T h e 1 9 6 1 W o r l d C h a m p i o n s h i p s w e r e c a n c e l e d . T h e r e m a i n s o f V i n s o n - O w e n a n d h e r d a u g h t e r s w e r e b r o u g h t h o m e f o r i n t e r m e n t i n t h e S t o r y C h a p e l C o l u m b a r i u m a t M o u n t A u b u r n C e m e t e r y i n C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . V i n s o n - O w e n w a s i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e U . S . F i g u r e S k a t i n g H a l l o f F a m e t h r e e t i m e s – i n 1 9 7 6 a s a s i n g l e s ' s k a t e r , i n 1 9 9 4 w i t h G e o r g e E . B . H i l l i n t h e p a i r s ' c a t e g o r y , a n d i n 2 0 1 1 a s a c o a c h f o r t h e 1 9 6 1 W o r l d T e a m . I n 2 0 0 1 , s h e w a s i n d u c t e d t o t h e i n a u g u r a l c l a s s o f t h e P r o f e s s i o n a l S k a t e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n C o a c h e s H a l l o f F a m e , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e f i v e c o a c h e s t h a t p e r i s h e d b e s i d e h e r . I n 2 0 0 2 , s h e w a s i n d u c t e d i n t h e W o r l d F i g u r e S k a t i n g H a l l o f F a m e . H e r d a u g h t e r s w e r e i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e U . S . F i g u r e S k a t i n g H a l l o f F a m e i n 2 0 1 1 . I n W i n c h e s t e r , t h e V i n s o n - O w e n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l w a s n a m e d i n h e r a n d h e r d a u g h t e r s ' h o n o r .

Competitive career

Maribel Vinson-Owen was a renowned figure skater, winning multiple US Championships titles in singles and pairs between 1928-1937. She also won the bronze medal at the 1932 Winter Olympics. After retiring, she became a successful coach, training notable skaters like Tenley Albright and Frank Carroll. Tragically, Vinson-Owen and her two daughters were killed in the 1961 Sabena Flight 548 crash, en route to the World Championships. She was posthumously inducted into various halls of fame, including the US Figure Skating Hall of Fame, the Professional Skaters' Association Coaches Hall of Fame, and the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame.

Maribel Vinson was the daughter of Thomas and Gertrude Vinson of Winchester, Massachusetts. Both of her parents were figure skaters and Maribel was made an honorary member of the Cambridge Skating Club at birth. A good student, Vinson studied at Radcliffe College, graduating in 1933, all the while pursuing an interest in ice skating. She married Canadian skater Guy Owen and they had two daughters, Maribel Yerxa Owen (1940) and Laurence Rochon Owen (1944). They divorced in 1949, and Guy Owen died three years later at age 38. Following her father's death, also in 1952, she and her daughters moved back east to Winchester and lived with her mother. In February 1961, Maribel Vinson-Owen was killed along with both daughters in the Sabena Flight 548 crash in Belgium. Vinson began to take lessons with coach Willie Frick at the Boston Arena at the age of nine. She won the U.S. junior ladies' title at the age of 12. From 1928 to 1937, Vinson won the women's singles title at the U.S. Championships every year except for 1934. She also teamed up with Thornton L. Coolidge to win the U.S. pairs' title in 1928 and 1929, and with George E. B. Hill to win four titles in 1933, 1935, 1936, and 1937. At the 1932 Winter Olympic Games in Lake Placid, New York, Vinson earned the bronze medal behind the Norwegian champion Sonja Henie and the Austrian runner up, Fritzi Burger. While still competing, in the 1930s, Vinson became the first woman sportswriter at the New York Times newspaper. Following her retirement from amateur ice skating, Vinson toured professionally with her husband Guy Owen in shows. Following the birth of her two daughters, Vinson-Owen began coaching in Berkeley, California. She divorced Owen in 1949 and after her father's death in 1952, she lived in her native Winchester, Massachusetts, and coached at rinks in the Boston area. Her daughters developed a love for ice skating and she trained them in the sport. Vinson-Owen coached Tenley Albright to five U.S. titles and then to the United States' first Olympic gold medal in ladies' singles. She also taught Frank Carroll, who himself went on to be one of America's top skating instructors, coaching Michelle Kwan to her numerous world and national titles and Evan Lysacek to his Olympic gold medal. During her lifetime, Vinson-Owen authored several books on her sport: At the 1961 U.S. Championships, her daughter and namesake, Maribel, won the national pair skating title with partner Dudley S. Richards, while her youngest daughter, 16-year-old Laurence, won the ladies' single title. It was the first time CBS broadcast the U.S. national championships on television and the Owen family became instant celebrities. Vinson-Owen, as a coach, and her two daughters, as competitors, were all part of the United States team scheduled to appear at the 1961 World Championships in Prague, Czechoslovakia. They boarded Sabena Flight 548 at New York City's Idlewild International Airport along with the rest of the American team. The overnight flight had a stopover scheduled for Brussels, Belgium and on its arrival in the clear mid-morning of February 15, the captain had to abort the approach and circle around for a second attempt to land on a different runway. The plane, a Boeing 707, never made it back to the airport; instead, it plunged into the wooded farmland of the village of Berg, Belgium, taking the lives of all 72 passengers and crew plus a farmer at work in his fields. All 18 members of the American figure skating team plus 16 of their relatives, friends, and coaches were among the dead. The 1961 World Championships were canceled. The remains of Vinson-Owen and her daughters were brought home for interment in the Story Chapel Columbarium at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Vinson-Owen was inducted into the U.S. Figure Skating Hall of Fame three times – in 1976 as a singles' skater, in 1994 with George E.B. Hill in the pairs' category, and in 2011 as a coach for the 1961 World Team. In 2001, she was inducted to the inaugural class of the Professional Skaters' Association Coaches Hall of Fame, which included the five coaches that perished beside her. In 2002, she was inducted in the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame. Her daughters were inducted into the U.S. Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 2011. In Winchester, the Vinson-Owen elementary school was named in her and her daughters' honor.

Maribel Vinson

M a r i b e l V i n s o n w a s t h e d a u g h t e r o f T h o m a s a n d G e r t r u d e V i n s o n o f W i n c h e s t e r , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . B o t h o f h e r p a r e n t s w e r e f i g u r e s k a t e r s a n d M a r i b e l w a s m a d e a n h o n o r a r y m e m b e r o f t h e C a m b r i d g e S k a t i n g C l u b a t b i r t h . A g o o d s t u d e n t , V i n s o n s t u d i e d a t R a d c l i f f e C o l l e g e , g r a d u a t i n g i n 1 9 3 3 , a l l t h e w h i l e p u r s u i n g a n i n t e r e s t i n i c e s k a t i n g . S h e m a r r i e d C a n a d i a n s k a t e r G u y O w e n a n d t h e y h a d t w o d a u g h t e r s , M a r i b e l Y e r x a O w e n ( 1 9 4 0 ) a n d L a u r e n c e R o c h o n O w e n ( 1 9 4 4 ) . T h e y d i v o r c e d i n 1 9 4 9 , a n d G u y O w e n d i e d t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r a t a g e 3 8 . F o l l o w i n g h e r f a t h e r ' s d e a t h , a l s o i n 1 9 5 2 , s h e a n d h e r d a u g h t e r s m o v e d b a c k e a s t t o W i n c h e s t e r a n d l i v e d w i t h h e r m o t h e r . I n F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 1 , M a r i b e l V i n s o n - O w e n w a s k i l l e d a l o n g w i t h b o t h d a u g h t e r s i n t h e S a b e n a F l i g h t 5 4 8 c r a s h i n B e l g i u m . V i n s o n b e g a n t o t a k e l e s s o n s w i t h c o a c h W i l l i e F r i c k a t t h e B o s t o n A r e n a a t t h e a g e o f n i n e . S h e w o n t h e U . S . j u n i o r l a d i e s ' t i t l e a t t h e a g e o f 1 2 . F r o m 1 9 2 8 t o 1 9 3 7 , V i n s o n w o n t h e w o m e n ' s s i n g l e s t i t l e a t t h e U . S . C h a m p i o n s h i p s e v e r y y e a r e x c e p t f o r 1 9 3 4 . S h e a l s o t e a m e d u p w i t h T h o r n t o n L . C o o l i d g e t o w i n t h e U . S . p a i r s ' t i t l e i n 1 9 2 8 a n d 1 9 2 9 , a n d w i t h G e o r g e E . B . H i l l t o w i n f o u r t i t l e s i n 1 9 3 3 , 1 9 3 5 , 1 9 3 6 , a n d 1 9 3 7 . A t t h e 1 9 3 2 W i n t e r O l y m p i c G a m e s i n L a k e P l a c i d , N e w Y o r k , V i n s o n e a r n e d t h e b r o n z e m e d a l b e h i n d t h e N o r w e g i a n c h a m p i o n S o n j a H e n i e a n d t h e A u s t r i a n r u n n e r u p , F r i t z i B u r g e r . W h i l e s t i l l c o m p e t i n g , i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s , V i n s o n b e c a m e t h e f i r s t w o m a n s p o r t s w r i t e r a t t h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s n e w s p a p e r . F o l l o w i n g h e r r e t i r e m e n t f r o m a m a t e u r i c e s k a t i n g , V i n s o n t o u r e d p r o f e s s i o n a l l y w i t h h e r h u s b a n d G u y O w e n i n s h o w s . F o l l o w i n g t h e b i r t h o f h e r t w o d a u g h t e r s , V i n s o n - O w e n b e g a n c o a c h i n g i n B e r k e l e y , C a l i f o r n i a . S h e d i v o r c e d O w e n i n 1 9 4 9 a n d a f t e r h e r f a t h e r ' s d e a t h i n 1 9 5 2 , s h e l i v e d i n h e r n a t i v e W i n c h e s t e r , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , a n d c o a c h e d a t r i n k s i n t h e B o s t o n a r e a . H e r d a u g h t e r s d e v e l o p e d a l o v e f o r i c e s k a t i n g a n d s h e t r a i n e d t h e m i n t h e s p o r t . V i n s o n - O w e n c o a c h e d T e n l e y A l b r i g h t t o f i v e U . S . t i t l e s a n d t h e n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' f i r s t O l y m p i c g o l d m e d a l i n l a d i e s ' s i n g l e s . S h e a l s o t a u g h t F r a n k C a r r o l l , w h o h i m s e l f w e n t o n t o b e o n e o f A m e r i c a ' s t o p s k a t i n g i n s t r u c t o r s , c o a c h i n g M i c h e l l e K w a n t o h e r n u m e r o u s w o r l d a n d n a t i o n a l t i t l e s a n d E v a n L y s a c e k t o h i s O l y m p i c g o l d m e d a l . D u r i n g h e r l i f e t i m e , V i n s o n - O w e n a u t h o r e d s e v e r a l b o o k s o n h e r s p o r t : A t t h e 1 9 6 1 U . S . C h a m p i o n s h i p s , h e r d a u g h t e r a n d n a m e s a k e , M a r i b e l , w o n t h e n a t i o n a l p a i r s k a t i n g t i t l e w i t h p a r t n e r D u d l e y S . R i c h a r d s , w h i l e h e r y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r , 1 6 - y e a r - o l d L a u r e n c e , w o n t h e l a d i e s ' s i n g l e t i t l e . I t w a s t h e f i r s t t i m e C B S b r o a d c a s t t h e U . S . n a t i o n a l c h a m p i o n s h i p s o n t e l e v i s i o n a n d t h e O w e n f a m i l y b e c a m e i n s t a n t c e l e b r i t i e s . V i n s o n - O w e n , a s a c o a c h , a n d h e r t w o d a u g h t e r s , a s c o m p e t i t o r s , w e r e a l l p a r t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t e a m s c h e d u l e d t o a p p e a r a t t h e 1 9 6 1 W o r l d C h a m p i o n s h i p s i n P r a g u e , C z e c h o s l o v a k i a . T h e y b o a r d e d S a b e n a F l i g h t 5 4 8 a t N e w Y o r k C i t y ' s I d l e w i l d I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t a l o n g w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e A m e r i c a n t e a m . T h e o v e r n i g h t f l i g h t h a d a s t o p o v e r s c h e d u l e d f o r B r u s s e l s , B e l g i u m a n d o n i t s a r r i v a l i n t h e c l e a r m i d - m o r n i n g o f F e b r u a r y 1 5 , t h e c a p t a i n h a d t o a b o r t t h e a p p r o a c h a n d c i r c l e a r o u n d f o r a s e c o n d a t t e m p t t o l a n d o n a d i f f e r e n t r u n w a y . T h e p l a n e , a B o e i n g 7 0 7 , n e v e r m a d e i t b a c k t o t h e a i r p o r t ; i n s t e a d , i t p l u n g e d i n t o t h e w o o d e d f a r m l a n d o f t h e v i l l a g e o f B e r g , B e l g i u m , t a k i n g t h e l i v e s o f a l l 7 2 p a s s e n g e r s a n d c r e w p l u s a f a r m e r a t w o r k i n h i s f i e l d s . A l l 1 8 m e m b e r s o f t h e A m e r i c a n f i g u r e s k a t i n g t e a m p l u s 1 6 o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e s , f r i e n d s , a n d c o a c h e s w e r e a m o n g t h e d e a d . T h e 1 9 6 1 W o r l d C h a m p i o n s h i p s w e r e c a n c e l e d . T h e r e m a i n s o f V i n s o n - O w e n a n d h e r d a u g h t e r s w e r e b r o u g h t h o m e f o r i n t e r m e n t i n t h e S t o r y C h a p e l C o l u m b a r i u m a t M o u n t A u b u r n C e m e t e r y i n C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . V i n s o n - O w e n w a s i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e U . S . F i g u r e S k a t i n g H a l l o f F a m e t h r e e t i m e s – i n 1 9 7 6 a s a s i n g l e s ' s k a t e r , i n 1 9 9 4 w i t h G e o r g e E . B . H i l l i n t h e p a i r s ' c a t e g o r y , a n d i n 2 0 1 1 a s a c o a c h f o r t h e 1 9 6 1 W o r l d T e a m . I n 2 0 0 1 , s h e w a s i n d u c t e d t o t h e i n a u g u r a l c l a s s o f t h e P r o f e s s i o n a l S k a t e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n C o a c h e s H a l l o f F a m e , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e f i v e c o a c h e s t h a t p e r i s h e d b e s i d e h e r . I n 2 0 0 2 , s h e w a s i n d u c t e d i n t h e W o r l d F i g u r e S k a t i n g H a l l o f F a m e . H e r d a u g h t e r s w e r e i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e U . S . F i g u r e S k a t i n g H a l l o f F a m e i n 2 0 1 1 . I n W i n c h e s t e r , t h e V i n s o n - O w e n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l w a s n a m e d i n h e r a n d h e r d a u g h t e r s ' h o n o r .

Coaching career

Maribel Vinson-Owen was a renowned figure skater and coach. As a competitor, she won multiple US Championships titles in singles and pairs, and a bronze medal at the 1932 Winter Olympics. After retiring, she became a successful coach, training Tenley Albright to Olympic gold and mentoring Frank Carroll, who went on to coach Michelle Kwan and Evan Lysacek. Vinson-Owen was inducted into multiple halls of fame, including the US Figure Skating Hall of Fame, the Professional Skaters' Association Coaches Hall of Fame, and the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame. Tragically, she and her two daughters were killed in the 1961 Sabena Flight 548 crash.

Maribel Vinson was the daughter of Thomas and Gertrude Vinson of Winchester, Massachusetts. Both of her parents were figure skaters and Maribel was made an honorary member of the Cambridge Skating Club at birth. A good student, Vinson studied at Radcliffe College, graduating in 1933, all the while pursuing an interest in ice skating. She married Canadian skater Guy Owen and they had two daughters, Maribel Yerxa Owen (1940) and Laurence Rochon Owen (1944). They divorced in 1949, and Guy Owen died three years later at age 38. Following her father's death, also in 1952, she and her daughters moved back east to Winchester and lived with her mother. In February 1961, Maribel Vinson-Owen was killed along with both daughters in the Sabena Flight 548 crash in Belgium. Vinson began to take lessons with coach Willie Frick at the Boston Arena at the age of nine. She won the U.S. junior ladies' title at the age of 12. From 1928 to 1937, Vinson won the women's singles title at the U.S. Championships every year except for 1934. She also teamed up with Thornton L. Coolidge to win the U.S. pairs' title in 1928 and 1929, and with George E. B. Hill to win four titles in 1933, 1935, 1936, and 1937. At the 1932 Winter Olympic Games in Lake Placid, New York, Vinson earned the bronze medal behind the Norwegian champion Sonja Henie and the Austrian runner up, Fritzi Burger. While still competing, in the 1930s, Vinson became the first woman sportswriter at the New York Times newspaper. Following her retirement from amateur ice skating, Vinson toured professionally with her husband Guy Owen in shows. Following the birth of her two daughters, Vinson-Owen began coaching in Berkeley, California. She divorced Owen in 1949 and after her father's death in 1952, she lived in her native Winchester, Massachusetts, and coached at rinks in the Boston area. Her daughters developed a love for ice skating and she trained them in the sport. Vinson-Owen coached Tenley Albright to five U.S. titles and then to the United States' first Olympic gold medal in ladies' singles. She also taught Frank Carroll, who himself went on to be one of America's top skating instructors, coaching Michelle Kwan to her numerous world and national titles and Evan Lysacek to his Olympic gold medal. During her lifetime, Vinson-Owen authored several books on her sport: At the 1961 U.S. Championships, her daughter and namesake, Maribel, won the national pair skating title with partner Dudley S. Richards, while her youngest daughter, 16-year-old Laurence, won the ladies' single title. It was the first time CBS broadcast the U.S. national championships on television and the Owen family became instant celebrities. Vinson-Owen, as a coach, and her two daughters, as competitors, were all part of the United States team scheduled to appear at the 1961 World Championships in Prague, Czechoslovakia. They boarded Sabena Flight 548 at New York City's Idlewild International Airport along with the rest of the American team. The overnight flight had a stopover scheduled for Brussels, Belgium and on its arrival in the clear mid-morning of February 15, the captain had to abort the approach and circle around for a second attempt to land on a different runway. The plane, a Boeing 707, never made it back to the airport; instead, it plunged into the wooded farmland of the village of Berg, Belgium, taking the lives of all 72 passengers and crew plus a farmer at work in his fields. All 18 members of the American figure skating team plus 16 of their relatives, friends, and coaches were among the dead. The 1961 World Championships were canceled. The remains of Vinson-Owen and her daughters were brought home for interment in the Story Chapel Columbarium at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Vinson-Owen was inducted into the U.S. Figure Skating Hall of Fame three times – in 1976 as a singles' skater, in 1994 with George E.B. Hill in the pairs' category, and in 2011 as a coach for the 1961 World Team. In 2001, she was inducted to the inaugural class of the Professional Skaters' Association Coaches Hall of Fame, which included the five coaches that perished beside her. In 2002, she was inducted in the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame. Her daughters were inducted into the U.S. Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 2011. In Winchester, the Vinson-Owen elementary school was named in her and her daughters' honor.

RAF Lakenheath

T h e f i r s t u s e o f L a k e n h e a t h W a r r e n a s a R o y a l F l y i n g C o r p s a i r f i e l d w a s d u r i n g t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r , w h e n t h e a r e a w a s m a d e i n t o a b o m b i n g a n d g r o u n d - a t t a c k r a n g e f o r a i r c r a f t f l y i n g f r o m R F C F e l t w e l l a n d R F C T h e t f o r d . I n 1 9 4 0 , t h e A i r M i n i s t r y s e l e c t e d L a k e n h e a t h a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e f o r n e a r b y R A F M i l d e n h a l l a n d u s e d i t a s a d e c o y a i r f i e l d . S u r f a c e d r u n w a y s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n 1 9 4 1 , w i t h t h e m a i n r u n w a y b e i n g , a n d t h e t w o s u b s i d i a r y r u n w a y s a t . L a k e n h e a t h w a s u s e d b y R A F f l y i n g u n i t s o n d e t a c h m e n t l a t e i n 1 9 4 1 . T h e s t a t i o n s o o n f u n c t i o n e d a s a M i l d e n h a l l s a t e l l i t e w i t h S h o r t S t i r l i n g b o m b e r s o f N o . 1 4 9 S q u a d r o n d i s p e r s e d f r o m t h e p a r e n t a i r f i e l d a s c o n d i t i o n s a l l o w e d . T h e s q u a d r o n e x c h a n g e d i t s V i c k e r s W e l l i n g t o n s f o r S t i r l i n g s l a t e i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 1 . A f t e r b e c o m i n g f u l l y o p e r a t i o n a l w i t h i t s n e w a i r c r a f t , t h e s q u a d r o n m o v e d i n t o L a k e n h e a t h o n 6 A p r i l 1 9 4 2 a n d r e m a i n e d u n t i l m i d 1 9 4 4 w h e n t h e s q u a d r o n m o v e d t o R A F M e t h w o l d i n N o r f o l k . O n e S t i r l i n g p i l o t , F l i g h t S e r g e a n t R a w d o n M i d d l e t o n , w a s p o s t h u m o u s l y a w a r d e d t h e V i c t o r i a C r o s s f o r v a l o u r o n t h e n i g h t o f 2 8 – 2 9 N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 2 , w h e n d e s p i t e s e r i o u s f a c e w o u n d s a n d l o s s o f b l o o d f r o m s h e l l - f i r e d u r i n g a r a i d o n t h e F i a t w o r k s a t T u r i n i n I t a l y , h e b r o u g h t t h e d a m a g e d a i r c r a f t b a c k t o w a r d s s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d . W i t h f u e l n e a r l y e x h a u s t e d h i s c r e w w e r e o r d e r e d t o b a i l o u t . O n 2 1 J u n e 1 9 4 3 , N o . 1 9 9 S q u a d r o n w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s a s e c o n d S t i r l i n g s q u a d r o n . I t c o n d u c t e d m i n e l a y i n g o p e r a t i o n s a t s e a b e f o r e m o v i n g t o R A F N o r t h C r e a k e i n N o r f o l k o n 1 M a y 1 9 4 4 . N o . 1 4 9 S q u a d r o n e n d e d i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h R A F L a k e n h e a t h t h e s a m e m o n t h , t a k i n g i t s S t i r l i n g s t o R A F M e t h w o l d . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e t w o b o m b e r s q u a d r o n s w a s L a k e n h e a t h ' s s e l e c t i o n f o r u p g r a d i n g t o a V e r y H e a v y B o m b e r a i r f i e l d . C o l d W a r t e n s i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n E u r o p e b e g a n a s e a r l y a s 1 9 4 6 . I n N o v e m b e r , P r e s i d e n t H a r r y S . T r u m a n o r d e r e d S t r a t e g i c A i r C o m m a n d ( S A C ) B - 2 9 b o m b e r s t o E u r o p e . T r u m a n d e c i d e d t o r e a l i g n U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r F o r c e E u r o p e ( U S A F E ) i n t o a p e r m a n e n t c o m b a t - c a p a b l e f o r c e . I n J u l y , B - 2 9 S u p e r f o r t r e s s e s o f t h e S A C 2 n d B o m b a r d m e n t G r o u p w e r e d e p l o y e d t o L a k e n h e a t h . T h e f i r s t U S A F E h o s t u n i t a t L a k e n h e a t h w a s t h e 7 5 0 4 t h B a s e C o m p l e t i o n S q u a d r o n , b e i n g a c t i v a t e d i n 1 9 4 9 . T h e 3 9 0 9 t h m o v e d t o R A F G r e e n h a m C o m m o n i n B e r k s h i r e d u r i n g 1 9 5 4 , a n d w a s r e p l a c e d b y t h e 3 9 1 0 t h A i r B a s e G r o u p i n 1 9 5 5 . O n 3 0 A p r i l 1 9 5 6 , t w o L o c k h e e d U - 2 s w e r e a i r l i f t e d t o L a k e n h e a t h t o f o r m C I A D e t a c h m e n t A . T h e f i r s t f l i g h t o f t h e U - 2 w a s o n 2 1 M a y . T h e C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e A g e n c y u n i t d i d n o t r e m a i n l o n g , m o v i n g t o W i e s b a d e n A i r B a s e , W e s t G e r m a n y i n J u n e 1 9 5 6 . O n 1 0 O c t o b e r 1 9 5 6 , a U n i t e d S t a t e s N a v y D o u g l a s R 6 D - 1 L i f t m a s t e r d i s a p p e a r e d o v e r t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n a f t e r d e p a r t u r e f r o m R A F L a k e n h e a t h f o r a f l i g h t t o L a j e s F i e l d i n t h e A z o r e s . T h e a i r c r a f t w a s o n a M i l i t a r y A i r T r a n s p o r t S e r v i c e f l i g h t c a r r y i n g 5 0 m e m b e r s o f t h e 3 0 7 t h B o m b a r d m e n t W i n g , o n t h e i r w a y h o m e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a f t e r a t e m p o r a r y d u t y a s s i g n m e n t a n d a U S N a v y c r e w o f n i n e . A l l 5 9 p e r s o n n e l o n b o a r d w e r e l o s t . F o l l o w i n g F r e n c h p r e s i d e n t C h a r l e s d e G a u l l e ' s i n s i s t e n c e i n 1 9 5 9 t h a t a l l n o n - F r e n c h n u c l e a r - c a p a b l e f o r c e s s h o u l d b e w i t h d r a w n f r o m h i s c o u n t r y , t h e U S A F b e g a n a r e d e p l o y m e n t o f i t s N o r t h A m e r i c a n F - 1 0 0 - e q u i p p e d u n i t s f r o m F r a n c e . T h e 4 8 t h F i g h t e r W i n g l e f t i t s b a s e a t C h a u m o n t - S e m o u t i e r s A i r B a s e , F r a n c e o n 1 5 J a n u a r y 1 9 6 0 , i t s a i r c r a f t a r r i v i n g a t L a k e n h e a t h t h a t a f t e r n o o n . T h e t a c t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e 4 8 t h T F W u p o n a r r i v a l a t L a k e n h e a t h w e r e : T h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1 9 7 2 a n d 1 9 7 7 c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s a f i v e - y e a r a i r c r a f t c o n v e r s i o n . B e g i n n i n g i n l a t e 1 9 7 1 , t h e 4 8 t h T F W s t a r t e d i t s c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e M c D o n n e l l D o u g l a s F - 4 D P h a n t o m I I . T h e c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e F - 4 D t o o k s e v e r a l y e a r s , w i t h i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t y b e i n g a c h i e v e d o n 1 J u l y 1 9 7 5 . T h e F - 4 ' s s e r v i c e w i t h t h e 4 8 t h T a c t i c a l F i g h t e r W i n g w a s s h o r t , a s o p e r a t i o n " R e a d y S w i t c h " r e s u l t e d i n 4 8 t h T a c t i c a l F i g h t e r W i n g r e c e i v i n g G e n e r a l D y n a m i c s F - 1 1 1 s M o u n t a i n H o m e A F B , I d a h o i n O c t o b e r 1 9 7 6 . L a k e n h e a t h r e c e i v e d i t s f i r s t M c D o n n e l l D o u g l a s F - 1 5 E S t r i k e E a g l e s i n 1 9 9 2 . O n 1 6 D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 2 , t h e l a s t F - 1 1 1 d e p a r t e d t h e b a s e . A l o n g w i t h i t s d e p a r t u r e , t h e 4 9 3 d F S w a s i n a c t i v a t e d , b u t t h e n r e a c t i v a t e d a s a F - 1 5 C s q u a d r o n . O n 2 M a r c h 2 0 1 1 , m e m b e r s o f t h e 4 8 t h S e c u r i t y F o r c e s S q u a d r o n w e r e i n v o l v e d i n a s h o o t i n g a t F r a n k f u r t A i r p o r t i n G e r m a n y . T h e m e m b e r s w e r e o n a b u s b o u n d f o r R a m s t e i n A i r B a s e i n G e r m a n y w h e n t h e y w e r e a t t a c k e d b y a l o n e g u n m a n . O n 2 2 M a r c h 2 0 1 1 , F - 1 5 E 9 1 - 0 3 0 4 c r a s h - l a n d e d a n d w a s d e s t r o y e d i n e a s t e r n L i b y a a f t e r r e p o r t e d l y s u f f e r i n g f r o m a m e c h a n i c a l f a i l u r e . B o t h c r e w m e n e j e c t e d a n d w e r e s a f e l y r e c o v e r e d . O n 7 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 4 , a S i k o r s k y H H - 6 0 P a v e H a w k f r o m t h e b a s e c r a s h e d f o l l o w i n g a b i r d s t r i k e w h i l e o n a l o w - l e v e l t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e w i t h a n o t h e r h e l i c o p t e r ( a l s o a P a v e H a w k ) , i n t o t h e C l e y M a r s h e s n e a r C l e y n e x t t h e S e a o n t h e n e a r b y N o r t h N o r f o l k c o a s t . A l l f o u r o c c u p a n t s d i e d i n t h e c r a s h . O n 8 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 , F - 1 5 D 8 6 - 0 1 8 2 b e l o n g i n g t o t h e 4 9 3 d F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n c r a s h e d d u r i n g a t r a i n i n g f l i g h t i n a f i e l d o u t s i d e S p a l d i n g , L i n c o l n s h i r e . T h e p i l o t s u c c e s s f u l l y e j e c t e d a n d w a s s h o r t l y r e c o v e r e d b a c k t o L a k e n h e a t h o n b o a r d a P a v e H a w k . A U S M a r i n e C o r p s B o e i n g F / A - 1 8 H o r n e t o f V M F A - 2 3 2 " R e d D e v i l s " f r o m M C A S . M i r a m a r , C a l i f o r n i a , c r a s h e d a f t e r t a k i n g o f f f r o m R A F L a k e n h e a t h o n 2 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 5 . T h e p i l o t , M a j o r T a j " C a b b i e " S a r e e n ( 3 4 ) , d i d n o t s u r v i v e . I n a d d i t i o n t o s u p p o r t i n g t h r e e c o m b a t - r e a d y s q u a d r o n s o f f i g h t e r a i r c r a f t , t h e L i b e r t y W i n g h o u s e d t h e 5 6 t h R e s c u e S q u a d r o n ' s H H - 6 0 G C o m b a t S e a r c h a n d R e s c u e h e l i c o p t e r s . T h e 5 6 t h R e s c u e S q u a d r o n r e - l o c a t e d t o A v i a n o A i r B a s e i n 2 0 1 8 . O n 1 5 J u n e 2 0 2 0 , a n F - 1 5 C b e l o n g i n g t o t h e 4 9 3 d F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n c r a s h e d d u r i n g a t r a i n i n g f l i g h t i n t h e N o r t h S e a , 7 4 n a u t i c a l m i l e s e a s t o f S c a r b o r o u g h a t a b o u t . T h e b o d y o f p i l o t 1 s t L t . K e n n e t h A l l e n w a s f o u n d d e c e a s e d . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 5 , t h e U S D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e a n n o u n c e d t h a t f r o m 2 0 2 0 , L a k e n h e a t h w o u l d b e c o m e h o m e t o 5 4 o f t h e U S A i r F o r c e ' s L o c k h e e d M a r t i n F - 3 5 A L i g h t n i n g I I m u l t i - r o l e f i g h t e r s . T h e a i r c r a f t w o u l d b e s p l i t b e t w e e n t w o s q u a d r o n s a n d t h e r e w o u l d b e a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 , 2 0 0 m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l a n d b e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 1 0 0 c i v i l i a n w o r k e r s a t t h e s t a t i o n . T h e F - 3 5 w o u l d o p e r a t e a l o n g s i d e t h e t w o e x i s t i n g F - 1 5 E s q u a d r o n s b a s e d a t L a k e n h e a t h . B y N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 8 , t h e n u m b e r o f a i r c r a f t h a d b e e n r e v i s e d t o 4 8 . T h e 4 9 5 t h F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n w a s r e a c t i v a t e d o n 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 2 1 t o b e t h e f i r s t F - 3 5 A L i g h t n i n g I I s q u a d r o n a t L a k e n h e a t h , w i t h t h e f i r s t a i r c r a f t a r r i v i n g o n 1 5 D e c e m b e r 2 0 2 1 . T o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e n e w a i r c r a f t , a F - 3 5 C a m p u s i s b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e s o u t h s i d e o f t h e a i r f i e l d . T h e m a i n n e w o p e r a t i o n a l b u i l d i n g s b e i n g d e v e l o p e d a s p a r t o f t h e F - 3 5 p r o j e c t a r e a s f o l l o w s : T h e a i r f i e l d o p e r a t i o n a l s u r f a c e s a r e a l s o b e i n g e x p a n d e d a s f o l l o w s : I n v e s t m e n t o f $ 1 4 8 . 4 m i l l i o n ( £ 1 1 6 . 7 M ) f o r t h e d e l i v e r y o f F - 3 5 A i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a t L a k e n h e a t h w a s a u t h o r i s e d b y t h e U S a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n A u g u s t 2 0 1 8 . I n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 8 , t h e D e f e n c e I n f r a s t r u c t u r e O r g a n i s a t i o n a w a r d e d a £ 1 6 0 M c o n t r a c t f o r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w o r k t o a j o i n t v e n t u r e b e t w e e n K i e r G r o u p a n d V o l k e r F i t z p a t r i c k . T o m a k e w a y f o r t h e F - 3 5 C a m p u s , d e m o l i t i o n o f t h e f i r s t o f e i g h t e e n b u i l d i n g s b e g a n i n M a r c h 2 0 1 9 . T h e w o r k o n A l p h a - B r a v o A p r o n w a s c o m p l e t e d i n A u g u s t 2 0 2 0 , a l l o w i n g F - 1 5 E S t r i k e E a g l e o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e 4 9 2 n d a n d 4 9 4 t h F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n s t o b e c o n s o l i d a t e d o n o n e r a m p . T w o a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g n u c l e a r w e a p o n s h a p p e n e d a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h , i n 1 9 5 6 a n d 1 9 6 1 . F l y i n g a n d n o t a b l e n o n - f l y i n g u n i t s b a s e d a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h . U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r F o r c e s i n E u r o p e - A i r F o r c e s A f r i c a ( U S A F E - A F A F R I C A ) R A F L a k e n h e a t h ' s g a t e g u a r d i a n i s N o r t h A m e r i c a n F - 1 0 0 D S u p e r S a b r e , s e r i a l n u m b e r " ' 5 4 - 2 2 6 9 ' . " T h e a i r c r a f t w a s o r i g i n a l l y d e l i v e r e d t o t h e F r e n c h A i r F o r c e . O n r e t u r n i t w a s m o v e d t o t h e " W i n g s o f L i b e r t y M e m o r i a l P a r k " a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h . F i r s t l y i t w a s p a i n t e d a s " ' 5 5 - 4 0 4 8 ' " , l a t t e r l y a s " ' 5 6 - 3 3 1 9 ' " . S i n c e t h e b a s e ' s f o u n d i n g , R A F L a k e n h e a t h h a s b e e n t a r g e t e d f o r n u m e r o u s p e a c e p r o t e s t s f r o m g r o u p s s u c h a s S t o p t h e w a r c o a l i t i o n a n d t h e C a m p a i g n f o r N u c l e a r D i s a r m a m e n t . L a k e n h e a t h w a s o n e o f t h e p r o p o s e d s i t e s o f t h e N A T O P e r s h i n g I I M i s s i l e S y s t e m . T h e d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e M i s s i l e s y s t e m s p a r k e d p r o t e s t s a l l o v e r W e s t e r n E u r o p e , a n d R A F L a k e n h e a t h w a s o n e o f t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t m i l i t a r y s i t e s . T h e r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n E . P . T h o m p s o n w r o t e i n a p a m p h l e t t h a t b a s i n g t h e s y s t e m a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h d i r e c t l y e n d a n g e r e d t h e l i v e s o f t h o s e i n t h e n e a r b y c i t y o f C a m b r i d g e : " . . . L a k e n h e a t h i s , b y c r o w o r c r u i s e , j u s t o v e r t w e n t y m i l e s f r o m C a m b r i d g e . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t C a m b r i d g e b u t l e s s p r o b a b l e t h a t O x f o r d w i l l f a l l o u t s i d e t h e C E P . W i t h i n t h e C E P w e m u s t s u p p o s e s o m e f i f t e e n o r t w e n t y d e t o n a t i o n s a t l e a s t o n t h e s c a l e o f H i r o s h i m a , w i t h o u t t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t a n y p o s s i b l e d e t o n a t i o n s , r e l e a s e o f r a d i o - a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s , e t c . , i f t h e s t r i k e s h o u l d s u c c e e d i n f i n d i n g o u t t h e c r u i s e m i s s i l e s a t w h i c h i t w a s a i m e d . " A s e m i - p e r m a n e n t ' p e a c e c a m p ' w a s s e t u p o u t s i d e R A F L a k e n h e a t h . I n 1 9 8 5 , t h e f u t u r e A r c h b i s h o p o f C a n t e r b u r y R o w a n W i l l i a m s w a s a r r e s t e d f o r s i n g i n g p s a l m s a t a C N D p r o t e s t a t L a k e n h e a t h . O v e r 1 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e d e m o n s t r a t e d o u t s i d e R A F L a k e n h e a t h i n p r o t e s t a t t h e 1 9 8 6 U n i t e d S t a t e s b o m b i n g o f L i b y a . T h e 2 0 0 3 I r a q W a r s p a r k e d a n e w w a v e o f p e a c e p r o t e s t s . I n o n e i n c i d e n t , 9 p r o t e s t o r s g a i n e d a c c e s s t o t h e b a s e b y c u t t i n g t h r o u g h i t s p e r i m e t e r f e n c e . T h e p r o t e s t o r s r o d e b i c y c l e s a l o n g t h e m a i n r u n w a y , b e f o r e c h a i n i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o g e t h e r . A c t i v i s t s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d a ' p e a c e c a m p ' o u t s i d e R A F L a k e n h e a t h t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o t h e b a s e . I n 2 0 0 6 , a g r o u p o f 2 0 0 p e o p l e p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h e a l l e g e d n u c l e a r w e a p o n s s t o r e d a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h . A d d r e s s i n g t h e c r o w d w a s J e r e m y C o r b y n , w h o c y c l e d t o R A F L a k e n h e a t h f r o m t h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n E l y . T h e r e w e r e f u r t h e r p r o t e s t s o n t h i s i s s u e i n 2 0 0 8 .

History

RAF Lakenheath has a rich history dating back to World War I, initially serving as a bombing and ground-attack range. During World War II, it was used as a decoy airfield and later became a satellite for nearby RAF Mildenhall. The airbase played a significant role in the Cold War, hosting various US Air Force units, including the 48th Fighter Wing, which operated F-100s, F-4Ds, and eventually F-15Es. In recent years, the base has seen protests against nuclear weapons and military actions, including the Iraq War. Today, it is preparing to host F-35A Lightning II aircraft, with significant investments in infrastructure development.

The first use of Lakenheath Warren as a Royal Flying Corps airfield was during the First World War, when the area was made into a bombing and ground-attack range for aircraft flying from RFC Feltwell and RFC Thetford. In 1940, the Air Ministry selected Lakenheath as an alternative for nearby RAF Mildenhall and used it as a decoy airfield. Surfaced runways were constructed in 1941, with the main runway being , and the two subsidiary runways at . Lakenheath was used by RAF flying units on detachment late in 1941. The station soon functioned as a Mildenhall satellite with Short Stirling bombers of No. 149 Squadron dispersed from the parent airfield as conditions allowed. The squadron exchanged its Vickers Wellingtons for Stirlings late in November 1941. After becoming fully operational with its new aircraft, the squadron moved into Lakenheath on 6 April 1942 and remained until mid 1944 when the squadron moved to RAF Methwold in Norfolk. One Stirling pilot, Flight Sergeant Rawdon Middleton, was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for valour on the night of 28–29 November 1942, when despite serious face wounds and loss of blood from shell-fire during a raid on the Fiat works at Turin in Italy, he brought the damaged aircraft back towards southern England. With fuel nearly exhausted his crew were ordered to bail out. On 21 June 1943, No. 199 Squadron was established as a second Stirling squadron. It conducted mine laying operations at sea before moving to RAF North Creake in Norfolk on 1 May 1944. No. 149 Squadron ended its association with RAF Lakenheath the same month, taking its Stirlings to RAF Methwold. The reason for the departure of the two bomber squadrons was Lakenheath's selection for upgrading to a Very Heavy Bomber airfield. Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union in Europe began as early as 1946. In November, President Harry S. Truman ordered Strategic Air Command (SAC) B-29 bombers to Europe. Truman decided to realign United States Air Force Europe (USAFE) into a permanent combat-capable force. In July, B-29 Superfortresses of the SAC 2nd Bombardment Group were deployed to Lakenheath. The first USAFE host unit at Lakenheath was the 7504th Base Completion Squadron, being activated in 1949. The 3909th moved to RAF Greenham Common in Berkshire during 1954, and was replaced by the 3910th Air Base Group in 1955. On 30 April 1956, two Lockheed U-2s were airlifted to Lakenheath to form CIA Detachment A. The first flight of the U-2 was on 21 May. The Central Intelligence Agency unit did not remain long, moving to Wiesbaden Air Base, West Germany in June 1956. On 10 October 1956, a United States Navy Douglas R6D-1 Liftmaster disappeared over the Atlantic Ocean after departure from RAF Lakenheath for a flight to Lajes Field in the Azores. The aircraft was on a Military Air Transport Service flight carrying 50 members of the 307th Bombardment Wing, on their way home to the United States after a temporary duty assignment and a US Navy crew of nine. All 59 personnel on board were lost. Following French president Charles de Gaulle's insistence in 1959 that all non-French nuclear-capable forces should be withdrawn from his country, the USAF began a redeployment of its North American F-100-equipped units from France. The 48th Fighter Wing left its base at Chaumont-Semoutiers Air Base, France on 15 January 1960, its aircraft arriving at Lakenheath that afternoon. The tactical components of the 48th TFW upon arrival at Lakenheath were: The period between 1972 and 1977 can be described as a five-year aircraft conversion. Beginning in late 1971, the 48th TFW started its conversion to the McDonnell Douglas F-4D Phantom II. The conversion to the F-4D took several years, with initial operational capability being achieved on 1 July 1975. The F-4's service with the 48th Tactical Fighter Wing was short, as operation the station. The F-35 would operate alongside the two existing F-15E squadrons based at Lakenheath. By November 2018, the number of aircraft had been revised to 48. The 495th Fighter Squadron was reactivated on 1 October 2021 to be the first F-35A Lightning II squadron at Lakenheath, with the first aircraft arriving on 15 December 2021. To accommodate the new aircraft, a F-35 Campus is being constructed on the south side of the airfield. The main new operational buildings being developed as part of the F-35 project are as follows: The airfield operational surfaces are also being expanded as follows: Investment of $148.4 million (£116.7M) for the delivery of F-35A infrastructure at Lakenheath was authorised by the US administration in August 2018. In November 2018, the Defence Infrastructure Oxford will fall outside the CEP. Within the CEP we must suppose some fifteen or twenty detonations at least on the scale of Hiroshima, without taking into account any possible detonations, release of radio-active materials, etc., if the strike should succeed in finding out the cruise missiles at which it was aimed." A semi-permanent 'peace camp' was set up outside RAF Lakenheath. In 1985, the future Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams was arrested for singing psalms at a CND protest at Lakenheath. Over 1,000 people demonstrated outside RAF Lakenheath in protest at the 1986 United States bombing of Libya. The 2003 Iraq War sparked a new wave of peace protests. In one incident, 9 protestors gained access to the base by cutting through its perimeter fence. The protestors rode bicycles along the main runway, before chaining themselves together. Activists later established a 'peace camp' outside RAF Lakenheath to draw attention to the base. In 2006, a group of 200 people protested against the alleged nuclear weapons stored at RAF Lakenheath. Addressing the crowd was Jeremy Corbyn, who cycled to RAF Lakenheath from the railway station in Ely. There were further protests on this issue in 2008.

RAF Lakenheath

T h e f i r s t u s e o f L a k e n h e a t h W a r r e n a s a R o y a l F l y i n g C o r p s a i r f i e l d w a s d u r i n g t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r , w h e n t h e a r e a w a s m a d e i n t o a b o m b i n g a n d g r o u n d - a t t a c k r a n g e f o r a i r c r a f t f l y i n g f r o m R F C F e l t w e l l a n d R F C T h e t f o r d . I n 1 9 4 0 , t h e A i r M i n i s t r y s e l e c t e d L a k e n h e a t h a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e f o r n e a r b y R A F M i l d e n h a l l a n d u s e d i t a s a d e c o y a i r f i e l d . S u r f a c e d r u n w a y s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n 1 9 4 1 , w i t h t h e m a i n r u n w a y b e i n g , a n d t h e t w o s u b s i d i a r y r u n w a y s a t . L a k e n h e a t h w a s u s e d b y R A F f l y i n g u n i t s o n d e t a c h m e n t l a t e i n 1 9 4 1 . T h e s t a t i o n s o o n f u n c t i o n e d a s a M i l d e n h a l l s a t e l l i t e w i t h S h o r t S t i r l i n g b o m b e r s o f N o . 1 4 9 S q u a d r o n d i s p e r s e d f r o m t h e p a r e n t a i r f i e l d a s c o n d i t i o n s a l l o w e d . T h e s q u a d r o n e x c h a n g e d i t s V i c k e r s W e l l i n g t o n s f o r S t i r l i n g s l a t e i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 1 . A f t e r b e c o m i n g f u l l y o p e r a t i o n a l w i t h i t s n e w a i r c r a f t , t h e s q u a d r o n m o v e d i n t o L a k e n h e a t h o n 6 A p r i l 1 9 4 2 a n d r e m a i n e d u n t i l m i d 1 9 4 4 w h e n t h e s q u a d r o n m o v e d t o R A F M e t h w o l d i n N o r f o l k . O n e S t i r l i n g p i l o t , F l i g h t S e r g e a n t R a w d o n M i d d l e t o n , w a s p o s t h u m o u s l y a w a r d e d t h e V i c t o r i a C r o s s f o r v a l o u r o n t h e n i g h t o f 2 8 – 2 9 N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 2 , w h e n d e s p i t e s e r i o u s f a c e w o u n d s a n d l o s s o f b l o o d f r o m s h e l l - f i r e d u r i n g a r a i d o n t h e F i a t w o r k s a t T u r i n i n I t a l y , h e b r o u g h t t h e d a m a g e d a i r c r a f t b a c k t o w a r d s s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d . W i t h f u e l n e a r l y e x h a u s t e d h i s c r e w w e r e o r d e r e d t o b a i l o u t . O n 2 1 J u n e 1 9 4 3 , N o . 1 9 9 S q u a d r o n w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s a s e c o n d S t i r l i n g s q u a d r o n . I t c o n d u c t e d m i n e l a y i n g o p e r a t i o n s a t s e a b e f o r e m o v i n g t o R A F N o r t h C r e a k e i n N o r f o l k o n 1 M a y 1 9 4 4 . N o . 1 4 9 S q u a d r o n e n d e d i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h R A F L a k e n h e a t h t h e s a m e m o n t h , t a k i n g i t s S t i r l i n g s t o R A F M e t h w o l d . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e t w o b o m b e r s q u a d r o n s w a s L a k e n h e a t h ' s s e l e c t i o n f o r u p g r a d i n g t o a V e r y H e a v y B o m b e r a i r f i e l d . C o l d W a r t e n s i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n E u r o p e b e g a n a s e a r l y a s 1 9 4 6 . I n N o v e m b e r , P r e s i d e n t H a r r y S . T r u m a n o r d e r e d S t r a t e g i c A i r C o m m a n d ( S A C ) B - 2 9 b o m b e r s t o E u r o p e . T r u m a n d e c i d e d t o r e a l i g n U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r F o r c e E u r o p e ( U S A F E ) i n t o a p e r m a n e n t c o m b a t - c a p a b l e f o r c e . I n J u l y , B - 2 9 S u p e r f o r t r e s s e s o f t h e S A C 2 n d B o m b a r d m e n t G r o u p w e r e d e p l o y e d t o L a k e n h e a t h . T h e f i r s t U S A F E h o s t u n i t a t L a k e n h e a t h w a s t h e 7 5 0 4 t h B a s e C o m p l e t i o n S q u a d r o n , b e i n g a c t i v a t e d i n 1 9 4 9 . T h e 3 9 0 9 t h m o v e d t o R A F G r e e n h a m C o m m o n i n B e r k s h i r e d u r i n g 1 9 5 4 , a n d w a s r e p l a c e d b y t h e 3 9 1 0 t h A i r B a s e G r o u p i n 1 9 5 5 . O n 3 0 A p r i l 1 9 5 6 , t w o L o c k h e e d U - 2 s w e r e a i r l i f t e d t o L a k e n h e a t h t o f o r m C I A D e t a c h m e n t A . T h e f i r s t f l i g h t o f t h e U - 2 w a s o n 2 1 M a y . T h e C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e A g e n c y u n i t d i d n o t r e m a i n l o n g , m o v i n g t o W i e s b a d e n A i r B a s e , W e s t G e r m a n y i n J u n e 1 9 5 6 . O n 1 0 O c t o b e r 1 9 5 6 , a U n i t e d S t a t e s N a v y D o u g l a s R 6 D - 1 L i f t m a s t e r d i s a p p e a r e d o v e r t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n a f t e r d e p a r t u r e f r o m R A F L a k e n h e a t h f o r a f l i g h t t o L a j e s F i e l d i n t h e A z o r e s . T h e a i r c r a f t w a s o n a M i l i t a r y A i r T r a n s p o r t S e r v i c e f l i g h t c a r r y i n g 5 0 m e m b e r s o f t h e 3 0 7 t h B o m b a r d m e n t W i n g , o n t h e i r w a y h o m e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a f t e r a t e m p o r a r y d u t y a s s i g n m e n t a n d a U S N a v y c r e w o f n i n e . A l l 5 9 p e r s o n n e l o n b o a r d w e r e l o s t . F o l l o w i n g F r e n c h p r e s i d e n t C h a r l e s d e G a u l l e ' s i n s i s t e n c e i n 1 9 5 9 t h a t a l l n o n - F r e n c h n u c l e a r - c a p a b l e f o r c e s s h o u l d b e w i t h d r a w n f r o m h i s c o u n t r y , t h e U S A F b e g a n a r e d e p l o y m e n t o f i t s N o r t h A m e r i c a n F - 1 0 0 - e q u i p p e d u n i t s f r o m F r a n c e . T h e 4 8 t h F i g h t e r W i n g l e f t i t s b a s e a t C h a u m o n t - S e m o u t i e r s A i r B a s e , F r a n c e o n 1 5 J a n u a r y 1 9 6 0 , i t s a i r c r a f t a r r i v i n g a t L a k e n h e a t h t h a t a f t e r n o o n . T h e t a c t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e 4 8 t h T F W u p o n a r r i v a l a t L a k e n h e a t h w e r e : T h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1 9 7 2 a n d 1 9 7 7 c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s a f i v e - y e a r a i r c r a f t c o n v e r s i o n . B e g i n n i n g i n l a t e 1 9 7 1 , t h e 4 8 t h T F W s t a r t e d i t s c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e M c D o n n e l l D o u g l a s F - 4 D P h a n t o m I I . T h e c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e F - 4 D t o o k s e v e r a l y e a r s , w i t h i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t y b e i n g a c h i e v e d o n 1 J u l y 1 9 7 5 . T h e F - 4 ' s s e r v i c e w i t h t h e 4 8 t h T a c t i c a l F i g h t e r W i n g w a s s h o r t , a s o p e r a t i o n " R e a d y S w i t c h " r e s u l t e d i n 4 8 t h T a c t i c a l F i g h t e r W i n g r e c e i v i n g G e n e r a l D y n a m i c s F - 1 1 1 s M o u n t a i n H o m e A F B , I d a h o i n O c t o b e r 1 9 7 6 . L a k e n h e a t h r e c e i v e d i t s f i r s t M c D o n n e l l D o u g l a s F - 1 5 E S t r i k e E a g l e s i n 1 9 9 2 . O n 1 6 D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 2 , t h e l a s t F - 1 1 1 d e p a r t e d t h e b a s e . A l o n g w i t h i t s d e p a r t u r e , t h e 4 9 3 d F S w a s i n a c t i v a t e d , b u t t h e n r e a c t i v a t e d a s a F - 1 5 C s q u a d r o n . O n 2 M a r c h 2 0 1 1 , m e m b e r s o f t h e 4 8 t h S e c u r i t y F o r c e s S q u a d r o n w e r e i n v o l v e d i n a s h o o t i n g a t F r a n k f u r t A i r p o r t i n G e r m a n y . T h e m e m b e r s w e r e o n a b u s b o u n d f o r R a m s t e i n A i r B a s e i n G e r m a n y w h e n t h e y w e r e a t t a c k e d b y a l o n e g u n m a n . O n 2 2 M a r c h 2 0 1 1 , F - 1 5 E 9 1 - 0 3 0 4 c r a s h - l a n d e d a n d w a s d e s t r o y e d i n e a s t e r n L i b y a a f t e r r e p o r t e d l y s u f f e r i n g f r o m a m e c h a n i c a l f a i l u r e . B o t h c r e w m e n e j e c t e d a n d w e r e s a f e l y r e c o v e r e d . O n 7 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 4 , a S i k o r s k y H H - 6 0 P a v e H a w k f r o m t h e b a s e c r a s h e d f o l l o w i n g a b i r d s t r i k e w h i l e o n a l o w - l e v e l t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e w i t h a n o t h e r h e l i c o p t e r ( a l s o a P a v e H a w k ) , i n t o t h e C l e y M a r s h e s n e a r C l e y n e x t t h e S e a o n t h e n e a r b y N o r t h N o r f o l k c o a s t . A l l f o u r o c c u p a n t s d i e d i n t h e c r a s h . O n 8 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 , F - 1 5 D 8 6 - 0 1 8 2 b e l o n g i n g t o t h e 4 9 3 d F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n c r a s h e d d u r i n g a t r a i n i n g f l i g h t i n a f i e l d o u t s i d e S p a l d i n g , L i n c o l n s h i r e . T h e p i l o t s u c c e s s f u l l y e j e c t e d a n d w a s s h o r t l y r e c o v e r e d b a c k t o L a k e n h e a t h o n b o a r d a P a v e H a w k . A U S M a r i n e C o r p s B o e i n g F / A - 1 8 H o r n e t o f V M F A - 2 3 2 " R e d D e v i l s " f r o m M C A S . M i r a m a r , C a l i f o r n i a , c r a s h e d a f t e r t a k i n g o f f f r o m R A F L a k e n h e a t h o n 2 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 5 . T h e p i l o t , M a j o r T a j " C a b b i e " S a r e e n ( 3 4 ) , d i d n o t s u r v i v e . I n a d d i t i o n t o s u p p o r t i n g t h r e e c o m b a t - r e a d y s q u a d r o n s o f f i g h t e r a i r c r a f t , t h e L i b e r t y W i n g h o u s e d t h e 5 6 t h R e s c u e S q u a d r o n ' s H H - 6 0 G C o m b a t S e a r c h a n d R e s c u e h e l i c o p t e r s . T h e 5 6 t h R e s c u e S q u a d r o n r e - l o c a t e d t o A v i a n o A i r B a s e i n 2 0 1 8 . O n 1 5 J u n e 2 0 2 0 , a n F - 1 5 C b e l o n g i n g t o t h e 4 9 3 d F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n c r a s h e d d u r i n g a t r a i n i n g f l i g h t i n t h e N o r t h S e a , 7 4 n a u t i c a l m i l e s e a s t o f S c a r b o r o u g h a t a b o u t . T h e b o d y o f p i l o t 1 s t L t . K e n n e t h A l l e n w a s f o u n d d e c e a s e d . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 5 , t h e U S D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e a n n o u n c e d t h a t f r o m 2 0 2 0 , L a k e n h e a t h w o u l d b e c o m e h o m e t o 5 4 o f t h e U S A i r F o r c e ' s L o c k h e e d M a r t i n F - 3 5 A L i g h t n i n g I I m u l t i - r o l e f i g h t e r s . T h e a i r c r a f t w o u l d b e s p l i t b e t w e e n t w o s q u a d r o n s a n d t h e r e w o u l d b e a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 , 2 0 0 m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l a n d b e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 1 0 0 c i v i l i a n w o r k e r s a t t h e s t a t i o n . T h e F - 3 5 w o u l d o p e r a t e a l o n g s i d e t h e t w o e x i s t i n g F - 1 5 E s q u a d r o n s b a s e d a t L a k e n h e a t h . B y N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 8 , t h e n u m b e r o f a i r c r a f t h a d b e e n r e v i s e d t o 4 8 . T h e 4 9 5 t h F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n w a s r e a c t i v a t e d o n 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 2 1 t o b e t h e f i r s t F - 3 5 A L i g h t n i n g I I s q u a d r o n a t L a k e n h e a t h , w i t h t h e f i r s t a i r c r a f t a r r i v i n g o n 1 5 D e c e m b e r 2 0 2 1 . T o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e n e w a i r c r a f t , a F - 3 5 C a m p u s i s b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e s o u t h s i d e o f t h e a i r f i e l d . T h e m a i n n e w o p e r a t i o n a l b u i l d i n g s b e i n g d e v e l o p e d a s p a r t o f t h e F - 3 5 p r o j e c t a r e a s f o l l o w s : T h e a i r f i e l d o p e r a t i o n a l s u r f a c e s a r e a l s o b e i n g e x p a n d e d a s f o l l o w s : I n v e s t m e n t o f $ 1 4 8 . 4 m i l l i o n ( £ 1 1 6 . 7 M ) f o r t h e d e l i v e r y o f F - 3 5 A i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a t L a k e n h e a t h w a s a u t h o r i s e d b y t h e U S a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n A u g u s t 2 0 1 8 . I n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 8 , t h e D e f e n c e I n f r a s t r u c t u r e O r g a n i s a t i o n a w a r d e d a £ 1 6 0 M c o n t r a c t f o r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w o r k t o a j o i n t v e n t u r e b e t w e e n K i e r G r o u p a n d V o l k e r F i t z p a t r i c k . T o m a k e w a y f o r t h e F - 3 5 C a m p u s , d e m o l i t i o n o f t h e f i r s t o f e i g h t e e n b u i l d i n g s b e g a n i n M a r c h 2 0 1 9 . T h e w o r k o n A l p h a - B r a v o A p r o n w a s c o m p l e t e d i n A u g u s t 2 0 2 0 , a l l o w i n g F - 1 5 E S t r i k e E a g l e o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e 4 9 2 n d a n d 4 9 4 t h F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n s t o b e c o n s o l i d a t e d o n o n e r a m p . T w o a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g n u c l e a r w e a p o n s h a p p e n e d a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h , i n 1 9 5 6 a n d 1 9 6 1 . F l y i n g a n d n o t a b l e n o n - f l y i n g u n i t s b a s e d a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h . U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r F o r c e s i n E u r o p e - A i r F o r c e s A f r i c a ( U S A F E - A F A F R I C A ) R A F L a k e n h e a t h ' s g a t e g u a r d i a n i s N o r t h A m e r i c a n F - 1 0 0 D S u p e r S a b r e , s e r i a l n u m b e r " ' 5 4 - 2 2 6 9 ' . " T h e a i r c r a f t w a s o r i g i n a l l y d e l i v e r e d t o t h e F r e n c h A i r F o r c e . O n r e t u r n i t w a s m o v e d t o t h e " W i n g s o f L i b e r t y M e m o r i a l P a r k " a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h . F i r s t l y i t w a s p a i n t e d a s " ' 5 5 - 4 0 4 8 ' " , l a t t e r l y a s " ' 5 6 - 3 3 1 9 ' " . S i n c e t h e b a s e ' s f o u n d i n g , R A F L a k e n h e a t h h a s b e e n t a r g e t e d f o r n u m e r o u s p e a c e p r o t e s t s f r o m g r o u p s s u c h a s S t o p t h e w a r c o a l i t i o n a n d t h e C a m p a i g n f o r N u c l e a r D i s a r m a m e n t . L a k e n h e a t h w a s o n e o f t h e p r o p o s e d s i t e s o f t h e N A T O P e r s h i n g I I M i s s i l e S y s t e m . T h e d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e M i s s i l e s y s t e m s p a r k e d p r o t e s t s a l l o v e r W e s t e r n E u r o p e , a n d R A F L a k e n h e a t h w a s o n e o f t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t m i l i t a r y s i t e s . T h e r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n E . P . T h o m p s o n w r o t e i n a p a m p h l e t t h a t b a s i n g t h e s y s t e m a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h d i r e c t l y e n d a n g e r e d t h e l i v e s o f t h o s e i n t h e n e a r b y c i t y o f C a m b r i d g e : " . . . L a k e n h e a t h i s , b y c r o w o r c r u i s e , j u s t o v e r t w e n t y m i l e s f r o m C a m b r i d g e . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t C a m b r i d g e b u t l e s s p r o b a b l e t h a t O x f o r d w i l l f a l l o u t s i d e t h e C E P . W i t h i n t h e C E P w e m u s t s u p p o s e s o m e f i f t e e n o r t w e n t y d e t o n a t i o n s a t l e a s t o n t h e s c a l e o f H i r o s h i m a , w i t h o u t t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t a n y p o s s i b l e d e t o n a t i o n s , r e l e a s e o f r a d i o - a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s , e t c . , i f t h e s t r i k e s h o u l d s u c c e e d i n f i n d i n g o u t t h e c r u i s e m i s s i l e s a t w h i c h i t w a s a i m e d . " A s e m i - p e r m a n e n t ' p e a c e c a m p ' w a s s e t u p o u t s i d e R A F L a k e n h e a t h . I n 1 9 8 5 , t h e f u t u r e A r c h b i s h o p o f C a n t e r b u r y R o w a n W i l l i a m s w a s a r r e s t e d f o r s i n g i n g p s a l m s a t a C N D p r o t e s t a t L a k e n h e a t h . O v e r 1 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e d e m o n s t r a t e d o u t s i d e R A F L a k e n h e a t h i n p r o t e s t a t t h e 1 9 8 6 U n i t e d S t a t e s b o m b i n g o f L i b y a . T h e 2 0 0 3 I r a q W a r s p a r k e d a n e w w a v e o f p e a c e p r o t e s t s . I n o n e i n c i d e n t , 9 p r o t e s t o r s g a i n e d a c c e s s t o t h e b a s e b y c u t t i n g t h r o u g h i t s p e r i m e t e r f e n c e . T h e p r o t e s t o r s r o d e b i c y c l e s a l o n g t h e m a i n r u n w a y , b e f o r e c h a i n i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o g e t h e r . A c t i v i s t s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d a ' p e a c e c a m p ' o u t s i d e R A F L a k e n h e a t h t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o t h e b a s e . I n 2 0 0 6 , a g r o u p o f 2 0 0 p e o p l e p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h e a l l e g e d n u c l e a r w e a p o n s s t o r e d a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h . A d d r e s s i n g t h e c r o w d w a s J e r e m y C o r b y n , w h o c y c l e d t o R A F L a k e n h e a t h f r o m t h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n E l y . T h e r e w e r e f u r t h e r p r o t e s t s o n t h i s i s s u e i n 2 0 0 8 .

History ; Cold War

During the Cold War, RAF Lakenheath played a significant role as a strategic airbase. In 1946, President Harry S. Truman ordered Strategic Air Command (SAC) B-29 bombers to Europe, and Lakenheath was upgraded to accommodate Very Heavy Bombers. The base hosted various units, including the 48th Fighter Wing, which operated F-100s and later converted to F-4Ds. Protests against the base's nuclear capabilities and military activities have been ongoing since the 1980s, with activists targeting the base due to its proximity to Cambridge and concerns about nuclear safety.

The first use of Lakenheath Warren as a Royal Flying Corps airfield was during the First World War, when the area was made into a bombing and ground-attack range for aircraft flying from RFC Feltwell and RFC Thetford. In 1940, the Air Ministry selected Lakenheath as an alternative for nearby RAF Mildenhall and used it as a decoy airfield. Surfaced runways were constructed in 1941, with the main runway being , and the two subsidiary runways at . Lakenheath was used by RAF flying units on detachment late in 1941. The station soon functioned as a Mildenhall satellite with Short Stirling bombers of No. 149 Squadron dispersed from the parent airfield as conditions allowed. The squadron exchanged its Vickers Wellingtons for Stirlings late in November 1941. After becoming fully operational with its new aircraft, the squadron moved into Lakenheath on 6 April 1942 and remained until mid 1944 when the squadron moved to RAF Methwold in Norfolk. One Stirling pilot, Flight Sergeant Rawdon Middleton, was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for valour on the night of 28–29 November 1942, when despite serious face wounds and loss of blood from shell-fire during a raid on the Fiat works at Turin in Italy, he brought the damaged aircraft back towards southern England. With fuel nearly exhausted his crew were ordered to bail out. On 21 June 1943, No. 199 Squadron was established as a second Stirling squadron. It conducted mine laying operations at sea before moving to RAF North Creake in Norfolk on 1 May 1944. No. 149 Squadron ended its association with RAF Lakenheath the same month, taking its Stirlings to RAF Methwold. The reason for the departure of the two bomber squadrons was Lakenheath's selection for upgrading to a Very Heavy Bomber airfield. Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union in Europe began as early as 1946. In November, President Harry S. Truman ordered Strategic Air Command (SAC) B-29 bombers to Europe. Truman decided to realign United States Air Force Europe (USAFE) into a permanent combat-capable force. In July, B-29 Superfortresses of the SAC 2nd Bombardment Group were deployed to Lakenheath. The first USAFE host unit at Lakenheath was the 7504th Base Completion Squadron, being activated in 1949. The 3909th moved to RAF Greenham Common in Berkshire during 1954, and was replaced by the 3910th Air Base Group in 1955. On 30 April 1956, two Lockheed U-2s were airlifted to Lakenheath to form CIA Detachment A. The first flight of the U-2 was on 21 May. The Central Intelligence Agency unit did not remain long, moving to Wiesbaden Air Base, West Germany in June 1956. On 10 October 1956, a United States Navy Douglas R6D-1 Liftmaster disappeared over the Atlantic Ocean after departure from RAF Lakenheath for a flight to Lajes Field in the Azores. The aircraft was on a Military Air Transport Service flight carrying 50 members of the 307th Bombardment Wing, on their way home to the United States after a temporary duty assignment and a US Navy crew of nine. All 59 personnel on board were lost. Following French president Charles de Gaulle's insistence in 1959 that all non-French nuclear-capable forces should be withdrawn from his country, the USAF began a redeployment of its North American F-100-equipped units from France. The 48th Fighter Wing left its base at Chaumont-Semoutiers Air Base, France on 15 January 1960, its aircraft arriving at Lakenheath that afternoon. The tactical components of the 48th TFW upon arrival at Lakenheath were: The period between 1972 and 1977 can be described as a five-year aircraft conversion. Beginning in late 1971, the 48th TFW started its conversion to the McDonnell Douglas F-4D Phantom II. The conversion to the F-4D took several years, with initial operational capability being achieved on 1 July 1975. The F-4's service with the 48th Tactical Fighter Wing was short, as operation Liberty Memorial Park" at RAF Lakenheath. Firstly it was painted as "'55-4048'", latterly as "'56-3319'". Since the base's founding, RAF Lakenheath has been targeted for numerous peace protests from groups such as Stop the war coalition and the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Lakenheath was one of the proposed sites of the NATO Pershing II Missile System. The deployment of the Missile system sparked protests all over Western Europe, and RAF Lakenheath was one of the most prominent military sites. The radical historian E.P. Thompson wrote in a pamphlet that basing the system at RAF Lakenheath directly endangered the lives of those in the nearby city of Cambridge:"... Lakenheath is, by crow or cruise, just over twenty miles from Cambridge. It is possible that Cambridge but less probable that Oxford will fall outside the CEP. Within the CEP we must suppose some fifteen or twenty detonations at least on the scale of Hiroshima, without taking into account any possible detonations, release of radio-active materials, etc., if the strike should succeed in finding out the cruise missiles at which it was aimed." A semi-permanent 'peace camp' was set up outside RAF Lakenheath. In 1985, the future Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams was arrested for singing psalms at a CND protest at Lakenheath. Over 1,000 people demonstrated outside RAF Lakenheath in protest at the 1986 United States bombing of Libya. The 2003 Iraq War sparked a new wave of peace protests. In one incident, 9 protestors gained access to the base by cutting through its perimeter fence. The protestors rode bicycles along the main runway, before chaining themselves together. Activists later established a 'peace camp' outside RAF Lakenheath to draw attention to the base. In 2006, a group of 200 people protested against the alleged nuclear weapons stored at RAF Lakenheath. Addressing the crowd was Jeremy Corbyn, who cycled to RAF Lakenheath from the railway station in Ely. There were further protests on this issue in 2008.

RAF Lakenheath

T h e f i r s t u s e o f L a k e n h e a t h W a r r e n a s a R o y a l F l y i n g C o r p s a i r f i e l d w a s d u r i n g t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r , w h e n t h e a r e a w a s m a d e i n t o a b o m b i n g a n d g r o u n d - a t t a c k r a n g e f o r a i r c r a f t f l y i n g f r o m R F C F e l t w e l l a n d R F C T h e t f o r d . I n 1 9 4 0 , t h e A i r M i n i s t r y s e l e c t e d L a k e n h e a t h a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e f o r n e a r b y R A F M i l d e n h a l l a n d u s e d i t a s a d e c o y a i r f i e l d . S u r f a c e d r u n w a y s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n 1 9 4 1 , w i t h t h e m a i n r u n w a y b e i n g , a n d t h e t w o s u b s i d i a r y r u n w a y s a t . L a k e n h e a t h w a s u s e d b y R A F f l y i n g u n i t s o n d e t a c h m e n t l a t e i n 1 9 4 1 . T h e s t a t i o n s o o n f u n c t i o n e d a s a M i l d e n h a l l s a t e l l i t e w i t h S h o r t S t i r l i n g b o m b e r s o f N o . 1 4 9 S q u a d r o n d i s p e r s e d f r o m t h e p a r e n t a i r f i e l d a s c o n d i t i o n s a l l o w e d . T h e s q u a d r o n e x c h a n g e d i t s V i c k e r s W e l l i n g t o n s f o r S t i r l i n g s l a t e i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 1 . A f t e r b e c o m i n g f u l l y o p e r a t i o n a l w i t h i t s n e w a i r c r a f t , t h e s q u a d r o n m o v e d i n t o L a k e n h e a t h o n 6 A p r i l 1 9 4 2 a n d r e m a i n e d u n t i l m i d 1 9 4 4 w h e n t h e s q u a d r o n m o v e d t o R A F M e t h w o l d i n N o r f o l k . O n e S t i r l i n g p i l o t , F l i g h t S e r g e a n t R a w d o n M i d d l e t o n , w a s p o s t h u m o u s l y a w a r d e d t h e V i c t o r i a C r o s s f o r v a l o u r o n t h e n i g h t o f 2 8 – 2 9 N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 2 , w h e n d e s p i t e s e r i o u s f a c e w o u n d s a n d l o s s o f b l o o d f r o m s h e l l - f i r e d u r i n g a r a i d o n t h e F i a t w o r k s a t T u r i n i n I t a l y , h e b r o u g h t t h e d a m a g e d a i r c r a f t b a c k t o w a r d s s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d . W i t h f u e l n e a r l y e x h a u s t e d h i s c r e w w e r e o r d e r e d t o b a i l o u t . O n 2 1 J u n e 1 9 4 3 , N o . 1 9 9 S q u a d r o n w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s a s e c o n d S t i r l i n g s q u a d r o n . I t c o n d u c t e d m i n e l a y i n g o p e r a t i o n s a t s e a b e f o r e m o v i n g t o R A F N o r t h C r e a k e i n N o r f o l k o n 1 M a y 1 9 4 4 . N o . 1 4 9 S q u a d r o n e n d e d i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h R A F L a k e n h e a t h t h e s a m e m o n t h , t a k i n g i t s S t i r l i n g s t o R A F M e t h w o l d . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e t w o b o m b e r s q u a d r o n s w a s L a k e n h e a t h ' s s e l e c t i o n f o r u p g r a d i n g t o a V e r y H e a v y B o m b e r a i r f i e l d . C o l d W a r t e n s i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n E u r o p e b e g a n a s e a r l y a s 1 9 4 6 . I n N o v e m b e r , P r e s i d e n t H a r r y S . T r u m a n o r d e r e d S t r a t e g i c A i r C o m m a n d ( S A C ) B - 2 9 b o m b e r s t o E u r o p e . T r u m a n d e c i d e d t o r e a l i g n U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r F o r c e E u r o p e ( U S A F E ) i n t o a p e r m a n e n t c o m b a t - c a p a b l e f o r c e . I n J u l y , B - 2 9 S u p e r f o r t r e s s e s o f t h e S A C 2 n d B o m b a r d m e n t G r o u p w e r e d e p l o y e d t o L a k e n h e a t h . T h e f i r s t U S A F E h o s t u n i t a t L a k e n h e a t h w a s t h e 7 5 0 4 t h B a s e C o m p l e t i o n S q u a d r o n , b e i n g a c t i v a t e d i n 1 9 4 9 . T h e 3 9 0 9 t h m o v e d t o R A F G r e e n h a m C o m m o n i n B e r k s h i r e d u r i n g 1 9 5 4 , a n d w a s r e p l a c e d b y t h e 3 9 1 0 t h A i r B a s e G r o u p i n 1 9 5 5 . O n 3 0 A p r i l 1 9 5 6 , t w o L o c k h e e d U - 2 s w e r e a i r l i f t e d t o L a k e n h e a t h t o f o r m C I A D e t a c h m e n t A . T h e f i r s t f l i g h t o f t h e U - 2 w a s o n 2 1 M a y . T h e C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e A g e n c y u n i t d i d n o t r e m a i n l o n g , m o v i n g t o W i e s b a d e n A i r B a s e , W e s t G e r m a n y i n J u n e 1 9 5 6 . O n 1 0 O c t o b e r 1 9 5 6 , a U n i t e d S t a t e s N a v y D o u g l a s R 6 D - 1 L i f t m a s t e r d i s a p p e a r e d o v e r t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n a f t e r d e p a r t u r e f r o m R A F L a k e n h e a t h f o r a f l i g h t t o L a j e s F i e l d i n t h e A z o r e s . T h e a i r c r a f t w a s o n a M i l i t a r y A i r T r a n s p o r t S e r v i c e f l i g h t c a r r y i n g 5 0 m e m b e r s o f t h e 3 0 7 t h B o m b a r d m e n t W i n g , o n t h e i r w a y h o m e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a f t e r a t e m p o r a r y d u t y a s s i g n m e n t a n d a U S N a v y c r e w o f n i n e . A l l 5 9 p e r s o n n e l o n b o a r d w e r e l o s t . F o l l o w i n g F r e n c h p r e s i d e n t C h a r l e s d e G a u l l e ' s i n s i s t e n c e i n 1 9 5 9 t h a t a l l n o n - F r e n c h n u c l e a r - c a p a b l e f o r c e s s h o u l d b e w i t h d r a w n f r o m h i s c o u n t r y , t h e U S A F b e g a n a r e d e p l o y m e n t o f i t s N o r t h A m e r i c a n F - 1 0 0 - e q u i p p e d u n i t s f r o m F r a n c e . T h e 4 8 t h F i g h t e r W i n g l e f t i t s b a s e a t C h a u m o n t - S e m o u t i e r s A i r B a s e , F r a n c e o n 1 5 J a n u a r y 1 9 6 0 , i t s a i r c r a f t a r r i v i n g a t L a k e n h e a t h t h a t a f t e r n o o n . T h e t a c t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e 4 8 t h T F W u p o n a r r i v a l a t L a k e n h e a t h w e r e : T h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1 9 7 2 a n d 1 9 7 7 c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s a f i v e - y e a r a i r c r a f t c o n v e r s i o n . B e g i n n i n g i n l a t e 1 9 7 1 , t h e 4 8 t h T F W s t a r t e d i t s c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e M c D o n n e l l D o u g l a s F - 4 D P h a n t o m I I . T h e c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e F - 4 D t o o k s e v e r a l y e a r s , w i t h i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t y b e i n g a c h i e v e d o n 1 J u l y 1 9 7 5 . T h e F - 4 ' s s e r v i c e w i t h t h e 4 8 t h T a c t i c a l F i g h t e r W i n g w a s s h o r t , a s o p e r a t i o n " R e a d y S w i t c h " r e s u l t e d i n 4 8 t h T a c t i c a l F i g h t e r W i n g r e c e i v i n g G e n e r a l D y n a m i c s F - 1 1 1 s M o u n t a i n H o m e A F B , I d a h o i n O c t o b e r 1 9 7 6 . L a k e n h e a t h r e c e i v e d i t s f i r s t M c D o n n e l l D o u g l a s F - 1 5 E S t r i k e E a g l e s i n 1 9 9 2 . O n 1 6 D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 2 , t h e l a s t F - 1 1 1 d e p a r t e d t h e b a s e . A l o n g w i t h i t s d e p a r t u r e , t h e 4 9 3 d F S w a s i n a c t i v a t e d , b u t t h e n r e a c t i v a t e d a s a F - 1 5 C s q u a d r o n . O n 2 M a r c h 2 0 1 1 , m e m b e r s o f t h e 4 8 t h S e c u r i t y F o r c e s S q u a d r o n w e r e i n v o l v e d i n a s h o o t i n g a t F r a n k f u r t A i r p o r t i n G e r m a n y . T h e m e m b e r s w e r e o n a b u s b o u n d f o r R a m s t e i n A i r B a s e i n G e r m a n y w h e n t h e y w e r e a t t a c k e d b y a l o n e g u n m a n . O n 2 2 M a r c h 2 0 1 1 , F - 1 5 E 9 1 - 0 3 0 4 c r a s h - l a n d e d a n d w a s d e s t r o y e d i n e a s t e r n L i b y a a f t e r r e p o r t e d l y s u f f e r i n g f r o m a m e c h a n i c a l f a i l u r e . B o t h c r e w m e n e j e c t e d a n d w e r e s a f e l y r e c o v e r e d . O n 7 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 4 , a S i k o r s k y H H - 6 0 P a v e H a w k f r o m t h e b a s e c r a s h e d f o l l o w i n g a b i r d s t r i k e w h i l e o n a l o w - l e v e l t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e w i t h a n o t h e r h e l i c o p t e r ( a l s o a P a v e H a w k ) , i n t o t h e C l e y M a r s h e s n e a r C l e y n e x t t h e S e a o n t h e n e a r b y N o r t h N o r f o l k c o a s t . A l l f o u r o c c u p a n t s d i e d i n t h e c r a s h . O n 8 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 , F - 1 5 D 8 6 - 0 1 8 2 b e l o n g i n g t o t h e 4 9 3 d F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n c r a s h e d d u r i n g a t r a i n i n g f l i g h t i n a f i e l d o u t s i d e S p a l d i n g , L i n c o l n s h i r e . T h e p i l o t s u c c e s s f u l l y e j e c t e d a n d w a s s h o r t l y r e c o v e r e d b a c k t o L a k e n h e a t h o n b o a r d a P a v e H a w k . A U S M a r i n e C o r p s B o e i n g F / A - 1 8 H o r n e t o f V M F A - 2 3 2 " R e d D e v i l s " f r o m M C A S . M i r a m a r , C a l i f o r n i a , c r a s h e d a f t e r t a k i n g o f f f r o m R A F L a k e n h e a t h o n 2 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 5 . T h e p i l o t , M a j o r T a j " C a b b i e " S a r e e n ( 3 4 ) , d i d n o t s u r v i v e . I n a d d i t i o n t o s u p p o r t i n g t h r e e c o m b a t - r e a d y s q u a d r o n s o f f i g h t e r a i r c r a f t , t h e L i b e r t y W i n g h o u s e d t h e 5 6 t h R e s c u e S q u a d r o n ' s H H - 6 0 G C o m b a t S e a r c h a n d R e s c u e h e l i c o p t e r s . T h e 5 6 t h R e s c u e S q u a d r o n r e - l o c a t e d t o A v i a n o A i r B a s e i n 2 0 1 8 . O n 1 5 J u n e 2 0 2 0 , a n F - 1 5 C b e l o n g i n g t o t h e 4 9 3 d F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n c r a s h e d d u r i n g a t r a i n i n g f l i g h t i n t h e N o r t h S e a , 7 4 n a u t i c a l m i l e s e a s t o f S c a r b o r o u g h a t a b o u t . T h e b o d y o f p i l o t 1 s t L t . K e n n e t h A l l e n w a s f o u n d d e c e a s e d . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 5 , t h e U S D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e a n n o u n c e d t h a t f r o m 2 0 2 0 , L a k e n h e a t h w o u l d b e c o m e h o m e t o 5 4 o f t h e U S A i r F o r c e ' s L o c k h e e d M a r t i n F - 3 5 A L i g h t n i n g I I m u l t i - r o l e f i g h t e r s . T h e a i r c r a f t w o u l d b e s p l i t b e t w e e n t w o s q u a d r o n s a n d t h e r e w o u l d b e a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 , 2 0 0 m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l a n d b e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 1 0 0 c i v i l i a n w o r k e r s a t t h e s t a t i o n . T h e F - 3 5 w o u l d o p e r a t e a l o n g s i d e t h e t w o e x i s t i n g F - 1 5 E s q u a d r o n s b a s e d a t L a k e n h e a t h . B y N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 8 , t h e n u m b e r o f a i r c r a f t h a d b e e n r e v i s e d t o 4 8 . T h e 4 9 5 t h F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n w a s r e a c t i v a t e d o n 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 2 1 t o b e t h e f i r s t F - 3 5 A L i g h t n i n g I I s q u a d r o n a t L a k e n h e a t h , w i t h t h e f i r s t a i r c r a f t a r r i v i n g o n 1 5 D e c e m b e r 2 0 2 1 . T o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e n e w a i r c r a f t , a F - 3 5 C a m p u s i s b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e s o u t h s i d e o f t h e a i r f i e l d . T h e m a i n n e w o p e r a t i o n a l b u i l d i n g s b e i n g d e v e l o p e d a s p a r t o f t h e F - 3 5 p r o j e c t a r e a s f o l l o w s : T h e a i r f i e l d o p e r a t i o n a l s u r f a c e s a r e a l s o b e i n g e x p a n d e d a s f o l l o w s : I n v e s t m e n t o f $ 1 4 8 . 4 m i l l i o n ( £ 1 1 6 . 7 M ) f o r t h e d e l i v e r y o f F - 3 5 A i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a t L a k e n h e a t h w a s a u t h o r i s e d b y t h e U S a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n A u g u s t 2 0 1 8 . I n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 8 , t h e D e f e n c e I n f r a s t r u c t u r e O r g a n i s a t i o n a w a r d e d a £ 1 6 0 M c o n t r a c t f o r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w o r k t o a j o i n t v e n t u r e b e t w e e n K i e r G r o u p a n d V o l k e r F i t z p a t r i c k . T o m a k e w a y f o r t h e F - 3 5 C a m p u s , d e m o l i t i o n o f t h e f i r s t o f e i g h t e e n b u i l d i n g s b e g a n i n M a r c h 2 0 1 9 . T h e w o r k o n A l p h a - B r a v o A p r o n w a s c o m p l e t e d i n A u g u s t 2 0 2 0 , a l l o w i n g F - 1 5 E S t r i k e E a g l e o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e 4 9 2 n d a n d 4 9 4 t h F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n s t o b e c o n s o l i d a t e d o n o n e r a m p . T w o a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g n u c l e a r w e a p o n s h a p p e n e d a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h , i n 1 9 5 6 a n d 1 9 6 1 . F l y i n g a n d n o t a b l e n o n - f l y i n g u n i t s b a s e d a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h . U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r F o r c e s i n E u r o p e - A i r F o r c e s A f r i c a ( U S A F E - A F A F R I C A ) R A F L a k e n h e a t h ' s g a t e g u a r d i a n i s N o r t h A m e r i c a n F - 1 0 0 D S u p e r S a b r e , s e r i a l n u m b e r " ' 5 4 - 2 2 6 9 ' . " T h e a i r c r a f t w a s o r i g i n a l l y d e l i v e r e d t o t h e F r e n c h A i r F o r c e . O n r e t u r n i t w a s m o v e d t o t h e " W i n g s o f L i b e r t y M e m o r i a l P a r k " a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h . F i r s t l y i t w a s p a i n t e d a s " ' 5 5 - 4 0 4 8 ' " , l a t t e r l y a s " ' 5 6 - 3 3 1 9 ' " . S i n c e t h e b a s e ' s f o u n d i n g , R A F L a k e n h e a t h h a s b e e n t a r g e t e d f o r n u m e r o u s p e a c e p r o t e s t s f r o m g r o u p s s u c h a s S t o p t h e w a r c o a l i t i o n a n d t h e C a m p a i g n f o r N u c l e a r D i s a r m a m e n t . L a k e n h e a t h w a s o n e o f t h e p r o p o s e d s i t e s o f t h e N A T O P e r s h i n g I I M i s s i l e S y s t e m . T h e d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e M i s s i l e s y s t e m s p a r k e d p r o t e s t s a l l o v e r W e s t e r n E u r o p e , a n d R A F L a k e n h e a t h w a s o n e o f t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t m i l i t a r y s i t e s . T h e r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n E . P . T h o m p s o n w r o t e i n a p a m p h l e t t h a t b a s i n g t h e s y s t e m a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h d i r e c t l y e n d a n g e r e d t h e l i v e s o f t h o s e i n t h e n e a r b y c i t y o f C a m b r i d g e : " . . . L a k e n h e a t h i s , b y c r o w o r c r u i s e , j u s t o v e r t w e n t y m i l e s f r o m C a m b r i d g e . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t C a m b r i d g e b u t l e s s p r o b a b l e t h a t O x f o r d w i l l f a l l o u t s i d e t h e C E P . W i t h i n t h e C E P w e m u s t s u p p o s e s o m e f i f t e e n o r t w e n t y d e t o n a t i o n s a t l e a s t o n t h e s c a l e o f H i r o s h i m a , w i t h o u t t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t a n y p o s s i b l e d e t o n a t i o n s , r e l e a s e o f r a d i o - a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s , e t c . , i f t h e s t r i k e s h o u l d s u c c e e d i n f i n d i n g o u t t h e c r u i s e m i s s i l e s a t w h i c h i t w a s a i m e d . " A s e m i - p e r m a n e n t ' p e a c e c a m p ' w a s s e t u p o u t s i d e R A F L a k e n h e a t h . I n 1 9 8 5 , t h e f u t u r e A r c h b i s h o p o f C a n t e r b u r y R o w a n W i l l i a m s w a s a r r e s t e d f o r s i n g i n g p s a l m s a t a C N D p r o t e s t a t L a k e n h e a t h . O v e r 1 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e d e m o n s t r a t e d o u t s i d e R A F L a k e n h e a t h i n p r o t e s t a t t h e 1 9 8 6 U n i t e d S t a t e s b o m b i n g o f L i b y a . T h e 2 0 0 3 I r a q W a r s p a r k e d a n e w w a v e o f p e a c e p r o t e s t s . I n o n e i n c i d e n t , 9 p r o t e s t o r s g a i n e d a c c e s s t o t h e b a s e b y c u t t i n g t h r o u g h i t s p e r i m e t e r f e n c e . T h e p r o t e s t o r s r o d e b i c y c l e s a l o n g t h e m a i n r u n w a y , b e f o r e c h a i n i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o g e t h e r . A c t i v i s t s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d a ' p e a c e c a m p ' o u t s i d e R A F L a k e n h e a t h t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o t h e b a s e . I n 2 0 0 6 , a g r o u p o f 2 0 0 p e o p l e p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h e a l l e g e d n u c l e a r w e a p o n s s t o r e d a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h . A d d r e s s i n g t h e c r o w d w a s J e r e m y C o r b y n , w h o c y c l e d t o R A F L a k e n h e a t h f r o m t h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n E l y . T h e r e w e r e f u r t h e r p r o t e s t s o n t h i s i s s u e i n 2 0 0 8 .

History ; Cold War ; Strategic Air Command

RAF Lakenheath has a rich history dating back to World War I, initially serving as a bombing and ground-attack range. During World War II, it was used as a decoy airfield and later became a satellite for RAF Mildenhall. The base played a significant role in the Cold War, hosting Strategic Air Command B-29 bombers and later becoming a key site for the United States Air Force in Europe. Notably, it was involved in the development of the U-2 spy plane and was a target for peace protests throughout the years, including against the deployment of nuclear weapons and the Iraq War. Today, the base continues to serve as a major hub for US military operations in Europe.

The first use of Lakenheath Warren as a Royal Flying Corps airfield was during the First World War, when the area was made into a bombing and ground-attack range for aircraft flying from RFC Feltwell and RFC Thetford. In 1940, the Air Ministry selected Lakenheath as an alternative for nearby RAF Mildenhall and used it as a decoy airfield. Surfaced runways were constructed in 1941, with the main runway being , and the two subsidiary runways at . Lakenheath was used by RAF flying units on detachment late in 1941. The station soon functioned as a Mildenhall satellite with Short Stirling bombers of No. 149 Squadron dispersed from the parent airfield as conditions allowed. The squadron exchanged its Vickers Wellingtons for Stirlings late in November 1941. After becoming fully operational with its new aircraft, the squadron moved into Lakenheath on 6 April 1942 and remained until mid 1944 when the squadron moved to RAF Methwold in Norfolk. One Stirling pilot, Flight Sergeant Rawdon Middleton, was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for valour on the night of 28–29 November 1942, when despite serious face wounds and loss of blood from shell-fire during a raid on the Fiat works at Turin in Italy, he brought the damaged aircraft back towards southern England. With fuel nearly exhausted his crew were ordered to bail out. On 21 June 1943, No. 199 Squadron was established as a second Stirling squadron. It conducted mine laying operations at sea before moving to RAF North Creake in Norfolk on 1 May 1944. No. 149 Squadron ended its association with RAF Lakenheath the same month, taking its Stirlings to RAF Methwold. The reason for the departure of the two bomber squadrons was Lakenheath's selection for upgrading to a Very Heavy Bomber airfield. Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union in Europe began as early as 1946. In November, President Harry S. Truman ordered Strategic Air Command (SAC) B-29 bombers to Europe. Truman decided to realign United States Air Force Europe (USAFE) into a permanent combat-capable force. In July, B-29 Superfortresses of the SAC 2nd Bombardment Group were deployed to Lakenheath. The first USAFE host unit at Lakenheath was the 7504th Base Completion Squadron, being activated in 1949. The 3909th moved to RAF Greenham Common in Berkshire during 1954, and was replaced by the 3910th Air Base Group in 1955. On 30 April 1956, two Lockheed U-2s were airlifted to Lakenheath to form CIA Detachment A. The first flight of the U-2 was on 21 May. The Central Intelligence Agency unit did not remain long, moving to Wiesbaden Air Base, West Germany in June 1956. On 10 October 1956, a United States Navy Douglas R6D-1 Liftmaster disappeared over the Atlantic Ocean after departure from RAF Lakenheath for a flight to Lajes Field in the Azores. The aircraft was on a Military Air Transport Service flight carrying 50 members of the 307th Bombardment Wing, on their way home to the United States after a temporary duty assignment and a US Navy crew of nine. All 59 personnel on board were lost. Following French president Charles de Gaulle's insistence in 1959 that all non-French nuclear-capable forces should be withdrawn from his country, the USAF began a redeployment of its North American F-100-equipped units from France. The 48th Fighter Wing left its base at Chaumont-Semoutiers Air Base, France on 15 January 1960, its aircraft arriving at Lakenheath that afternoon. The tactical components of the 48th TFW upon arrival at Lakenheath were: The period between 1972 and 1977 can be described as a five-year aircraft conversion. Beginning in late 1971, the 48th TFW started its conversion to the McDonnell Douglas F-4D Phantom II. The conversion to the F-4D took several years, with initial operational capability being achieved on 1 July 1975. The F-4's service with the 48th Tactical Fighter Wing was short, as operation Organisation awarded a £160M contract for infrastructure work to a joint venture between Kier Group and VolkerFitzpatrick. To make way for the F-35 Campus, demolition of the first of eighteen buildings began in March 2019. The work on Alpha-Bravo Apron was completed in August 2020, allowing F-15E Strike Eagle operations of the 492nd and 494th Fighter Squadrons to be consolidated on one ramp. Two accidents involving nuclear weapons happened at RAF Lakenheath, in 1956 and 1961. Flying and notable non-flying units based at RAF Lakenheath. United States Air Forces in Europe - Air Forces Africa (USAFE-AFAFRICA) RAF Lakenheath's gate guardian is North American F-100D Super Sabre, serial number "'54-2269'." The aircraft was originally delivered to the French Air Force. On return it was moved to the "Wings of Liberty Memorial Park" at RAF Lakenheath. Firstly it was painted as "'55-4048'", latterly as "'56-3319'". Since the base's founding, RAF Lakenheath has been targeted for numerous peace protests from groups such as Stop the war coalition and the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Lakenheath was one of the proposed sites of the NATO Pershing II Missile System. The deployment of the Missile system sparked protests all over Western Europe, and RAF Lakenheath was one of the most prominent military sites. The radical historian E.P. Thompson wrote in a pamphlet that basing the system at RAF Lakenheath directly endangered the lives of those in the nearby city of Cambridge:"... Lakenheath is, by crow or cruise, just over twenty miles from Cambridge. It is possible that Cambridge but less probable that Oxford will fall outside the CEP. Within the CEP we must suppose some fifteen or twenty detonations at least on the scale of Hiroshima, without taking into account any possible detonations, release of radio-active materials, etc., if the strike should succeed in finding out the cruise missiles at which it was aimed." A semi-permanent 'peace camp' was set up outside RAF Lakenheath. In 1985, the future Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams was arrested for singing psalms at a CND protest at Lakenheath. Over 1,000 people demonstrated outside RAF Lakenheath in protest at the 1986 United States bombing of Libya. The 2003 Iraq War sparked a new wave of peace protests. In one incident, 9 protestors gained access to the base by cutting through its perimeter fence. The protestors

RAF Lakenheath

T h e f i r s t u s e o f L a k e n h e a t h W a r r e n a s a R o y a l F l y i n g C o r p s a i r f i e l d w a s d u r i n g t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r , w h e n t h e a r e a w a s m a d e i n t o a b o m b i n g a n d g r o u n d - a t t a c k r a n g e f o r a i r c r a f t f l y i n g f r o m R F C F e l t w e l l a n d R F C T h e t f o r d . I n 1 9 4 0 , t h e A i r M i n i s t r y s e l e c t e d L a k e n h e a t h a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e f o r n e a r b y R A F M i l d e n h a l l a n d u s e d i t a s a d e c o y a i r f i e l d . S u r f a c e d r u n w a y s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n 1 9 4 1 , w i t h t h e m a i n r u n w a y b e i n g , a n d t h e t w o s u b s i d i a r y r u n w a y s a t . L a k e n h e a t h w a s u s e d b y R A F f l y i n g u n i t s o n d e t a c h m e n t l a t e i n 1 9 4 1 . T h e s t a t i o n s o o n f u n c t i o n e d a s a M i l d e n h a l l s a t e l l i t e w i t h S h o r t S t i r l i n g b o m b e r s o f N o . 1 4 9 S q u a d r o n d i s p e r s e d f r o m t h e p a r e n t a i r f i e l d a s c o n d i t i o n s a l l o w e d . T h e s q u a d r o n e x c h a n g e d i t s V i c k e r s W e l l i n g t o n s f o r S t i r l i n g s l a t e i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 1 . A f t e r b e c o m i n g f u l l y o p e r a t i o n a l w i t h i t s n e w a i r c r a f t , t h e s q u a d r o n m o v e d i n t o L a k e n h e a t h o n 6 A p r i l 1 9 4 2 a n d r e m a i n e d u n t i l m i d 1 9 4 4 w h e n t h e s q u a d r o n m o v e d t o R A F M e t h w o l d i n N o r f o l k . O n e S t i r l i n g p i l o t , F l i g h t S e r g e a n t R a w d o n M i d d l e t o n , w a s p o s t h u m o u s l y a w a r d e d t h e V i c t o r i a C r o s s f o r v a l o u r o n t h e n i g h t o f 2 8 – 2 9 N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 2 , w h e n d e s p i t e s e r i o u s f a c e w o u n d s a n d l o s s o f b l o o d f r o m s h e l l - f i r e d u r i n g a r a i d o n t h e F i a t w o r k s a t T u r i n i n I t a l y , h e b r o u g h t t h e d a m a g e d a i r c r a f t b a c k t o w a r d s s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d . W i t h f u e l n e a r l y e x h a u s t e d h i s c r e w w e r e o r d e r e d t o b a i l o u t . O n 2 1 J u n e 1 9 4 3 , N o . 1 9 9 S q u a d r o n w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s a s e c o n d S t i r l i n g s q u a d r o n . I t c o n d u c t e d m i n e l a y i n g o p e r a t i o n s a t s e a b e f o r e m o v i n g t o R A F N o r t h C r e a k e i n N o r f o l k o n 1 M a y 1 9 4 4 . N o . 1 4 9 S q u a d r o n e n d e d i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h R A F L a k e n h e a t h t h e s a m e m o n t h , t a k i n g i t s S t i r l i n g s t o R A F M e t h w o l d . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e t w o b o m b e r s q u a d r o n s w a s L a k e n h e a t h ' s s e l e c t i o n f o r u p g r a d i n g t o a V e r y H e a v y B o m b e r a i r f i e l d . C o l d W a r t e n s i o n s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n E u r o p e b e g a n a s e a r l y a s 1 9 4 6 . I n N o v e m b e r , P r e s i d e n t H a r r y S . T r u m a n o r d e r e d S t r a t e g i c A i r C o m m a n d ( S A C ) B - 2 9 b o m b e r s t o E u r o p e . T r u m a n d e c i d e d t o r e a l i g n U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r F o r c e E u r o p e ( U S A F E ) i n t o a p e r m a n e n t c o m b a t - c a p a b l e f o r c e . I n J u l y , B - 2 9 S u p e r f o r t r e s s e s o f t h e S A C 2 n d B o m b a r d m e n t G r o u p w e r e d e p l o y e d t o L a k e n h e a t h . T h e f i r s t U S A F E h o s t u n i t a t L a k e n h e a t h w a s t h e 7 5 0 4 t h B a s e C o m p l e t i o n S q u a d r o n , b e i n g a c t i v a t e d i n 1 9 4 9 . T h e 3 9 0 9 t h m o v e d t o R A F G r e e n h a m C o m m o n i n B e r k s h i r e d u r i n g 1 9 5 4 , a n d w a s r e p l a c e d b y t h e 3 9 1 0 t h A i r B a s e G r o u p i n 1 9 5 5 . O n 3 0 A p r i l 1 9 5 6 , t w o L o c k h e e d U - 2 s w e r e a i r l i f t e d t o L a k e n h e a t h t o f o r m C I A D e t a c h m e n t A . T h e f i r s t f l i g h t o f t h e U - 2 w a s o n 2 1 M a y . T h e C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e A g e n c y u n i t d i d n o t r e m a i n l o n g , m o v i n g t o W i e s b a d e n A i r B a s e , W e s t G e r m a n y i n J u n e 1 9 5 6 . O n 1 0 O c t o b e r 1 9 5 6 , a U n i t e d S t a t e s N a v y D o u g l a s R 6 D - 1 L i f t m a s t e r d i s a p p e a r e d o v e r t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n a f t e r d e p a r t u r e f r o m R A F L a k e n h e a t h f o r a f l i g h t t o L a j e s F i e l d i n t h e A z o r e s . T h e a i r c r a f t w a s o n a M i l i t a r y A i r T r a n s p o r t S e r v i c e f l i g h t c a r r y i n g 5 0 m e m b e r s o f t h e 3 0 7 t h B o m b a r d m e n t W i n g , o n t h e i r w a y h o m e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a f t e r a t e m p o r a r y d u t y a s s i g n m e n t a n d a U S N a v y c r e w o f n i n e . A l l 5 9 p e r s o n n e l o n b o a r d w e r e l o s t . F o l l o w i n g F r e n c h p r e s i d e n t C h a r l e s d e G a u l l e ' s i n s i s t e n c e i n 1 9 5 9 t h a t a l l n o n - F r e n c h n u c l e a r - c a p a b l e f o r c e s s h o u l d b e w i t h d r a w n f r o m h i s c o u n t r y , t h e U S A F b e g a n a r e d e p l o y m e n t o f i t s N o r t h A m e r i c a n F - 1 0 0 - e q u i p p e d u n i t s f r o m F r a n c e . T h e 4 8 t h F i g h t e r W i n g l e f t i t s b a s e a t C h a u m o n t - S e m o u t i e r s A i r B a s e , F r a n c e o n 1 5 J a n u a r y 1 9 6 0 , i t s a i r c r a f t a r r i v i n g a t L a k e n h e a t h t h a t a f t e r n o o n . T h e t a c t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e 4 8 t h T F W u p o n a r r i v a l a t L a k e n h e a t h w e r e : T h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1 9 7 2 a n d 1 9 7 7 c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s a f i v e - y e a r a i r c r a f t c o n v e r s i o n . B e g i n n i n g i n l a t e 1 9 7 1 , t h e 4 8 t h T F W s t a r t e d i t s c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e M c D o n n e l l D o u g l a s F - 4 D P h a n t o m I I . T h e c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e F - 4 D t o o k s e v e r a l y e a r s , w i t h i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t y b e i n g a c h i e v e d o n 1 J u l y 1 9 7 5 . T h e F - 4 ' s s e r v i c e w i t h t h e 4 8 t h T a c t i c a l F i g h t e r W i n g w a s s h o r t , a s o p e r a t i o n " R e a d y S w i t c h " r e s u l t e d i n 4 8 t h T a c t i c a l F i g h t e r W i n g r e c e i v i n g G e n e r a l D y n a m i c s F - 1 1 1 s M o u n t a i n H o m e A F B , I d a h o i n O c t o b e r 1 9 7 6 . L a k e n h e a t h r e c e i v e d i t s f i r s t M c D o n n e l l D o u g l a s F - 1 5 E S t r i k e E a g l e s i n 1 9 9 2 . O n 1 6 D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 2 , t h e l a s t F - 1 1 1 d e p a r t e d t h e b a s e . A l o n g w i t h i t s d e p a r t u r e , t h e 4 9 3 d F S w a s i n a c t i v a t e d , b u t t h e n r e a c t i v a t e d a s a F - 1 5 C s q u a d r o n . O n 2 M a r c h 2 0 1 1 , m e m b e r s o f t h e 4 8 t h S e c u r i t y F o r c e s S q u a d r o n w e r e i n v o l v e d i n a s h o o t i n g a t F r a n k f u r t A i r p o r t i n G e r m a n y . T h e m e m b e r s w e r e o n a b u s b o u n d f o r R a m s t e i n A i r B a s e i n G e r m a n y w h e n t h e y w e r e a t t a c k e d b y a l o n e g u n m a n . O n 2 2 M a r c h 2 0 1 1 , F - 1 5 E 9 1 - 0 3 0 4 c r a s h - l a n d e d a n d w a s d e s t r o y e d i n e a s t e r n L i b y a a f t e r r e p o r t e d l y s u f f e r i n g f r o m a m e c h a n i c a l f a i l u r e . B o t h c r e w m e n e j e c t e d a n d w e r e s a f e l y r e c o v e r e d . O n 7 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 4 , a S i k o r s k y H H - 6 0 P a v e H a w k f r o m t h e b a s e c r a s h e d f o l l o w i n g a b i r d s t r i k e w h i l e o n a l o w - l e v e l t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e w i t h a n o t h e r h e l i c o p t e r ( a l s o a P a v e H a w k ) , i n t o t h e C l e y M a r s h e s n e a r C l e y n e x t t h e S e a o n t h e n e a r b y N o r t h N o r f o l k c o a s t . A l l f o u r o c c u p a n t s d i e d i n t h e c r a s h . O n 8 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 , F - 1 5 D 8 6 - 0 1 8 2 b e l o n g i n g t o t h e 4 9 3 d F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n c r a s h e d d u r i n g a t r a i n i n g f l i g h t i n a f i e l d o u t s i d e S p a l d i n g , L i n c o l n s h i r e . T h e p i l o t s u c c e s s f u l l y e j e c t e d a n d w a s s h o r t l y r e c o v e r e d b a c k t o L a k e n h e a t h o n b o a r d a P a v e H a w k . A U S M a r i n e C o r p s B o e i n g F / A - 1 8 H o r n e t o f V M F A - 2 3 2 " R e d D e v i l s " f r o m M C A S . M i r a m a r , C a l i f o r n i a , c r a s h e d a f t e r t a k i n g o f f f r o m R A F L a k e n h e a t h o n 2 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 5 . T h e p i l o t , M a j o r T a j " C a b b i e " S a r e e n ( 3 4 ) , d i d n o t s u r v i v e . I n a d d i t i o n t o s u p p o r t i n g t h r e e c o m b a t - r e a d y s q u a d r o n s o f f i g h t e r a i r c r a f t , t h e L i b e r t y W i n g h o u s e d t h e 5 6 t h R e s c u e S q u a d r o n ' s H H - 6 0 G C o m b a t S e a r c h a n d R e s c u e h e l i c o p t e r s . T h e 5 6 t h R e s c u e S q u a d r o n r e - l o c a t e d t o A v i a n o A i r B a s e i n 2 0 1 8 . O n 1 5 J u n e 2 0 2 0 , a n F - 1 5 C b e l o n g i n g t o t h e 4 9 3 d F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n c r a s h e d d u r i n g a t r a i n i n g f l i g h t i n t h e N o r t h S e a , 7 4 n a u t i c a l m i l e s e a s t o f S c a r b o r o u g h a t a b o u t . T h e b o d y o f p i l o t 1 s t L t . K e n n e t h A l l e n w a s f o u n d d e c e a s e d . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 5 , t h e U S D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e a n n o u n c e d t h a t f r o m 2 0 2 0 , L a k e n h e a t h w o u l d b e c o m e h o m e t o 5 4 o f t h e U S A i r F o r c e ' s L o c k h e e d M a r t i n F - 3 5 A L i g h t n i n g I I m u l t i - r o l e f i g h t e r s . T h e a i r c r a f t w o u l d b e s p l i t b e t w e e n t w o s q u a d r o n s a n d t h e r e w o u l d b e a n i n c r e a s e o f 1 , 2 0 0 m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l a n d b e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 1 0 0 c i v i l i a n w o r k e r s a t t h e s t a t i o n . T h e F - 3 5 w o u l d o p e r a t e a l o n g s i d e t h e t w o e x i s t i n g F - 1 5 E s q u a d r o n s b a s e d a t L a k e n h e a t h . B y N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 8 , t h e n u m b e r o f a i r c r a f t h a d b e e n r e v i s e d t o 4 8 . T h e 4 9 5 t h F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n w a s r e a c t i v a t e d o n 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 2 1 t o b e t h e f i r s t F - 3 5 A L i g h t n i n g I I s q u a d r o n a t L a k e n h e a t h , w i t h t h e f i r s t a i r c r a f t a r r i v i n g o n 1 5 D e c e m b e r 2 0 2 1 . T o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e n e w a i r c r a f t , a F - 3 5 C a m p u s i s b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e s o u t h s i d e o f t h e a i r f i e l d . T h e m a i n n e w o p e r a t i o n a l b u i l d i n g s b e i n g d e v e l o p e d a s p a r t o f t h e F - 3 5 p r o j e c t a r e a s f o l l o w s : T h e a i r f i e l d o p e r a t i o n a l s u r f a c e s a r e a l s o b e i n g e x p a n d e d a s f o l l o w s : I n v e s t m e n t o f $ 1 4 8 . 4 m i l l i o n ( £ 1 1 6 . 7 M ) f o r t h e d e l i v e r y o f F - 3 5 A i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a t L a k e n h e a t h w a s a u t h o r i s e d b y t h e U S a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n A u g u s t 2 0 1 8 . I n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 8 , t h e D e f e n c e I n f r a s t r u c t u r e O r g a n i s a t i o n a w a r d e d a £ 1 6 0 M c o n t r a c t f o r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w o r k t o a j o i n t v e n t u r e b e t w e e n K i e r G r o u p a n d V o l k e r F i t z p a t r i c k . T o m a k e w a y f o r t h e F - 3 5 C a m p u s , d e m o l i t i o n o f t h e f i r s t o f e i g h t e e n b u i l d i n g s b e g a n i n M a r c h 2 0 1 9 . T h e w o r k o n A l p h a - B r a v o A p r o n w a s c o m p l e t e d i n A u g u s t 2 0 2 0 , a l l o w i n g F - 1 5 E S t r i k e E a g l e o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e 4 9 2 n d a n d 4 9 4 t h F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n s t o b e c o n s o l i d a t e d o n o n e r a m p . T w o a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g n u c l e a r w e a p o n s h a p p e n e d a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h , i n 1 9 5 6 a n d 1 9 6 1 . F l y i n g a n d n o t a b l e n o n - f l y i n g u n i t s b a s e d a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h . U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r F o r c e s i n E u r o p e - A i r F o r c e s A f r i c a ( U S A F E - A F A F R I C A ) R A F L a k e n h e a t h ' s g a t e g u a r d i a n i s N o r t h A m e r i c a n F - 1 0 0 D S u p e r S a b r e , s e r i a l n u m b e r " ' 5 4 - 2 2 6 9 ' . " T h e a i r c r a f t w a s o r i g i n a l l y d e l i v e r e d t o t h e F r e n c h A i r F o r c e . O n r e t u r n i t w a s m o v e d t o t h e " W i n g s o f L i b e r t y M e m o r i a l P a r k " a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h . F i r s t l y i t w a s p a i n t e d a s " ' 5 5 - 4 0 4 8 ' " , l a t t e r l y a s " ' 5 6 - 3 3 1 9 ' " . S i n c e t h e b a s e ' s f o u n d i n g , R A F L a k e n h e a t h h a s b e e n t a r g e t e d f o r n u m e r o u s p e a c e p r o t e s t s f r o m g r o u p s s u c h a s S t o p t h e w a r c o a l i t i o n a n d t h e C a m p a i g n f o r N u c l e a r D i s a r m a m e n t . L a k e n h e a t h w a s o n e o f t h e p r o p o s e d s i t e s o f t h e N A T O P e r s h i n g I I M i s s i l e S y s t e m . T h e d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e M i s s i l e s y s t e m s p a r k e d p r o t e s t s a l l o v e r W e s t e r n E u r o p e , a n d R A F L a k e n h e a t h w a s o n e o f t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t m i l i t a r y s i t e s . T h e r a d i c a l h i s t o r i a n E . P . T h o m p s o n w r o t e i n a p a m p h l e t t h a t b a s i n g t h e s y s t e m a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h d i r e c t l y e n d a n g e r e d t h e l i v e s o f t h o s e i n t h e n e a r b y c i t y o f C a m b r i d g e : " . . . L a k e n h e a t h i s , b y c r o w o r c r u i s e , j u s t o v e r t w e n t y m i l e s f r o m C a m b r i d g e . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t C a m b r i d g e b u t l e s s p r o b a b l e t h a t O x f o r d w i l l f a l l o u t s i d e t h e C E P . W i t h i n t h e C E P w e m u s t s u p p o s e s o m e f i f t e e n o r t w e n t y d e t o n a t i o n s a t l e a s t o n t h e s c a l e o f H i r o s h i m a , w i t h o u t t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t a n y p o s s i b l e d e t o n a t i o n s , r e l e a s e o f r a d i o - a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s , e t c . , i f t h e s t r i k e s h o u l d s u c c e e d i n f i n d i n g o u t t h e c r u i s e m i s s i l e s a t w h i c h i t w a s a i m e d . " A s e m i - p e r m a n e n t ' p e a c e c a m p ' w a s s e t u p o u t s i d e R A F L a k e n h e a t h . I n 1 9 8 5 , t h e f u t u r e A r c h b i s h o p o f C a n t e r b u r y R o w a n W i l l i a m s w a s a r r e s t e d f o r s i n g i n g p s a l m s a t a C N D p r o t e s t a t L a k e n h e a t h . O v e r 1 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e d e m o n s t r a t e d o u t s i d e R A F L a k e n h e a t h i n p r o t e s t a t t h e 1 9 8 6 U n i t e d S t a t e s b o m b i n g o f L i b y a . T h e 2 0 0 3 I r a q W a r s p a r k e d a n e w w a v e o f p e a c e p r o t e s t s . I n o n e i n c i d e n t , 9 p r o t e s t o r s g a i n e d a c c e s s t o t h e b a s e b y c u t t i n g t h r o u g h i t s p e r i m e t e r f e n c e . T h e p r o t e s t o r s r o d e b i c y c l e s a l o n g t h e m a i n r u n w a y , b e f o r e c h a i n i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o g e t h e r . A c t i v i s t s l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d a ' p e a c e c a m p ' o u t s i d e R A F L a k e n h e a t h t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o t h e b a s e . I n 2 0 0 6 , a g r o u p o f 2 0 0 p e o p l e p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h e a l l e g e d n u c l e a r w e a p o n s s t o r e d a t R A F L a k e n h e a t h . A d d r e s s i n g t h e c r o w d w a s J e r e m y C o r b y n , w h o c y c l e d t o R A F L a k e n h e a t h f r o m t h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n i n E l y . T h e r e w e r e f u r t h e r p r o t e s t s o n t h i s i s s u e i n 2 0 0 8 .

History ; F-35

RAF Lakenheath has a rich history dating back to 1941. Initially used by the Royal Air Force, it later became a major US Air Force base. Notable events include the establishment of the 48th Fighter Wing in 1960, the introduction of the F-4 Phantom II in 1972, and the transition to the F-15E Strike Eagle in 1992. The base has also seen various incidents, including crashes and fatalities. Today, it is home to the 48th Fighter Wing, operating F-15Es and preparing to receive the F-35A Lightning II.

fully operational with its new aircraft, the squadron moved into Lakenheath on 6 April 1942 and remained until mid 1944 when the squadron moved to RAF Methwold in Norfolk. One Stirling pilot, Flight Sergeant Rawdon Middleton, was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for valour on the night of 28–29 November 1942, when despite serious face wounds and loss of blood from shell-fire during a raid on the Fiat works at Turin in Italy, he brought the damaged aircraft back towards southern England. With fuel nearly exhausted his crew were ordered to bail out. On 21 June 1943, No. 199 Squadron was established as a second Stirling squadron. It conducted mine laying operations at sea before moving to RAF North Creake in Norfolk on 1 May 1944. No. 149 3910th Air Base Group in 1955. On 30 April 1956, two Lockheed U-2s were airlifted to Lakenheath to form CIA Detachment A. The first flight of the U-2 was on 21 May. The Central Intelligence Agency unit did not remain long, moving to Wiesbaden Air Base, West Germany in June 1956. On 10 October 1956, a United States Navy Douglas R6D-1 Liftmaster disappeared over the Atlantic Ocean after departure from RAF Lakenheath for a flight to Lajes Field in the Azores. The aircraft was on a Military Air Transport Service flight carrying 50 members of the 307th Bombardment Wing, on their way home to the United States after a temporary duty assignment and a US Navy crew of nine. All 59 personnel on board were lost. Following French president Charles de Gaulle's insistence in 1959 that all non-French nuclear-capable forces should be withdrawn from his country, the USAF began a redeployment of its North American F-100-equipped units from France. The 48th Fighter Wing left its base at Chaumont-Semoutiers Air Base, France on 15 January 1960, its aircraft arriving at Lakenheath that afternoon. The tactical components of the 48th TFW upon arrival at Lakenheath were: The period between 1972 and 1977 can be described as a five-year aircraft conversion. Beginning in late 1971, the 48th TFW started its conversion to the McDonnell Douglas F-4D Phantom II. The conversion to the F-4D took several years, with initial operational capability being achieved on 1 July 1975. The F-4's service with the 48th Tactical Fighter Wing was short, as operation "Ready Switch" resulted in 48th Tactical Fighter Wing receiving General Dynamics F-111s Mountain Home AFB, Idaho in October 1976. Lakenheath received its first McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagles in 1992. On 16 December 1992, the last F-111 departed the base. Along with its departure, the 493d FS was inactivated, but then reactivated as a F-15C squadron. On 2 March 2011, members of the 48th Security Forces Squadron were involved in a shooting at Frankfurt Airport in Germany. The members were on a bus bound for Ramstein Air Base in Germany when they were attacked by a lone gunman. On 22 March 2011, F-15E 91-0304 crash-landed and was destroyed in eastern Libya after reportedly suffering from a mechanical failure. Both crewmen ejected and were safely recovered. On 7 January 2014, a Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk from the base crashed following a bird strike while on a low-level training exercise with another helicopter (also a Pave Hawk), into the Cley Marshes near Cley next the Sea on the nearby North Norfolk coast. All four occupants died in the crash. On 8 October 2014, F-15D 86-0182 belonging to the 493d Fighter Squadron crashed during a training flight in a field outside Spalding, Lincolnshire. The pilot successfully ejected and was shortly recovered back to Lakenheath on board a Pave Hawk. A US Marine Corps Boeing F/A-18 Hornet of VMFA-232 "Red Devils" from MCAS. Miramar, California, crashed after taking off from RAF Lakenheath on 21 October 2015. The pilot, Major Taj "Cabbie" Sareen (34), did not survive. In addition to supporting three combat-ready squadrons of fighter aircraft, the Liberty Wing housed the 56th Rescue Squadron's HH-60G Combat Search and Rescue helicopters. The 56th Rescue Squadron re-located to Aviano Air Base in 2018. On 15 June 2020, an F-15C belonging to the 493d Fighter Squadron crashed during a training flight in the North Sea, 74 nautical miles east of Scarborough at about . The body of pilot 1st Lt. Kenneth Allen was found deceased. In January 2015, the US Department of Defense announced that from 2020, Lakenheath would become home to 54 of the US Air Force's Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning II multi-role fighters. The aircraft would be split between two squadrons and there would be an increase of 1,200 military personnel and between 60 and 100 civilian workers at the station. The F-35 would operate alongside the two existing F-15E squadrons based at Lakenheath. By November 2018, the number of aircraft had been revised to 48. The 495th Fighter Squadron was reactivated on 1 October 2021 to be the first F-35A Lightning II squadron at Lakenheath, with the first aircraft arriving on 15 December 2021. To accommodate the new aircraft, a F-35 Campus is being constructed on the south side of the airfield. The main new operational buildings being developed as part of the F-35 project are as follows: The airfield operational surfaces are also being expanded as follows: Investment of $148.4 million (£116.7M) for the delivery of F-35A infrastructure at Lakenheath was authorised by the US administration in August 2018. In November 2018, the Defence Infrastructure Organisation awarded a £160M contract for infrastructure work to a joint venture between Kier Group and VolkerFitzpatrick. To make way for the F-35 Campus, demolition of the first of eighteen buildings began in March 2019. The work on Alpha-Bravo Apron was completed in August 2020, allowing F-15E Strike Eagle operations of the 492nd and 494th Fighter Squadrons to be consolidated on one ramp. Two accidents involving nuclear weapons happened at RAF Lakenheath, in 1956 and 1961. Flying and notable non-flying units based at RAF Lakenheath. United States Air Forces in Europe - Air Forces Africa (USAFE-AFAFRICA) RAF Lakenheath's gate guardian is North American F-100D Super Sabre, serial number "'54-2269'." The aircraft was originally delivered to the French Air Force. On return it was moved to the "Wings of

Petrich

P e t r i c h w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e B u l g a r i a n S t a t e d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f K n y a z B o r i s I ( r . 8 5 2 – 8 8 9 ) . D u r i n g t h e M i d d l e A g e s i t w a s a B u l g a r i a n f o r t r e s s o f i m p o r t a n c e d u r i n g T s a r S a m u i l ' s w a r s ( r . 9 9 7 – 1 0 1 4 ) w i t h B y z a n t i u m . D u r i n g O t t o m a n r u l e , i t f o r m e d p a r t o f t h e R u m e l i E y a l e t , a n d i n t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y b e c a m e a " k a z a " o f t h e S a n j a k o f S e r r e s i n t h e S a l o n i c a V i l a y e t . F r o m 1 9 J a n u a r y 1 8 9 2 , P e t r i c h a n d i t s d i s t r i c t w e r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e B u l g a r i a n E x a r c h a t e , b e f o r e b e i n g i n c l u d e d i n B u l g a r i a f o l l o w i n g t h e B a l k a n W a r s i n 1 9 1 2 – 1 3 . I n O c t o b e r 1 9 2 5 i t w a s t h e s i t e o f a b r i e f c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n G r e e c e a n d B u l g a r i a s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e W a r o f t h e S t r a y D o g . P e t r i c h i s o n e o f t h e o l d t o w n s i n t h e v a l l e y o f t h e m i d d l e S t r u m a . A c c o r d i n g t o l o c a l h i s t o r i a n s , t h e p r e s e n t - d a y t o w n o f P e t r i c h i s t h e h e i r t o t h e a n c i e n t T h r a c i a n s e t t l e m e n t l o c a t e d a t t h e s o u t h e r n f o o t o f t h e K o z h u h h i l l . I n t h i s a r e a , l o c a t e d 1 0 k m n o r t h e a s t o f t h e m o d e r n c i t y , i n t h e 4 t h c e n t u r y B C , a T h r a c i a n s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e M e d i t r i b e e m e r g e d . I n t h e 1 s t c e n t u r y B C . t h e R o m a n s c o n q u e r e d t h e l a n d s o f t h e M e d e s a n d t h e n t h e s m a l l s e t t l e m e n t n e a r K o z h u h b e c a m e a w e l l - f o r t i f i e d R o m a n c i t y - a f o r t r e s s t h a t p r o t e c t e d t h e m i d d l e r e a c h e s o f t h e S t r u m a a n d R u p e l g o r g e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e R o m a n h i s t o r i a n T i t u s L i v y , i t i s a s s u m e d t h a t t h i s c i t y w a s c a l l e d P e t r a . A r c h a e o l o g i c a l e x c a v a t i o n s s h o w t h a t i t e x i s t e d u n t i l t h e 6 t h c e n t u r y , w h e n i t w a s b u r n e d b y t h e S l a v s . I t i s a s s u m e d t h a t t h e r e m a i n i n g l i v i n g i n h a b i t a n t s l e f t t h e b u r n e d t o w n a n d s e t t l e d a t t h e f o o t o f t h e n e a r b y m o u n t a i n B e l a s i t s a , w h i c h m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t o d a y ' s t o w n o f P e t r i c h , a d d i n g t o t h e o l d n a m e t h e S l a v i c e n d i n g " - i c h " . R e c e n t a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h a n d t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f H e r a c l e a S i n t i c a i n t h e K o z h u h a r e a p r o v e t h a t t h e r e i s n o c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n t h i s c i t y , l o c a t e d i n t h e l a n d s o f t h e T h r a c i a n S i n t i t r i b e , a n d m o d e r n P e t r i c h , b u t a h i a t u s o f s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s . T h e e a r l i e s t s e t t l e m e n t s o n t h e s i t e o f t h e c i t y a p p e a r o n l y i n t h e X - X I c e n t u r y . P e t r i c h w a s f o r m e d a s a s i g n i f i c a n t s e t t l e m e n t a n d r e g i o n a l c e n t e r o n l y a t t h e e n d o f t h e X I I - X I V c e n t u r y . T h e P e t r i c h r e g i o n w a s a n n e x e d t o t h e B u l g a r i a n s t a t e i n 8 3 7 a s a r e s u l t o f t h e w a r o f t h e B u l g a r i a n K h a n P r e s i a n a g a i n s t B y z a n t i u m . A t t h e e n d o f t h e 1 0 t h a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 1 t h c e n t u r y , t h e l a n d s a r o u n d P e t r i c h o c c u p i e d a n i m p o r t a n t m i l i t a r y - s t r a t e g i c p l a c e i n S a m u e l ' s s t a t e . I n 1 0 1 4 , n o t f a r f r o m t o d a y ' s t o w n , i n t h e s o - c a l l e d K l e i d i o n g o r g e , a d e c i s i v e b a t t l e t o o k p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e B u l g a r i a n t r o o p s l e d b y T s a r S a m u e l a n d t h e t r o o p s o f t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p e r o r B a s i l I I . T h e r e m a i n s o f S a m u e l ' s f o r t r e s s s t i l l r e m i n d o f t h e b l i n d i n g o f t h e c a p t u r e d 1 4 , 0 0 0 B u l g a r i a n s o l d i e r s . F o r t h i s a c t t h e B y z a n t i n e e m p e r o r B a s i l I I r e c e i v e d t h e n i c k n a m e B u l g a r i a n A s s a s s i n . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d X I I - X I V c e n t u r y P e t r i c h b e c a m e a s t r o n g f o r t r e s s - p a r t o f t h e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m i n s o u t h w e s t e r n B u l g a r i a . T h i s i s e v i d e n c e d b y t h e r e m a i n s o f t h e m e d i e v a l f o r t r e s s G y a u r K a l e s i , a r o u n d w h i c h t h e c i t y o r i g i n a l l y a r o s e . A t l e a s t i n t h e X I I I - X I V c e n t u r y t h e c i t y c o n s i s t s o f t w o p a r t s - a f o r t r e s s , i . e . f o r t i f i e d c i t y c o r e a n d u n f o r t i f i e d o u t e r c i t y , b u t w i t h e n t r a n c e - e x i t a r t e r i e s g u a r d e d b y t o w e r s . P e t r i c h w a s f i r s t m e n t i o n e d i n w r i t t e n s o u r c e s i n t h e d e e d s o f t h e S e r b i a n m a g n a t e s J o h n a n d C o n s t a n t i n e D r a g a s h , w h o i n 1 3 7 6 - 1 3 7 7 d o n a t e d h e r e p r o p e r t i e s t o t h e R u s s i a n m o n a s t e r y " S t . P a n t a l e i m o n " i n M o u n t A t h o s . T h e t o w n f e l l u n d e r O t t o m a n r u l e a f t e r 1 3 9 5 , w h e n t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s s u r r o u n d i n g s i t w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e K y u s t e n d i l S a n d z a k a s a c e n t e r o f i n d e p e n d e n t N a h i y a h . D u r i n g t h e y e a r s o f O t t o m a n r u l e , P e t r i c h a c q u i r e d a M u s l i m a p p e a r a n c e . T h e B u l g a r i a n s f l e d t o t h e o p p o s i t e O g r a z h d e n m o u n t a i n t o s t a y a w a y f r o m t h e a r b i t r a r i n e s s o f t h e T u r k s . T h e O t t o m a n t r a v e l e r E v l i y a Ç e l e b i v i s i t e d P e t r i c h i n 1 6 5 2 a n d r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e p a l a n q u i n h a d 2 4 0 n o t v e r y w e l l - d e v e l o p e d h o u s e s w i t h g a r d e n s . T h e r e a r e a l l t w o n e i g h b o r h o o d s w i t h a m o s q u e , a c h a p e l , t w o i n n s a n d o n l y o n e b a t h r o o m . T h e c e n t e r i s a k a a z a w i t h 8 0 v i l l a g e s . T h e r e a r e 5 0 s h o p s , w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h e l e v e l o f c r a f t s a n d t r a d e . D u r i n g t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , P e t r i c h r o s e t o a n e w l i f e . I t f u e l e d a s t u b b o r n s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t G r e e k i s m t o i m p o s e t h e B u l g a r i a n l a n g u a g e i n s c h o o l s a n d t h e c h u r c h . I n 1 8 5 5 a B u l g a r i a n m o n k f r o m H i l e n d a r w a s a p p o i n t e d a t e a c h e r i n t h e t o w n , w h o , s e e i n g t h a t n o o n e i n P e t r i c h s p o k e G r e e k , b e g a n t e a c h i n g i n B u l g a r i a n , b u t w a s s o o n d i s m i s s e d . A f t e r 1 8 5 6 P a n c h o P o p m i h o v o p e n e d a p r i v a t e s c h o o l , w h e r e h e t a u g h t G r e e k a n d B u l g a r i a n . I n 1 8 5 7 , w i t h t h e l a b o r a n d f u n d s o f t h e e n t i r e C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e c i t y , t h e C h u r c h o f t h e A s s u m p t i o n w a s b u i l t . A s e r v i c e i n G r e e k w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e t e m p l e , a n d a G r e e k s c h o o l w a s o p e n e d i n i t s y a r d . I t i s h o u s e d i n t h e h o u s e o f I v a n P o p m a n o l e v , d o n a t e d b y h i s w i f e t o t h e C h u r c h o f t h e A s s u m p t i o n . T h e c l i m a t e o f P e t r i c h i s m e d i t e r r a n e a n c l i m a t e ( K ö p p e n c l i m a t e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n " C s a " ) w i t h a n a v e r a g e a n n u a l t e m p e r a t u r e o f 1 5 . 6   ° C ( 6 0   ° F ) . T h e t o w n e x p e r i e n c e s s o m e c o n t i n e n t a l i n f l u e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y i n w i n t e r , w h i c h i s c o o l , b u t w a r m f o r B u l g a r i a n s t a n d a r d s . P e t r i c h i s t h e s u n n i e s t c i t y i n B u l g a r i a s l i g h t l y a h e a d o f S a n d a n s k i w i t h y e a r l y s u n s h i n e h o u r s e x c e e d i n g 2 , 7 0 0 o n a v e r a g e . S u m m e r i s h o t a n d s u n n y a n d i t i s t h e l o n g e s t s e a s o n i n P e t r i c h , l a s t i n g f r o m M a y t h r o u g h S e p t e m b e r , e v e n a s l a t e a s O c t o b e r . T h e a v e r a g e s u m m e r t e m p e r a t u r e i s a r o u n d 2 5   ° C . I n J u l y , t h e s u n n i e s t m o n t h , P e t r i c h r e c e i v e s 3 7 3 h o u r s o f s u n s h i n e , m a k i n g i t o n e o f t h e s u n n i e s t p l a c e s i n C o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e . W i n t e r s e a s o n , a r o u n d t w o m o n t h s , s t a r t s i n l a t e D e c e m b e r a n d l a s t s u n t i l e a r l y F e b r u a r y . A v e r a g e w i n t e r t e m p e r a t u r e i s o n e o f t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e c o u n t r y w i t h a v e r a g e a r o u n d 5   ° C . I n D e c e m b e r , t h e d a r k e s t m o n t h , t h e r e a r e 1 0 3 h o u r s o f s u n s h i n e , o n a v e r a g e . C l i m a t e t a b l e : T h e t o w n i s a n a g r i c u l t u r a l c e n t e r f o r f r u i t , v e g e t a b l e s a n d t o b a c c o . I t h a s t h r e e f a c t o r i e s , m a k i n g w a t e r l e v e l d e t e c t o r s , d e t a i l s f o r c r a n e s a n d a f u r n i t u r e f a c t o r y . T h e r e i s a 5 0 0   k W m e d i u m - w a v e b r o a d c a s t i n g s t a t i o n w o r k i n g o n 7 4 7   k H z . I t u s e s a s a n t e n n a a 2 0 5 - m e t r e - t a l l g u y e d m a s t i n s u l a t e d w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l c a g e a n t e n n a . T h i s m a s t w a s b u i l t i n 1 9 7 7 . T w i n t o w n s - S i s t e r c i t i e s

History

Petrich has a rich history dating back to the Thracian settlement of the Medi tribe in the 4th century BC. The Romans later conquered the area and established a fortified city, Petra, which existed until the 6th century. The modern town of Petrich emerged in the 10th-11th century and grew into a significant settlement and regional center by the 12th-14th century. Throughout its history, Petrich has been part of various empires, including the Bulgarian State, the Ottoman Empire, and eventually became part of Bulgaria in 1912-13. Today, Petrich is an agricultural center and has a Mediterranean climate with warm summers and cool winters.

Petrich was included in the territory of the Bulgarian State during the reign of Knyaz Boris I (r. 852–889). During the Middle Ages it was a Bulgarian fortress of importance during Tsar Samuil's wars (r. 997–1014) with Byzantium. During Ottoman rule, it formed part of the Rumeli Eyalet, and in the 19th century became a "kaza" of the Sanjak of Serres in the Salonica Vilayet. From 19 January 1892, Petrich and its district were included in the Bulgarian Exarchate, before being included in Bulgaria following the Balkan Wars in 1912–13. In October 1925 it was the site of a brief conflict between Greece and Bulgaria sometimes called the War of the Stray Dog. Petrich is one of the old towns in the valley of the middle Struma. According to local historians, the present-day town of Petrich is the heir to the ancient Thracian settlement located at the southern foot of the Kozhuh hill. In this area, located 10 km northeast of the modern city, in the 4th century BC, a Thracian settlement of the Medi tribe emerged. In the 1st century BC. the Romans conquered the lands of the Medes and then the small settlement near Kozhuh became a well-fortified Roman city - a fortress that protected the middle reaches of the Struma and Rupel gorge. According to the interpretation of the Roman historian Titus Livy, it is assumed that this city was called Petra. Archaeological excavations show that it existed until the 6th century, when it was burned by the Slavs. It is assumed that the remaining living inhabitants left the burned town and settled at the foot of the nearby mountain Belasitsa, which marked the beginning of today's town of Petrich, adding to the old name the Slavic ending "-ich". Recent archaeological research and the location of the ancient city of Heraclea Sintica in the Kozhuh area prove that there is no continuity between this city, located in the lands of the Thracian Sinti tribe, and modern Petrich, but a hiatus of several centuries. The earliest settlements on the site of the city appear only in the X - XI century. Petrich was formed as a significant settlement and regional center only at the end of the XII - XIV century. The Petrich region was annexed to the Bulgarian state in 837 of the medieval fortress Gyaur Kalesi, around which the city originally arose. At least in the XIII - XIV century the city consists of two parts - a fortress, i.e. fortified city core and unfortified outer city, but with entrance-exit arteries guarded by towers. Petrich was first mentioned in written sources in the deeds of the Serbian magnates John and Constantine Dragash, who in 1376 - 1377 donated here properties to the Russian monastery "St. Pantaleimon" in Mount Athos. The town fell under Ottoman rule after 1395, when together with its surroundings it was included in the Kyustendil Sandzak as a center of independent Nahiyah. During the years of Ottoman rule, Petrich acquired a Muslim appearance. The Bulgarians fled to the opposite Ograzhden mountain to stay away from the arbitrariness of the Turks. The Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi visited Petrich in 1652 and reported that the palanquin had 240 not very well-developed houses with gardens. There are all two neighborhoods with a mosque, a chapel, two inns and only one bathroom. The center is a kaaza with 80 villages. There are 50 shops, which suggests the level of crafts and trade. During the Renaissance, Petrich rose to a new life. It fueled a stubborn struggle against Greekism to impose the Bulgarian language in schools and the church. In 1855 a Bulgarian monk from Hilendar was appointed a teacher in the town, who, seeing that no one in Petrich spoke Greek, began teaching in Bulgarian, but was soon dismissed. After 1856 Pancho Popmihov opened a private school, where he taught Greek and Bulgarian. In 1857, with the labor and funds of the entire Christian population of the city, the Church of the Assumption was built. A service in Greek was introduced in the temple, and a Greek school was opened in its yard. It is housed in the house of Ivan Popmanolev, donated by his wife to the Church of the Assumption. The climate of Petrich is mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification "Csa") with an average annual temperature of 15.6 °C (60 °F). The town experiences some continental influence, especially in winter, which is cool, but warm for Bulgarian standards. Petrich is the sunniest city in Bulgaria slightly ahead of Sandanski with yearly sunshine hours exceeding 2,700 on average. Summer is hot and sunny and it is the longest season in Petrich, lasting from May through September, even as late as October. The average summer temperature is around 25 °C. In July, the sunniest month, Petrich receives 373 hours of sunshine, making it one of the sunniest places in Continental Europe. Winter season, around two months, starts in late December and lasts until early February. Average winter temperature is one of the highest in the country with average around 5 °C. In December, the darkest month, there are 103 hours of sunshine, on average. Climate table: The town is an agricultural center for fruit, vegetables and tobacco. It has three factories, making water level detectors, details for cranes and a furniture factory. There is a 500 kW medium-wave broadcasting station working on 747 kHz. It uses as antenna a 205-metre-tall guyed mast insulated with an additional cage antenna. This mast was built in 1977. Twin towns - Sister cities

List of Jupiter-crossing minor planets

T h e f o l l o w i n g i s a l i s t o f n a m e d a s t e r o i d s t h a t a r e n o t J u p i t e r t r o j a n s w i t h a < 4 . 9 5 0 4 2 9 , 4 . 9 5 0 4 2 9 < Q < 5 . 4 5 8 1 0 4 . S i m i l a r t o i n n e r g r a z e r s , t h e s e o r b i t w i t h a s e m i - m a j o r a x i s g r e a t e r t h a n J u p i t e r , b u t s t i l l h a v e a p e r i h e l i o n d i s t a n c e w i t h i n J u p i t e r ' s p e r i h e l i o n a n d a p h e l i o n , a > 5 . 4 5 8 1 0 4 a n d 4 . 9 5 0 4 2 9 < q < 5 . 4 5 8 1 0 4 . T h e s e a r e a s t e r o i d s t h a t c r o s s t h e o r b i t o f J u p i t e r i n a n y s o r t o f w a y , d e f i n e d s i m p l y a s h a v i n g a p e r i h e l i o n l e s s t h a n t h a t o f J u p i t e r ' s p e r i h e l i o n , a n d a n a p h e l i o n g r e a t e r t h a n J u p i t e r ' s a p h e l i o n . T h e n u m b e r e d J u p i t e r - c r o s s e r s a r e ( i n c o m p l e t e ) : " N o t e " : † d e n o t e s i n n e r - g r a z e r ( a p h e l i a o u t s i d e J u p i t e r ' s p e r i h e l i o n a n d w i t h i n i t s a p h e l i o n ) ( f r o m )

Members

This list includes named asteroids that cross Jupiter's orbit, either by being inner grazers or having a perihelion within Jupiter's perihelion and aphelion. The criteria include a semi-major axis greater than Jupiter's, a perihelion distance within Jupiter's perihelion and aphelion, and an aphelion greater than Jupiter's aphelion.

The following is a list of named asteroids that are not Jupiter trojans with a<4.950429, 4.950429<Q<5.458104. Similar to inner grazers, these orbit with a semi-major axis greater than Jupiter, but still have a perihelion distance within Jupiter's perihelion and aphelion, a>5.458104 and 4.950429<q<5.458104. These are asteroids that cross the orbit of Jupiter in any sort of way, defined simply as having a perihelion less than that of Jupiter's perihelion, and an aphelion greater than Jupiter's aphelion. The numbered Jupiter-crossers are (incomplete): "Note": † denotes inner-grazer (aphelia outside Jupiter's perihelion and within its aphelion) (from )

List of Jupiter-crossing minor planets

T h e f o l l o w i n g i s a l i s t o f n a m e d a s t e r o i d s t h a t a r e n o t J u p i t e r t r o j a n s w i t h a < 4 . 9 5 0 4 2 9 , 4 . 9 5 0 4 2 9 < Q < 5 . 4 5 8 1 0 4 . S i m i l a r t o i n n e r g r a z e r s , t h e s e o r b i t w i t h a s e m i - m a j o r a x i s g r e a t e r t h a n J u p i t e r , b u t s t i l l h a v e a p e r i h e l i o n d i s t a n c e w i t h i n J u p i t e r ' s p e r i h e l i o n a n d a p h e l i o n , a > 5 . 4 5 8 1 0 4 a n d 4 . 9 5 0 4 2 9 < q < 5 . 4 5 8 1 0 4 . T h e s e a r e a s t e r o i d s t h a t c r o s s t h e o r b i t o f J u p i t e r i n a n y s o r t o f w a y , d e f i n e d s i m p l y a s h a v i n g a p e r i h e l i o n l e s s t h a n t h a t o f J u p i t e r ' s p e r i h e l i o n , a n d a n a p h e l i o n g r e a t e r t h a n J u p i t e r ' s a p h e l i o n . T h e n u m b e r e d J u p i t e r - c r o s s e r s a r e ( i n c o m p l e t e ) : " N o t e " : † d e n o t e s i n n e r - g r a z e r ( a p h e l i a o u t s i d e J u p i t e r ' s p e r i h e l i o n a n d w i t h i n i t s a p h e l i o n ) ( f r o m )

Members ; Jupiter crossers

This list includes named asteroids that cross Jupiter's orbit, excluding Jupiter trojans. They have a semi-major axis greater than Jupiter's and a perihelion distance within Jupiter's perihelion and aphelion. These asteroids can be classified into two groups: those with aphelia outside Jupiter's perihelion and within its aphelion (inner grazers), and others with a perihelion less than Jupiter's perihelion and an aphelion greater than Jupiter's aphelion.

The following is a list of named asteroids that are not Jupiter trojans with a<4.950429, 4.950429<Q<5.458104. Similar to inner grazers, these orbit with a semi-major axis greater than Jupiter, but still have a perihelion distance within Jupiter's perihelion and aphelion, a>5.458104 and 4.950429<q<5.458104. These are asteroids that cross the orbit of Jupiter in any sort of way, defined simply as having a perihelion less than that of Jupiter's perihelion, and an aphelion greater than Jupiter's aphelion. The numbered Jupiter-crossers are (incomplete): "Note": † denotes inner-grazer (aphelia outside Jupiter's perihelion and within its aphelion) (from )

Jerónimo Lobo

H e w a s b o r n i n L i s b o n t h e t h i r d o f a t l e a s t f i v e s o n s a n d s i x d a u g h t e r s t o F r a n c i s c o L o b o d a G a m a , t h e G o v e r n o r o f P o r t u g u e s e C a p e V e r d e , a n d M a r i a B r a n d ã o d e V a s c o n c e l o s . H e e n t e r e d t h e O r d e r o f J e s u s a t t h e a g e o f 1 4 . I n 1 6 2 1 h e w a s o r d a i n e d a p r i e s t a n d w a s o r d e r e d a s a m i s s i o n a r y t o I n d i a , a n d a f t e r s u r v i v i n g a n a t t a c k o n t h e f l e e t c a r r y i n g h i m b y E n g l i s h a n d D u t c h s h i p s o f f P o r t u g u e s e M o z a m b i q u e a y e a r l a t e r , h e a r r i v e d a t G o a i n D e c e m b e r 1 6 2 2 . W i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f p r o c e e d i n g t o E t h i o p i a , w h o s e " N ə g u s ä n ä g ä s t " S u s e n y o s I h a d b e e n c o n v e r t e d t o R o m a n C a t h o l i c i s m b y P e d r o P á e z , h e l e f t I n d i a i n 1 6 2 4 . H e s t r u g g l e d t o o v e r c o m e t h e d i f f i c u l t y t h a t E t h i o p i a c o n t r o l l e d n o n e o f t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t l i n e , f i r s t d i s e m b a r k i n g a t P a t e a n d a t t e m p t e d t o r e a c h h i s d e s t i n a t i o n a l o n g t h e J u b b a R i v e r t h r o u g h c o u n t r y c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e O r o m o , b u t w a s f o r c e d t o r e t u r n . T h e n i n 1 6 2 5 h e s e t o u t a g a i n , a c c o m p a n i e d b y A f o n s o M e n d e s , t h e C a t h o l i c P a t r i a r c h o f E t h i o p i a , a n d e i g h t m i s s i o n a r i e s , l a n d i n g a t B e i l u l , a p o r t o n t h e c o a s t o f t h e R e d S e a c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e k i n g o f t h e A f a r s , v a s s a l t o t h e E m p e r o r o f E t h i o p i a . A f t e r a m o n t h s p e n t c r o s s i n g t h e d e s e r t i n t o t h e E t h i o p i a n h i g h l a n d s , t h e p a r t y r e a c h e d F r e m o n a , w h e r e L o b o a s s u m e d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h e m i s s i o n s i n T i g r a y . H i s o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d e d r e c o v e r i n g t h e r e m a i n s o f C r i s t ó v ã o d a G a m a , w h o h a d b e e n c a p t u r e d a n d e x e c u t e d b y A h m a d i b n I b r i h i m a l - G h a z i i n 1 5 4 2 , a t t h e r e q u e s t o f h i s g r e a t n e p h e w F r a n c i s c o d a G a m a , C o n d e d a V i d i g u e i r a a n d G o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l o f I n d i a . H e a l s o s e r v e d a s a m i s s i o n a r y t o t h e s o u t h w e s t o f L a k e T a n a , w h e r e h e v i s i t e d t h e s o u r c e o f t h e B l u e N i l e i n 1 6 2 9 . T h e a b d i c a t i o n o f E m p e r o r S u s e n y o s ( 1 6 3 2 ) d e p r i v e d t h e C a t h o l i c s o f t h e i r p r o t e c t o r ; h i s s u c c e s s o r , F a s i l i d e s , f i r s t c o n f i n e d t h e m o n c e a g a i n a t F r e m o n a , t h e n i n 1 6 3 4 L o b o a n d h i s c o m p a n i o n s w e r e e x i l e d f r o m E t h i o p i a , w h o w e r e e x p o s e d t o r o b b e r y , a s s a u l t s a n d o t h e r i n d i g n i t i e s b y t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e O t t o m a n N a i b a t M a s s a w a . H e s e n t t h e m t o h i s s u p e r i o r a t S u a k i n , w h e r e t h e P a s h a f o r c e d t h e p a r t y t o p a y a r a n s o m b e f o r e t h e y c o u l d p r o c e e d t o I n d i a . D e s p i t e s e t t l i n g f o r a r a n s o m o f 4 3 0 0 p a t a c a s ( w h i c h h e b o r r o w e d f r o m l o c a l B a n y a n m e r c h a n t s ) , a t t h e l a s t m o m e n t t h e P a s h a i n s i s t e d o n k e e p i n g P a t r i a r c h M e n d e s a n d t h r e e o t h e r s e n i o r p r i e s t s f o r f u r t h e r m o n e y . O n c e L o b o r e a c h e d D i u , h e l e f t f o r G o a b y c a n o e , a r r i v i n g a t t h e p r o v i n c i a l c a p i t a l o n 8 D e c e m b e r 1 6 3 4 . T h e r e h e a t t e m p t e d t o c o n v i n c e v i c e r o y M i g u e l d e N o r o n h a , c o n d e d e L i n h a r e s t o s e n d a n a r m a m e n t t o t h e R e d S e a t o c a p t u r e S u a k i n a n d M a s s a w a , f r e e t h e p a t r i a r c h b y f o r c e , a n d r e s t o r e C a t h o l i c i s m t o E t h i o p i a . A l t h o u g h t h e V i c e r o y w a s w i l l i n g t o m a k e a p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n a g a i n s t S u a k i n t o f r e e t h e P a t r i a r c h , h e d i d n o t w a n t t o o v e r e x t e n d P o r t u g u e s e f o r c e s a n d g a r r i s o n e i t h e r p o r t . U n w i l l i n g t o s e t t l e f o r j u s t f r e e i n g t h e p a t r i a r c h , L o b o e m b a r k e d f o r P o r t u g a l , a n d a f t e r h e h a d b e e n s h i p w r e c k e d o n t h e c o a s t o f N a t a l , t h e n c a p t u r e d b y p i r a t e s , h e a r r i v e d a t L i s b o n . N e i t h e r a t t h i s c i t y , h o w e v e r , n o r a t M a d r i d a n d R o m e , w a s a n y a p p r o v a l g i v e n t o L o b o ' s p l a n . H e a c c o r d i n g l y r e t u r n e d t o I n d i a i n 1 6 4 0 , a n d w a s e l e c t e d r e c t o r , a n d a f t e r w a r d s p r o v i n c i a l , o f t h e J e s u i t s a t G o a . A f t e r s o m e y e a r s h e r e t u r n e d t o h i s n a t i v e c i t y , w h e r e h e d i e d . A n u m b e r o f L o b o ' s w r i t i n g s h a v e s u r v i v e d . H e e n t e r e d i n t o a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h H e n r y O l d e n b u r g o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y c o n c e r n i n g t h e s o u r c e o f t h e N i l e , w h i c h l i k e l y l e d t o t h e p u b l i c a t i o n i n L o n d o n o f a l i t t l e b o o k e n t i t l e d " A S h o r t R e l a t i o n o f t h e R i v e r N i l e , o f i t s s o u r c e a n d c u r r e n t ; o f i t s o v e r f l o w i n g t h e c a m p a g n i a o f Æ g y p t , t i l l i t r u n s i n t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d o f o t h e r c u r i o s i t i e s : w r i t t e n b y a n e y e - w i t n e s s e , w h o l i v e d m a n y y e a r s i n t h e c h i e f k i n g d o m s o f t h e A b y s s i n e E m p i r e . T r a n s l a t e d b y S i r P e t e r W y c h e " . G a b r i e l P e r e i r a r e p o r t e d i n 1 9 0 3 t h a t h e h a d f o u n d t h r e e s h o r t w o r k s i n m a n u s c r i p t b y L o b o i n t h e l i b r a r y o f t h e D u k e o f P a l m e l a , a n d i n 1 9 6 6 F r . M a n u e l G o n ç a l v e s d a C o s t a d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e A j u d a l i b r a r y a t L i s b o n a n o t h e r s h o r t w o r k o f L o b o , " B r e v e N o t í c i a e R e l a ç ã o d e A l g u m a s C o u s a s C e r t a s n ã o v u l g a r e s , e d i g n a s d e s e s a b e r e m , e s c r i t a s e " [ s i c ] " i n s t â n c i a d e C u r i o s o s " , w h i c h r e p e a t e d t h e t o p i c s o f " A S h o r t R e l a t i o n " . H i s b e s t k n o w n w o r k i s h i s m e m o i r s o f t h e y e a r s 1 6 2 2 - 1 6 4 0 , w h i c h c o v e r h i s v o y a g e t o I n d i a , h i s e x p e r i e n c e s i n E t h i o p i a , a n d h i s j o u r n e y b a c k t o P o r t u g a l ; h i s " I t i n e r á r i o " , h o w e v e r , w a s n o t p u b l i s h e d d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e . B a l t a s a r T e l e s m a d e l a r g e u s e o f L o b o ' s w r i t i n g i n h i s " H i s t ó r i a g e r a l d a E t h i ó p i a a A l t a " ( C o i m b r a , 1 6 6 0 ) , o f t e n e r r o n e o u s l y a t t r i b u t e d t o L o b o , b u t i n c o r p o r a t e d m u c h f r o m M a n u e l d e A l m e i d a ' s m a n u s c r i p t w o r k . L o b o ' s o w n n a r r a t i v e w a s t r a n s l a t e d f r o m a c o p y o w n e d b y t h e C o u n t o f E r i c e i r a b y t h e A b b é J o a c h i m l e G r a n d i n t o F r e n c h i n 1 7 2 8 , u n d e r t h e t i t l e o f " V o y a g e h i s t o r i q u e d ' A b i s s i n i e " . A n E n g l i s h a b r i d g m e n t o f L e G r a n d ' s e d i t i o n b y D r . S a m u e l J o h n s o n w a s p u b l i s h e d i n 1 7 3 5 ( r e p r i n t e d 1 7 8 9 ) . F r . d a C o s t a d i s c o v e r e d a n o t h e r m a n u s c r i p t o f L o b o ' s w o r k i n t h e B i b l i o t e c a P ú b l i c a a t B r a g a i n 1 9 4 7 . T h i s w a s n o t t h e s a m e m a n u s c r i p t t h a t l e G r a n d t r a n s l a t e d ; b o t h w e r e c o p i e s , w i t h v a r i a t i o n s , o f t h e o r i g i n a l a u t o g r a p h l e f t a t t h e C a s a d e S ã o R o q u e a t t h e t i m e o f L o b o ' s d e a t h . T h e w h o l e o f t h i s m a n u s c r i p t w a s t r a n s l a t e d b y D o n a l d M . L o c k h a r t , a n d p u b l i s h e d w i t h a n i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d n o t e s b y C . F . B e c k i n g h a m b y t h e H a k l u y t S o c i e t y i n 1 9 8 4 .

Life

Jerónimo Lobo was a Portuguese Jesuit missionary who traveled extensively throughout Africa and Asia. Born in Lisbon in 1593, he joined the Jesuit order at 14 and was ordained a priest in 1621. He was sent to India as a missionary and eventually made his way to Ethiopia, where he spent several years spreading Catholicism. However, he was eventually exiled from Ethiopia and made his way back to Portugal, where he wrote about his experiences. His writings provide valuable insights into the cultures and geography of the regions he visited.

He was born in Lisbon the third of at least five sons and six daughters to Francisco Lobo da Gama, the Governor of Portuguese Cape Verde, and Maria Brandão de Vasconcelos. He entered the Order of Jesus at the age of 14. In 1621 he was ordained a priest and was ordered as a missionary to India, and after surviving an attack on the fleet carrying him by English and Dutch ships off Portuguese Mozambique a year later, he arrived at Goa in December 1622. With the intention of proceeding to Ethiopia, whose "Nəgusä nägäst" Susenyos I had been converted to Roman Catholicism by Pedro Páez, he left India in 1624. He struggled to overcome the difficulty that Ethiopia controlled none of the northern coastline, first disembarking at Pate and attempted to reach his destination along the Jubba River through country controlled by the Oromo, but was forced to return. Then in 1625 he set out again, accompanied by Afonso Mendes, the Catholic Patriarch of Ethiopia, and eight missionaries, landing at Beilul, a port on the coast of the Red Sea controlled by the king of the Afars, vassal to the Emperor of Ethiopia. After a month spent crossing the desert into the Ethiopian highlands, the party reached Fremona, where Lobo assumed the responsibilities of superintendent of the missions in Tigray. His other activities included recovering the remains of Cristóvão da Gama, who had been captured and executed by Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi in 1542, at the request of his great nephew Francisco da Gama, Conde da Vidigueira and Governor-general of India. He also served as a missionary to the southwest of Lake Tana, where he visited the source of the Blue Nile in 1629. The abdication of Emperor Susenyos (1632) deprived the Catholics of their protector; his successor, Fasilides, first confined them once again at Fremona, then in 1634 Lobo and his companions were exiled from Ethiopia, who were exposed to robbery, assaults and other indignities by the local population before reaching the Ottoman Naib at Massawa. He sent them to his superior at Suakin, where the Pasha forced the party to pay a ransom before they could proceed to India. Despite settling for a ransom of 4300 patacas (which he borrowed from local Banyan merchants), at the last moment the Pasha insisted on keeping Patriarch Mendes and three other senior priests for further money. Once Lobo reached Diu, he left for Goa by canoe, arriving at the provincial capital on 8 December 1634. There he attempted to convince viceroy Miguel de Noronha, conde de Linhares to send an armament to the Red Sea to capture Suakin and Massawa, free the patriarch by force, and restore Catholicism to Ethiopia. Although the Viceroy was willing to make a punitive expedition against Suakin to free the Patriarch, he did not want to overextend Portuguese forces and garrison either port. Unwilling to settle for just freeing the patriarch, Lobo embarked for Portugal, and after he had been shipwrecked on the coast of Natal, then captured by pirates, he arrived at Lisbon. Neither at this city, however, nor at Madrid and Rome, was any approval given to Lobo's plan. He accordingly returned to India in 1640, and was elected rector, and afterwards provincial, of the Jesuits at Goa. After some years he returned to his native city, where he died. A number of Lobo's writings have survived. He entered into a correspondence with Henry Oldenburg of the Royal Society concerning the source of the Nile, which likely led to the publication in London of a little book entitled "A Short Relation of the River Nile, of its source and current; of its overflowing the campagnia of Ægypt, till it runs into the Mediterranean and of other curiosities: written by an eye-witnesse, who lived many years in the chief kingdoms of the Abyssine Empire. Translated by Sir Peter Wyche". Gabriel Pereira reported in 1903 that he had found three short works in manuscript by Lobo in the library of the Duke of Palmela, and in 1966 Fr. Manuel Gonçalves da Costa discovered in the Ajuda library at Lisbon another short work of Lobo, "Breve Notícia e Relação de Algumas Cousas Certas não vulgares, e dignas de se saberem, escritas e" [sic] "instância de Curiosos", which repeated the topics of "A Short Relation". His best known work is his memoirs of the years 1622-1640, which cover his voyage to India, his experiences in Ethiopia, and his journey back to Portugal; his "Itinerário", however, was not published during his lifetime. Baltasar Teles made large use of Lobo's writing in his "História geral da Ethiópia a Alta" (Coimbra, 1660), often erroneously attributed to Lobo, but incorporated much from Manuel de Almeida's manuscript work. Lobo's own narrative was translated from a copy owned by the Count of Ericeira by the Abbé Joachim le Grand into French in 1728, under the title of "Voyage historique d'Abissinie". An English abridgment of Le Grand's edition by Dr. Samuel Johnson was published in 1735 (reprinted 1789). Fr. da Costa discovered another manuscript of Lobo's work in the Biblioteca Pública at Braga in 1947. This was not the same manuscript that le Grand translated; both were copies, with variations, of the original autograph left at the Casa de São Roque at the time of Lobo's death. The whole of this manuscript was translated by Donald M. Lockhart, and published with an introduction and notes by C.F. Beckingham by the Hakluyt Society in 1984.

Great Fire of 1892

A t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 : 4 5 i n t h e a f t e r n o o n o f J u l y 8 , 1 8 9 2 , a d r o p p e d p i p e i n T i m o t h y O ' B r i e n ' s s t a b l e , a t o p C a r t e r ' s H i l l o n F r e s h w a t e r R o a d , b e g a n w h a t w o u l d b e c o m e t h e w o r s t f i r e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f S t . J o h n ' s . I n i t i a l l y , t h e f i r e d i d n o t c a u s e a n y w i d e s p r e a d p a n i c ; h o w e v e r , a s e r i e s o f c a t a s t r o p h i c c o i n c i d e n c e s c a u s e d t h e f i r e t o s p r e a d a n d d e v o u r v i r t u a l l y a l l o f t h e e a s t e n d o f t h e c i t y , i n c l u d i n g m u c h o f i t s m a j o r c o m m e r c i a l a r e a , b e f o r e b e i n g e x t i n g u i s h e d . R e v . M o s e s H a r v e y w i t n e s s e d t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s o f t h e f i r e , a n d r e m a r k e d t o h i s f r i e n d t h a t i t " w a s a b a d d a y f o r a f i r e . " A h i g h w i n d f r o m t h e n o r t h w e s t w a s b l o w i n g , h u r l i n g t h e s p a r k s f a r a n d w i d e o n t h e r o o f s o f t h e c l u s t e r s o f w o o d e n h o u s e s . F o r a m o n t h p r e v i o u s , h a r d l y a n y r a i n h a d f a l l e n , a n d t h e s h i n g l e d r o o f s w e r e a s d r y a s t i n d e r . " T h e s i t u a t i o n w a s e x a c e r b a t e d b e c a u s e o f w o r k c o m p l e t e d e a r l i e r i n t h e d a y o n t h e w a t e r m a i n s . A l t h o u g h w a t e r f l o w w a s r e - e s t a b l i s h e d b y 3 p . m . , t w o h o u r s b e f o r e t h e f i r e b e g a n , w a t e r p r e s s u r e w a s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o f o r c e w a t e r u p i n t o t h e h i g h e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e c i t y w h e r e t h e f i r e b e g a n . W . J . K e n t r e m a r k e d t h a t t h e " f l a m e s t h e r e f o r e m a d e h e a d w a y b e f o r e w a t e r w a s p r o c u r a b l e a n d , a s a v e r y h i g h w e s t e r l y w i n d w a s f u r i o u s l y f a n n i n g t h e f i r e , i t b e g a n t o s p r e a d r a p i d l y . " A n h o u r i n t o t h e b l a z e , t h e p e o p l e o f S t . J o h n ' s r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e f i r e c o u l d n o t b e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e a r e a o f O ' B r i e n ' s f a r m . B e c a u s e l o c a l s b e l i e v e d s t o n e w a l l s w o u l d w i t h s t a n d t h e f l a m e s , r e s i d e n t s m o v e d v a l u a b l e s i n t o n u m e r o u s s t o n e b u i l d i n g s i n t h e c i t y . O n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n r e f u g e a r e a s w a s t h e A n g l i c a n C a t h e d r a l o f S t . J o h n t h e B a p t i s t . T h e n a v e a n d t r a n s e p t s o f t h e c h u r c h w e r e f i l l e d w i t h v a l u a b l e p r o p e r t y b e l o n g i n g t o n u m e r o u s f a m i l i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h a t o f t h e A n g l i c a n b i s h o p L l e w e y n J o n e s . T h e c a t h e d r a l a n d m u c h o f t h i s p r o p e r t y w e r e a l s o d e s t r o y e d b y t h e r a v e n o u s f i r e . K e n t d e s c r i b e d t h e b u r n i n g o f t h e c a t h e d r a l a s f o l l o w s : T h e f i r e w a s f a r f r o m f i n i s h e d ; t h e w i n d c a u s e d o f f s h o o t s o f t h e m a i n f i r e t o c o n s u m e n e w s e c t i o n s o f t h e c i t y w h i l e t h e m a i n f i r e c o n t i n u e d i t s d e s t r u c t i v e t r e k t o w a r d s t h e c i t y ' s c o m m e r c i a l c e n t r e , W a t e r S t r e e t . T h e b u s i n e s s e s t h a t l i n e d W a t e r S t r e e t a n d D u c k w o r t h S t r e e t w e r e d e s t r o y e d a s t h e f i r e s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e d o w n t o w n a r e a . R e v . H a r v e y s a i d , " T h e b e a u t i f u l s h o p s , f u l l o f v a l u a b l e g o o d s ; t h e s t o r e s b e h i n d , c o n t a i n i n g t h o u s a n d s o f b a r r e l s o f f l o u r a n d p r o v i s i o n s o f a l l k i n d s ; t h e f i s h s t o r e s ; t h e w h a r v e s , w h i c h i t h a d c o s t i m m e n s e s u m s t o e r e c t , - - d i s a p p e a r e d o n e b y o n e i n t o t h e m a w o f t h e d e s t r o y e r . . . t h e w h o l e o f W a t e r S t r e e t , o n b o t h s i d e s , w a s ' s w e p t w i t h t h e b e s o m o f d e s t r u c t i o n . ' " T h e f i r e c o n t i n u e d t o b u r n i n t o t h e n i g h t a n d t h e e a r l y h o u r s o f t h e n e x t m o r n i n g . R e v . H a r v e y ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e s t l e s s n i g h t s a i d t h a t " t h e t e r r o r - s t r i c k e n i n h a b i t a n t s f l y i n g b e f o r e t h e d e s t r o y e r , … t h e c r i e s o f w e e p i n g w o m e n h u r r y i n g w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o p l a c e s o f s a f e t y - - a l l c o n s t i t u t e d a s c e n e w h i c h n o t e v e n t h e p e n o f D a n t e c o u l d d e s c r i b e . " S i m i l a r l y , K e n t s a i d o f t h a t n i g h t , D a y b r e a k o n t h e m o r n i n g o f J u l y 9 , 1 8 9 2 r e v e a l e d t h e f u l l e x t e n t o f t h e f i r e ' s d e v a s t a t i o n . K e n t d e s c r i b e d t h e s i g h t o f l o c a l r e s i d e n t s v i e w i n g t h e d e s o l a t i o n : R e v . H a r v e y p r e s e n t s a s i m i l a r d e s c r i p t i o n : L e s s t h a n $ 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 o f t h e t o t a l e s t i m a t e d l o s s e s o f $ 1 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 w e r e c o v e r e d b y i n s u r a n c e . A l a r g e i n f l u x o f f i n a n c i a l a i d f r o m B r i t a i n , C a n a d a a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h e l p e d t h e c i t y r e c o v e r f r o m i t s d e v a s t a t i n g l o s s e s . M a n y o f t h e p r e s e n t - d a y r e g i s t e r e d h e r i t a g e s t r u c t u r e s w e r e e i t h e r b u i l t o r r e - b u i l t i n t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r i o d a f t e r t h e 1 8 9 2 f i r e . T h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t a r c h i t e c t o f t h i s e r a i n S t . J o h n ' s w a s J o h n T h o m a s S o u t h c o t t . H e d e s i g n e d n u m e r o u s S e c o n d E m p i r e - s t y l e d b u i l d i n g s t h a t h a d d i s t i n c t i v e m a n s a r d r o o f s w i t h b o n n e t - t o p p e d d o r m e r s p r o t r u d i n g f r o m t h e c o n c a v e - c u r v e d r o o f s u r f a c e . S o u t h c o t t w a s s o p r o l i f i c t h a t t h e t e r m t h e " S o u t h c o t t s t y l e " b e c a m e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e i n t h e r e - b u i l t c i t y . E a c h y e a r i n S o u t h c o t t ' s h o n o u r , t h e N e w f o u n d l a n d H i s t o r i c T r u s t p r e s e n t s t h e S o u t h c o t t A w a r d f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f h e r i t a g e s t r u c t u r e s . B e c a u s e o f t h e d e v a s t a t i o n o f t h e f i r e , t h e c i t y o f S t . J o h n ' s r e o r g a n i z e d i t s f i r e d e p a r t m e n t . I t h a d p r e v i o u s l y r e l i e d o n l y o n v o l u n t e e r b r i g a d e s . B y t h e e n d o f 1 8 9 5 , t h e c i t y h a d h i r e d 2 2 p a i d f i r e f i g h t e r s a n d e s t a b l i s h e d t h r e e n e w f i r e s t a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c i t y . C o n t r o l o f t h e f i r e d e p a r t m e n t w a s p l a c e d u n d e r N e w f o u n d l a n d C o n s t a b u l a r y ’ s I n s p e c t o r - G e n e r a l .

Timeline

On July 8, 1892, at around 4:45 pm, a fire started in Timothy O'Brien's stable on Freshwater Road, spreading rapidly due to strong winds and dry conditions. Despite efforts to contain it, the fire devastated the eastern part of St. John's, destroying much of the commercial area, including Water Street and Duckworth Street. The fire burned through the night, leaving widespread destruction and loss of life. The aftermath saw an outpouring of international aid, leading to the rebuilding of the city, with many heritage structures still standing today. The fire also led to significant changes in the city's fire department, including the hiring of paid firefighters and the establishment of new fire stations.

At approximately 4:45 in the afternoon of July 8, 1892, a dropped pipe in Timothy O'Brien's stable, atop Carter's Hill on Freshwater Road, began what would become the worst fire in the history of St. John's. Initially, the fire did not cause any widespread panic; however, a series of catastrophic coincidences caused the fire to spread and devour virtually all of the east end of the city, including much of its major commercial area, before being extinguished. Rev. Moses Harvey witnessed the initial stages of the fire, and remarked to his friend that it "was a bad day for a fire." A high wind from the northwest was blowing, hurling the sparks far and wide on the roofs of the clusters of wooden houses. For a month previous, hardly any rain had fallen, and the shingled roofs were as dry as tinder." The situation was exacerbated because of work completed earlier in the day on the water mains. Although water flow was re-established by 3 p.m., two hours before the fire began, water pressure was insufficient to force water up into the higher sections of the city where the fire began. W.J. Kent remarked that the "flames therefore made headway before water was procurable and, as a very high westerly wind was furiously fanning the fire, it began to spread rapidly. " An hour into the blaze, the people of St. John's realized that the fire could not be contained in the area of O'Brien's farm. Because locals believed stone walls would withstand the flames, residents moved valuables into numerous stone buildings in the city. One of the most common refuge areas was the Anglican Cathedral of St. John the Baptist. The nave and transepts of the church were filled with valuable property belonging to numerous families, including that of the Anglican bishop Lleweyn Jones. The cathedral and much of this property were also destroyed by the ravenous fire. Kent described the burning of the cathedral as follows: The fire was far from finished; the wind caused offshoots of the main fire to consume new sections of the city while the main fire continued its destructive trek towards the city's commercial centre, Water Street. The businesses that lined Water Street and Duckworth Street were destroyed as the fire spread throughout the downtown area. Rev. Harvey said, "The beautiful shops, full of valuable goods; the stores behind, containing thousands of barrels of flour and provisions of all kinds; the fish stores; the wharves, which it had cost immense sums to erect, -- disappeared one by one into the maw of the destroyer...the whole of Water Street, on both sides, was 'swept with the besom of destruction.'" The fire continued to burn into the night and the early hours of the next morning. Rev. Harvey's description of the restless night said that "the terror-stricken inhabitants flying before the destroyer,… the cries of weeping women hurrying with their children to places of safety -- all constituted a scene which not even the pen of Dante could describe. " Similarly, Kent said of that night, Daybreak on the morning of July 9, 1892 revealed the full extent of the fire's devastation. Kent described the sight of local residents viewing the desolation: Rev. Harvey presents a similar description: Less than $5,000,000 of the total estimated losses of $13,000,000 were covered by insurance. A large influx of financial aid from Britain, Canada and the United States helped the city recover from its devastating losses. Many of the present-day registered heritage structures were either built or re-built in the reconstruction period after the 1892 fire. The most prominent architect of this era in St. John's was John Thomas Southcott. He designed numerous Second Empire-styled buildings that had distinctive mansard roofs with bonnet-topped dormers protruding from the concave-curved roof surface. Southcott was so prolific that the term the "Southcott style" became associated with the architecture in the re-built city. Each year in Southcott's honour, the Newfoundland Historic Trust presents the Southcott Award for excellence in the restoration of heritage structures. Because of the devastation of the fire, the city of St. John's reorganized its fire department. It had previously relied only on volunteer brigades. By the end of 1895, the city had hired 22 paid firefighters and established three new fire stations throughout the city. Control of the fire department was placed under Newfoundland Constabulary’s Inspector-General.

Liberalism in Canada

H i s t o r i c a l l y , C a n a d a h a s h a d t w o l i b e r a l p h a s e s . P r i o r t o t h e 1 9 6 0 s , C a n a d i a n p o l i t i c s w e r e c l a s s i c a l l y l i b e r a l , i . e . , t h e r e w a s a f o c u s o n i n d i v i d u a l l i b e r t y , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t , a n d f r e e m a r k e t s . T h i s b r a n d o f l i b e r a l i s m c a n b e t r a c e d t o t h e a r r i v a l i n C a n a d a o f t h e U n i t e d E m p i r e L o y a l i s t s a n d t h e e n a c t m e n t o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l A c t o f 1 7 9 1 . T h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l A c t e s t a b l i s h e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t t h r o u g h t h e e l e c t e d a s s e m b l i e s o f U p p e r a n d L o w e r C a n a d a . W h i l e t h e L o y a l i s t s w e r e f a i t h f u l t o B r i t i s h i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d o p p o s e d t o A m e r i c a n r e p u b l i c a n i s m , t h e y w e r e c o m m i t t e d t o N o r t h A m e r i c a n i d e a l s o f i n d i v i d u a l l i b e r t y a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t . T h i s b r a n d o f l i b e r a l i s m w a s p r o m i n e n t t h r o u g h t h e L i b e r a l g o v e r n m e n t o f W i l f r i d L a u r i e r , w h i c h a d v o c a t e d s u c h p o l i c i e s a s f r e e t r a d e w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d b e y o n d . T h e s e c o n d l i b e r a l i s m b e g a n , r o u g h l y , i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s w i t h t h e e l e c t i o n o f L e s t e r B . P e a r s o n a s l e a d e r o f t h e L i b e r a l P a r t y o f C a n a d a a n d c a n b e t r a c e d t h r o u g h t h e p o l i t i c s o f P i e r r e T r u d e a u , J e a n C h r é t i e n , a n d P a u l M a r t i n . T h i s l i b e r a l i s m i s w h a t i s p r o p e r l y c a l l e d i n a g l o b a l c o n t e x t s o c i a l l i b e r a l i s m , o r w h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y N o r t h A m e r i c a n u s e o f t h e w o r d s i g n i f i e s a s l i b e r a l i s m : l i b e r a l d e m o c r a c y , s o c i a l j u s t i c e , s o c i a l p r o g r e s s i v i s m , T h i r d W a y , m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m , d i p l o m a c y i n f o r e i g n p o l i c y , a n d a r e g u l a t e d f r e e m a r k e t e c o n o m y ( d u r i n g t h e T r u d e a u e r a t h e L i b e r a l s a r g u a b l y s u p p o r t e d a m i x e d e c o n o m y ) . T h e r e i s a r g u e d t o b e a t h i r d p h a s e o f l i b e r a l i s m e m e r g i n g t h a t i s c e n t r e d o n a m o r e s u s t a i n a b l e f o r m o f p o l i t i c s . T h e a r g u m e n t i s t h a t a c t i o n i s n e e d e d t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , e c o n o m y , a n d s o c i a l e l e m e n t s o f s o c i e t y w i l l f u n c t i o n n o t o n l y i n t h e s h o r t t e r m , b u t l o n g t e r m a s w e l l . I f a c t i o n i s n o t t a k e n o n a l l o f t h e s e p r e s s i n g i s s u e s t h e n i t c a n c a u s e a d i r e c t t h r e a t t o o u r f r e e d o m s . T h i s e m e r g i n g n e w l i b e r a l i s m i s c e n t r e d o n a n i d e a l o f ' t i m e l e s s f r e e d o m ' w h i c h s e e k s t o p r e s e r v e t h e f r e e d o m o f f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s t h r o u g h p r o a c t i v e a c t i o n t o d a y . T h i s w o u l d e x t e n d b o t h p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e r i g h t s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s . L i b e r a l p a r t i e s d e v e l o p e d i n b o t h t h e F r e n c h a n d E n g l i s h s p e a k i n g p a r t s o f C a n a d a , a n d l e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e L i b e r a l P a r t y o f C a n a d a . L i b e r a l p a r t i e s e x i s t o n a p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l , b u t w h i l e t h e y m o s t l y s h a r e s i m i l a r i d e o l o g i e s , n o t a l l p r o v i n c i a l p a r t i e s a r e o f f i c i a l l y a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h e f e d e r a l p a r t y . I n C a n a d a , a " c a p i t a l - L " " l i b e r a l " r e f e r s t o t h e p o l i c i e s a n d i d e a s o f t h e L i b e r a l P a r t y o f C a n a d a / " P a r t i L i b é r a l d u C a n a d a " ( m e m b e r L I ) , t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t g o v e r n i n g p a r t y o f C a n a d a f o r t h e l a s t c e n t u r y a n d o n e o f t h e l a r g e s t l i b e r a l p a r t i e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . T h e Q u e b e c L i b e r a l P a r t y ( " P a r t i l i b é r a l d u Q u é b e c " ) c o m b i n e s l i b e r a l i s m w i t h m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e i d e a s . O n l y f e d e r a l p a r t i e s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t i m e l i n e . F o r i n c l u s i o n i n t h i s s c h e m e , i t i s n ' t n e c e s s a r y f o r p a r t i e s t o h a v e e x p l i c i t l y l a b e l l e d t h e m s e l v e s a s a l i b e r a l p a r t y . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e f e d e r a l p a r t y , e a c h p r o v i n c e a n d t h e Y u k o n t e r r i t o r y h a s i t s o w n L i b e r a l P a r t y ; h o w e v e r , t h o s e i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , A l b e r t a , S a s k a t c h e w a n , M a n i t o b a , O n t a r i o a n d Q u e b e c a r e n o l o n g e r a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h e f e d e r a l p a r t y . T h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L i b e r a l P a r t y i s n o t a b l y c e n t r e - r i g h t a n d o f t e n d e s c r i b e d a s a " f r e e e n t e r p r i s e c o a l i t i o n " , w i t h s u p p o r t e r s f r o m b o t h t h e f e d e r a l L i b e r a l a n d C o n s e r v a t i v e p a r t i e s . U n d e r t h e i r s y s t e m o f c o n s e n s u s g o v e r n m e n t , p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s a r e n o t r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e t e r r i t o r i e s o f N u n a v u t a n d N o r t h w e s t T e r r i t o r i e s .

Liberalism in Canadian history

Canadian liberalism has undergone three distinct phases throughout its history. The first phase, prior to the 1960s, focused on individual liberty, representative government, and free markets. The second phase, beginning in the 1960s, emphasized social liberalism, including liberal democracy, social justice, and a regulated free market economy. A third phase is emerging, centered on sustainable politics and preserving freedom for future generations through proactive action. The Liberal Party of Canada has been a dominant force in Canadian politics, with provincial parties sharing similar ideologies but not always being officially affiliated with the federal party.

Historically, Canada has had two liberal phases. Prior to the 1960s, Canadian politics were classically liberal, i.e., there was a focus on individual liberty, representative government, and free markets. This brand of liberalism can be traced to the arrival in Canada of the United Empire Loyalists and the enactment of the Constitutional Act of 1791. The Constitutional Act established representative government through the elected assemblies of Upper and Lower Canada. While the Loyalists were faithful to British institutions and opposed to American republicanism, they were committed to North American ideals of individual liberty and representative government. This brand of liberalism was prominent through the Liberal government of Wilfrid Laurier, which advocated such policies as free trade with the United States, and beyond. The second liberalism began, roughly, in the 1960s with the election of Lester B. Pearson as leader of the Liberal Party of Canada and can be traced through the politics of Pierre Trudeau, Jean Chrétien, and Paul Martin. This liberalism is what is properly called in a global context social liberalism, or what contemporary North American use of the word signifies as liberalism: liberal democracy, social justice, social progressivism, Third Way, multiculturalism, diplomacy in foreign policy, and a regulated free market economy (during the Trudeau era the Liberals arguably supported a mixed economy). There is argued to be a third phase of liberalism emerging that is centred on a more sustainable form of politics. The argument is that action is needed to ensure that the environment, economy, and social elements of society will function not only in the short term, but long term as well. If action is not taken on all of these pressing issues then it can cause a direct threat to our freedoms. This emerging new liberalism is centred on an ideal of 'timeless freedom' which seeks to preserve the freedom of future generations through proactive action today. This would extend both positive and negative rights and responsibilities to future generations. Liberal parties developed in both the French and English speaking parts of Canada, and led to the formation of the Liberal Party of Canada. Liberal parties exist on a provincial level, but while they mostly share similar ideologies, not all provincial parties are officially affiliated with the federal party. In Canada, a "capital-L" "liberal" refers to the policies and ideas of the Liberal Party of Canada/"Parti Libéral du Canada" (member LI), the most frequent governing party of Canada for the last century and one of the largest liberal parties around the world. The Quebec Liberal Party ("Parti libéral du Québec") combines liberalism with more conservative ideas. Only federal parties are included in the following timeline. For inclusion in this scheme, it isn't necessary for parties to have explicitly labelled themselves as a liberal party. In addition to the federal party, each province and the Yukon territory has its own Liberal Party; however, those in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec are no longer affiliated with the federal party. The British Columbia Liberal Party is notably centre-right and often described as a "free enterprise coalition", with supporters from both the federal Liberal and Conservative parties. Under their system of consensus government, political parties are not recognized in the territories of Nunavut and Northwest Territories.

Chinese head tax in Canada

T h r o u g h t h e m i d - t o l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , s o m e 1 7 , 0 0 0 l a b o u r e r s w e r e b r o u g h t f r o m C h i n a t o d o c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k o n t h e C a n a d i a n P a c i f i c R a i l w a y ( C P R ) , t h o u g h t h e y w e r e o n l y p a i d a t h i r d o r a h a l f l e s s t h a n t h e i r c o - w o r k e r s ( a b o u t C A $ 1 / d a y ) . O n c e t h e C a n a d i a n P a c i f i c R a i l w a y w a s c o m p l e t e d , t h e d e m a n d f o r c h e a p l a b o u r w a s n o n - e x i s t e n t , s o t h e p r o v i n c i a l l e g i s l a t u r e o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a p a s s e d a s t r i c t l a w t o v i r t u a l l y p r e v e n t C h i n e s e i m m i g r a t i o n i n 1 8 8 5 . H o w e v e r , t h i s w a s i m m e d i a t e l y s t r u c k d o w n b y t h e c o u r t s a s " u l t r a v i r e s " ( ' b e y o n d t h e p o w e r s o f ' ) t h e p r o v i n c i a l l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l y , a s i t i m p i n g e d u p o n f e d e r a l j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r i m m i g r a t i o n i n t o C a n a d a . A s i m i l a r a t t e m p t w a s m a d e a y e a r p r i o r a n d a n o t h e r o n e w a s m a d e i n 1 8 7 8 t o t a x e v e r y C h i n e s e o v e r t h e a g e o f 1 2 t o b e t a x e d $ 1 0 ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ 2 8 3 a s o f 2 0 2 2 ) e v e r y 3 m o n t h s . R e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a n t i - i m m i g r a t i o n s e n t i m e n t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , t h e C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t o f J o h n A . M a c d o n a l d i n t r o d u c e d t h e " C h i n e s e I m m i g r a t i o n A c t " , r e c e i v i n g R o y a l A s s e n t a n d b e c o m i n g l a w i n 1 8 8 5 . U n d e r i t s r e g u l a t i o n s , t h e l a w s t i p u l a t e d t h a t a l l C h i n e s e e n t e r i n g C a n a d a m u s t f i r s t p a y a f e e , l a t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s a h e a d t a x . T h i s w a s a m e n d e d i n 1 8 8 7 , 1 8 9 2 , a n d 1 9 0 0 , w i t h t h e f e e i n c r e a s i n g t o i n 1 9 0 1 a n d l a t e r t o i t s m a x i m u m o f i n 1 9 0 3 , r e p r e s e n t i n g a t w o - y e a r s a l a r y o f a n i m m i g r a n t w o r k e r a t t h a t t i m e . H o w e v e r , n o t a l l C h i n e s e a r r i v a l s h a d t o p a y t h e h e a d t a x ; t h o s e w h o w e r e p r e s u m e d t o r e t u r n t o C h i n a b a s e d o n t h e a p p a r e n t , t r a n s i t o r y n a t u r e o f t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n o r b a c k g r o u n d w e r e e x e m p t f r o m t h e p e n a l t y . T h e s e i n c l u d e d a r r i v a l s i d e n t i f y i n g t h e m s e l v e s a s : s t u d e n t s , t e a c h e r s , m i s s i o n a r i e s , m e r c h a n t s , o r m e m b e r s o f t h e d i p l o m a t i c c o r p s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a c o l l e c t e d a b o u t $ 2 3 m i l l i o n ( $ i n d o l l a r s ) i n f a c e v a l u e f r o m a b o u t 8 1 , 0 0 0 h e a d t a x p a y e r s . < / r e f > T h e h e a d t a x d i d d i s c o u r a g e C h i n e s e w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n f r o m j o i n i n g t h e i r m e n , b u t i t f a i l e d t o m e e t i t s g o a l , a r t i c u l a t e d b y c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c i a n s a n d l a b o u r l e a d e r s , o f t h e c o m p l e t e e x c l u s i o n o f C h i n e s e i m m i g r a t i o n . S u c h w a s a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e s a m e l a w t h a t e n d e d t h e h e a d t a x : t h e " C h i n e s e I m m i g r a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 2 3 " , w h i c h s t o p p e d C h i n e s e i m m i g r a t i o n e n t i r e l y , a l b e i t w i t h c e r t a i n e x e m p t i o n s f o r b u s i n e s s o w n e r s a n d o t h e r s . I t i s s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d t o b y o p p o n e n t s a s t h e " C h i n e s e E x c l u s i o n A c t " , a t e r m a l s o u s e d f o r i t s A m e r i c a n c o u n t e r p a r t . A f t e r t h e " C h i n e s e I m m i g r a t i o n A c t " w a s r e p e a l e d i n 1 9 4 8 , v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t y a c t i v i s t s i n c l u d i n g W o n g F o o n S i e n c a m p a i g n e d t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t t o m a k e i t s i m m i g r a t i o n p o l i c i e s m o r e i n c l u s i v e . H o w e v e r , t h e r e d r e s s m o v e m e n t d i d n o t b e g i n u n t i l 1 9 8 4 , w h e n V a n c o u v e r M e m b e r o f P a r l i a m e n t ( M P ) M a r g a r e t M i t c h e l l r a i s e d i n t h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s o f C a n a d a t h e i s s u e o f r e p a y i n g t h e C h i n e s e H e a d T a x f o r t w o o f h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s . O v e r 4 , 0 0 0 o t h e r h e a d t a x p a y e r s a n d t h e i r f a m i l y m e m b e r s t h e n a p p r o a c h e d t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l ( C C N C ) a n d i t s m e m b e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s a c r o s s C a n a d a t o r e g i s t e r t h e i r H e a d T a x c e r t i f i c a t e s a n d a s k C C N C t o r e p r e s e n t t h e m t o l o b b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t f o r r e d r e s s . T h e r e d r e s s c a m p a i g n i n c l u d e d h o l d i n g c o m m u n i t y m e e t i n g s , g a t h e r i n g s u p p o r t f r o m o t h e r g r o u p s a n d p r o m i n e n t p e o p l e , i n c r e a s i n g t h e m e d i a p r o f i l e , c o n d u c t i n g r e s e a r c h a n d p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l s , m a k i n g p r e s e n t a t i o n s a t s c h o o l s , e t c . T h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l , t h e l o n g t i m e a d v o c a t e f o r t h e h e a d T a x r e d r e s s , s u f f e r e d a s p l i t a f t e r t h e T i a n a n m e n S q u a r e M a s s a c r e . T h e C C N C h a d s t r o n g l y c o n d e m n e d t h e h u m a n - r i g h t s r e c o r d o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a ( P R C ) . D o n L e e a n d h i s f r i e n d s , w h o s u p p o r t e d t h e P R C ' s a s s a u l t o n t h e p r o t e s t e r s i n T i a n a n m e n S q u a r e , f o r m e d t h e N a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s o f C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s ( N C C C ) . D o n L e e , a f o r m e r V a n c o u v e r N P A c i t y c o u n c i l l o r a n d t h e s o n o f a d e c e a s e d h e a d - t a x p a y e r , h a s " a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t s o m e p e o p l e s e e h e a d - t a x p a y e r s a s v i c t i m s , b u t h e d i s a g r e e s w i t h t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . " L e e s a i d h i s f a t h e r h a d t h e " ' f o r e s i g h t ' t o p a y t h e h e a d t a x a n d s u f f e r t h e e c o n o m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s , b e c a u s e i t p r o v i d e d t r e m e n d o u s b e n e f i t s t o h i s d e s c e n d a n t s . " I n 1 9 9 3 , p r i m e m i n i s t e r B r i a n M u l r o n e y m a d e a n o f f e r o f i n d i v i d u a l m e d a l l i o n s , a m u s e u m w i n g , a n d o t h e r c o l l e c t i v e m e a s u r e s i n v o l v i n g s e v e r a l o t h e r r e d r e s s - s e e k i n g c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e s e w e r e r e j e c t e d o u t r i g h t b y t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n n a t i o n a l g r o u p s . I n t h e s a m e y e a r , a f t e r J e a n C h r é t i e n b e c a m e p r i m e m i n i s t e r , t h e C a b i n e t o p e n l y r e f u s e d t o p r o v i d e a n a p o l o g y o r r e d r e s s . M u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m M i n i s t e r S h e i l a F i n e s t o n e a n n o u n c e d i n a l e t t e r t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t " c a n n o t r e w r i t e h i s t o r y " a n d w o u l d n o t g r a n t f i n a n c i a l c o m p e n s a t i o n o r r e d r e s s t o g r o u p s f o r p a s t i n j u s t i c e s . I n s t e a d , t h e l e t t e r c o n f i r m e d $ 2 4 m i l l i o n i n f i n a n c i n g f o r a C a n a d i a n R a c e R e l a t i o n s F o u n d a t i o n , a n i d e a r a i s e d b y t h e p r e v i o u s C o n s e r v a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t . S t i l l , t h e C C N C a n d i t s s u p p o r t e r s c o n t i n u e d t o r a i s e t h e i s s u e w h e n e v e r t h e y c o u l d , i n c l u d i n g a s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s H u m a n R i g h t s C o m m i s s i o n a n d e v e n t u a l l y u n d e r t a k i n g c o u r t a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e C r o w n - i n - C o u n c i l , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e f e d e r a l C r o w n s h o u l d n o t b e p r o f i t i n g f r o m r a c i s m a n d t h a t i t h a d a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y u n d e r t h e " C a n a d i a n C h a r t e r o f R i g h t s a n d F r e e d o m s " a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l h u m a n r i g h t s l a w . I n a d d i t i o n , i t a r g u e d t h e 1 9 8 8 a p o l o g y a n d c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e i n t e r n m e n t o f J a p a n e s e C a n a d i a n s d u r i n g t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r e s t a b l i s h e d a p r e c e d e n t f o r r e d r e s s i n g o t h e r r a c i a l l y m o t i v a t e d p o l i c i e s . I n a $ 1 . 2 b i l l i o n l e g a l c h a l l e n g e , a n O n t a r i o c o u r t d e c l a r e d i n 2 0 0 1 t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a h a d n o o b l i g a t i o n t o r e d r e s s t h e h e a d t a x l e v i e d o n C h i n e s e i m m i g r a n t s b e c a u s e t h e C h a r t e r h a d n o r e t r o a c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n a n d t h e c a s e o f i n t e r n m e n t o f J a p a n e s e C a n a d i a n s w a s n o t a l e g a l p r e c e d e n t . T w o s u b s e q u e n t a p p e a l s i n 2 0 0 2 a n d 2 0 0 3 w e r e a l s o u n s u c c e s s f u l . F o l l o w i n g t h e l e g a l s e t b a c k s , c o m m u n i t y a c t i v i s m c o n t i n u e d o n c e a g a i n a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y . I n 2 0 0 3 , C a n a d i a n h i s t o r i a n P i e r r e B e r t o n g a v e a c e r e m o n i a l i r o n r a i l w a y s p i k e t o r e d r e s s a c t i v i s t s w h o t o u r e d t h e h i s t o r i c a l i c o n a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y a s p a r t o f a " L a s t S p i k e C a m p a i g n " , r e b u i l d i n g s u p p o r t f o r a p u b l i c d e m a n d f o r r e d r e s s . W h e n P a u l M a r t i n w o n t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e f e d e r a l L i b e r a l P a r t y a n d b e c a m e p r i m e m i n i s t e r i n 2 0 0 3 , t h e r e w a s a s e n s e o f u r g e n c y i n t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n c o m m u n i t y a s i t b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t t h e r e w e r e p e r h a p s o n l y a f e w d o z e n s u r v i v i n g C h i n e s e H e a d T a x p a y e r s l e f t ( t h e y w e r e p a i d $ 2 0 , 0 0 0 ) m a y b e a f e w h u n d r e d s p o u s e s o r w i d o w s . S e v e r a l r e g i o n a l a n d n a t i o n a l e v e n t s h a d b e e n o r g a n i s e d t o r e v i t a l i z e t h e r e d r e s s c a m p a i g n : I n 2 0 0 4 , D o u d o u D i è n e , t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S p e c i a l R a p p o r t e u r o n R a c i s m , R a c i a l D i s c r i m i n a t i o n , X e n o p h o b i a a n d R e l a t e d I n t o l e r a n c e , c o n c l u d e d t h a t C a n a d a s h o u l d r e d r e s s t h e h e a d t a x t o C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s i n r e s p o n s e t o a s u b m i s s i o n b y M a y C h i u , l e g a l c o u n s e l t o t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n R e d r e s s A l l i a n c e . I n 2 0 0 5 , G i m W o n g , a n 8 2 - y e a r - o l d s o n o f t w o h e a d t a x p a y e r s a n d a W o r l d W a r I I v e t e r a n , c o n d u c t e d a c r o s s - c o u n t r y R i d e f o r R e d r e s s o n h i s H a r l e y D a v i d s o n m o t o r c y c l e , w h e r e u p o n h i s a r r i v a l i n O t t a w a P r i m e M i n i s t e r P a u l M a r t i n r e f u s e d t o m e e t h i m . O n N o v e m b e r 1 7 , 2 0 0 5 , a g r o u p c a l l i n g i t s e l f t h e N a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s o f C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s ( N C C C ) a n n o u n c e d t h a t a n a g r e e m e n t h a d b e e n r e a c h e d b e t w e e n 1 1 C h i n e s e - C a n a d i a n g r o u p s a n d t h e f e d e r a l C a b i n e t , w h e r e i n t h e Q u e e n - i n - C o u n c i l w o u l d p a y $ 1 2 . 5 m i l l i o n f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n e w n o n - p r o f i t f o u n d a t i o n t o e d u c a t e C a n a d i a n s a b o u t a n t i - C h i n e s e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , w i t h a s p e c i f i c p r e - c o n d i t i o n t h a t n o a p o l o g y w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d f r o m a n y g o v e r n m e n t f i g u r e . T h e N C C C w a s f o r m e d i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s a n d n e g o t i a t e d w i t h t h e m a n t r a " n o a p o l o g y a n d n o i n d i v i d u a l c o m p e n s a t i o n , " s o t h e L i b e r a l g o v e r n m e n t s e l e c t e d t h e m a s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p t o n e g o t i a t e t h e d e a l . T h e D e p a r t m e n t o f C a n a d i a n H e r i t a g e ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t o n N o v e m b e r 2 4 , 2 0 0 5 s t a t e d t h a t t h e a g r e e d u p o n f u n d i n g w o u l d b e r e d u c e d t o $ 2 . 5 m i l l i o n . I t w a s l a t e r r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e M i n i s t e r f o r A s i a a n d P a c i f i c a f f a i r s , R a y m o n d C h a n , w h o c l a i m e d t o h a v e n e g o t i a t e d t h e d e a l , h a d p u r p o s e l y m i s l e d b o t h t h e m i n i s t e r s o f t h e C r o w n a n d t h e p u b l i c . S o m e o f t h e g r o u p s n a m e d a s b e i n g p a r t y t o t h e a g r e e m e n t s t a t e d p u b l i c l y t h a t t h e i r n a m e s h a d b e e n u s e d w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n a n d s e v e r a l o t h e r g r o u p s l i s t e d d i d n o t e v e n e x i s t . T a c o C h a n s t a t e d t h a t " a p o l o g y i s n o t o n " a n d a r g u e d " t h a t t o a p o l o g i z e w o u l d b e t a n t a m o u n t t o g i v i n g u p i m m u n i t y t h a t h a s b e e n g r a n t e d t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t b y t h e c o u r t . " D o n L e e , t h e c o - f o u n d e r a n d n a t i o n a l d i r e c t o r o f t h e N C C C h a s c l a i m e d t h a t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n h a d n o d i r e c t t i e s t o t h e L i b e r a l s ; h o w e v e r , T o r o n t o F i r s t R a d i o h o s t S i m o n L i a s k e d " W h y , M r . P r i m e M i n i s t e r , o n t h e e v e o f a f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n , w a s s o m u c h m o n e y g i v e n t o a s i n g l e o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t s e n t o u t s q u a d s o f v o l u n t e e r s t o c a m p a i g n f o r L i b e r a l s i n T o r o n t o ' s C h i n a t o w n i n t h e l a s t e l e c t i o n ? " T h e L i b e r a l d e a l w i t h t h e N C C C u p s e t t h e C C N C a n d i t s a f f i l i a t e s , a s t h i s p u r p o r t e d d e a l h a d b e e n r e a c h e d w i t h o u t t h e i r i n p u t . O t h e r c o m m u n i t y g r o u p s i n c l u d i n g t h e B . C . C o a l i t i o n o f H e a d T a x P a y e r s a n d t h e O n t a r i o C o a l i t i o n o f C h i n e s e H e a d T a x P a y e r s a n d F a m i l i e s c r i t i c i z e d t h e a g r e e m e n t a s w e l l . B i l l C - 3 3 3 , t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n R e c o g n i t i o n a n d R e d r e s s A c t , a p r i v a t e m e m b e r ' s b i l l , w a s t a b l e d i n t h e f e d e r a l p a r l i a m e n t i n o r d e r t o i m p l e m e n t t h e d e a l i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 5 . W h i l e C - 3 3 3 s o u g h t t o a c k n o w l e d g e , c o m m e m o r a t e a n d e d u c a t e a b o u t p a s t g o v e r n m e n t w r o n g d o i n g s , i t f e l l f a r s h o r t o f t h e a p o l o g y d e m a n d e d b y g e n e r a t i o n s o f C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c l a u s e i n C - 3 3 3 w h i c h s t a t e d " 1 . 1 T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a s h a l l u n d e r t a k e n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e N C C C t o w a r d s a n a g r e e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g m e a s u r e s t h a t m a y b e t a k e n t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f e x c l u s i o n a r y m e a s u r e s o n i m m i g r a n t s o f C h i n e s e o r i g i n f r o m 1 8 8 5 t o 1 9 4 7 " e s s e n t i a l l y e x c l u d e d t h e C C N C , a n d i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b y p r o x y o f m o r e t h a n 4 , 0 0 0 h e a d t a x p a y e r s , t h e i r s p o u s e s a n d f a m i l i e s , f r o m a n y s e t t l e m e n t t a l k s w i t h t h e g o v e r n m e n t . T h e O n t a r i o C o a l i t i o n o f H e a d T a x P a y e r s a n d F a m i l i e s l o b b i e d t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e P a r t y t o s t o p t h e p a s s a g e o f B i l l C - 3 3 3 . T h e C o n s e r v a t i v e s e x e r c i s e d a p r o c e d u r a l p r e r o g a t i v e a n d s w i t c h e d t h e o r d e r o f B i l l C - 3 3 3 w i t h B i l l C - 3 3 1 , a b i l l t o r e c o g n i z e p a s t w r o n g s a g a i n s t U k r a i n i a n C a n a d i a n s d u r i n g w a r t i m e , c a u s i n g B i l l C - 3 3 3 t o d i e w h e n P r i m e M i n i s t e r M a r t i n ' s L i b e r a l s l o s t a m o t i o n o f n o n - c o n f i d e n c e a n d p a r l i a m e n t w a s d i s s o l v e d o n N o v e m b e r 2 8 , 2 0 0 5 . A s t h e y h a d d o n e w h i l e c a m p a i g n i n g f o r t h e f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n i n 2 0 0 4 , t h e N e w D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y a n d B l o c Q u é b é c o i s s t a t e d , d u r i n g t h e l e a d u p t o t h e J a n u a r y 2 0 0 6 e l e c t i o n , t h e i r s u p p o r t f o r a n a p o l o g y a n d r e d r e s s f o r t h e h e a d t a x . S i m i l a r l y , o n D e c e m b e r 8 , 2 0 0 5 , C o n s e r v a t i v e P a r t y l e a d e r S t e p h e n H a r p e r r e l e a s e d a p r e s s s t a t e m e n t e x p r e s s i n g h i s s u p p o r t f o r a n a p o l o g y f o r t h e h e a d t a x . A s a p a r t o f h i s p a r t y p l a t f o r m , H a r p e r p r o m i s e d t o w o r k w i t h t h e C h i n e s e c o m m u n i t y o n r e d r e s s , s h o u l d t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e s b e c a l l e d t o f o r m t h e n e x t g o v e r n m e n t . B e f o r e h i s p a r t y u l t i m a t e l y l o s t t h e e l e c t i o n , M a r t i n i s s u e d a p e r s o n a l a p o l o g y o n a C h i n e s e l a n g u a g e r a d i o p r o g r a m . H o w e v e r , h e w a s q u i c k l y c r i t i c i z e d b y t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n c o m m u n i t y f o r n o t i s s u i n g t h e a p o l o g y i n t h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s a n d f o r t h e n t r y i n g t o d i s m i s s i t c o m p l e t e l y i n t h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g m e d i a o n t h e v e r y s a m e d a y . S e v e r a l L i b e r a l c a n d i d a t e s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t C h i n e s e - C a n a d i a n p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e i r r i d i n g s , i n c l u d i n g V a n c o u v e r - K i n g s w a y M P D a v i d E m e r s o n a n d t h e M i n i s t e r o f S t a t e f o r M u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m a n d R i c h m o n d M P R a y m o n d C h a n , a l s o m a d e f u t i l e a t t e m p t s t o c h a n g e t h e i r p o s i t i o n s i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e c a m p a i g n . O t h e r s , s u c h a s E d m o n t o n C e n t r e M P A n n e M c L e l l a n l o s t h e r r i d i n g t o C o n s e r v a t i v e M P L a u r i e H a w n . T h e 2 0 0 6 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n w a s w o n b y t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e P a r t y , f o r m i n g a m i n o r i t y g o v e r n m e n t . T h r e e d a y s a f t e r t h e b a l l o t s h a d b e e n c o u n t e d o n J a n u a r y 2 3 , b u t b e f o r e h e h a d b e e n a p p o i n t e d p r i m e m i n i s t e r , H a r p e r r e i t e r a t e d h i s p o s i t i o n o n t h e h e a d t a x i s s u e i n a n e w s c o n f e r e n c e : " C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s a r e m a k i n g a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y i m p a c t o n t h e b u i l d i n g o f o u r c o u n t r y . T h e y ' v e a l s o m a d e a s i g n i f i c a n t h i s t o r i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n d e s p i t e m a n y o b s t a c l e s . T h a t ' s w h y , a s I s a i d d u r i n g t h e e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n , t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n c o m m u n i t y d e s e r v e s a n a p o l o g y f o r t h e h e a d t a x a n d a p p r o p r i a t e a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t a n d r e d r e s s . " F o r m a l d i s c u s s i o n s o n t h e f o r m o f a p o l o g y a n d r e d r e s s b e g a n o n M a r c h 2 4 , 2 0 0 6 , w i t h a p r e l i m i n a r y m e e t i n g b e t w e e n C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s r e p r e s e n t i n g v a r i o u s g r o u p s ( i n c l u d i n g s o m e h e a d t a x p a y e r s ) , h e r i t a g e m i n i s t e r B e v O d a , a n d P a r l i a m e n t a r y S e c r e t a r y t o t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r r e s u l t i n g i n t h e " d i s t i n c t p o s s i b i l i t y " o f a n a p o l o g y b e i n g i s s u e d b e f o r e J u l y 1 , 2 0 0 6 , t o c o m m e m o r a t e t h e a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e e n a c t i n g o f t h e " C h i n e s e E x c l u s i o n A c t " o f 1 9 2 3 . T h e m e e t i n g w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t , i n t h e S p e e c h f r o m t h e T h r o n e d e l i v e r e d b y G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l M i c h a ë l l e J e a n o n A p r i l 4 , 2 0 0 6 , t h a t a n a p o l o g y w o u l d b e g i v e n a l o n g w i t h p r o p e r r e d r e s s . T h a t y e a r , f r o m A p r i l 2 1 t o 3 0 , t h e C r o w n - i n - C o u n c i l h o s t e d p u b l i c c o n s u l t a t i o n s a c r o s s C a n a d a , i n c i t i e s m o s t a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e c a m p a i g n : H a l i f a x , V a n c o u v e r , T o r o n t o , E d m o n t o n , M o n t r e a l , a n d W i n n i p e g . T h e y i n c l u d e d t h e p e r s o n a l t e s t i m o n y o f e l d e r s a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f r o m a n u m b e r o f g r o u p s , a m o n g t h e m t h e H a l i f a x R e d r e s s C o m m i t t e e ; t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a C o a l i t i o n o f H e a d T a x P a y e r s , S p o u s e s a n d D e s c e n d a n t s ; A C C E S S ; t h e O n t a r i o C o a l i t i o n o f H e a d T a x P a y e r s a n d F a m i l i e s ; t h e C C N C ; a n d t h e E d m o n t o n R e d r e s s C o m m i t t e e o f t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f A l b e r t a a n d C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n R e d r e s s A l l i a n c e . S o m e c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e m a j o r i s s u e s r e v o l v e a r o u n d t h e c o n t e n t o f a n y s e t t l e m e n t , w i t h t h e l e a d i n g g r o u p s d e m a n d i n g m e a n i n g f u l r e d r e s s , n o t o n l y f o r t h e h a n d f u l o f s u r v i v i n g " h e a d t a x " p a y e r s a n d w i d o w s / s p o u s e s , b u t f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n s o n s / d a u g h t e r s w h o w e r e d i r e c t v i c t i m s , a s t o l d i n t h e d o c u m e n t a r y " L o s t Y e a r s : A P e o p l e ' s S t r u g g l e f o r J u s t i c e " . S o m e h a v e p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e r e d r e s s b e b a s e d o n t h e n u m b e r o f " H e a d T a x " C e r t i f i c a t e s ( o r e s t a t e s ) b r o u g h t f o r w a r d b y s u r v i v i n g s o n s a n d d a u g h t e r s w h o a r e s t i l l a b l e t o r e g i s t e r t h e i r c l a i m s , w i t h p r o p o s a l s f o r i n d i v i d u a l r e d r e s s , r a n g i n g f r o m $ 1 0 , 0 0 0 t o $ 3 0 , 0 0 0 f o r a n e s t i m a t e d 4 , 0 0 0 r e g i s t r a n t s . O n J u n e 2 2 , 2 0 0 6 , i n t h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s f o r t h e f i r s t s e s s i o n o f t h e 3 9 t h P a r l i a m e n t , P r i m e M i n i s t e r S t e p h e n H a r p e r d e l i v e r e d a n o f f i c i a l a p o l o g y t o C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s . D u r i n g h i s a d d r e s s H a r p e r s p o k e a f e w w o r d s i n C a n t o n e s e , " G a N a D a a i D o e H e e p " ( , ' C a n a d a A p o l o g i z e s ' ) , b r e a k i n g t h e P a r l i a m e n t a r y t r a d i t i o n o f s p e a k i n g e i t h e r E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h i n t h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s . T h e a p o l o g y a n d c o m p e n s a t i o n w a s f o r t h e h e a d t a x o n c e p a i d b y C h i n e s e i m m i g r a n t s . S u r v i v o r s o r t h e i r s p o u s e s w e r e p a i d a p p r o x i m a t e l y C A D $ 2 0 , 0 0 0 i n c o m p e n s a t i o n . T h e r e w e r e o n l y a n e s t i m a t e d 2 0 C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s w h o p a i d t h e t a x s t i l l a l i v e i n 2 0 0 6 . A s n o m e n t i o n o f r e d r e s s f o r t h e c h i l d r e n w a s m a d e , t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n c o m m u n i t y c o n t i n u e s t o f i g h t f o r a r e d r e s s f r o m t h e C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t . A n a t i o n a l d a y o f p r o t e s t w a s h e l d t o c o i n c i d e w i t h C a n a d a D a y 2 0 0 6 i n m a j o r c i t i e s a c r o s s C a n a d a , a n d s e v e r a l h u n d r e d C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s j o i n e d i n l o c a l m a r c h e s .

Tax

The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 imposed a head tax of $10 (approximately $283 as of 2022) every 3 months on Chinese immigrants entering Canada. The tax increased over time, reaching $500 in 1903, equivalent to a two-year salary. The tax aimed to exclude Chinese immigrants but ultimately failed. In 1923, the Chinese Immigration Act stopped Chinese immigration altogether. Decades later, advocacy groups pushed for redress, including an official apology and compensation. In 2006, Prime Minister Stephen Harper apologized and offered CAD$20,000 in compensation to survivors or their spouses.

taxed $10 (approximately $283 as of 2022) every 3 months. Responding to the anti-immigration sentiment in British Columbia, the Canadian government of John A. Macdonald introduced the "Chinese Immigration Act", receiving Royal Assent and becoming law in 1885. Under its regulations, the law stipulated that all Chinese entering Canada must first pay a fee, later referred to as a head tax. This was amended in 1887, 1892, and 1900, with the fee increasing to in 1901 and later to its maximum of in 1903, representing a two-year salary of an immigrant worker at that time. However, not all Chinese arrivals had to pay the head tax; those who were presumed to return to China based on the apparent, transitory nature of their occupation or background were exempt from the penalty. These included arrivals identifying themselves as: students, teachers, missionaries, merchants, or members of the diplomatic corps. The Government of Canada collected about $23 million ($ in dollars) in face value from about 81,000 head tax payers.</ref> The head tax did discourage Chinese women and children from joining their men, but it failed to meet its goal, articulated by contemporary politicians and labour leaders, of the complete exclusion of Chinese immigration. Such was achieved through the same law that ended the head tax: the "Chinese Immigration Act of 1923", which stopped Chinese immigration entirely, albeit with certain exemptions for business owners and others. It is sometimes referred to by opponents as the "Chinese Exclusion Act", a term also used for its American counterpart. After the "Chinese Immigration presentations at schools, etc. The Chinese Canadian National Council, the longtime advocate for the head Tax redress, suffered a split after the Tiananmen Square Massacre. The CCNC had strongly condemned the human-rights record of the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Don Lee and his friends, who supported the PRC's assault on the protesters in Tiananmen Square, formed the National Congress of Chinese Canadians (NCCC). Don Lee, a former Vancouver NPA city councillor and the son of a deceased head-tax payer, has "acknowledged that some people see head-tax payers as victims, but he disagrees with this interpretation." Lee said his father had the "'foresight' to pay the head tax and suffer the economic consequences, because it provided tremendous benefits to his descendants. " In 1993, prime and Related Intolerance, concluded that Canada should redress the head tax to Chinese Canadians in response to a submission by May Chiu, legal counsel to the Chinese Canadian Redress Alliance. In 2005, Gim Wong, an 82-year-old son of two head tax payers and a World War II veteran, conducted a cross-country Ride for Redress on his Harley Davidson motorcycle, where upon his arrival in Ottawa Prime Minister Paul Martin refused to meet him. On November 17, 2005, a group calling itself the National Congress of Chinese Canadians (NCCC) announced that an agreement had been reached between 11 Chinese-Canadian groups and the federal Cabinet, wherein the Queen-in-Council would pay $12.5 million for the creation of a new non-profit foundation to educate Canadians about anti-Chinese discrimination, with a specific pre-condition Tax Payers and the Ontario Coalition of Chinese Head Tax Payers and Families criticized the agreement as well. Bill C-333, the Chinese Canadian Recognition and Redress Act, a private member's bill, was tabled in the federal parliament in order to implement the deal in November 2005. While C-333 sought to acknowledge, commemorate and educate about past government wrongdoings, it fell far short of the apology demanded by generations of Chinese Canadians. Furthermore, the clause in C-333 which stated "1.1 The Government of Canada shall undertake negotiations with the NCCC towards an agreement concerning measures that may be taken to recognize the imposition of exclusionary measures on immigrants of Chinese origin from 1885 to 1947" essentially excluded the CCNC, and its representation by proxy of more than 4,000 head tax payers, their spouses and families, from any settlement talks with the government. The Ontario Coalition of Head Tax Payers and Families lobbied the Conservative Party to stop the passage of Bill C-333. The Conservatives exercised a procedural prerogative and switched the order of Bill C-333 with Bill C-331, a bill to recognize past wrongs against Ukrainian Canadians during wartime, causing Bill C-333 to die when Prime Minister Martin's Liberals lost a motion of non-confidence and parliament was dissolved on November 28, 2005. As they had done while campaigning for the federal election in 2004, the New Democratic Party and Bloc Québécois stated, during the leadup to the January 2006 election, their support for an apology and redress for the head tax. Similarly, on December 8, 2005, Conservative included the personal testimony of elders and representatives from a number of groups, among them the Halifax Redress Committee; the British Columbia Coalition of Head Tax Payers, Spouses and Descendants; ACCESS; the Ontario Coalition of Head Tax Payers and Families; the CCNC; and the Edmonton Redress Committee of the Chinese Canadian Historical Association of Alberta and Chinese Canadian Redress Alliance. Some considered that the major issues revolve around the content of any settlement, with the leading groups demanding meaningful redress, not only for the handful of surviving "head tax" payers and widows/spouses, but first-generation sons/daughters who were direct victims, as told in the documentary "Lost Years: A People's Struggle for Justice". Some have proposed that the redress be based on the number of "Head Tax" Certificates (or estates) brought forward by surviving sons and daughters who are still able to register their claims, with proposals for individual redress, ranging from $10,000 to $30,000 for an estimated 4,000 registrants. On June 22, 2006, in the House of Commons for the first session of the 39th Parliament, Prime Minister Stephen Harper delivered an official apology to Chinese Canadians. During his address Harper spoke a few words in Cantonese, "Ga Na Daai Doe Heep" (, 'Canada Apologizes'), breaking the Parliamentary tradition of speaking either English and French in the House of Commons. The apology and compensation was for the head tax once paid by Chinese immigrants. Survivors or their spouses were paid approximately CAD$20,000 in compensation. There were only an estimated 20 Chinese Canadians who paid the tax still

Chinese head tax in Canada

T h r o u g h t h e m i d - t o l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , s o m e 1 7 , 0 0 0 l a b o u r e r s w e r e b r o u g h t f r o m C h i n a t o d o c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k o n t h e C a n a d i a n P a c i f i c R a i l w a y ( C P R ) , t h o u g h t h e y w e r e o n l y p a i d a t h i r d o r a h a l f l e s s t h a n t h e i r c o - w o r k e r s ( a b o u t C A $ 1 / d a y ) . O n c e t h e C a n a d i a n P a c i f i c R a i l w a y w a s c o m p l e t e d , t h e d e m a n d f o r c h e a p l a b o u r w a s n o n - e x i s t e n t , s o t h e p r o v i n c i a l l e g i s l a t u r e o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a p a s s e d a s t r i c t l a w t o v i r t u a l l y p r e v e n t C h i n e s e i m m i g r a t i o n i n 1 8 8 5 . H o w e v e r , t h i s w a s i m m e d i a t e l y s t r u c k d o w n b y t h e c o u r t s a s " u l t r a v i r e s " ( ' b e y o n d t h e p o w e r s o f ' ) t h e p r o v i n c i a l l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l y , a s i t i m p i n g e d u p o n f e d e r a l j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r i m m i g r a t i o n i n t o C a n a d a . A s i m i l a r a t t e m p t w a s m a d e a y e a r p r i o r a n d a n o t h e r o n e w a s m a d e i n 1 8 7 8 t o t a x e v e r y C h i n e s e o v e r t h e a g e o f 1 2 t o b e t a x e d $ 1 0 ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ 2 8 3 a s o f 2 0 2 2 ) e v e r y 3 m o n t h s . R e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a n t i - i m m i g r a t i o n s e n t i m e n t i n B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , t h e C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t o f J o h n A . M a c d o n a l d i n t r o d u c e d t h e " C h i n e s e I m m i g r a t i o n A c t " , r e c e i v i n g R o y a l A s s e n t a n d b e c o m i n g l a w i n 1 8 8 5 . U n d e r i t s r e g u l a t i o n s , t h e l a w s t i p u l a t e d t h a t a l l C h i n e s e e n t e r i n g C a n a d a m u s t f i r s t p a y a f e e , l a t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s a h e a d t a x . T h i s w a s a m e n d e d i n 1 8 8 7 , 1 8 9 2 , a n d 1 9 0 0 , w i t h t h e f e e i n c r e a s i n g t o i n 1 9 0 1 a n d l a t e r t o i t s m a x i m u m o f i n 1 9 0 3 , r e p r e s e n t i n g a t w o - y e a r s a l a r y o f a n i m m i g r a n t w o r k e r a t t h a t t i m e . H o w e v e r , n o t a l l C h i n e s e a r r i v a l s h a d t o p a y t h e h e a d t a x ; t h o s e w h o w e r e p r e s u m e d t o r e t u r n t o C h i n a b a s e d o n t h e a p p a r e n t , t r a n s i t o r y n a t u r e o f t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n o r b a c k g r o u n d w e r e e x e m p t f r o m t h e p e n a l t y . T h e s e i n c l u d e d a r r i v a l s i d e n t i f y i n g t h e m s e l v e s a s : s t u d e n t s , t e a c h e r s , m i s s i o n a r i e s , m e r c h a n t s , o r m e m b e r s o f t h e d i p l o m a t i c c o r p s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a c o l l e c t e d a b o u t $ 2 3 m i l l i o n ( $ i n d o l l a r s ) i n f a c e v a l u e f r o m a b o u t 8 1 , 0 0 0 h e a d t a x p a y e r s . < / r e f > T h e h e a d t a x d i d d i s c o u r a g e C h i n e s e w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n f r o m j o i n i n g t h e i r m e n , b u t i t f a i l e d t o m e e t i t s g o a l , a r t i c u l a t e d b y c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c i a n s a n d l a b o u r l e a d e r s , o f t h e c o m p l e t e e x c l u s i o n o f C h i n e s e i m m i g r a t i o n . S u c h w a s a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e s a m e l a w t h a t e n d e d t h e h e a d t a x : t h e " C h i n e s e I m m i g r a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 2 3 " , w h i c h s t o p p e d C h i n e s e i m m i g r a t i o n e n t i r e l y , a l b e i t w i t h c e r t a i n e x e m p t i o n s f o r b u s i n e s s o w n e r s a n d o t h e r s . I t i s s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d t o b y o p p o n e n t s a s t h e " C h i n e s e E x c l u s i o n A c t " , a t e r m a l s o u s e d f o r i t s A m e r i c a n c o u n t e r p a r t . A f t e r t h e " C h i n e s e I m m i g r a t i o n A c t " w a s r e p e a l e d i n 1 9 4 8 , v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t y a c t i v i s t s i n c l u d i n g W o n g F o o n S i e n c a m p a i g n e d t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t t o m a k e i t s i m m i g r a t i o n p o l i c i e s m o r e i n c l u s i v e . H o w e v e r , t h e r e d r e s s m o v e m e n t d i d n o t b e g i n u n t i l 1 9 8 4 , w h e n V a n c o u v e r M e m b e r o f P a r l i a m e n t ( M P ) M a r g a r e t M i t c h e l l r a i s e d i n t h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s o f C a n a d a t h e i s s u e o f r e p a y i n g t h e C h i n e s e H e a d T a x f o r t w o o f h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s . O v e r 4 , 0 0 0 o t h e r h e a d t a x p a y e r s a n d t h e i r f a m i l y m e m b e r s t h e n a p p r o a c h e d t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l ( C C N C ) a n d i t s m e m b e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s a c r o s s C a n a d a t o r e g i s t e r t h e i r H e a d T a x c e r t i f i c a t e s a n d a s k C C N C t o r e p r e s e n t t h e m t o l o b b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t f o r r e d r e s s . T h e r e d r e s s c a m p a i g n i n c l u d e d h o l d i n g c o m m u n i t y m e e t i n g s , g a t h e r i n g s u p p o r t f r o m o t h e r g r o u p s a n d p r o m i n e n t p e o p l e , i n c r e a s i n g t h e m e d i a p r o f i l e , c o n d u c t i n g r e s e a r c h a n d p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l s , m a k i n g p r e s e n t a t i o n s a t s c h o o l s , e t c . T h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l , t h e l o n g t i m e a d v o c a t e f o r t h e h e a d T a x r e d r e s s , s u f f e r e d a s p l i t a f t e r t h e T i a n a n m e n S q u a r e M a s s a c r e . T h e C C N C h a d s t r o n g l y c o n d e m n e d t h e h u m a n - r i g h t s r e c o r d o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a ( P R C ) . D o n L e e a n d h i s f r i e n d s , w h o s u p p o r t e d t h e P R C ' s a s s a u l t o n t h e p r o t e s t e r s i n T i a n a n m e n S q u a r e , f o r m e d t h e N a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s o f C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s ( N C C C ) . D o n L e e , a f o r m e r V a n c o u v e r N P A c i t y c o u n c i l l o r a n d t h e s o n o f a d e c e a s e d h e a d - t a x p a y e r , h a s " a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t s o m e p e o p l e s e e h e a d - t a x p a y e r s a s v i c t i m s , b u t h e d i s a g r e e s w i t h t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . " L e e s a i d h i s f a t h e r h a d t h e " ' f o r e s i g h t ' t o p a y t h e h e a d t a x a n d s u f f e r t h e e c o n o m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s , b e c a u s e i t p r o v i d e d t r e m e n d o u s b e n e f i t s t o h i s d e s c e n d a n t s . " I n 1 9 9 3 , p r i m e m i n i s t e r B r i a n M u l r o n e y m a d e a n o f f e r o f i n d i v i d u a l m e d a l l i o n s , a m u s e u m w i n g , a n d o t h e r c o l l e c t i v e m e a s u r e s i n v o l v i n g s e v e r a l o t h e r r e d r e s s - s e e k i n g c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e s e w e r e r e j e c t e d o u t r i g h t b y t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n n a t i o n a l g r o u p s . I n t h e s a m e y e a r , a f t e r J e a n C h r é t i e n b e c a m e p r i m e m i n i s t e r , t h e C a b i n e t o p e n l y r e f u s e d t o p r o v i d e a n a p o l o g y o r r e d r e s s . M u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m M i n i s t e r S h e i l a F i n e s t o n e a n n o u n c e d i n a l e t t e r t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t " c a n n o t r e w r i t e h i s t o r y " a n d w o u l d n o t g r a n t f i n a n c i a l c o m p e n s a t i o n o r r e d r e s s t o g r o u p s f o r p a s t i n j u s t i c e s . I n s t e a d , t h e l e t t e r c o n f i r m e d $ 2 4 m i l l i o n i n f i n a n c i n g f o r a C a n a d i a n R a c e R e l a t i o n s F o u n d a t i o n , a n i d e a r a i s e d b y t h e p r e v i o u s C o n s e r v a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t . S t i l l , t h e C C N C a n d i t s s u p p o r t e r s c o n t i n u e d t o r a i s e t h e i s s u e w h e n e v e r t h e y c o u l d , i n c l u d i n g a s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s H u m a n R i g h t s C o m m i s s i o n a n d e v e n t u a l l y u n d e r t a k i n g c o u r t a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e C r o w n - i n - C o u n c i l , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e f e d e r a l C r o w n s h o u l d n o t b e p r o f i t i n g f r o m r a c i s m a n d t h a t i t h a d a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y u n d e r t h e " C a n a d i a n C h a r t e r o f R i g h t s a n d F r e e d o m s " a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l h u m a n r i g h t s l a w . I n a d d i t i o n , i t a r g u e d t h e 1 9 8 8 a p o l o g y a n d c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e i n t e r n m e n t o f J a p a n e s e C a n a d i a n s d u r i n g t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r e s t a b l i s h e d a p r e c e d e n t f o r r e d r e s s i n g o t h e r r a c i a l l y m o t i v a t e d p o l i c i e s . I n a $ 1 . 2 b i l l i o n l e g a l c h a l l e n g e , a n O n t a r i o c o u r t d e c l a r e d i n 2 0 0 1 t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a h a d n o o b l i g a t i o n t o r e d r e s s t h e h e a d t a x l e v i e d o n C h i n e s e i m m i g r a n t s b e c a u s e t h e C h a r t e r h a d n o r e t r o a c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n a n d t h e c a s e o f i n t e r n m e n t o f J a p a n e s e C a n a d i a n s w a s n o t a l e g a l p r e c e d e n t . T w o s u b s e q u e n t a p p e a l s i n 2 0 0 2 a n d 2 0 0 3 w e r e a l s o u n s u c c e s s f u l . F o l l o w i n g t h e l e g a l s e t b a c k s , c o m m u n i t y a c t i v i s m c o n t i n u e d o n c e a g a i n a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y . I n 2 0 0 3 , C a n a d i a n h i s t o r i a n P i e r r e B e r t o n g a v e a c e r e m o n i a l i r o n r a i l w a y s p i k e t o r e d r e s s a c t i v i s t s w h o t o u r e d t h e h i s t o r i c a l i c o n a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y a s p a r t o f a " L a s t S p i k e C a m p a i g n " , r e b u i l d i n g s u p p o r t f o r a p u b l i c d e m a n d f o r r e d r e s s . W h e n P a u l M a r t i n w o n t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e f e d e r a l L i b e r a l P a r t y a n d b e c a m e p r i m e m i n i s t e r i n 2 0 0 3 , t h e r e w a s a s e n s e o f u r g e n c y i n t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n c o m m u n i t y a s i t b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t t h e r e w e r e p e r h a p s o n l y a f e w d o z e n s u r v i v i n g C h i n e s e H e a d T a x p a y e r s l e f t ( t h e y w e r e p a i d $ 2 0 , 0 0 0 ) m a y b e a f e w h u n d r e d s p o u s e s o r w i d o w s . S e v e r a l r e g i o n a l a n d n a t i o n a l e v e n t s h a d b e e n o r g a n i s e d t o r e v i t a l i z e t h e r e d r e s s c a m p a i g n : I n 2 0 0 4 , D o u d o u D i è n e , t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S p e c i a l R a p p o r t e u r o n R a c i s m , R a c i a l D i s c r i m i n a t i o n , X e n o p h o b i a a n d R e l a t e d I n t o l e r a n c e , c o n c l u d e d t h a t C a n a d a s h o u l d r e d r e s s t h e h e a d t a x t o C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s i n r e s p o n s e t o a s u b m i s s i o n b y M a y C h i u , l e g a l c o u n s e l t o t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n R e d r e s s A l l i a n c e . I n 2 0 0 5 , G i m W o n g , a n 8 2 - y e a r - o l d s o n o f t w o h e a d t a x p a y e r s a n d a W o r l d W a r I I v e t e r a n , c o n d u c t e d a c r o s s - c o u n t r y R i d e f o r R e d r e s s o n h i s H a r l e y D a v i d s o n m o t o r c y c l e , w h e r e u p o n h i s a r r i v a l i n O t t a w a P r i m e M i n i s t e r P a u l M a r t i n r e f u s e d t o m e e t h i m . O n N o v e m b e r 1 7 , 2 0 0 5 , a g r o u p c a l l i n g i t s e l f t h e N a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s o f C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s ( N C C C ) a n n o u n c e d t h a t a n a g r e e m e n t h a d b e e n r e a c h e d b e t w e e n 1 1 C h i n e s e - C a n a d i a n g r o u p s a n d t h e f e d e r a l C a b i n e t , w h e r e i n t h e Q u e e n - i n - C o u n c i l w o u l d p a y $ 1 2 . 5 m i l l i o n f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n e w n o n - p r o f i t f o u n d a t i o n t o e d u c a t e C a n a d i a n s a b o u t a n t i - C h i n e s e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , w i t h a s p e c i f i c p r e - c o n d i t i o n t h a t n o a p o l o g y w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d f r o m a n y g o v e r n m e n t f i g u r e . T h e N C C C w a s f o r m e d i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s a n d n e g o t i a t e d w i t h t h e m a n t r a " n o a p o l o g y a n d n o i n d i v i d u a l c o m p e n s a t i o n , " s o t h e L i b e r a l g o v e r n m e n t s e l e c t e d t h e m a s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p t o n e g o t i a t e t h e d e a l . T h e D e p a r t m e n t o f C a n a d i a n H e r i t a g e ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t o n N o v e m b e r 2 4 , 2 0 0 5 s t a t e d t h a t t h e a g r e e d u p o n f u n d i n g w o u l d b e r e d u c e d t o $ 2 . 5 m i l l i o n . I t w a s l a t e r r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e M i n i s t e r f o r A s i a a n d P a c i f i c a f f a i r s , R a y m o n d C h a n , w h o c l a i m e d t o h a v e n e g o t i a t e d t h e d e a l , h a d p u r p o s e l y m i s l e d b o t h t h e m i n i s t e r s o f t h e C r o w n a n d t h e p u b l i c . S o m e o f t h e g r o u p s n a m e d a s b e i n g p a r t y t o t h e a g r e e m e n t s t a t e d p u b l i c l y t h a t t h e i r n a m e s h a d b e e n u s e d w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n a n d s e v e r a l o t h e r g r o u p s l i s t e d d i d n o t e v e n e x i s t . T a c o C h a n s t a t e d t h a t " a p o l o g y i s n o t o n " a n d a r g u e d " t h a t t o a p o l o g i z e w o u l d b e t a n t a m o u n t t o g i v i n g u p i m m u n i t y t h a t h a s b e e n g r a n t e d t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t b y t h e c o u r t . " D o n L e e , t h e c o - f o u n d e r a n d n a t i o n a l d i r e c t o r o f t h e N C C C h a s c l a i m e d t h a t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n h a d n o d i r e c t t i e s t o t h e L i b e r a l s ; h o w e v e r , T o r o n t o F i r s t R a d i o h o s t S i m o n L i a s k e d " W h y , M r . P r i m e M i n i s t e r , o n t h e e v e o f a f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n , w a s s o m u c h m o n e y g i v e n t o a s i n g l e o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t s e n t o u t s q u a d s o f v o l u n t e e r s t o c a m p a i g n f o r L i b e r a l s i n T o r o n t o ' s C h i n a t o w n i n t h e l a s t e l e c t i o n ? " T h e L i b e r a l d e a l w i t h t h e N C C C u p s e t t h e C C N C a n d i t s a f f i l i a t e s , a s t h i s p u r p o r t e d d e a l h a d b e e n r e a c h e d w i t h o u t t h e i r i n p u t . O t h e r c o m m u n i t y g r o u p s i n c l u d i n g t h e B . C . C o a l i t i o n o f H e a d T a x P a y e r s a n d t h e O n t a r i o C o a l i t i o n o f C h i n e s e H e a d T a x P a y e r s a n d F a m i l i e s c r i t i c i z e d t h e a g r e e m e n t a s w e l l . B i l l C - 3 3 3 , t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n R e c o g n i t i o n a n d R e d r e s s A c t , a p r i v a t e m e m b e r ' s b i l l , w a s t a b l e d i n t h e f e d e r a l p a r l i a m e n t i n o r d e r t o i m p l e m e n t t h e d e a l i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 5 . W h i l e C - 3 3 3 s o u g h t t o a c k n o w l e d g e , c o m m e m o r a t e a n d e d u c a t e a b o u t p a s t g o v e r n m e n t w r o n g d o i n g s , i t f e l l f a r s h o r t o f t h e a p o l o g y d e m a n d e d b y g e n e r a t i o n s o f C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c l a u s e i n C - 3 3 3 w h i c h s t a t e d " 1 . 1 T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f C a n a d a s h a l l u n d e r t a k e n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e N C C C t o w a r d s a n a g r e e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g m e a s u r e s t h a t m a y b e t a k e n t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f e x c l u s i o n a r y m e a s u r e s o n i m m i g r a n t s o f C h i n e s e o r i g i n f r o m 1 8 8 5 t o 1 9 4 7 " e s s e n t i a l l y e x c l u d e d t h e C C N C , a n d i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b y p r o x y o f m o r e t h a n 4 , 0 0 0 h e a d t a x p a y e r s , t h e i r s p o u s e s a n d f a m i l i e s , f r o m a n y s e t t l e m e n t t a l k s w i t h t h e g o v e r n m e n t . T h e O n t a r i o C o a l i t i o n o f H e a d T a x P a y e r s a n d F a m i l i e s l o b b i e d t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e P a r t y t o s t o p t h e p a s s a g e o f B i l l C - 3 3 3 . T h e C o n s e r v a t i v e s e x e r c i s e d a p r o c e d u r a l p r e r o g a t i v e a n d s w i t c h e d t h e o r d e r o f B i l l C - 3 3 3 w i t h B i l l C - 3 3 1 , a b i l l t o r e c o g n i z e p a s t w r o n g s a g a i n s t U k r a i n i a n C a n a d i a n s d u r i n g w a r t i m e , c a u s i n g B i l l C - 3 3 3 t o d i e w h e n P r i m e M i n i s t e r M a r t i n ' s L i b e r a l s l o s t a m o t i o n o f n o n - c o n f i d e n c e a n d p a r l i a m e n t w a s d i s s o l v e d o n N o v e m b e r 2 8 , 2 0 0 5 . A s t h e y h a d d o n e w h i l e c a m p a i g n i n g f o r t h e f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n i n 2 0 0 4 , t h e N e w D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y a n d B l o c Q u é b é c o i s s t a t e d , d u r i n g t h e l e a d u p t o t h e J a n u a r y 2 0 0 6 e l e c t i o n , t h e i r s u p p o r t f o r a n a p o l o g y a n d r e d r e s s f o r t h e h e a d t a x . S i m i l a r l y , o n D e c e m b e r 8 , 2 0 0 5 , C o n s e r v a t i v e P a r t y l e a d e r S t e p h e n H a r p e r r e l e a s e d a p r e s s s t a t e m e n t e x p r e s s i n g h i s s u p p o r t f o r a n a p o l o g y f o r t h e h e a d t a x . A s a p a r t o f h i s p a r t y p l a t f o r m , H a r p e r p r o m i s e d t o w o r k w i t h t h e C h i n e s e c o m m u n i t y o n r e d r e s s , s h o u l d t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e s b e c a l l e d t o f o r m t h e n e x t g o v e r n m e n t . B e f o r e h i s p a r t y u l t i m a t e l y l o s t t h e e l e c t i o n , M a r t i n i s s u e d a p e r s o n a l a p o l o g y o n a C h i n e s e l a n g u a g e r a d i o p r o g r a m . H o w e v e r , h e w a s q u i c k l y c r i t i c i z e d b y t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n c o m m u n i t y f o r n o t i s s u i n g t h e a p o l o g y i n t h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s a n d f o r t h e n t r y i n g t o d i s m i s s i t c o m p l e t e l y i n t h e E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g m e d i a o n t h e v e r y s a m e d a y . S e v e r a l L i b e r a l c a n d i d a t e s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t C h i n e s e - C a n a d i a n p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e i r r i d i n g s , i n c l u d i n g V a n c o u v e r - K i n g s w a y M P D a v i d E m e r s o n a n d t h e M i n i s t e r o f S t a t e f o r M u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m a n d R i c h m o n d M P R a y m o n d C h a n , a l s o m a d e f u t i l e a t t e m p t s t o c h a n g e t h e i r p o s i t i o n s i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e c a m p a i g n . O t h e r s , s u c h a s E d m o n t o n C e n t r e M P A n n e M c L e l l a n l o s t h e r r i d i n g t o C o n s e r v a t i v e M P L a u r i e H a w n . T h e 2 0 0 6 f e d e r a l e l e c t i o n w a s w o n b y t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e P a r t y , f o r m i n g a m i n o r i t y g o v e r n m e n t . T h r e e d a y s a f t e r t h e b a l l o t s h a d b e e n c o u n t e d o n J a n u a r y 2 3 , b u t b e f o r e h e h a d b e e n a p p o i n t e d p r i m e m i n i s t e r , H a r p e r r e i t e r a t e d h i s p o s i t i o n o n t h e h e a d t a x i s s u e i n a n e w s c o n f e r e n c e : " C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s a r e m a k i n g a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y i m p a c t o n t h e b u i l d i n g o f o u r c o u n t r y . T h e y ' v e a l s o m a d e a s i g n i f i c a n t h i s t o r i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n d e s p i t e m a n y o b s t a c l e s . T h a t ' s w h y , a s I s a i d d u r i n g t h e e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n , t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n c o m m u n i t y d e s e r v e s a n a p o l o g y f o r t h e h e a d t a x a n d a p p r o p r i a t e a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t a n d r e d r e s s . " F o r m a l d i s c u s s i o n s o n t h e f o r m o f a p o l o g y a n d r e d r e s s b e g a n o n M a r c h 2 4 , 2 0 0 6 , w i t h a p r e l i m i n a r y m e e t i n g b e t w e e n C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s r e p r e s e n t i n g v a r i o u s g r o u p s ( i n c l u d i n g s o m e h e a d t a x p a y e r s ) , h e r i t a g e m i n i s t e r B e v O d a , a n d P a r l i a m e n t a r y S e c r e t a r y t o t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r r e s u l t i n g i n t h e " d i s t i n c t p o s s i b i l i t y " o f a n a p o l o g y b e i n g i s s u e d b e f o r e J u l y 1 , 2 0 0 6 , t o c o m m e m o r a t e t h e a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e e n a c t i n g o f t h e " C h i n e s e E x c l u s i o n A c t " o f 1 9 2 3 . T h e m e e t i n g w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t , i n t h e S p e e c h f r o m t h e T h r o n e d e l i v e r e d b y G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l M i c h a ë l l e J e a n o n A p r i l 4 , 2 0 0 6 , t h a t a n a p o l o g y w o u l d b e g i v e n a l o n g w i t h p r o p e r r e d r e s s . T h a t y e a r , f r o m A p r i l 2 1 t o 3 0 , t h e C r o w n - i n - C o u n c i l h o s t e d p u b l i c c o n s u l t a t i o n s a c r o s s C a n a d a , i n c i t i e s m o s t a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e c a m p a i g n : H a l i f a x , V a n c o u v e r , T o r o n t o , E d m o n t o n , M o n t r e a l , a n d W i n n i p e g . T h e y i n c l u d e d t h e p e r s o n a l t e s t i m o n y o f e l d e r s a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f r o m a n u m b e r o f g r o u p s , a m o n g t h e m t h e H a l i f a x R e d r e s s C o m m i t t e e ; t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a C o a l i t i o n o f H e a d T a x P a y e r s , S p o u s e s a n d D e s c e n d a n t s ; A C C E S S ; t h e O n t a r i o C o a l i t i o n o f H e a d T a x P a y e r s a n d F a m i l i e s ; t h e C C N C ; a n d t h e E d m o n t o n R e d r e s s C o m m i t t e e o f t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f A l b e r t a a n d C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n R e d r e s s A l l i a n c e . S o m e c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e m a j o r i s s u e s r e v o l v e a r o u n d t h e c o n t e n t o f a n y s e t t l e m e n t , w i t h t h e l e a d i n g g r o u p s d e m a n d i n g m e a n i n g f u l r e d r e s s , n o t o n l y f o r t h e h a n d f u l o f s u r v i v i n g " h e a d t a x " p a y e r s a n d w i d o w s / s p o u s e s , b u t f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n s o n s / d a u g h t e r s w h o w e r e d i r e c t v i c t i m s , a s t o l d i n t h e d o c u m e n t a r y " L o s t Y e a r s : A P e o p l e ' s S t r u g g l e f o r J u s t i c e " . S o m e h a v e p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e r e d r e s s b e b a s e d o n t h e n u m b e r o f " H e a d T a x " C e r t i f i c a t e s ( o r e s t a t e s ) b r o u g h t f o r w a r d b y s u r v i v i n g s o n s a n d d a u g h t e r s w h o a r e s t i l l a b l e t o r e g i s t e r t h e i r c l a i m s , w i t h p r o p o s a l s f o r i n d i v i d u a l r e d r e s s , r a n g i n g f r o m $ 1 0 , 0 0 0 t o $ 3 0 , 0 0 0 f o r a n e s t i m a t e d 4 , 0 0 0 r e g i s t r a n t s . O n J u n e 2 2 , 2 0 0 6 , i n t h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s f o r t h e f i r s t s e s s i o n o f t h e 3 9 t h P a r l i a m e n t , P r i m e M i n i s t e r S t e p h e n H a r p e r d e l i v e r e d a n o f f i c i a l a p o l o g y t o C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s . D u r i n g h i s a d d r e s s H a r p e r s p o k e a f e w w o r d s i n C a n t o n e s e , " G a N a D a a i D o e H e e p " ( , ' C a n a d a A p o l o g i z e s ' ) , b r e a k i n g t h e P a r l i a m e n t a r y t r a d i t i o n o f s p e a k i n g e i t h e r E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h i n t h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s . T h e a p o l o g y a n d c o m p e n s a t i o n w a s f o r t h e h e a d t a x o n c e p a i d b y C h i n e s e i m m i g r a n t s . S u r v i v o r s o r t h e i r s p o u s e s w e r e p a i d a p p r o x i m a t e l y C A D $ 2 0 , 0 0 0 i n c o m p e n s a t i o n . T h e r e w e r e o n l y a n e s t i m a t e d 2 0 C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s w h o p a i d t h e t a x s t i l l a l i v e i n 2 0 0 6 . A s n o m e n t i o n o f r e d r e s s f o r t h e c h i l d r e n w a s m a d e , t h e C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n c o m m u n i t y c o n t i n u e s t o f i g h t f o r a r e d r e s s f r o m t h e C a n a d i a n g o v e r n m e n t . A n a t i o n a l d a y o f p r o t e s t w a s h e l d t o c o i n c i d e w i t h C a n a d a D a y 2 0 0 6 i n m a j o r c i t i e s a c r o s s C a n a d a , a n d s e v e r a l h u n d r e d C h i n e s e C a n a d i a n s j o i n e d i n l o c a l m a r c h e s .

Redress

The Redress for Text: Act movement started in 1984 when MP Margaret Mitchell raised the issue of repaying the Chinese Head Tax. Despite initial rejection, the movement gained momentum through community activism, research, and court actions. After multiple legal setbacks, an agreement was reached in 2005, leading to an official apology and compensation in 2006. While survivors and spouses received CAD$20,000 each, the community continues to fight for redress for the children of those affected.

Act" was repealed in 1948, various community activists including Wong Foon Sien campaigned the federal government to make its immigration policies more inclusive. However, the redress movement did not begin until 1984, when Vancouver Member of Parliament (MP) Margaret Mitchell raised in the House of Commons of Canada the issue of repaying the Chinese Head Tax for two of her constituents. Over 4,000 other head tax payers and their family members then approached the Chinese Canadian National Council (CCNC) and its member organizations across Canada to register their Head Tax certificates and ask CCNC to represent them to lobby the government for redress. The redress campaign included holding community meetings, gathering support from other groups and prominent people, increasing the media profile, conducting research and published materials, making minister Brian Mulroney made an offer of individual medallions, a museum wing, and other collective measures involving several other redress-seeking communities. These were rejected outright by the Chinese Canadian national groups. In the same year, after Jean Chrétien became prime minister, the Cabinet openly refused to provide an apology or redress. Multiculturalism Minister Sheila Finestone announced in a letter that the government "cannot rewrite history" and would not grant financial compensation or redress to groups for past injustices. Instead, the letter confirmed $24 million in financing for a Canadian Race Relations Foundation, an idea raised by the previous Conservative government. Still, the CCNC and its supporters continued to raise the issue whenever they could, including a submission to the United Nations Human Rights Commission and eventually undertaking court action against the Crown-in-Council, arguing that the federal Crown should not be profiting from racism and that it had a responsibility under the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" and international human rights law. In addition, it argued the 1988 apology and compensation for the internment of Japanese Canadians during the Second World War established a precedent for redressing other racially motivated policies. In a $1.2 billion legal challenge, an Ontario court declared in 2001 that the Government of Canada had no obligation to redress the head tax levied on Chinese immigrants because the Charter had no retroactive application and the case of internment of Japanese Canadians was not a legal precedent. Two subsequent appeals in 2002 and 2003 were also unsuccessful. Following the legal setbacks, community activism and Related Intolerance, concluded that Canada should redress the head tax to Chinese Canadians in response to a submission by May Chiu, legal counsel to the Chinese Canadian Redress Alliance. In 2005, Gim Wong, an 82-year-old son of two head tax payers and a World War II veteran, conducted a cross-country Ride for Redress on his Harley Davidson motorcycle, where upon his arrival in Ottawa Prime Minister Paul Martin refused to meet him. On November 17, 2005, a group calling itself the National Congress of Chinese Canadians (NCCC) announced that an agreement had been reached between 11 Chinese-Canadian groups and the federal Cabinet, wherein the Queen-in-Council would pay $12.5 million for the creation of a new non-profit foundation to educate Canadians about anti-Chinese discrimination, with a specific pre-condition form of apology and redress began on March 24, 2006, with a preliminary meeting between Chinese Canadians representing various groups (including some head tax payers), heritage minister Bev Oda, and Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister resulting in the "distinct possibility" of an apology being issued before July 1, 2006, to commemorate the anniversary of the enacting of the "Chinese Exclusion Act" of 1923. The meeting was followed by the government's acknowledgement, in the Speech from the Throne delivered by Governor General Michaëlle Jean on April 4, 2006, that an apology would be given along with proper redress. That year, from April 21 to 30, the Crown-in-Council hosted public consultations across Canada, in cities most actively involved in the campaign: Halifax, Vancouver, Toronto, Edmonton, Montreal, and Winnipeg. They included the personal testimony of elders and representatives from a number of groups, among them the Halifax Redress Committee; the British Columbia Coalition of Head Tax Payers, Spouses and Descendants; ACCESS; the Ontario Coalition of Head Tax Payers and Families; the CCNC; and the Edmonton Redress Committee of the Chinese Canadian Historical Association of Alberta and Chinese Canadian Redress Alliance. Some considered that the major issues revolve around the content of any settlement, with the leading groups demanding meaningful redress, not only for the handful of surviving "head tax" payers and widows/spouses, but first-generation sons/daughters who were direct victims, as told in the documentary "Lost Years: A People's Struggle for Justice". Some have proposed that the redress be based on the number of "Head Tax" Certificates (or estates) brought forward by surviving sons and daughters who are still able to register their claims, with proposals for individual redress, ranging from $10,000 to $30,000 for an estimated 4,000 registrants. On June 22, 2006, in the House of Commons for the first session of the 39th Parliament, Prime Minister Stephen Harper delivered an official apology to Chinese Canadians. During his address Harper spoke a few words in Cantonese, "Ga Na Daai Doe Heep" (, 'Canada Apologizes'), breaking the Parliamentary tradition of speaking either English and French in the House of Commons. The apology and compensation was for the head tax once paid by Chinese immigrants. Survivors or their spouses were paid approximately CAD$20,000 in compensation. There were only an estimated 20 Chinese Canadians who paid the tax still alive in 2006. As no mention of redress for the children was made, the Chinese Canadian community continues to fight for a redress from the Canadian government. A national day of protest was held to coincide with Canada Day 2006 in major cities across Canada, and several hundred Chinese Canadians joined in local marches.

Thomas Dinesen

H e w a s b o r n i n a n a f f l u e n t a n d l a n d e d ( b u t b o u r g e o i s r a t h e r t h a n a r i s t o c r a t i c ) f a m i l y i n R u n g s t e d , D e n m a r k . F o l l o w i n g t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r , D i n e s e n a t t e m p t e d t o e n l i s t i n t h e B r i t i s h , F r e n c h , a n d U n i t e d S t a t e s a r m i e s , b e f o r e f i n a l l y b e i n g a c c e p t e d b y t h e C a n a d i a n C o r p s i n 1 9 1 7 . H e e n l i s t e d i n t h e 2 3 6 t h B a t t a l i o n ( N e w B r u n s w i c k K i l t i e s ) , C E F b e f o r e t r a n s f e r r i n g t o t h e 4 2 n d B a t t a l i o n , C a n a d i a n E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e : t h e R o y a l H i g h l a n d e r R e g i m e n t , k n o w n a s t h e B l a c k W a t c h o f C a n a d a . T h e M a c L e a n K i l t i e s w e r e t h e 2 3 6 t h C a n a d i a n B a t t a l i o n , r e c r u i t e d i n N o v a S c o t i a . I t r e a c h e d E n g l a n d i n 1 9 1 7 a n d w a s b r o k e n u p f o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t s . D u r i n g t h e B a t t l e o f A m i e n s h e w a s 2 6 y e a r s o l d , a n d a p r i v a t e i n t h e 4 2 n d Q u e b e c R e g i m e n t ( R o y a l H i g h l a n d e r s o f C a n a d a ) B a t t a l i o n , C a n a d i a n E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e w h e n , o n 1 2 A u g u s t 1 9 1 8 a t P a r v i l l e r s , F r a n c e , h e d i s p l a y e d c o n s p i c u o u s b r a v e r y w h e n , f i v e t i m e s i n s u c c e s s i o n , h e r u s h e d f o r w a r d a l o n e a g a i n s t e n t r e n c h e d e n e m y t r o o p s a n d p u t h o s t i l e g u n s o u t o f a c t i o n . H e w a s c r e d i t e d w i t h k i l l i n g 1 2 o f t h e e n e m y u s i n g b o t h b a y o n e t a n d g r e n a d e , a n d w i t h i n s p i r i n g h i s c o m r a d e s a t a v e r y c r i t i c a l s t a g e o f t h e a c t i o n . F o r t h i s a c t i o n , D i n e s e n w a s a w a r d e d t h e V i c t o r i a C r o s s ( o r V C ) . H e a l s o r e c e i v e d t h e F r e n c h C r o i x d e g u e r r e H i s n a m e a p p e a r s o n t h e L i s t o f C a n a d i a n V i c t o r i a C r o s s r e c i p i e n t s . H e w a s c o m m i s s i o n e d . a n d l a t e r a c h i e v e d t h e r a n k o f l i e u t e n a n t . O n 7 A u g u s t 1 9 1 8 , w h i l s t w a i t i n g t o g o i n t o a c t i o n , D i n e s e n w r o t e o f h i s n i g h t i n G e n t e l l e s W o o d : ' A l l d a y l o n g w e r e s t e d i n t h i s p l e a s a n t s p o t - w e e v e n h a d p e r m i s s i o n t o m a k e a l i t t l e f i r e h e r e a n d t h e r e u n d e r a t h i c k l y b r a n c h e d t r e e a n d d o a b i t o f c o o k i n g . T h e r e g u l a r m e a l s a r e g o o d a n d p l e n t i f u l , o f c o u r s e , b u t w e n e v e r m i s s a c h a n c e o f e a t i n g u n l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s o f e x t r a f o o d . T h e l a s t t i n o f b a k e d b e a n s w a s o p e n e d - t h e r e ' s n o r e a s o n t o g o i n t o b a t t l e w i t h a h a v e r s a c k h e a v i e r t h a n w a s a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y ! W e w a s h e d a n d s h a v e d c a r e f u l l y i n o r d e r t o l o o k o u r b e s t b e f o r e F r i t z . . . O u r e q u i p m e n t w a s i n s p e c t e d f o r t h e l a s t t i m e : G a s - m a s k s , r i f l e s , a m m u n i t i o n , s h a v i n g k i t , i r o n r a t i o n s - e v e r y t h i n g w a s O K . S o m e o f u s w e r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a n e x t r a g i f t - m i n e w a s a b i g a n d h e a v y b a g c o n t a i n i n g a d o z e n o r s o M i l l s b o m b s ! J u s t b e f o r e s u n s e t w e h a d t o f a l l i n f o r a f i n a l p a r a d e . T h e n s u p p e r - a n d a t l 0 p m w e w e r e a g a i n f i g h t i n g o u r w a y t h r o u g h t h e t h r o n g o n t h e A m i e n s - R o y e r o a d . ' T h o m a s ' s s i s t e r , t h e f a m o u s D a n i s h a u t h o r K a r e n , ( w h o m h e , a n d m o s t o f t h e i r D a n i s h f r i e n d s , c a l l e d " T a n n e " ) l a t e r w r o t e t h a t h e r b r o t h e r ' s b r a v e r y , a n d t h e r e c o g n i t i o n f r o m t h e B r i t i s h C r o w n , i n s o m e m e a s u r e s a v e d h e r o w n r e p u t a t i o n i n t h e c o m m u n i t y o f B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l s a m o n g w h o m s h e l i v e d i n B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a . A c c o r d i n g t o B l i x e n , s h e h a d i n a d v e r t e n t l y a l i e n a t e d m a n y o f h e r n e i g h b o r s b y h e l p i n g t o b u y h o r s e s f o r a G e r m a n o f f i c e r s h e m e t o n b o a r d s h i p w h i l e s a i l i n g t o K e n y a f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . O n l y m o n t h s l a t e r t h i s o f f i c e r , G e n e r a l P a u l E m i l v o n L e t t o w - V o r b e c k , w a s n a m e d c o m m a n d e r o f t h e G e r m a n f o r c e s i n E a s t A f r i c a , a n d w a g e d a n e f f e c t i v e c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t B l i x e n ' s E n g l i s h n e i g h b o r s . B l i x e n c o m m e n t e d t h a t t h e s u s p i c i o n a n d r e s e n t m e n t t h i s a r o u s e d i n h e r f e l l o w c o l o n i s t s o n l y s u b s i d e d a f t e r h e r b r o t h e r w o n t h e V C . I n 1 9 1 8 , T h o m a s D i n e s e n m o v e d t o B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a t o h e l p h i s s i s t e r m a n a g e h e r c o f f e e f a r m i n t h e N g o n g h i l l s s o u t h w e s t o f N a i r o b i . H e w a s h i s m e r c u r i a l s i s t e r ' s m o s t r e l i a b l e c o n f i d a n t . H e d e s i g n e d a n d l a r g e l y b u i l t t h e f a r m ' s c o f f e e - r o a s t i n g p l a n t ( w h i c h l a t e r b u r n e d d o w n ) . E a r l y i n 1 9 2 3 , T h o m a s l e f t t h e c o l o n i a l l i f e a n d r e t u r n e d t o D e n m a r k . I n h i s l a t e r y e a r s h e t o o k u p w r i t i n g , a n d w r o t e a n u m b e r o f b o o k s i n D a n i s h . T h e b e s t k n o w n i s " T a n n e " , a b o u t h i s f a m o u s s i s t e r . I n 1 9 2 9 h e p u b l i s h e d t h e b o o k " N o m a n ' s l a n d : E n d a n s k e r m e d c a n a d i e r n e v e d v e s t f r o n t e n . " I t w a s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h i n 1 9 3 0 u n d e r t h e t i t l e " M e r r y H e l l ! : A D a n e w i t h t h e C a n a d i a n s . " T h e b o o k d e s c r i b e s h i s t r o u b l e s o m e w a y t o t h e W e s t e r n F r o n t a s w e l l a s t h e e v e n t s t h a t w o n h i m t h e V C . H e d i e d i n 1 9 7 9 . H e i s b u r i e d i n H ø r s h o l m C h u r c h y a r d , H ø r s h o l m , D e n m a r k . H i s V C a n d o t h e r m e d a l s a r e h e l d i n t h e L o r d A s h c r o f t V C c o l l e c t i o n i n t h e I m p e r i a l W a r M u s e u m .

Details

Thomas Dinesen was born in Denmark to an affluent family. He enlisted in the Canadian Corps during WWI and served in the 42nd Battalion, earning the Victoria Cross for his bravery during the Battle of Amiens. After the war, he helped his sister, author Karen Blixen, manage her coffee farm in British East Africa before returning to Denmark and taking up writing.

He was born in an affluent and landed (but bourgeois rather than aristocratic) family in Rungsted, Denmark. Following the outbreak of the First World War, Dinesen attempted to enlist in the British, French, and United States armies, before finally being accepted by the Canadian Corps in 1917. He enlisted in the 236th Battalion (New Brunswick Kilties), CEF before transferring to the 42nd Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force: the Royal Highlander Regiment, known as the Black Watch of Canada. The MacLean Kilties were the 236th Canadian Battalion, recruited in Nova Scotia. It reached England in 1917 and was broken up for reinforcements. During the Battle of Amiens he was 26 years old, and a private in the 42nd Quebec Regiment (Royal Highlanders of Canada) Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force when, on 12 August 1918 at Parvillers, France, he displayed conspicuous bravery when, five times in succession, he rushed forward alone against entrenched enemy troops and put hostile guns out of action. He was credited with killing 12 of the enemy using both bayonet and grenade, and with inspiring his comrades at a very critical stage of the action. For this action, Dinesen was awarded the Victoria Cross (or VC). He also received the French Croix de guerre His name appears on the List of Canadian Victoria Cross recipients. He was commissioned. and later achieved the rank of lieutenant. On 7 August 1918, whilst waiting to go into action, Dinesen wrote of his night in Gentelles Wood: 'All day long we rested in this pleasant spot - we even had permission to make a little fire here and there under a thickly branched tree and do a bit of cooking. The regular meals are good and plentiful, of course, but we never miss a chance of eating unlimited quantities of extra food. The last tin of baked beans was opened - there's no reason to go into battle with a haversack heavier than was absolutely necessary! We washed and shaved carefully in order to look our best before Fritz ... Our equipment was inspected for the last time: Gas-masks, rifles, ammunition, shaving kit, iron rations - everything was OK. Some of us were presented with an extra gift - mine was a big and heavy bag containing a dozen or so Mills bombs! Just before sunset we had to fall in for a final parade. Then supper - and at l0pm we were again fighting our way through the throng on the Amiens - Roye road.' Thomas's sister, the famous Danish author Karen, (whom he, and most of their Danish friends, called "Tanne") later wrote that her brother's bravery, and the recognition from the British Crown, in some measure saved her own reputation in the community of British colonials among whom she lived in British East Africa. According to Blixen, she had inadvertently alienated many of her neighbors by helping to buy horses for a German officer she met on board ship while sailing to Kenya for the first time. Only months later this officer, General Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck, was named commander of the German forces in East Africa, and waged an effective campaign against Blixen's English neighbors. Blixen commented that the suspicion and resentment this aroused in her fellow colonists only subsided after her brother won the VC. In 1918, Thomas Dinesen moved to British East Africa to help his sister manage her coffee farm in the Ngong hills southwest of Nairobi. He was his mercurial sister's most reliable confidant. He designed and largely built the farm's coffee-roasting plant (which later burned down). Early in 1923, Thomas left the colonial life and returned to Denmark. In his later years he took up writing, and wrote a number of books in Danish. The best known is "Tanne", about his famous sister. In 1929 he published the book "No man's land: En dansker med canadierne ved vestfronten." It was translated into English in 1930 under the title "Merry Hell!: A Dane with the Canadians." The book describes his troublesome way to the Western Front as well as the events that won him the VC. He died in 1979. He is buried in Hørsholm Churchyard, Hørsholm, Denmark. His VC and other medals are held in the Lord Ashcroft VC collection in the Imperial War Museum.

Lehigh Valley Railroad

T h e D e l a w a r e , L e h i g h , S c h u y l k i l l a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( D L S & S ) w a s a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o n A p r i l 2 1 , 1 8 4 6 , t o c o n s t r u c t a r a i l r o a d f r o m M a u c h C h u n k , P e n n s y l v a n i a , ( n o w J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e r a i l r o a d w o u l d r u n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L e h i g h R i v e r a n d b r e a k t h e L e h i g h C o a l a n d N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ' s m o n o p o l y o n c o a l t r a f f i c o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . T h e r a i l r o a d w a s c h a r t e r e d o n A u g u s t 2 , 1 8 4 7 , a n d e l e c t e d J a m e s M . P o r t e r i t s p r e s i d e n t o n O c t o b e r 2 1 . L i t t l e o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1 8 4 7 a n d 1 8 5 1 , s a v e s o m e l i m i t e d g r a d i n g n e a r A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . A l l t h i s c h a n g e d i n O c t o b e r 1 8 5 1 , w h e n A s a P a c k e r t o o k m a j o r i t y c o n t r o l o f t h e D L S & S . P a c k e r b r o u g h t a d d i t i o n a l f i n a n c i n g t o t h e r a i l r o a d , i n s t a l l e d R o b e r t H . S a y r e a s c h i e f e n g i n e e r , a n d r e n a m e d t h e c o m p a n y t h e " L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . " C o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n i n e a r n e s t i n 1 8 5 3 , a n d t h e l i n e o p e n e d b e t w e e n E a s t o n a n d A l l e n t o w n o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e s e c t i o n b e t w e e n A l l e n t o w n a n d M a u c h C h u n k o p e n e d o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R i n t e r c h a n g e d c o a l a t t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r w h e r e c o a l c o u l d b e s h i p p e d t o P h i l a d e l p h i a o n t h e D e l a w a r e D i v i s i o n C a n a l o r t r a n s p o r t e d a c r o s s t h e r i v e r t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , w h e r e t h e M o r r i s C a n a l a n d t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y ( C N J ) c o u l d c a r r y i t t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y m a r k e t . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d a d o u b l e - d e c k e d b r i d g e a c r o s s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f o r c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e C N J a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d i n P h i l l i p s b u r g . T h r o u g h a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , L V R R p a s s e n g e r s h a d a r o u t e t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y , J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y , a n d o t h e r p o i n t s i n N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R ' s r o l l i n g s t o c k w a s h i r e d f r o m t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y a n d a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h t h e C N J t o r u n t w o p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s f r o m E a s t o n t o M a u c h C h u n k c o n n e c t i n g w i t h t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a t r a i n s o n t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d . A d a i l y f r e i g h t t r a i n w a s p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n l e a v i n g E a s t o n i n t h e m o r n i n g a n d r e t u r n i n g i n t h e e v e n i n g . I n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f O c t o b e r 1 8 5 5 , a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h H o w a r d & C o o f P h i l a d e l p h i a t o d o t h e f r e i g h t i n g b u s i n e s s o f t h e r a i l r o a d ( e x c e p t c o a l , i r o n , a n d i r o n o r e ) . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n w a s 4 6 m i l e s o f s i n g l e t r a c k . T h e l i n e w a s l a i d w i t h a r a i l w e i g h i n g 5 6 p o u n d s p e r y a r d s u p p o r t e d u p o n c r o s s t i e s 6 x 7 i n c h e s a n d 7 - 1 / 2 f e e t l o n g p l a c e d 2 f e e t a p a r t a n d a b o u t a q u a r t e r o f i t w a s b a l l a s t e d w i t h s t o n e o r g r a v e l . T h e l i n e h a d a d e s c e n d i n g o r l e v e l g r a d e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e c u r v e a t M a u c h C h u n k h a d n o c u r v e o f l e s s t h a n 7 0 0 f e e t r a d i u s . T h e L V R R c o n n e c t e d a t M a u c h C h u n k w i t h t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d . T h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d h a d b e e n b u i l t i n 1 8 3 6 , a n d i t t r a n s p o r t e d a n t h r a c i t e c o a l f r o m J e a n s v i l l e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a ' s M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d t o t h e L e h i g h C a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k . F o r 2 5 y e a r s t h e L e h i g h C a n a l h a d e n j o y e d a m o n o p o l y o n d o w n s t r e a m t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d w a s c h a r g i n g i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r s h i g h f e e s . W h e n t h e L V R R o p e n e d , t h o s e p r o d u c e r s e a g e r l y s e n t t h e i r p r o d u c t b y t h e r a i l r o a d i n s t e a d o f c a n a l , a n d w i t h i n t w o y e a r s o f i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e L V R R w a s c a r r y i n g o v e r 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y . B y 1 8 5 9 i t h a d 6 0 0 c o a l c a r s a n d 1 9 e n g i n e s . T h e L V R R i m m e d i a t e l y b e c a m e t h e t r u n k l i n e d o w n t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w i t h n u m e r o u s f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s c o n n e c t i n g a n d c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i t s t r a f f i c . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d c a m e t o t h e L V R R o v e r f e e d e r s t o t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w : t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d , t h e C a t a w i s s a , W i l l i a m s p o r t a n d E r i e R a i l r o a d , t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d , t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d a n d o t h e r s m a l l e r l i n e s . A t C a t a s a u q u a , t h e C a t a s a u q u a a n d F o g e l s v i l l e R a i l r o a d t r a n s p o r t e d c o a l , o r e , l i m e s t o n e a n d i r o n f o r f u r n a c e s o f t h e T h o m a s I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h C r a n e I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y I r o n W o r k s , t h e C a r b o n I r o n C o m p a n y , a n d o t h e r s . A t B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e N o r t h P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d w h i c h w a s c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g t h e S u m m e r o f 1 8 5 6 , p r o v i d e d a r a i l c o n n e c t i o n t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d t h u s b r o u g h t t h e L V R R a d i r e c t l i n e t o P h i l a d e l p h i a . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d c o n n e c t e d t o T r e n t o n , N e w J e r s e y . T o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e g a u g e o f t h e B e l v i d e r e , t h e c a r s w e r e f u r n i s h e d w i t h w h e e l s h a v i n g w i d e t r e a d s t h a t o p e r a t e d o n b o t h r o a d s . T h e 1 8 6 0 s s a w a n e x p a n s i o n o f t h e L V R R n o r t h w a r d t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d u p t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e . A s a P a c k e r w a s e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o n J a n u a r y 1 3 , 1 8 6 2 . I n 1 8 6 4 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a c q u i r i n g f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s a n d m e r g i n g t h e m w i t h i t s s y s t e m . T h e f i r s t a c q u i s i t i o n s w e r e t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d a n d C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , a n d t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d . T h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n w a s t h e f i r s t s t e p i n e x p a n d i n g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . T h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d a l l o w e d t h e L V t o r e a c h W h i t e H a v e n . I n 1 8 6 6 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h a n d M a h a n o y R a i l r o a d ( o r i g i n a l l y t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d ) a n d t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l a l o n g t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r , r e n a m i n g i t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d N e w Y o r k C a n a l & R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ( P & N Y ) . T h e p u r c h a s i n g o f t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l s a w a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a n e a r m o n o p o l y i n t h e r e g i o n n o r t h o f t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . I n 1 8 6 6 , t w o y e a r s a f t e r t h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n , t h e e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e o p e n e d . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r a i l l i n e t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e s t a r t e d i m m e d i a t e l y a n d , i n 1 8 6 7 , t h e l i n e w a s c o m p l e t e f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e t o W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k , w h e r e c o a l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b r o a d g a u g e E r i e R a i l r o a d a n d s h i p p e d t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s t h r o u g h B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e P e n n H a v e n & W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 4 , a n d b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e t h a t w a s o p e n e d i n 1 8 6 7 . B y 1 8 6 9 , t h e L V R R o w n e d a c o n t i n u o u s t r a c k t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a f r o m E a s t o n t o W a v e r l y . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e L V R R — a s t a n d a r d g a u g e r a i l r o a d — c o m p l e t e d a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d , a t t h a t t i m e h a v i n g a s i x - f o o t g a u g e , f o r a t h i r d r a i l w i t h i n t h e E r i e m a i n l i n e t r a c k s t o e n a b l e t h e L V e q u i p m e n t t o r u n t h r o u g h t o E l m i r a a n d l a t e r t o B u f f a l o . F u r t h e r r o u n d s o f a c q u i s i t i o n s t o o k p l a c e i n 1 8 6 8 . T h e a c q u i s i t i o n s i n 1 8 6 8 w e r e n o t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e L V R R ' s s t r a t e g y o f a c q u i r i n g c o a l l a n d s t o e n s u r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a f f i c f o r i t s o w n l i n e s . A l t h o u g h t h e 1 8 6 4 a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w h a d i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , b y 1 8 6 8 t h e L V R R w a s f e e l i n g p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n a n d t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d i n t h e n o r t h e r n W y o m i n g V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d , w h e r e t h e r a i l r o a d s m i n e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d t h e i r o w n c o a l a t a m u c h r e d u c e d c o s t . T h e L V R R r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i t s o w n c o n t i n u e d p r o s p e r i t y d e p e n d e d o n o b t a i n i n g w h a t c o a l l a n d s r e m a i n e d . I n p u r s u i t o f t h a t s t r a t e g y , t h e 1 8 6 8 p u r c h a s e s o f t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d a n d t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d b r o u g h t o f c o a l l a n d t o t h e L V R R , a n d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d s w e r e a c q u i r e d a l o n g b r a n c h e s o f t h e L V R R . O v e r t h e n e x t d o z e n y e a r s t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d : i n 1 8 7 0 , i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a C o a l C o m p a n y i n 1 8 7 3 w i t h i t s l a r g e l e a s e s i n t h e M a h a n o y b a s i n . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e h o l d i n g s w e r e c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h w a s w h o l l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R . B y 1 8 9 3 , t h e L V R R o w n e d o r c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l l a n d s . W i t h t h e s e a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L V R R o b t a i n e d t h e r i g h t t o m i n e c o a l a s w e l l a s t r a n s p o r t i t . T h e 1 8 7 0 s w i t n e s s e d c o m m e n c e m e n t o f e x t e n s i o n o f t h e L V R R i n a n e w d i r e c t i o n . I n t h e 1 8 7 0 s t h e L V R R a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d s t a r t i n g a t i n 1 8 7 0 , w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l o f i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d t u r n e d i t s e y e t o w a r d e x p a n s i o n a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y a l l t h e w a y t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . I n 1 8 7 0 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s t o A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t i n t h e e a s t w a s N e w Y o r k C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R w a s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l f o r t r a n s p o r t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e L V R R l e a s e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l , w h i c h h a d a v a l u a b l e o u t l e t i n J e r s e y C i t y o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r o p p o s i t e M a n h a t t a n . A s a P a c k e r p u r c h a s e d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d a t t h e c a n a l b a s i n i n s u p p o r t o f t h e N e w J e r s e y W e s t L i n e R a i l r o a d , w h i c h h e h o p e d t o u s e a s t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . T h a t p r o j e c t f a i l e d , b u t t h e l a n d s w e r e l a t e r u s e d f o r t h e L V R R ' s o w n t e r m i n a l i n 1 8 8 9 . T h e C N J , a n t i c i p a t i n g t h a t t h e L V R R i n t e n d e d t o c r e a t e i t s o w n l i n e a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y , p r o t e c t e d i t s e l f b y l e a s i n g t h e L e h i g h a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( L & S ) t o e n s u r e a c o n t i n u i n g s u p p l y o f c o a l t r a f f i c . T h e L & S h a d b e e n c h a r t e r e d i n 1 8 3 7 b y t h e L e h i g h C o a l & N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ( t h e L e h i g h C a n a l c o m p a n y ) t o c o n n e c t t h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e c a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . A f t e r t h e L V R R o p e n e d i t s l i n e , t h e L e h i g h & S u s q u e h a n n a e x t e n d e d t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s a n d E s s e x R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 8 . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e e n t i r e l i n e f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e w a s l e a s e d t o t h e C N J . F o r m o s t o f i t s l e n g t h , i t r a n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L V R R . T h e L V R R f o u n d t h a t t h e r o u t e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l w a s i m p r a c t i c a l f o r u s e a s a r a i l r o a d l i n e , s o i n 1 8 7 2 t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e d o r m a n t c h a r t e r o f t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k R a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d a c c e s s t o t h e P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y h a r b o r , a n d a d d e d t o i t a n e w c h a r t e r , t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n R a i l r o a d . T h e S t a t e o f N e w J e r s e y p a s s e d l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o c o n s o l i d a t e i t s N e w J e r s e y r a i l r o a d s i n t o o n e c o m p a n y ; t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k a n d t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n w e r e m e r g e d t o f o r m a n e w r a i l r o a d c o m p a n y c a l l e d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ( o r E a s t o n & A m b o y R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ) . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a r a i l r o a d b u i l t a c r o s s c e n t r a l N e w J e r s e y b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d t o r u n f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y t o B o u n d B r o o k , N e w J e r s e y a n d i t w a s b u i l t t o c o n n e c t t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d c o a l - h a u l i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y t o s e r v e c o n s u m e r m a r k e t s i n t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e P h i l l i p s b u r g c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C N J t h a t h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n t h e o n l y o u t l e t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r ; u n t i l i t w a s b u i l t , t h e t e r m i n u s o f t h e L V R R h a d b e e n a t P h i l l i p s b u r g o n t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r o p p o s i t e E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s u s e d a s a c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , w i t h a t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . C o n s t r u c t i o n c o m m e n c e d i n 1 8 7 2 a s s o o n t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s f o r m e d ; c o a l d o c k s a t P e r t h A m b o y w e r e s o o n c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d m o s t o f t h e l i n e f r o m E a s t o n t o P e r t h A m b o y w a s g r a d e d a n d r a i l s l a i d . H o w e v e r , t h e r o u t e r e q u i r e d a t u n n e l t h r o u g h / u n d e r M u s c o n e t c o n g M o u n t a i n n e a r P a t t e n b u r g , N e w J e r s e y ( a b o u t t w e l v e m i l e s e a s t o f P h i l l i p s b u r g ) , a n d t h a t p r o v e d t r o u b l e s o m e , d e l a y i n g t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e l i n e u n t i l M a y 1 8 7 5 , w h e n a c o a l t r a i n f i r s t p a s s e d o v e r t h e l i n e . T o s u p p o r t t h e e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s e i n t r a f f i c , t h e w o o d e n b r i d g e o v e r t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r a t E a s t o n w a s a l s o r e p l a c e d b y a d o u b l e - t r a c k e d , i r o n b r i d g e . A t P e r t h A m b o y , a t i d e w a t e r t e r m i n a l w a s b u i l t o n t h e A r t h u r K i l l c o m p r i s i n g a l a r g e c o a l d o c k u s e d t o t r a n s p o r t c o a l i n t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . T h e s e t r a c k s w e r e l a i d a n d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s o p e n e d f o r b u s i n e s s o n J u n e 2 8 , 1 8 7 5 w i t h h a u l i n g c o a l . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y ' s o p e r a t i o n s w e r e l a b e l e d t h e " N e w J e r s e y D i v i s i o n " o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y h a d a l r e a d y c o m p l e t e d l a r g e d o c k s a n d f a c i l i t i e s f o r s h i p p i n g c o a l a t P e r t h A m b o y u p o n a n e x t e n s i v e t r a c t o f l a n d f r o n t i n g t h e A r t h u r K i l l . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f a n t h r a c i t e m o v e d t o P e r t h A m b o y d u r i n g t h a t y e a r f o r t r a n s s h i p m e n t b y w a t e r . O p e r a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e L V R R ' s b a n k r u p t c y i n 1 9 7 6 . T h e m a r s h a l l i n g y a r d i s n o w t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a k n o w n a s H a r b o r t o w n . P a s s e n g e r t r a f f i c o n t h e L V R R ' s E a s t o n a n d A m b o y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ( P R R ) a t M e t u c h e n , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n t i n u e d t o t h e P R R ' S E x c h a n g e P l a c e t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y ( t h a t c o n n e c t i o n w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 8 9 1 a f t e r t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d ) . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e p a r e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e L V R R f i n a n c e d t h e a d d i t i o n o f a t h i r d r a i l t o t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e s o t h a t c a r s c o u l d r o l l d i r e c t l y f r o m c o l l i e r y t o t h e p o r t a t B u f f a l o . W h i l e t h e t h i r d r a i l o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e b e t w e e n W a v e r l y a n d B u f f a l o g a v e t h e L V R R a n u n b r o k e n c o n n e c t i o n t o B u f f a l o , t h e r o a d ' s m a n a g e m e n t d e s i r e d i t s o w n l i n e i n t o B u f f a l o . T h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d p a s s e d i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e L V R R i n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 6 , w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e n e a r S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k , a d i s t a n c e o f 7 5 m i l e s . O n M a y 1 7 , 1 8 7 9 , A s a P a c k e r , t h e c o m p a n y ' s f o u n d e r a n d l e a d e r , d i e d a t t h e a g e o f 7 3 . A t t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h , t h e r a i l r o a d w a s s h i p p i n g 4 . 4 m i l l i o n t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y o v e r o f t r a c k , u s i n g 2 3 5 e n g i n e s , 2 4 , 4 6 1 c o a l c a r s , a n d o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 f r e i g h t c a r s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s . T h e c o m p a n y c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l - p r o d u c i n g l a n d s a n d w a s e x p a n d i n g r a p i d l y i n t o N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y . T h e r a i l r o a d h a d s u r v i v e d t h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n o f 1 8 7 3 a n d w a s s e e i n g i t s b u s i n e s s r e c o v e r . L e a d e r s h i p o f t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s f e r r e d s m o o t h l y t o C h a r l e s H a r t s h o r n e w h o h a d b e e n v i c e p r e s i d e n t u n d e r P a c k e r . I n 1 8 8 3 , H a r t s h o r n e r e t i r e d t o a l l o w H a r r y E . P a c k e r , A s a ' s 3 2 - y e a r - o l d y o u n g e s t s o n , t o a s s u m e t h e P r e s i d e n c y . A y e a r l a t e r , H a r r y P a c k e r d i e d o f i l l n e s s , a n d A s a ' s 5 1 - y e a r - o l d n e p h e w E l i s h a P a c k e r W i l b u r w a s e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t , a p o s i t i o n h e h e l d f o r 1 3 y e a r s . T h e 1 8 8 0 s c o n t i n u e d t o b e a p e r i o d o f g r o w t h , a n d t h e L V R R m a d e i m p o r t a n t a c q u i s i t i o n s i n N e w Y o r k , e x p a n d e d i t s r e a c h i n t o t h e s o u t h e r n c o a l f i e l d o f P e n n s y l v a n i a w h i c h h a d h i t h e r t o b e e n t h e m o n o p o l y o f t h e R e a d i n g , a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y b a t t l e d t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . I n 1 8 8 0 , t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e t o o p e r a t e a f l e e t o f s h i p s o n t h e G r e a t L a k e s w i t h t e r m i n a l s i n C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , a n d D u l u t h . T h i s c o m p a n y b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e m o v e m e n t o f a n t h r a c i t e , g r a i n a n d p a c k a g e f r e i g h t b e t w e e n B u f f a l o , C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , D u l u t h , S u p e r i o r a n d o t h e r m i d w e s t e r n c i t i e s . F o l l o w i n g F e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s u c h s e r v i c e , t h e l a k e l i n e w a s s o l d t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s i n 1 9 2 0 . T h e p o r t o n L a k e E r i e a t B u f f a l o w a s c r i t i c a l t o t h e L V R R ' s s h i p m e n t s o f c o a l t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s a n d f o r r e c e i p t o f g r a i n s e n t b y t h e W e s t t o e a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l t h o u g h i n 1 8 7 0 t h e L V R R h a d i n v e s t e d i n t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k R a i l r o a d w h i c h c o n n e c t e d t h e E r i e t o t h e l a k e f r o n t , a n d h a d c o n s t r u c t e d t h e L e h i g h D o c k s o n B u f f a l o C r e e k , i t d e p e n d e d o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d f o r t h e c o n n e c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k t o B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . I n 1 8 8 2 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a n e x t e n s i v e e x p a n s i o n i n t o N e w Y o r k f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o . C o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o w a s s p l i t i n t o t w o p r o j e c t s , W a v e r l y t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k a n d G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o ( G e n e v a i s l o c a t e d a t t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f S e n e c a L a k e ) . F i r s t , i t p u r c h a s e d a l a r g e p a r c e l o f l a n d i n B u f f a l o , t h e T i f f t f a r m , f o r u s e a s t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s , a n d o b t a i n e d a N e w Y o r k c h a r t e r f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y ( a s i m i l a r n a m e t o t h e L V R R , b u t w i t h " r a i l w a y " i n s t e a d ) . L V R R s u b s i d i a r y , L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e m a i n l i n e ' s n o r t h e r n p a r t f r o m B u f f a l o t o L a n c a s t e r , N e w Y o r k i n 1 8 8 3 , a t o t a l d i s t a n c e o f t e n m i l e s . T h i s w a s t h e s e c o n d s t e p t o w a r d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a d i r e c t r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o , t h e f i r s t b e i n g t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d . T h e n i n 1 8 8 7 t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o b t a i n e d a l e a s e o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d ( t h e L V R R p r e v i o u s l y h a d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s o n t h e r a i l r o a d s t a r t i n g i n 1 8 7 0 ) , w h i c h h a d a r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y n o r t h w a r d i n t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e L V R R o r g a n i z e d t h e B u f f a l o a n d G e n e v a R a i l r o a d t o b u i l d t h e r e s t o f t h e 9 7 - m i l e G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o t r a c k a g e , f r o m G e n e v a t o L a n c a s t e r . F i n a l l y , i n 1 8 8 9 , t h e L V R R g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a , a n d S a y r e R a i l r o a d a n d c o m p l e t e d i t s l i n e o f r a i l t h r o u g h N e w Y o r k . A s a r e s u l t o f i t s l e a s e s a n d a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y g a i n e d a n e a r - m o n o p o l y o n t r a f f i c i n t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . I t a l s o c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w a n d d e v e l o p i t s r o u t e s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n 1 8 8 3 t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d l a n d i n n o r t h e a s t P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d f o r m e d a s u b s i d i a r y c a l l e d T h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l a n d L a n d C o m p a n y . I t o p e n e d a h o t e l i n G l e n S u m m i t , P e n n s y l v a n i a c a l l e d t h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l t o s e r v e l u n c h t o p a s s e n g e r s t r a v e l i n g o n t h e l i n e . T h e h o t e l r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e c o m p a n y u n t i l 1 9 0 9 , w h e n i t w a s b o u g h t b y r e s i d e n t s o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o t t a g e s . I n P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L e h i g h s c o r e d a c o u p b y o b t a i n i n g t h e c h a r t e r f o r m e r l y h e l d b y t h e S c h u y k i l l H a v e n a n d L e h i g h R i v e r R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 8 6 . T h a t c h a r t e r h a d b e e n h e l d b y t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d s i n c e 1 8 6 0 , w h e n i t h a d b l o c k e d c o n s t r u c t i o n i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n i t s m o n o p o l y i n t h e S o u t h e r n C o a l F i e l d . T h a t s o u t h e r n f i e l d h e l d t h e l a r g e s t r e s e r v e s o f a n t h r a c i t e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d a c c o u n t e d f o r a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n . T h r o u g h n e g l e c t , t h e R e a d i n g a l l o w e d t h e c h a r t e r t o l a p s e , a n d i t w a s a c q u i r e d b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d t h e S c h u y l k i l l a n d L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e g a v e t h e L V R R a r o u t e i n t o P o t t s v i l l e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e S c h u y l k i l l V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d s . T h e V o s b u r g T u n n e l w a s c o m p l e t e d a n d o p e n e d f o r s e r v i c e o n J u l y 2 5 , 1 8 8 6 . T h e 1 6 m i l e M o u n t a i n C u t - o f f , ( a r a i l s e g m e n t o f t h e l i n e ) w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m F a i r v i e w , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o t h e o u t s k i r t s o f P i t t s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , w a s c o m p l e t e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 8 8 8 . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e l i n e ' s e a s t b o u n d g r a d e t o b e r e d u c e d a n d a s h o r t e r r o u t e f o r h a n d l i n g t h r o u g h t r a f f i c e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e L V R R h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , b u t d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n N e w J e r s e y , t h e L V R R e m b a r k e d o n a d e c a d e - l o n g l e g a l b a t t l e w i t h t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . T h e l a n d t h a t A s a P a c k e r h a d o b t a i n e d i n 1 8 7 2 w a s s i t u a t e d o n t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l ' s S o u t h B a s i n , b u t t h e C N J a l r e a d y h a d i t s o w n f a c i l i t i e s a d j a c e n t t o t h a t p r o p e r t y a n d d i s p u t e d t h e L V R R ' s t i t l e , w h i c h p a r t l y o v e r l a p p e d l a n d t h e C N J h a d f i l l e d f o r i t s o w n t e r m i n a l . F i n a l l y i n 1 8 8 7 t h e t w o r a i l r o a d s r e a c h e d a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e L V R R ' s J e r s e y C i t y f r e i g h t y a r d b e g a n . T h e L V R R o b t a i n e d a 5 - y e a r a g r e e m e n t t o u s e t h e C N J l i n e t o a c c e s s t h e t e r m i n a l , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 8 8 9 . I t f r o n t e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l B a s i n w i t h a s e r i e s o f p i e r s a n g l i n g o u t f r o m t h e s h o r e l i n e b u t w a s t o o n a r r o w f o r a y a r d , s o t h e L V R R b u i l t a s e p a r a t e y a r d a t O a k I s l a n d i n N e w a r k t o s o r t a n d p r e p a r e t r a i n s . T h e S o u t h B a s i n t e r m i n a l w a s u s e d s o l e l y f o r f r e i g h t , h a v i n g d o c k s a n d c a r f l o a t f a c i l i t i e s . P a s s e n g e r s w e r e r o u t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y . T h e L V R R s t r o v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 8 0 s t o a c q u i r e i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y a n d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y w a t e r f r o n t . T h e L V R R d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d m o r e t o t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n N e w J e r s e y i n o r d e r t o r e a c h i t s f r e i g h t y a r d s w i t h o u t u s i n g t h e C N J m a i n l i n e . T h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f r a i l r o a d s t o c o n n e c t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y l i n e ( E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ) t o J e r s e y C i t y . T h e f i r s t l e g o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o J e r s e y C i t y w a s t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n 1 8 8 8 w h i c h c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a t R o s e l l e , N e w J e r s e y f o r a c c e s s o v e r t h e C N J t o t h e H u d s o n R i v e r w a t e r f r o n t i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R w h i c h h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n 1 8 9 1 , t h e L V R R c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y , a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r c o m p a n i e s w h i c h f o r m e d t h e r o u t e f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y t e r m i n a l . I n i t i a l l y , t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r r i g h t s f r o m R o s e l l e t o J e r s e y C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R e v e n t u a l l y f i n i s h e d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o i t s t e r m i n a l i n J e r s e y C i t y o v e r t h e N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y , t h e N e w a r k a n d P a s s a i c R a i l w a y , t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k , a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y , a n d t h e J e r s e y C i t y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y . T h e L V R R ' s N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y i n 1 8 9 1 b r o u g h t t h e l i n e f r o m R o s e l l e i n t o N e w a r k , w h e r e p a s s e n g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . B r i d g i n g N e w a r k B a y p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t . T h e L V R R f i r s t a t t e m p t e d t o o b t a i n a r i g h t o f w a y a t G r e e n v i l l e , b u t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d c h e c k m a t e d t h e m b y p u r c h a s i n g m o s t o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s n e e d e d . T h e n t h e C N J o p p o s e d t h e L V R R ' s a t t e m p t t o c r o s s i t s l i n e a t C a v e n P o i n t . F i n a l l y a f t e r s e t t l i n g t h e l e g a l i s s u e s , t h e N e w a r k B a y w a s b r i d g e d i n 1 8 9 2 b y t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y a n d c o n n e c t e d t o t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y , w h i c h w a s p a r t l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R a n d w h i c h r e a c h e d t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . I n 1 8 9 5 , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d t h e G r e e n v i l l e a n d H u d s o n R a i l w a y p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s i n o r d e r t o r e l i e v e c o n g e s t i o n a n d h a v e a w h o l l y - o w n e d r o u t e i n t o J e r s e y C i t y . F i n a l l y i n 1 9 0 0 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y o u t r i g h t . T h e 1 8 9 0 s w e r e a p e r i o d o f t u r m o i l f o r t h e L V R R . A l t h o u g h t h e d e c a d e b e g a n w i t h t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f i t s t e r m i n a l s a t B u f f a l o a n d J e r s e y C i t y , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a t r u n k l i n e a c r o s s N e w Y o r k , t h e c o m p a n y s o o n b e c a m e e n t a n g l e d i n c o s t l y b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o t h e P a c k e r f a m i l y ' s l o s s o f c o n t r o l . T h e c o a l t r a d e w a s a l w a y s t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e b u s i n e s s b u t w a s s u b j e c t t o b o o m a n d b u s t a s c o m p e t i t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e d a n d t h e e c o n o m y c y c l e d . T h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s h a d b e g u n i n 1 8 7 3 t o f o r m p o o l s t o r e g u l a t e p r o d u c t i o n a n d s e t q u o t a s f o r e a c h r a i l r o a d . B y c o n t r o l l i n g s u p p l y , t h e c o a l c o m b i n a t i o n a t t e m p t e d t o k e e p p r i c e s a n d p r o f i t s h i g h . S e v e r a l c o m b i n a t i o n s o c c u r r e d , b u t e a c h f e l l a p a r t a s o n e r o a d o r a n o t h e r a b r o g a t e d i t s a g r e e m e n t . T h e f i r s t s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n 1 8 7 3 , f o l l o w e d b y o t h e r s i n 1 8 7 8 , 1 8 8 4 , a n d 1 8 8 6 . C u s t o m e r s n a t u r a l l y r e s e n t e d t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e c a r t e l , a n d s i n c e c o a l w a s c r i t i c a l t o c o m m e r c e , C o n g r e s s i n t e r v e n e d i n 1 8 8 7 w i t h t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e A c t t h a t f o r b a d e t h e r o a d s f r o m j o i n i n g i n t o s u c h p o o l s . A l t h o u g h t h e r o a d s e f f e c t i v e l y i g n o r e d t h e A c t a n d t h e i r s a l e s a g e n t s c o n t i n u e d t o m e e t a n d s e t p r i c e s , t h e a g r e e m e n t s w e r e n e v e r e f f e c t i v e f o r l o n g . I n 1 8 9 2 , t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d t h o u g h t i t h a d a s o l u t i o n — i n s t e a d o f a t t e m p t i n g t o m a i n t a i n a g r e e m e n t s a m o n g t h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s , i t w o u l d p u r c h a s e o r l e a s e t h e m a j o r l i n e s a n d b r i n g t h e m i n t o a m o n o p o l y . I t l e a s e d t h e C N J a n d t h e L V R R , p u r c h a s e d t h e r a i l r o a d s ' c o a l c o m p a n i e s a n d a r r a n g e d f o r t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g 7 0 % o f t h e t r a d e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t o v e r r e a c h e d a n d i n 1 8 9 3 w a s u n a b l e t o m e e t i t s o b l i g a t i o n s . I t s b a n k r u p t c y r e s u l t e d i n e c o n o m i c c h a o s , b r i n g i n g o n t h e f i n a n c i a l p a n i c o f 1 8 9 3 a n d f o r c i n g t h e L V R R t o b r e a k t h e l e a s e a n d r e s u m e i t s o w n o p e r a t i o n s , l e a v i n g i t u n a b l e t o p a y d i v i d e n d s o n i t s s t o c k u n t i l 1 9 0 4 . T h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n f o l l o w i n g 1 8 9 3 w a s h a r s h , a n d b y 1 8 9 7 t h e L V R R w a s i n d i r e n e e d o f s u p p o r t . T h e b a n k i n g g i a n t J . P . M o r g a n s t e p p e d i n t o r e f i n a n c e t h e L V R R d e b t a n d o b t a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e r a i l r o a d i n t h e p r o c e s s . O u s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E l i s h a P . W i l b u r a n d s e v e r a l d i r e c t o r s i n 1 8 9 7 , t h e M o r g a n c o m p a n y i n s t a l l e d W . A l f r e d W a l t e r a s p r e s i d e n t a n d s e a t e d i t s o w n d i r e c t o r s . I n 1 9 0 1 M o r g a n a r r a n g e d t o h a v e t h e P a c k e r E s t a t e ' s h o l d i n g s p u r c h a s e d j o i n t l y b y t h e E r i e , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L a k e S h o r e a n d M i c h i g a n S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e D L & W a n d t h e C N J , a l l c o m p a n i e s i n w h i c h M o r g a n h a d i n t e r e s t s . N e w l y e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t E b e n B . T h o m a s ( f o r m e r l y o f t h e E r i e ) a n d h i s B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e c o m b i n e d i n t e r e s t s o f t h o s e r a i l r o a d s . A f i n a l a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h a c o a l c a r t e l t o o k p l a c e i n 1 9 0 4 w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y . P r i o r t o t h a t t i m e , t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s a s m a l l c o n c e r n t h a t h a p p e n e d t o h a v e a b r o a d c h a r t e r a l l o w i n g i t t o a c t a s a h o l d i n g c o m p a n y . T h e R e a d i n g , n o w o u t o f r e c e i v e r s h i p , p u r c h a s e d t h e c o m p a n y a n d b r o u g h t t h e o t h e r c o a l r a i l r o a d s i n t o t h e p a r t n e r s h i p , w i t h t h e R e a d i n g o w n i n g 3 0 % , t h e L V R R 2 3 % , t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 2 0 % , C N J 1 7 % , E r i e 6 % , a n d N e w Y o r k , S u s q u e h a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 4 p e r c e n t . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s t o l o c k - u p i n d e p e n d e n t c o a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l t h e s u p p l y . C o n g r e s s r e a c t e d w i t h t h e 1 9 0 6 H e p b u r n A c t , w h i c h a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s f o r b a d e r a i l r o a d s f r o m o w n i n g t h e c o m m o d i t i e s t h a t t h e y t r a n s p o r t e d . A l o n g s e r i e s o f a n t i t r u s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d l a w s u i t s r e s u l t e d , c u l m i n a t i n g i n a 1 9 1 1 S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n t h a t f o r c e d t h e L V R R t o d i v e s t i t s e l f o f t h e c o a l c o m p a n i e s i t h a d h e l d s i n c e 1 8 6 8 . T h e L V R R s h a r e h o l d e r s r e c e i v e d s h a r e s o f t h e n o w i n d e p e n d e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , b u t t h e r a i l r o a d n o l o n g e r h a d m a n a g e m e n t c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n , c o n t r a c t s , a n d s a l e s o f i t s l a r g e s t c u s t o m e r . I n 1 8 9 6 t h e v e r y e a r l y f i l m " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s " w a s p r o d u c e d b y T h o m a s A . E d i s o n ' s c o m p a n y K i n e t o s c o p e . T h e t r a i n a r r i v e s f r o m f a r a w a y a n d p a s s e s t h e c a m e r a , w h i l e w o r k e r s a r e w a v i n g t h e i r h a n d k e r c h i e f s . F o r t u n a t e l y , g r a i n t o n n a g e w a s i n c r e a s i n g a n d t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s p o r t e d l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s f r o m B u f f a l o t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d o t h e r E a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l s o , i n 1 9 1 4 t h e P a n a m a C a n a l w a s c o m p l e t e d , a n d t h e L V R R g a i n e d a n i m p o r t a n t n e w m a r k e t w i t h o r e s s h i p p e d f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a t o t h e B e t h l e h e m S t e e l c o m p a n y . I n o r d e r t o h a n d l e t h e a d d i t i o n a l n e w o c e a n t r a f f i c , t h e L V R R c r e a t e d a l a r g e n e w p i e r a t C o n s t a b l e H o o k , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 1 5 , a n d a n e w t e r m i n a l a t C l a r e m o n t w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 2 3 . I t a l s o b u i l t a p a s s e n g e r t e r m i n a l i n B u f f a l o i n 1 9 1 5 . S i n c e 1 8 9 6 t h e L V R R h a d r u n a n i m p o r t a n t a n d p r e s t i g i o u s e x p r e s s t r a i n n a m e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " w h i c h c a r r i e d p a s s e n g e r s t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s a n d B u f f a l o . A d d i t i o n a l p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s r a n f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a t o S c r a n t o n a n d w e s t w a r d . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e L V R R ' s N e w Y o r k C i t y p a s s e n g e r s h a d u s e d t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y a t J e r s e y C i t y , b u t i n 1 9 1 3 t h e P R R t e r m i n a t e d t h a t a g r e e m e n t , s o t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r u s e o f i t s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y , w h i c h w a s e x p a n d e d t o h a n d l e t h e i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r o f p a s s e n g e r s . T h e r a i l r o a d a l s o p u b l i s h e d a m o n t h l y m a g a z i n e p r o m o t i n g t r a v e l o n t h e t r a i n c a l l e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s M o n t h l y " . I n t h e w a r y e a r s 1 9 1 4 t o 1 9 1 8 , t h e L e h i g h h a n d l e d w a r m a t e r i a l s a n d e x p l o s i v e s a t i t s B l a c k T o m i s l a n d f a c i l i t y , w h i c h h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d a l o n g w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 0 0 . I n 1 9 1 6 , a h o r r e n d o u s e x p l o s i o n o c c u r r e d a t t h e f a c i l i t y , d e s t r o y i n g s h i p s a n d b u i l d i n g s , a n d b r e a k i n g w i n d o w s i n M a n h a t t a n . A t f i r s t t h e i n c i d e n t w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a c c i d e n t ; a l o n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n e v e n t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e x p l o s i o n w a s a n a c t o f G e r m a n s a b o t a g e , f o r w h i c h r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e f i n a l l y p a i d i n 1 9 7 9 . A f t e r t h e U . S . e n t e r e d W o r l d W a r I , t h e r a i l r o a d s w e r e n a t i o n a l i z e d i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t s t r i k e s a n d i n t e r r u p t i o n s . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s R a i l r o a d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n t r o l l e d t h e r a i l r o a d f r o m 1 9 1 8 t o 1 9 2 0 , a t w h i c h t i m e c o n t r o l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d b a c k t o t h e p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e h e a v y w a r t i m e t r a f f i c h a d l e f t t h e r a i l r o a d ' s p l a n t a n d e q u i p m e n t i n n e e d o f r e p a i r , t h e d a m a g e w a s p a r t l y o f f s e t b y n e w e q u i p m e n t t h a t h a d b e e n p u r c h a s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t . I n 1 9 2 0 , t h e L V R R s o l d i t s l a k e l i n e c o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e , t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s d u e t o n e w f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f r a i l r o a d s o w n i n g l a k e l i n e s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 2 0 s t h e r a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e M o r g a n / D r e x e l b a n k i n g f i r m , b u t i n 1 9 2 8 a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o w r e s t c o n t r o l f r o m i t . I n 1 9 2 7 , L e o n o r F r e s n e l L o r e e , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n R a i l r o a d , h a d a v i s i o n f o r a n e w f i f t h t r u n k l i n e b e t w e e n t h e E a s t a n d W e s t , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e W a b a s h R a i l r o a d , t h e B u f f a l o , R o c h e s t e r a n d P i t t s b u r g h R a i l w a y , a n d t h e L V R R . T h r o u g h b o n d s i s s u e d b y t h e D & H , h e o b t a i n e d 3 0 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k , a n d w o n t h e s u p p o r t o f n e a r l y h a l f t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . I n 1 9 2 8 , h e a t t e m p t e d t o s e a t a n e w p r e s i d e n t a n d b o a r d . A m a s s i v e p r o x y f i g h t e n s u e d , w i t h e x i s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E d w a r d E u g e n e L o o m i s n a r r o w l y r e t a i n i n g h i s p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f E d w a r d T . S t o t e s b u r y o f J . P . M o r g a n . F o l l o w i n g t h e d e f e a t o f i t s p l a n , t h e D & H s o l d i t s s t o c k t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a q u i e t l y o b t a i n e d m o r e s t o c k , b o t h d i r e c t l y a n d t h r o u g h r a i l r o a d s i t c o n t r o l l e d , p r i m a r i l y t h e W a b a s h . B y 1 9 3 1 , t h e P R R c o n t r o l l e d 5 1 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k . F o l l o w i n g L o o m i s ' d e a t h i n 1 9 3 7 , t h e p r e s i d e n c y w e n t t o L o o m i s ' a s s i s t a n t D u n c a n J . K e r r , b u t i n 1 9 4 0 h e w a s r e p l a c e d b y A l b e r t N . W i l l i a m s , a n d t h e r o a d c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e P R R . I n 1 9 4 1 , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a p l a c e d i t s s h a r e s i n a v o t i n g t r u s t a f t e r r e a c h i n g a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l r e g a r d i n g t h e P R R ' s p u r c h a s e o f t h e W a b a s h . F o l l o w i n g t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n , t h e r a i l r o a d h a d a f e w p e r i o d s o f p r o s p e r i t y , b u t w a s c l e a r l y i n a s l o w d e c l i n e . P a s s e n g e r s p r e f e r r e d t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f a u t o m o b i l e s t o t r a i n s , a n d a i r l i n e s m u c h l a t e r p r o v i d e d f a s t e r l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a v e l t h a n t r a i n s . O i l a n d g a s w e r e s u p p l a n t i n g c o a l a s t h e f u e l o f c h o i c e . T h e D e p r e s s i o n h a d b e e n d i f f i c u l t f o r a l l t h e r a i l r o a d s , a n d C o n g r e s s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t b a n k r u p t c y l a w s n e e d e d r e v i s i o n . T h e C h a n d l e r A c t s o f 1 9 3 8 - 9 p r o v i d e d a n e w f o r m o f r e l i e f f o r r a i l r o a d s , a l l o w i n g t h e m t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e i r d e b t w h i l e c o n t i n u i n g t o o p e r a t e . T h e L V R R w a s a p p r o v e d f o r s u c h a r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n 1 9 4 0 w h e n s e v e r a l l a r g e m o r t g a g e l o a n s w e r e d u e . T h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o e x t e n d t h e m a t u r i t y o f i t s m o r t g a g e s , b u t i t n e e d e d t o r e p e a t t h e p r o c e s s i n 1 9 5 0 . T h e t e r m s o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g s p r e c l u d e d d i v i d e n d p a y m e n t s u n t i l 1 9 5 3 , w h e n L V R R c o m m o n s t o c k p a i d t h e f i r s t d i v i d e n d s i n c e 1 9 3 1 . I n 1 9 5 7 , t h e L V R R a g a i n s t o p p e d d i v i d e n d s . I n 1 9 4 4 , t h e L V R R ' s g r o s s r e v e n u e s c a m e c l o s e t o $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 w h i c h w a s a m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e r a i l r o a d . T w o f i n a l b l o w s f e l l i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s : t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e F e d e r a l - A i d H i g h w a y A c t i n 1 9 5 6 , b e t t e r k n o w n a s t h e I n t e r s t a t e H i g h w a y A c t , a n d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e S a i n t L a w r e n c e S e a w a y i n 1 9 5 9 . T h e i n t e r s t a t e h i g h w a y s h e l p e d t h e t r u c k i n g i n d u s t r y o f f e r d o o r - t o - d o o r s e r v i c e , a n d t h e S t . L a w r e n c e S e a w a y a l l o w e d g r a i n s h i p m e n t s t o b y p a s s t h e r a i l w a y s a n d g o d i r e c t l y t o o v e r s e a s m a r k e t s . B y t h e 1 9 6 0 s , r a i l r o a d s i n t h e E a s t w e r e s t r u g g l i n g t o s u r v i v e . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 6 2 r e q u e s t e d I C C a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o a c q u i r e c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e L V R R t h r o u g h a s w a p o f P R R s t o c k f o r L V R R a n d e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e v o t i n g t r u s t t h a t h a d b e e n i n p l a c e s i n c e 1 9 4 1 . I t m a n a g e d t o a c q u i r e m o r e t h a n 8 5 % o f a l l o u t s t a n d i n g s h a r e s , a n d f r o m t h a t t i m e t h e L V R R w a s l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a d i v i s i o n o f t h e P R R . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a m e r g e d w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l i n 1 9 6 8 , b u t t h e P e n n C e n t r a l f a i l e d i n 1 9 7 0 , c a u s i n g a c a s c a d e o f r a i l r o a d f a i l u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e E a s t . O n J u n e 2 1 , 1 9 7 0 , t h e P e n n C e n t r a l d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y a n d s o u g h t b a n k r u p t c y p r o t e c t i o n . A s a r e s u l t , t h e P C w a s r e l i e v e d o f i t s o b l i g a t i o n t o p a y f e e s t o v a r i o u s N o r t h e a s t e r n r a i l r o a d s — t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y i n c l u d e d — f o r t h e u s e o f t h e i r r a i l c a r s a n d o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e o t h e r r a i l r o a d s ' o b l i g a t i o n s t o p a y t h o s e f e e s t o t h e P e n n C e n t r a l w e r e n o t w a i v e d . T h i s i m b a l a n c e i n p a y m e n t s w o u l d p r o v e f a t a l t o t h e f i n a n c i a l l y - f r a i l L e h i g h V a l l e y , a n d i t d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y j u s t o v e r o n e m o n t h a f t e r t h e P e n n C e n t r a l , o n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 7 0 . T h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 b a n k r u p t c y , a s w a s t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e o f t h e t i m e . I n 1 9 7 2 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a s s u m e d t h e r e m a i n i n g P e n n s y l v a n i a t r a c k a g e o f t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , a c o m p e t i n g a n t h r a c i t e r a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d e n t e r e d b a n k r u p t c y a s w e l l . T h e t w o r o a d s h a d e n t e r e d a s h a r e d t r a c k a g e a g r e e m e n t i n t h i s a r e a i n 1 9 6 5 t o r e d u c e c o s t s , a s b o t h h a d p a r a l l e l r o u t e s f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e w a y t o m e t r o p o l i t a n N e w Y o r k , o f t e n o n a d j o i n i n g g r a d e s t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n t h e y e a r s l e a d i n g t o 1 9 7 3 , t h e f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d s y s t e m i n t h e n o r t h e a s t o f t h e U . S . w a s c o l l a p s i n g . A l t h o u g h g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d A m t r a k t o o k o v e r i n t e r c i t y p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e o n M a y 1 , 1 9 7 1 , r a i l r o a d c o m p a n i e s c o n t i n u e d t o l o s e m o n e y d u e t o e x t e n s i v e g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s , e x p e n s i v e a n d e x c e s s i v e l a b o r c o s t , c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m o t h e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m o d e s , d e c l i n i n g i n d u s t r i a l b u s i n e s s a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s ; t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s o n e o f t h e m . H u r r i c a n e A g n e s i n 1 9 7 2 d a m a g e d t h e r u n d o w n N o r t h e a s t r a i l w a y n e t w o r k , w h i c h p u t t h e s o l v e n c y o f o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n c l u d i n g t h e L V R R i n d a n g e r ; t h e s o m e w h a t m o r e s o l v e n t E r i e L a c k a w a n n a R a i l w a y ( E L ) w a s a l s o d a m a g e d b y H u r r i c a n e A g n e s . I n 1 9 7 3 , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n g r e s s a c t e d t o c r e a t e a b i l l t o n a t i o n a l i z e a l l b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e L V . T h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n R a i l r o a d s , w h i c h o p p o s e d n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , s u b m i t t e d a n a l t e r n a t e p r o p o s a l f o r a g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d p r i v a t e c o m p a n y . P r e s i d e n t R i c h a r d N i x o n s i g n e d t h e R e g i o n a l R a i l R e o r g a n i z a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 7 3 i n t o l a w . T h e " 3 R A c t , " a s i t w a s c a l l e d , p r o v i d e d i n t e r i m f u n d i n g t o t h e b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s a n d d e f i n e d a n e w " C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n " u n d e r t h e A A R ' s p l a n . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , t h e L V R R , i n c l u d i n g i t s m a i n l i n e , w a s m e r g e d i n t o t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t ' s C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n ( C o n r a i l ) e n d i n g 1 3 0 y e a r s o f e x i s t e n c e a n d 1 2 1 y e a r s o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e L V R R . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , m a j o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e a s s e t s o f t h e b a n k r u p t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w e r e a c q u i r e d b y C o n r a i l . T h i s p r i m a r i l y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e m a i n l i n e a n d r e l a t e d b r a n c h e s f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n ( n o r t h / R R w e s t o f S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o O a k I s l a n d Y a r d , t h e I t h a c a b r a n c h f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o I t h a c a , N e w Y o r k , c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e C a y u g a L a k e l i n e a n d o n t o t h e M i l l i k e n p o w e r s t a t i o n i n L a k e R i d g e , N e w Y o r k ( c l o s e d o n A u g u s t 2 9 , 2 0 1 9 ) a n d t h e C a r g i l l s a l t m i n e j u s t s o u t h o f A u b u r n , N Y ; a n d s m a l l s e g m e n t s i n G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k ( f r o m G e n e v a t o t h e S e n e c a A r m y D e p o t i n K e n d a i a ) ; B a t a v i a , N e w Y o r k ; A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k a n d C o r t l a n d , N e w Y o r k . A l o n g s e g m e n t w e s t f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o B u f f a l o w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o n r a i l t a k e o v e r , b u t w a s m o s t l y t o r n - u p n o t l o n g a f t e r w a r d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a s e g m e n t f r o m G e n e v a t o V i c t o r , N e w Y o r k , l a t e r c u t b a c k t o S h o r t s v i l l e , N e w Y o r k , t o V i c t o r , r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y E s t a t e u n d e r s u b s i d i z e d C o n r a i l o p e r a t i o n . T h e S h o r t s v i l l e t o V i c t o r s e g m e n t b e c a m e t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 7 9 ( t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e F i n g e r L a k e s R a i l w a y i n O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 ) . M o s t o f t h e r a i l e q u i p m e n t w e n t t o C o n r a i l a s w e l l , b u t 2 4 l o c o m o t i v e s ( u n i t s G P 3 8 - 2 3 1 4 - 3 2 5 a n d C 4 2 0 4 0 4 – 4 1 5 ) w e n t t o t h e D e l a w a r e & H u d s o n i n s t e a d . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e a s s e t s w e r e d i s p o s e d o f b y t h e e s t a t e u n t i l i t w a s f o l d e d i n t o t h e n o n - r a i l r o a d P e n n C e n t r a l C o r p o r a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s . T h e r o u t e a c r o s s P e n n s y l v a n i a , N e w J e r s e y a n d O a k I s l a n d Y a r d r e m a i n s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o d a y , t h e o n l y t w o C l a s s 1 r a i l r o a d s t h a t a r e b a s e d i n t h e E a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s r o u t e b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t t o C o n r a i l a s a n a l t e r n a t e r o u t e t o a v o i d A m t r a k ' s f o r m e r P R R / P C N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r e l e c t r i f i e d r o u t e . T o d a y , t h i s r o u t e c o n t i n u e s a s t w o l i n e s , o n e t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a n d t h e o t h e r t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w l i n e t h a t w a s o n c e p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e o r i g i n a l l i n e r e t a i n s i t s o r i g i n a l r o u t e w h e n i t w a s f i r s t c o n s t r u c t e d a n d i s s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y . T h e n e w l i n e i s a l s o s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , b u t i t i s s e r v e d t o g e t h e r w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n a j o i n t o w n e r s h i p c o m p a n y c a l l e d C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s . M o s t o f t h e o t h e r r e m a i n i n g L e h i g h V a l l e y t r a c k s e r v e s a s b r a n c h l i n e s , o r h a s b e e n s o l d t o s h o r t l i n e a n d r e g i o n a l o p e r a t o r s . T h e s e o p e r a t o r s i n c l u d e , i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r : T h e L e h i g h L i n e w a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d ' s f i r s t r a i l l i n e a n d s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e . I t w a s o p e n e d o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 b e t w e e n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h r e e m o n t h s l a t e r t h e l i n e b r a n c h e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t A l l e n t o w n t o J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e l i n e w a s l a t e r e x t e n d e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t J i m T h o r p e t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d l a t e r i t r e a c h e d t h e B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k a r e a a n d p a s t E a s t o n a l l t h e w a y t o P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y a n d t h e n s w i t c h e d d i r e c t i o n t o t h e n o r t h e a s t t o J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y l a t e r c u t b a c k t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y . D u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s , t h e l i n e s e r v e d a s t h e b o d y o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d u n t i l t h e r a i l r o a d e i t h e r b u i l t , a c q u i r e d , o r m e r g e d o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n t o i t s s y s t e m . D u r i n g t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t s o w n e r s h i p u n d e r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d , t h e l i n e w a s k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y M a i n l i n e , s t a r t i n g i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s . T h e l i n e a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o C o n r a i l i n 1 9 7 6 a n d w a s m a i n t a i n e d a s a m a i n l i n e i n t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . T h e l i n e b e c a m e k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h L i n e d u r i n g C o n r a i l o w n e r s h i p . C o n r a i l i n t e g r a t e d f o r m e r C N J m a i n l i n e l e a s e d t r a c k a g e i n t o t h e l i n e a n d k e p t t h e l i n e i n c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n ( s i n c e 1 8 5 5 ) ; h o w e v e r , i t d o w n s i z e d t h e l i n e i n t h e n o r t h w e s t f r o m t h e B u f f a l o a r e a o f N e w Y o r k S t a t e : f i r s t t o S a y r e Y a r d i n S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; t h e n t o M e h o o p a n y , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; a n d f i n a l l y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e ' s b e i n g d o w n s i z e d t h r e e t i m e s c r e a t e d t w o n e w r a i l l i n e s : t h e L e h i g h S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n , w h i c h w a s l a t e r s o l d t o t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ( R B M N ) i n 1 9 9 6 ; t h e R B M N w o u l d l a t e r c u t b a c k t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n f r o m M e h o o p a n y t o D u p o n t , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e t r a c k s f r o m D u p o n t t o M e h o o p a n y b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e c a l l e d t h e S u s q u e h a n n a B r a n c h . I n 1 9 9 9 , t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y w h i c h i s o w n e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n C o r p o r a t i o n a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h L i n e i n t h e C o n r a i l s p l i t w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n b u t t h e t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y w e r e k e p t w i t h C o n r a i l i n o r d e r f o r b o t h N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a n d C S X t o h a v e e q u a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e N o r t h e a s t . T h e e x i s t i n g t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a l o n g w i t h C S X o w n i t u n d e r a j o i n t v e n t u r e . H o w e v e r , f o r h i s t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e p a r t f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n p a r t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e . N o w u n d e r o w n e r s h i p o f t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e L e h i g h L i n e ' s r o u t e i s n o w f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h i s i s c u r r e n t l y t h e l a s t t i m e t h e l i n e h a s b e e n d o w n s i z e d . T h e L e h i g h L i n e s t i l l e x i s t s a n d s t i l l s e r v e s a s a m a j o r f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d l i n e t h a t o p e r a t e s i n N e w J e r s e y a n d P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e i s s t i l l o w n e d a n d o p e r a t e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d t h e l i n e s t i l l r u n s f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e c o n n e c t s w i t h C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s ' s L e h i g h L i n e ( t h e n e w r a i l l i n e ) a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ' s T r e n t o n S u b d i v i s i o n a t P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s R e a d i n g D i v i s i o n a t P a c k e r t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s L e h i g h D i v i s i o n a t L e h i g h t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ( o r i g i n a l l y M & H J u n c t i o n n e a r O l d P e n n H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) . T h e l i n e m a k e s n o t a b l e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n l i n e s s u c h a s t h e R e a d i n g L i n e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s h o r t l i n e r a i l r o a d s . A t T h r e e B r i d g e s , N e w J e r s e y i n R e a d i n g t o n T o w n s h i p , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h B l a c k R i v e r a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s N e w J e r s e y s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e W a s h i n g t o n S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r R a i l w a y w h i c h a l s o p a s s e s o v e r t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r a f t e r t h a t . A c r o s s t h e r i v e r i n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s P e n n s y l v a n i a s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e P o r t l a n d S e c o n d a r y w h i c h e x t e n d s f r o m E a s t o n t o P o r t l a n d , P e n n s y l v a n i a c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y p a r t o f t h e L a c k a w a n n a O l d R o a d ( o r s i m p l y O l d R o a d ) ; t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y g o e s u n d e r t h e L a c k a w a n n a C u t - O f f a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e D e l a w a r e - L a c k a w a n n a R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e h o s t s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y - f i v e t r a i n s p e r d a y , w i t h t r a f f i c p e a k i n g a t t h e e n d o f t h e w e e k . E a s t o f t h e j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e R e a d i n g L i n e i n A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d i n B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e s e r v e s a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s m a i n c o r r i d o r i n a n d o u t o f t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y , a n d t h e N e w Y o r k M e t r o A r e a a t l a r g e , a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n d o e s n ' t c u r r e n t l y u s e t h e e a s t e r n h a l f o f i t s S o u t h e r n T i e r L i n e , w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f r o m P o r t J e r v i s n o r t h t o B i n g h a m t o n , N e w Y o r k a n d w h i c h i s n o w ( 2 0 2 2 ) o p e r a t e d b y t h e C e n t r a l N e w Y o r k R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s H a r r i s b u r g D i v i s i o n a n d i t i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s C r e s c e n t C o r r i d o r , a r a i l r o a d c o r r i d o r . I t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 , 0 0 0 - f o o t P a t t e n b u r g T u n n e l i n W e s t P o r t a l , N e w J e r s e y a l o n g i t s r o u t e . M o s t o f t h e t r a f f i c a l o n g t h e l i n e c o n s i s t s o f i n t e r m o d a l a n d g e n e r a l m e r c h a n d i s e t r a i n s g o i n g t o y a r d s s u c h a s O a k I s l a n d Y a r d i n N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y a n d C r o x t o n Y a r d i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e f i r s t l o c o m o t i v e p u r c h a s e d b y t h e L V R R w a s t h e " D e l a w a r e " , a w o o d - b u r n i n g 4 - 4 - 0 b u i l t b y R i c h a r d N o r r i s & S o n s o f P h i l a d e l p h i a i n 1 8 5 5 . I t w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e " C a t a s a u q u a " 4 - 4 - 0 a n d " L e h i g h " 4 - 6 - 0 , w h i c h w e r e a l s o N o r r i s & S o n s e n g i n e s . I n 1 8 5 6 , t h e " E . A . P a c k e r " 4 - 4 - 0 w a s p u r c h a s e d f r o m W i l l i a m M a s o n o f T a u n t o n , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . S u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e L V R R f a v o r e d e n g i n e s f r o m B a l d w i n L o c o m o t i v e W o r k s a n d W i l l i a m M a s o n , b u t t r i e d m a n y o t h e r d e s i g n s a s i t e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h m o t i v e p o w e r t h a t c o u l d h a n d l e t h e l i n e ' s h e a v y g r a d e s . T h e L V R R o p e r a t e d s e v e r a l n a m e d t r a i n s i n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I e r a . A m o n g t h e m : T h e p r i m a r y p a s s e n g e r m o t i v e p o w e r f o r t h e L V R R i n t h e d i e s e l e r a w a s t h e A L C O P A - 1 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e , o f w h i c h t h e L V R R h a d f o u r t e e n . T h e s e l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o u s e d i n f r e i g h t s e r v i c e d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e e r a o f L V R R p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . A p a i r o f A L C O F A - 2 F B - 2 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o p u r c h a s e d t o a u g m e n t t h e P A s w h e n n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e w e r e F A s w i t h s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t d e s i g n a t e d a s F P A - 2 u n i t s . D u e t o d e c l i n i n g p a s s e n g e r p a t r o n a g e , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y s u c c e s s f u l l y p e t i t i o n e d t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e C o m m i s s i o n t o t e r m i n a t e a l l p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . T h i s t o o k e f f e c t o n F e b r u a r y 4 , 1 9 6 1 . T h e " M a p l e L e a f " a n d t h e " J o h n W i l k e s " w e r e t h e l a s t o p e r a t i n g l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a i n s , t e r m i n a t e d t h a t d a y . T h e o n l y d a y l i g h t N e w Y o r k - B u f f a l o t r a i n , t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " , w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 9 5 9 . B u d d R a i l D i e s e l C a r s e r v i c e w o u l d c o n t i n u e o n a b r a n c h l i n e ( L e h i g h t o n - H a z l e t o n ) f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l f o u r d a y s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f p a s s e n g e r e q u i p m e n t i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n s c r a p p e d s o m e t i m e a f t e r F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 1 . M o s t s e r v i c e a b l e e q u i p m e n t n o t r e t a i n e d f o r c o m p a n y s e r v i c e w a s s o l d t o o t h e r r o a d s .

History

The history of the Lehigh Valley Railroad (LVRR) dates back to 1846 when it was founded to transport anthracite coal from Pennsylvania's Middle Coal Field to the Lehigh Canal at Mauch Chunk. The railroad expanded rapidly, acquiring other railroads and coal lands, and by 1869, it owned a continuous track through Pennsylvania from Easton to Waverly, New York. The LVRR played a significant role in the development of the coal industry in the region, and its expansion continued throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries. However, the railroad faced challenges during the Great Depression and World War II, including nationalization and financial struggles. Despite these difficulties, the LVRR continued to operate and adapt to changing market conditions, including the rise of oil and gas as alternative fuels.

6 x 7 inches and 7-1/2 feet long placed 2 feet apart and about a quarter of it was ballasted with stone or gravel. The line had a descending or level grade from Mauch Chunk to Easton and with the exception of the curve at Mauch Chunk had no curve of less than 700 feet radius. The LVRR connected at Mauch Chunk with the Beaver Meadow Railroad. The Beaver Meadow Railroad had been built in 1836, and it transported anthracite coal from Jeansville in Pennsylvania's Middle Coal Field to the Lehigh Canal at Mauch Chunk. For 25 years the Lehigh Canal had enjoyed a monopoly on downstream transportation and was charging independent producers high fees. When the LVRR opened, those producers eagerly sent their product by the railroad a few hundred acres of coal land, and the Penn Haven and White Haven Railroad. The purchase of the Penn Haven and White Haven was the first step in expanding to Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. To reach Wilkes-Barre, the LVRR began constructing an extension from White Haven, Pennsylvania to Wilkes-Barre. The Penn Haven and White Haven Railroad allowed the LV to reach White Haven. In 1866, the LVRR purchased acquired the Lehigh and Mahanoy Railroad (originally the Quakake Railroad) and the North Branch Canal along the Susquehanna River, renaming it the Pennsylvania and New York Canal & Railroad Company (P&NY). The purchasing of the North Branch Canal saw an opportunity for a near monopoly in the region north of the Wyoming Valley. In 1866, two years after the purchase of the Penn Haven and White Haven, the extension from White Haven to Wilkes-Barre opened. Construction of a rail line to the New York state line started immediately and, in 1867, the line was complete from Wilkes-Barre to Waverly, New York, where coal was transferred to the broad gauge Erie Railroad and shipped to western markets through Buffalo, New York. To reach Wilkes-Barre, the LVRR purchased the Penn Haven & White Haven Railroad in 1864, and began constructing an extension from White Haven to Wilkes-Barre that was opened in 1867. By 1869, the LVRR owned a continuous track through Pennsylvania from Easton to Waverly. In the following year, the LVRR—a standard gauge railroad—completed arrangements with the Erie Railroad, at that time having a six-foot gauge, for a third rail pursuit of that strategy, the 1868 purchases of the Hazleton Railroad and the Lehigh Luzerne Railroad brought of coal land to the LVRR, and additional lands were acquired along branches of the LVRR. Over the next dozen years the railroad acquired other large tracts of land: in 1870, in 1872, and acquisition of the Philadelphia Coal Company in 1873 with its large leases in the Mahanoy basin. In 1875, the holdings were consolidated into the Lehigh Valley Coal Company, which was wholly owned by the LVRR. By 1893, the LVRR owned or controlled of coal lands. With these acquisitions, the LVRR obtained the right to mine coal as well as transport it. The 1870s witnessed commencement of extension of the LVRR in a new direction. In the 1870s the age of 73. At the time of his death, the railroad was shipping 4.4 million tons of coal annually over of track, using 235 engines, 24,461 coal cars, and over 2,000 freight cars of various kinds. The company controlled of coal-producing lands and was expanding rapidly into New York and New Jersey. The railroad had survived the economic depression of 1873 and was seeing its business recover. Leadership of the company transferred smoothly to Charles Hartshorne who had been vice president under Packer. In 1883, Hartshorne retired to allow Harry E. Packer, Asa's 32-year-old youngest son, to assume the Presidency. A year later, Harry Packer died of illness, and Asa's 51-year-old nephew Elisha Packer Wilbur was elected president, a position he held for 13 years. The 1880s its terminals at Buffalo and Jersey City, and the establishment of a trunk line across New York, the company soon became entangled in costly business dealings which ultimately led to the Packer family's loss of control. The coal trade was always the backbone of the business but was subject to boom and bust as competition and production increased and the economy cycled. The coal railroads had begun in 1873 to form pools to regulate production and set quotas for each railroad. By controlling supply, the coal combination attempted to keep prices and profits high. Several combinations occurred, but each fell apart as one road or another abrogated its agreement. The first such combination occurred in 1873, followed by others in 1878, 1884, and 1886. Customers naturally resented the long investigation eventually concluded that the explosion was an act of German sabotage, for which reparations were finally paid in 1979. After the U.S. entered World War I, the railroads were nationalized in order to prevent strikes and interruptions. The United States Railroad Administration controlled the railroad from 1918 to 1920, at which time control was transferred back to the private companies. Although the heavy wartime traffic had left the railroad's plant and equipment in need of repair, the damage was partly offset by new equipment that had been purchased by the government. In 1920, the LVRR sold its lake line company, the Lehigh Valley Transportation Line, to private interests due to new federal legislation which stopped the practice of railroads owning lake lines. Throughout the 1920s the and airlines much later provided faster long-distance travel than trains. Oil and gas were supplanting coal as the fuel of choice. The Depression had been difficult for all the railroads, and Congress recognized that bankruptcy laws needed revision. The Chandler Acts of 1938-9 provided a new form of relief for railroads, allowing them to restructure their debt while continuing to operate. The LVRR was approved for such a restructuring in 1940 when several large mortgage loans were due. The restructuring allowed the LVRR to extend the maturity of its mortgages, but it needed to repeat the process in 1950. The terms of the restructurings precluded dividend payments until 1953, when LVRR common stock paid the first dividend since 1931. In 1957, the LVRR again stopped dividends. In 1944,

Lehigh Valley Railroad

T h e D e l a w a r e , L e h i g h , S c h u y l k i l l a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( D L S & S ) w a s a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o n A p r i l 2 1 , 1 8 4 6 , t o c o n s t r u c t a r a i l r o a d f r o m M a u c h C h u n k , P e n n s y l v a n i a , ( n o w J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e r a i l r o a d w o u l d r u n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L e h i g h R i v e r a n d b r e a k t h e L e h i g h C o a l a n d N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ' s m o n o p o l y o n c o a l t r a f f i c o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . T h e r a i l r o a d w a s c h a r t e r e d o n A u g u s t 2 , 1 8 4 7 , a n d e l e c t e d J a m e s M . P o r t e r i t s p r e s i d e n t o n O c t o b e r 2 1 . L i t t l e o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1 8 4 7 a n d 1 8 5 1 , s a v e s o m e l i m i t e d g r a d i n g n e a r A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . A l l t h i s c h a n g e d i n O c t o b e r 1 8 5 1 , w h e n A s a P a c k e r t o o k m a j o r i t y c o n t r o l o f t h e D L S & S . P a c k e r b r o u g h t a d d i t i o n a l f i n a n c i n g t o t h e r a i l r o a d , i n s t a l l e d R o b e r t H . S a y r e a s c h i e f e n g i n e e r , a n d r e n a m e d t h e c o m p a n y t h e " L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . " C o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n i n e a r n e s t i n 1 8 5 3 , a n d t h e l i n e o p e n e d b e t w e e n E a s t o n a n d A l l e n t o w n o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e s e c t i o n b e t w e e n A l l e n t o w n a n d M a u c h C h u n k o p e n e d o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R i n t e r c h a n g e d c o a l a t t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r w h e r e c o a l c o u l d b e s h i p p e d t o P h i l a d e l p h i a o n t h e D e l a w a r e D i v i s i o n C a n a l o r t r a n s p o r t e d a c r o s s t h e r i v e r t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , w h e r e t h e M o r r i s C a n a l a n d t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y ( C N J ) c o u l d c a r r y i t t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y m a r k e t . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d a d o u b l e - d e c k e d b r i d g e a c r o s s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f o r c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e C N J a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d i n P h i l l i p s b u r g . T h r o u g h a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , L V R R p a s s e n g e r s h a d a r o u t e t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y , J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y , a n d o t h e r p o i n t s i n N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R ' s r o l l i n g s t o c k w a s h i r e d f r o m t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y a n d a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h t h e C N J t o r u n t w o p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s f r o m E a s t o n t o M a u c h C h u n k c o n n e c t i n g w i t h t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a t r a i n s o n t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d . A d a i l y f r e i g h t t r a i n w a s p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n l e a v i n g E a s t o n i n t h e m o r n i n g a n d r e t u r n i n g i n t h e e v e n i n g . I n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f O c t o b e r 1 8 5 5 , a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h H o w a r d & C o o f P h i l a d e l p h i a t o d o t h e f r e i g h t i n g b u s i n e s s o f t h e r a i l r o a d ( e x c e p t c o a l , i r o n , a n d i r o n o r e ) . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n w a s 4 6 m i l e s o f s i n g l e t r a c k . T h e l i n e w a s l a i d w i t h a r a i l w e i g h i n g 5 6 p o u n d s p e r y a r d s u p p o r t e d u p o n c r o s s t i e s 6 x 7 i n c h e s a n d 7 - 1 / 2 f e e t l o n g p l a c e d 2 f e e t a p a r t a n d a b o u t a q u a r t e r o f i t w a s b a l l a s t e d w i t h s t o n e o r g r a v e l . T h e l i n e h a d a d e s c e n d i n g o r l e v e l g r a d e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e c u r v e a t M a u c h C h u n k h a d n o c u r v e o f l e s s t h a n 7 0 0 f e e t r a d i u s . T h e L V R R c o n n e c t e d a t M a u c h C h u n k w i t h t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d . T h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d h a d b e e n b u i l t i n 1 8 3 6 , a n d i t t r a n s p o r t e d a n t h r a c i t e c o a l f r o m J e a n s v i l l e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a ' s M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d t o t h e L e h i g h C a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k . F o r 2 5 y e a r s t h e L e h i g h C a n a l h a d e n j o y e d a m o n o p o l y o n d o w n s t r e a m t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d w a s c h a r g i n g i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r s h i g h f e e s . W h e n t h e L V R R o p e n e d , t h o s e p r o d u c e r s e a g e r l y s e n t t h e i r p r o d u c t b y t h e r a i l r o a d i n s t e a d o f c a n a l , a n d w i t h i n t w o y e a r s o f i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e L V R R w a s c a r r y i n g o v e r 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y . B y 1 8 5 9 i t h a d 6 0 0 c o a l c a r s a n d 1 9 e n g i n e s . T h e L V R R i m m e d i a t e l y b e c a m e t h e t r u n k l i n e d o w n t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w i t h n u m e r o u s f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s c o n n e c t i n g a n d c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i t s t r a f f i c . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d c a m e t o t h e L V R R o v e r f e e d e r s t o t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w : t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d , t h e C a t a w i s s a , W i l l i a m s p o r t a n d E r i e R a i l r o a d , t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d , t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d a n d o t h e r s m a l l e r l i n e s . A t C a t a s a u q u a , t h e C a t a s a u q u a a n d F o g e l s v i l l e R a i l r o a d t r a n s p o r t e d c o a l , o r e , l i m e s t o n e a n d i r o n f o r f u r n a c e s o f t h e T h o m a s I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h C r a n e I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y I r o n W o r k s , t h e C a r b o n I r o n C o m p a n y , a n d o t h e r s . A t B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e N o r t h P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d w h i c h w a s c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g t h e S u m m e r o f 1 8 5 6 , p r o v i d e d a r a i l c o n n e c t i o n t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d t h u s b r o u g h t t h e L V R R a d i r e c t l i n e t o P h i l a d e l p h i a . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d c o n n e c t e d t o T r e n t o n , N e w J e r s e y . T o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e g a u g e o f t h e B e l v i d e r e , t h e c a r s w e r e f u r n i s h e d w i t h w h e e l s h a v i n g w i d e t r e a d s t h a t o p e r a t e d o n b o t h r o a d s . T h e 1 8 6 0 s s a w a n e x p a n s i o n o f t h e L V R R n o r t h w a r d t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d u p t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e . A s a P a c k e r w a s e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o n J a n u a r y 1 3 , 1 8 6 2 . I n 1 8 6 4 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a c q u i r i n g f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s a n d m e r g i n g t h e m w i t h i t s s y s t e m . T h e f i r s t a c q u i s i t i o n s w e r e t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d a n d C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , a n d t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d . T h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n w a s t h e f i r s t s t e p i n e x p a n d i n g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . T h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d a l l o w e d t h e L V t o r e a c h W h i t e H a v e n . I n 1 8 6 6 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h a n d M a h a n o y R a i l r o a d ( o r i g i n a l l y t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d ) a n d t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l a l o n g t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r , r e n a m i n g i t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d N e w Y o r k C a n a l & R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ( P & N Y ) . T h e p u r c h a s i n g o f t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l s a w a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a n e a r m o n o p o l y i n t h e r e g i o n n o r t h o f t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . I n 1 8 6 6 , t w o y e a r s a f t e r t h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n , t h e e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e o p e n e d . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r a i l l i n e t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e s t a r t e d i m m e d i a t e l y a n d , i n 1 8 6 7 , t h e l i n e w a s c o m p l e t e f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e t o W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k , w h e r e c o a l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b r o a d g a u g e E r i e R a i l r o a d a n d s h i p p e d t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s t h r o u g h B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e P e n n H a v e n & W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 4 , a n d b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e t h a t w a s o p e n e d i n 1 8 6 7 . B y 1 8 6 9 , t h e L V R R o w n e d a c o n t i n u o u s t r a c k t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a f r o m E a s t o n t o W a v e r l y . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e L V R R — a s t a n d a r d g a u g e r a i l r o a d — c o m p l e t e d a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d , a t t h a t t i m e h a v i n g a s i x - f o o t g a u g e , f o r a t h i r d r a i l w i t h i n t h e E r i e m a i n l i n e t r a c k s t o e n a b l e t h e L V e q u i p m e n t t o r u n t h r o u g h t o E l m i r a a n d l a t e r t o B u f f a l o . F u r t h e r r o u n d s o f a c q u i s i t i o n s t o o k p l a c e i n 1 8 6 8 . T h e a c q u i s i t i o n s i n 1 8 6 8 w e r e n o t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e L V R R ' s s t r a t e g y o f a c q u i r i n g c o a l l a n d s t o e n s u r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a f f i c f o r i t s o w n l i n e s . A l t h o u g h t h e 1 8 6 4 a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w h a d i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , b y 1 8 6 8 t h e L V R R w a s f e e l i n g p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n a n d t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d i n t h e n o r t h e r n W y o m i n g V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d , w h e r e t h e r a i l r o a d s m i n e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d t h e i r o w n c o a l a t a m u c h r e d u c e d c o s t . T h e L V R R r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i t s o w n c o n t i n u e d p r o s p e r i t y d e p e n d e d o n o b t a i n i n g w h a t c o a l l a n d s r e m a i n e d . I n p u r s u i t o f t h a t s t r a t e g y , t h e 1 8 6 8 p u r c h a s e s o f t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d a n d t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d b r o u g h t o f c o a l l a n d t o t h e L V R R , a n d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d s w e r e a c q u i r e d a l o n g b r a n c h e s o f t h e L V R R . O v e r t h e n e x t d o z e n y e a r s t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d : i n 1 8 7 0 , i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a C o a l C o m p a n y i n 1 8 7 3 w i t h i t s l a r g e l e a s e s i n t h e M a h a n o y b a s i n . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e h o l d i n g s w e r e c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h w a s w h o l l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R . B y 1 8 9 3 , t h e L V R R o w n e d o r c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l l a n d s . W i t h t h e s e a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L V R R o b t a i n e d t h e r i g h t t o m i n e c o a l a s w e l l a s t r a n s p o r t i t . T h e 1 8 7 0 s w i t n e s s e d c o m m e n c e m e n t o f e x t e n s i o n o f t h e L V R R i n a n e w d i r e c t i o n . I n t h e 1 8 7 0 s t h e L V R R a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d s t a r t i n g a t i n 1 8 7 0 , w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l o f i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d t u r n e d i t s e y e t o w a r d e x p a n s i o n a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y a l l t h e w a y t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . I n 1 8 7 0 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s t o A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t i n t h e e a s t w a s N e w Y o r k C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R w a s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l f o r t r a n s p o r t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e L V R R l e a s e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l , w h i c h h a d a v a l u a b l e o u t l e t i n J e r s e y C i t y o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r o p p o s i t e M a n h a t t a n . A s a P a c k e r p u r c h a s e d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d a t t h e c a n a l b a s i n i n s u p p o r t o f t h e N e w J e r s e y W e s t L i n e R a i l r o a d , w h i c h h e h o p e d t o u s e a s t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . T h a t p r o j e c t f a i l e d , b u t t h e l a n d s w e r e l a t e r u s e d f o r t h e L V R R ' s o w n t e r m i n a l i n 1 8 8 9 . T h e C N J , a n t i c i p a t i n g t h a t t h e L V R R i n t e n d e d t o c r e a t e i t s o w n l i n e a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y , p r o t e c t e d i t s e l f b y l e a s i n g t h e L e h i g h a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( L & S ) t o e n s u r e a c o n t i n u i n g s u p p l y o f c o a l t r a f f i c . T h e L & S h a d b e e n c h a r t e r e d i n 1 8 3 7 b y t h e L e h i g h C o a l & N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ( t h e L e h i g h C a n a l c o m p a n y ) t o c o n n e c t t h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e c a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . A f t e r t h e L V R R o p e n e d i t s l i n e , t h e L e h i g h & S u s q u e h a n n a e x t e n d e d t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s a n d E s s e x R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 8 . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e e n t i r e l i n e f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e w a s l e a s e d t o t h e C N J . F o r m o s t o f i t s l e n g t h , i t r a n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L V R R . T h e L V R R f o u n d t h a t t h e r o u t e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l w a s i m p r a c t i c a l f o r u s e a s a r a i l r o a d l i n e , s o i n 1 8 7 2 t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e d o r m a n t c h a r t e r o f t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k R a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d a c c e s s t o t h e P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y h a r b o r , a n d a d d e d t o i t a n e w c h a r t e r , t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n R a i l r o a d . T h e S t a t e o f N e w J e r s e y p a s s e d l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o c o n s o l i d a t e i t s N e w J e r s e y r a i l r o a d s i n t o o n e c o m p a n y ; t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k a n d t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n w e r e m e r g e d t o f o r m a n e w r a i l r o a d c o m p a n y c a l l e d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ( o r E a s t o n & A m b o y R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ) . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a r a i l r o a d b u i l t a c r o s s c e n t r a l N e w J e r s e y b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d t o r u n f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y t o B o u n d B r o o k , N e w J e r s e y a n d i t w a s b u i l t t o c o n n e c t t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d c o a l - h a u l i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y t o s e r v e c o n s u m e r m a r k e t s i n t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e P h i l l i p s b u r g c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C N J t h a t h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n t h e o n l y o u t l e t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r ; u n t i l i t w a s b u i l t , t h e t e r m i n u s o f t h e L V R R h a d b e e n a t P h i l l i p s b u r g o n t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r o p p o s i t e E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s u s e d a s a c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , w i t h a t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . C o n s t r u c t i o n c o m m e n c e d i n 1 8 7 2 a s s o o n t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s f o r m e d ; c o a l d o c k s a t P e r t h A m b o y w e r e s o o n c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d m o s t o f t h e l i n e f r o m E a s t o n t o P e r t h A m b o y w a s g r a d e d a n d r a i l s l a i d . H o w e v e r , t h e r o u t e r e q u i r e d a t u n n e l t h r o u g h / u n d e r M u s c o n e t c o n g M o u n t a i n n e a r P a t t e n b u r g , N e w J e r s e y ( a b o u t t w e l v e m i l e s e a s t o f P h i l l i p s b u r g ) , a n d t h a t p r o v e d t r o u b l e s o m e , d e l a y i n g t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e l i n e u n t i l M a y 1 8 7 5 , w h e n a c o a l t r a i n f i r s t p a s s e d o v e r t h e l i n e . T o s u p p o r t t h e e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s e i n t r a f f i c , t h e w o o d e n b r i d g e o v e r t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r a t E a s t o n w a s a l s o r e p l a c e d b y a d o u b l e - t r a c k e d , i r o n b r i d g e . A t P e r t h A m b o y , a t i d e w a t e r t e r m i n a l w a s b u i l t o n t h e A r t h u r K i l l c o m p r i s i n g a l a r g e c o a l d o c k u s e d t o t r a n s p o r t c o a l i n t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . T h e s e t r a c k s w e r e l a i d a n d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s o p e n e d f o r b u s i n e s s o n J u n e 2 8 , 1 8 7 5 w i t h h a u l i n g c o a l . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y ' s o p e r a t i o n s w e r e l a b e l e d t h e " N e w J e r s e y D i v i s i o n " o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y h a d a l r e a d y c o m p l e t e d l a r g e d o c k s a n d f a c i l i t i e s f o r s h i p p i n g c o a l a t P e r t h A m b o y u p o n a n e x t e n s i v e t r a c t o f l a n d f r o n t i n g t h e A r t h u r K i l l . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f a n t h r a c i t e m o v e d t o P e r t h A m b o y d u r i n g t h a t y e a r f o r t r a n s s h i p m e n t b y w a t e r . O p e r a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e L V R R ' s b a n k r u p t c y i n 1 9 7 6 . T h e m a r s h a l l i n g y a r d i s n o w t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a k n o w n a s H a r b o r t o w n . P a s s e n g e r t r a f f i c o n t h e L V R R ' s E a s t o n a n d A m b o y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ( P R R ) a t M e t u c h e n , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n t i n u e d t o t h e P R R ' S E x c h a n g e P l a c e t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y ( t h a t c o n n e c t i o n w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 8 9 1 a f t e r t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d ) . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e p a r e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e L V R R f i n a n c e d t h e a d d i t i o n o f a t h i r d r a i l t o t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e s o t h a t c a r s c o u l d r o l l d i r e c t l y f r o m c o l l i e r y t o t h e p o r t a t B u f f a l o . W h i l e t h e t h i r d r a i l o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e b e t w e e n W a v e r l y a n d B u f f a l o g a v e t h e L V R R a n u n b r o k e n c o n n e c t i o n t o B u f f a l o , t h e r o a d ' s m a n a g e m e n t d e s i r e d i t s o w n l i n e i n t o B u f f a l o . T h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d p a s s e d i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e L V R R i n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 6 , w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e n e a r S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k , a d i s t a n c e o f 7 5 m i l e s . O n M a y 1 7 , 1 8 7 9 , A s a P a c k e r , t h e c o m p a n y ' s f o u n d e r a n d l e a d e r , d i e d a t t h e a g e o f 7 3 . A t t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h , t h e r a i l r o a d w a s s h i p p i n g 4 . 4 m i l l i o n t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y o v e r o f t r a c k , u s i n g 2 3 5 e n g i n e s , 2 4 , 4 6 1 c o a l c a r s , a n d o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 f r e i g h t c a r s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s . T h e c o m p a n y c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l - p r o d u c i n g l a n d s a n d w a s e x p a n d i n g r a p i d l y i n t o N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y . T h e r a i l r o a d h a d s u r v i v e d t h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n o f 1 8 7 3 a n d w a s s e e i n g i t s b u s i n e s s r e c o v e r . L e a d e r s h i p o f t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s f e r r e d s m o o t h l y t o C h a r l e s H a r t s h o r n e w h o h a d b e e n v i c e p r e s i d e n t u n d e r P a c k e r . I n 1 8 8 3 , H a r t s h o r n e r e t i r e d t o a l l o w H a r r y E . P a c k e r , A s a ' s 3 2 - y e a r - o l d y o u n g e s t s o n , t o a s s u m e t h e P r e s i d e n c y . A y e a r l a t e r , H a r r y P a c k e r d i e d o f i l l n e s s , a n d A s a ' s 5 1 - y e a r - o l d n e p h e w E l i s h a P a c k e r W i l b u r w a s e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t , a p o s i t i o n h e h e l d f o r 1 3 y e a r s . T h e 1 8 8 0 s c o n t i n u e d t o b e a p e r i o d o f g r o w t h , a n d t h e L V R R m a d e i m p o r t a n t a c q u i s i t i o n s i n N e w Y o r k , e x p a n d e d i t s r e a c h i n t o t h e s o u t h e r n c o a l f i e l d o f P e n n s y l v a n i a w h i c h h a d h i t h e r t o b e e n t h e m o n o p o l y o f t h e R e a d i n g , a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y b a t t l e d t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . I n 1 8 8 0 , t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e t o o p e r a t e a f l e e t o f s h i p s o n t h e G r e a t L a k e s w i t h t e r m i n a l s i n C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , a n d D u l u t h . T h i s c o m p a n y b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e m o v e m e n t o f a n t h r a c i t e , g r a i n a n d p a c k a g e f r e i g h t b e t w e e n B u f f a l o , C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , D u l u t h , S u p e r i o r a n d o t h e r m i d w e s t e r n c i t i e s . F o l l o w i n g F e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s u c h s e r v i c e , t h e l a k e l i n e w a s s o l d t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s i n 1 9 2 0 . T h e p o r t o n L a k e E r i e a t B u f f a l o w a s c r i t i c a l t o t h e L V R R ' s s h i p m e n t s o f c o a l t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s a n d f o r r e c e i p t o f g r a i n s e n t b y t h e W e s t t o e a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l t h o u g h i n 1 8 7 0 t h e L V R R h a d i n v e s t e d i n t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k R a i l r o a d w h i c h c o n n e c t e d t h e E r i e t o t h e l a k e f r o n t , a n d h a d c o n s t r u c t e d t h e L e h i g h D o c k s o n B u f f a l o C r e e k , i t d e p e n d e d o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d f o r t h e c o n n e c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k t o B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . I n 1 8 8 2 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a n e x t e n s i v e e x p a n s i o n i n t o N e w Y o r k f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o . C o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o w a s s p l i t i n t o t w o p r o j e c t s , W a v e r l y t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k a n d G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o ( G e n e v a i s l o c a t e d a t t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f S e n e c a L a k e ) . F i r s t , i t p u r c h a s e d a l a r g e p a r c e l o f l a n d i n B u f f a l o , t h e T i f f t f a r m , f o r u s e a s t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s , a n d o b t a i n e d a N e w Y o r k c h a r t e r f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y ( a s i m i l a r n a m e t o t h e L V R R , b u t w i t h " r a i l w a y " i n s t e a d ) . L V R R s u b s i d i a r y , L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e m a i n l i n e ' s n o r t h e r n p a r t f r o m B u f f a l o t o L a n c a s t e r , N e w Y o r k i n 1 8 8 3 , a t o t a l d i s t a n c e o f t e n m i l e s . T h i s w a s t h e s e c o n d s t e p t o w a r d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a d i r e c t r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o , t h e f i r s t b e i n g t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d . T h e n i n 1 8 8 7 t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o b t a i n e d a l e a s e o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d ( t h e L V R R p r e v i o u s l y h a d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s o n t h e r a i l r o a d s t a r t i n g i n 1 8 7 0 ) , w h i c h h a d a r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y n o r t h w a r d i n t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e L V R R o r g a n i z e d t h e B u f f a l o a n d G e n e v a R a i l r o a d t o b u i l d t h e r e s t o f t h e 9 7 - m i l e G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o t r a c k a g e , f r o m G e n e v a t o L a n c a s t e r . F i n a l l y , i n 1 8 8 9 , t h e L V R R g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a , a n d S a y r e R a i l r o a d a n d c o m p l e t e d i t s l i n e o f r a i l t h r o u g h N e w Y o r k . A s a r e s u l t o f i t s l e a s e s a n d a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y g a i n e d a n e a r - m o n o p o l y o n t r a f f i c i n t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . I t a l s o c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w a n d d e v e l o p i t s r o u t e s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n 1 8 8 3 t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d l a n d i n n o r t h e a s t P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d f o r m e d a s u b s i d i a r y c a l l e d T h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l a n d L a n d C o m p a n y . I t o p e n e d a h o t e l i n G l e n S u m m i t , P e n n s y l v a n i a c a l l e d t h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l t o s e r v e l u n c h t o p a s s e n g e r s t r a v e l i n g o n t h e l i n e . T h e h o t e l r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e c o m p a n y u n t i l 1 9 0 9 , w h e n i t w a s b o u g h t b y r e s i d e n t s o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o t t a g e s . I n P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L e h i g h s c o r e d a c o u p b y o b t a i n i n g t h e c h a r t e r f o r m e r l y h e l d b y t h e S c h u y k i l l H a v e n a n d L e h i g h R i v e r R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 8 6 . T h a t c h a r t e r h a d b e e n h e l d b y t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d s i n c e 1 8 6 0 , w h e n i t h a d b l o c k e d c o n s t r u c t i o n i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n i t s m o n o p o l y i n t h e S o u t h e r n C o a l F i e l d . T h a t s o u t h e r n f i e l d h e l d t h e l a r g e s t r e s e r v e s o f a n t h r a c i t e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d a c c o u n t e d f o r a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n . T h r o u g h n e g l e c t , t h e R e a d i n g a l l o w e d t h e c h a r t e r t o l a p s e , a n d i t w a s a c q u i r e d b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d t h e S c h u y l k i l l a n d L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e g a v e t h e L V R R a r o u t e i n t o P o t t s v i l l e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e S c h u y l k i l l V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d s . T h e V o s b u r g T u n n e l w a s c o m p l e t e d a n d o p e n e d f o r s e r v i c e o n J u l y 2 5 , 1 8 8 6 . T h e 1 6 m i l e M o u n t a i n C u t - o f f , ( a r a i l s e g m e n t o f t h e l i n e ) w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m F a i r v i e w , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o t h e o u t s k i r t s o f P i t t s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , w a s c o m p l e t e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 8 8 8 . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e l i n e ' s e a s t b o u n d g r a d e t o b e r e d u c e d a n d a s h o r t e r r o u t e f o r h a n d l i n g t h r o u g h t r a f f i c e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e L V R R h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , b u t d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n N e w J e r s e y , t h e L V R R e m b a r k e d o n a d e c a d e - l o n g l e g a l b a t t l e w i t h t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . T h e l a n d t h a t A s a P a c k e r h a d o b t a i n e d i n 1 8 7 2 w a s s i t u a t e d o n t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l ' s S o u t h B a s i n , b u t t h e C N J a l r e a d y h a d i t s o w n f a c i l i t i e s a d j a c e n t t o t h a t p r o p e r t y a n d d i s p u t e d t h e L V R R ' s t i t l e , w h i c h p a r t l y o v e r l a p p e d l a n d t h e C N J h a d f i l l e d f o r i t s o w n t e r m i n a l . F i n a l l y i n 1 8 8 7 t h e t w o r a i l r o a d s r e a c h e d a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e L V R R ' s J e r s e y C i t y f r e i g h t y a r d b e g a n . T h e L V R R o b t a i n e d a 5 - y e a r a g r e e m e n t t o u s e t h e C N J l i n e t o a c c e s s t h e t e r m i n a l , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 8 8 9 . I t f r o n t e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l B a s i n w i t h a s e r i e s o f p i e r s a n g l i n g o u t f r o m t h e s h o r e l i n e b u t w a s t o o n a r r o w f o r a y a r d , s o t h e L V R R b u i l t a s e p a r a t e y a r d a t O a k I s l a n d i n N e w a r k t o s o r t a n d p r e p a r e t r a i n s . T h e S o u t h B a s i n t e r m i n a l w a s u s e d s o l e l y f o r f r e i g h t , h a v i n g d o c k s a n d c a r f l o a t f a c i l i t i e s . P a s s e n g e r s w e r e r o u t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y . T h e L V R R s t r o v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 8 0 s t o a c q u i r e i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y a n d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y w a t e r f r o n t . T h e L V R R d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d m o r e t o t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n N e w J e r s e y i n o r d e r t o r e a c h i t s f r e i g h t y a r d s w i t h o u t u s i n g t h e C N J m a i n l i n e . T h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f r a i l r o a d s t o c o n n e c t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y l i n e ( E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ) t o J e r s e y C i t y . T h e f i r s t l e g o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o J e r s e y C i t y w a s t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n 1 8 8 8 w h i c h c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a t R o s e l l e , N e w J e r s e y f o r a c c e s s o v e r t h e C N J t o t h e H u d s o n R i v e r w a t e r f r o n t i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R w h i c h h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n 1 8 9 1 , t h e L V R R c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y , a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r c o m p a n i e s w h i c h f o r m e d t h e r o u t e f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y t e r m i n a l . I n i t i a l l y , t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r r i g h t s f r o m R o s e l l e t o J e r s e y C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R e v e n t u a l l y f i n i s h e d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o i t s t e r m i n a l i n J e r s e y C i t y o v e r t h e N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y , t h e N e w a r k a n d P a s s a i c R a i l w a y , t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k , a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y , a n d t h e J e r s e y C i t y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y . T h e L V R R ' s N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y i n 1 8 9 1 b r o u g h t t h e l i n e f r o m R o s e l l e i n t o N e w a r k , w h e r e p a s s e n g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . B r i d g i n g N e w a r k B a y p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t . T h e L V R R f i r s t a t t e m p t e d t o o b t a i n a r i g h t o f w a y a t G r e e n v i l l e , b u t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d c h e c k m a t e d t h e m b y p u r c h a s i n g m o s t o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s n e e d e d . T h e n t h e C N J o p p o s e d t h e L V R R ' s a t t e m p t t o c r o s s i t s l i n e a t C a v e n P o i n t . F i n a l l y a f t e r s e t t l i n g t h e l e g a l i s s u e s , t h e N e w a r k B a y w a s b r i d g e d i n 1 8 9 2 b y t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y a n d c o n n e c t e d t o t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y , w h i c h w a s p a r t l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R a n d w h i c h r e a c h e d t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . I n 1 8 9 5 , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d t h e G r e e n v i l l e a n d H u d s o n R a i l w a y p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s i n o r d e r t o r e l i e v e c o n g e s t i o n a n d h a v e a w h o l l y - o w n e d r o u t e i n t o J e r s e y C i t y . F i n a l l y i n 1 9 0 0 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y o u t r i g h t . T h e 1 8 9 0 s w e r e a p e r i o d o f t u r m o i l f o r t h e L V R R . A l t h o u g h t h e d e c a d e b e g a n w i t h t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f i t s t e r m i n a l s a t B u f f a l o a n d J e r s e y C i t y , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a t r u n k l i n e a c r o s s N e w Y o r k , t h e c o m p a n y s o o n b e c a m e e n t a n g l e d i n c o s t l y b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o t h e P a c k e r f a m i l y ' s l o s s o f c o n t r o l . T h e c o a l t r a d e w a s a l w a y s t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e b u s i n e s s b u t w a s s u b j e c t t o b o o m a n d b u s t a s c o m p e t i t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e d a n d t h e e c o n o m y c y c l e d . T h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s h a d b e g u n i n 1 8 7 3 t o f o r m p o o l s t o r e g u l a t e p r o d u c t i o n a n d s e t q u o t a s f o r e a c h r a i l r o a d . B y c o n t r o l l i n g s u p p l y , t h e c o a l c o m b i n a t i o n a t t e m p t e d t o k e e p p r i c e s a n d p r o f i t s h i g h . S e v e r a l c o m b i n a t i o n s o c c u r r e d , b u t e a c h f e l l a p a r t a s o n e r o a d o r a n o t h e r a b r o g a t e d i t s a g r e e m e n t . T h e f i r s t s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n 1 8 7 3 , f o l l o w e d b y o t h e r s i n 1 8 7 8 , 1 8 8 4 , a n d 1 8 8 6 . C u s t o m e r s n a t u r a l l y r e s e n t e d t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e c a r t e l , a n d s i n c e c o a l w a s c r i t i c a l t o c o m m e r c e , C o n g r e s s i n t e r v e n e d i n 1 8 8 7 w i t h t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e A c t t h a t f o r b a d e t h e r o a d s f r o m j o i n i n g i n t o s u c h p o o l s . A l t h o u g h t h e r o a d s e f f e c t i v e l y i g n o r e d t h e A c t a n d t h e i r s a l e s a g e n t s c o n t i n u e d t o m e e t a n d s e t p r i c e s , t h e a g r e e m e n t s w e r e n e v e r e f f e c t i v e f o r l o n g . I n 1 8 9 2 , t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d t h o u g h t i t h a d a s o l u t i o n — i n s t e a d o f a t t e m p t i n g t o m a i n t a i n a g r e e m e n t s a m o n g t h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s , i t w o u l d p u r c h a s e o r l e a s e t h e m a j o r l i n e s a n d b r i n g t h e m i n t o a m o n o p o l y . I t l e a s e d t h e C N J a n d t h e L V R R , p u r c h a s e d t h e r a i l r o a d s ' c o a l c o m p a n i e s a n d a r r a n g e d f o r t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g 7 0 % o f t h e t r a d e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t o v e r r e a c h e d a n d i n 1 8 9 3 w a s u n a b l e t o m e e t i t s o b l i g a t i o n s . I t s b a n k r u p t c y r e s u l t e d i n e c o n o m i c c h a o s , b r i n g i n g o n t h e f i n a n c i a l p a n i c o f 1 8 9 3 a n d f o r c i n g t h e L V R R t o b r e a k t h e l e a s e a n d r e s u m e i t s o w n o p e r a t i o n s , l e a v i n g i t u n a b l e t o p a y d i v i d e n d s o n i t s s t o c k u n t i l 1 9 0 4 . T h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n f o l l o w i n g 1 8 9 3 w a s h a r s h , a n d b y 1 8 9 7 t h e L V R R w a s i n d i r e n e e d o f s u p p o r t . T h e b a n k i n g g i a n t J . P . M o r g a n s t e p p e d i n t o r e f i n a n c e t h e L V R R d e b t a n d o b t a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e r a i l r o a d i n t h e p r o c e s s . O u s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E l i s h a P . W i l b u r a n d s e v e r a l d i r e c t o r s i n 1 8 9 7 , t h e M o r g a n c o m p a n y i n s t a l l e d W . A l f r e d W a l t e r a s p r e s i d e n t a n d s e a t e d i t s o w n d i r e c t o r s . I n 1 9 0 1 M o r g a n a r r a n g e d t o h a v e t h e P a c k e r E s t a t e ' s h o l d i n g s p u r c h a s e d j o i n t l y b y t h e E r i e , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L a k e S h o r e a n d M i c h i g a n S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e D L & W a n d t h e C N J , a l l c o m p a n i e s i n w h i c h M o r g a n h a d i n t e r e s t s . N e w l y e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t E b e n B . T h o m a s ( f o r m e r l y o f t h e E r i e ) a n d h i s B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e c o m b i n e d i n t e r e s t s o f t h o s e r a i l r o a d s . A f i n a l a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h a c o a l c a r t e l t o o k p l a c e i n 1 9 0 4 w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y . P r i o r t o t h a t t i m e , t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s a s m a l l c o n c e r n t h a t h a p p e n e d t o h a v e a b r o a d c h a r t e r a l l o w i n g i t t o a c t a s a h o l d i n g c o m p a n y . T h e R e a d i n g , n o w o u t o f r e c e i v e r s h i p , p u r c h a s e d t h e c o m p a n y a n d b r o u g h t t h e o t h e r c o a l r a i l r o a d s i n t o t h e p a r t n e r s h i p , w i t h t h e R e a d i n g o w n i n g 3 0 % , t h e L V R R 2 3 % , t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 2 0 % , C N J 1 7 % , E r i e 6 % , a n d N e w Y o r k , S u s q u e h a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 4 p e r c e n t . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s t o l o c k - u p i n d e p e n d e n t c o a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l t h e s u p p l y . C o n g r e s s r e a c t e d w i t h t h e 1 9 0 6 H e p b u r n A c t , w h i c h a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s f o r b a d e r a i l r o a d s f r o m o w n i n g t h e c o m m o d i t i e s t h a t t h e y t r a n s p o r t e d . A l o n g s e r i e s o f a n t i t r u s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d l a w s u i t s r e s u l t e d , c u l m i n a t i n g i n a 1 9 1 1 S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n t h a t f o r c e d t h e L V R R t o d i v e s t i t s e l f o f t h e c o a l c o m p a n i e s i t h a d h e l d s i n c e 1 8 6 8 . T h e L V R R s h a r e h o l d e r s r e c e i v e d s h a r e s o f t h e n o w i n d e p e n d e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , b u t t h e r a i l r o a d n o l o n g e r h a d m a n a g e m e n t c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n , c o n t r a c t s , a n d s a l e s o f i t s l a r g e s t c u s t o m e r . I n 1 8 9 6 t h e v e r y e a r l y f i l m " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s " w a s p r o d u c e d b y T h o m a s A . E d i s o n ' s c o m p a n y K i n e t o s c o p e . T h e t r a i n a r r i v e s f r o m f a r a w a y a n d p a s s e s t h e c a m e r a , w h i l e w o r k e r s a r e w a v i n g t h e i r h a n d k e r c h i e f s . F o r t u n a t e l y , g r a i n t o n n a g e w a s i n c r e a s i n g a n d t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s p o r t e d l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s f r o m B u f f a l o t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d o t h e r E a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l s o , i n 1 9 1 4 t h e P a n a m a C a n a l w a s c o m p l e t e d , a n d t h e L V R R g a i n e d a n i m p o r t a n t n e w m a r k e t w i t h o r e s s h i p p e d f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a t o t h e B e t h l e h e m S t e e l c o m p a n y . I n o r d e r t o h a n d l e t h e a d d i t i o n a l n e w o c e a n t r a f f i c , t h e L V R R c r e a t e d a l a r g e n e w p i e r a t C o n s t a b l e H o o k , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 1 5 , a n d a n e w t e r m i n a l a t C l a r e m o n t w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 2 3 . I t a l s o b u i l t a p a s s e n g e r t e r m i n a l i n B u f f a l o i n 1 9 1 5 . S i n c e 1 8 9 6 t h e L V R R h a d r u n a n i m p o r t a n t a n d p r e s t i g i o u s e x p r e s s t r a i n n a m e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " w h i c h c a r r i e d p a s s e n g e r s t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s a n d B u f f a l o . A d d i t i o n a l p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s r a n f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a t o S c r a n t o n a n d w e s t w a r d . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e L V R R ' s N e w Y o r k C i t y p a s s e n g e r s h a d u s e d t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y a t J e r s e y C i t y , b u t i n 1 9 1 3 t h e P R R t e r m i n a t e d t h a t a g r e e m e n t , s o t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r u s e o f i t s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y , w h i c h w a s e x p a n d e d t o h a n d l e t h e i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r o f p a s s e n g e r s . T h e r a i l r o a d a l s o p u b l i s h e d a m o n t h l y m a g a z i n e p r o m o t i n g t r a v e l o n t h e t r a i n c a l l e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s M o n t h l y " . I n t h e w a r y e a r s 1 9 1 4 t o 1 9 1 8 , t h e L e h i g h h a n d l e d w a r m a t e r i a l s a n d e x p l o s i v e s a t i t s B l a c k T o m i s l a n d f a c i l i t y , w h i c h h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d a l o n g w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 0 0 . I n 1 9 1 6 , a h o r r e n d o u s e x p l o s i o n o c c u r r e d a t t h e f a c i l i t y , d e s t r o y i n g s h i p s a n d b u i l d i n g s , a n d b r e a k i n g w i n d o w s i n M a n h a t t a n . A t f i r s t t h e i n c i d e n t w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a c c i d e n t ; a l o n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n e v e n t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e x p l o s i o n w a s a n a c t o f G e r m a n s a b o t a g e , f o r w h i c h r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e f i n a l l y p a i d i n 1 9 7 9 . A f t e r t h e U . S . e n t e r e d W o r l d W a r I , t h e r a i l r o a d s w e r e n a t i o n a l i z e d i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t s t r i k e s a n d i n t e r r u p t i o n s . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s R a i l r o a d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n t r o l l e d t h e r a i l r o a d f r o m 1 9 1 8 t o 1 9 2 0 , a t w h i c h t i m e c o n t r o l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d b a c k t o t h e p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e h e a v y w a r t i m e t r a f f i c h a d l e f t t h e r a i l r o a d ' s p l a n t a n d e q u i p m e n t i n n e e d o f r e p a i r , t h e d a m a g e w a s p a r t l y o f f s e t b y n e w e q u i p m e n t t h a t h a d b e e n p u r c h a s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t . I n 1 9 2 0 , t h e L V R R s o l d i t s l a k e l i n e c o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e , t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s d u e t o n e w f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f r a i l r o a d s o w n i n g l a k e l i n e s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 2 0 s t h e r a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e M o r g a n / D r e x e l b a n k i n g f i r m , b u t i n 1 9 2 8 a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o w r e s t c o n t r o l f r o m i t . I n 1 9 2 7 , L e o n o r F r e s n e l L o r e e , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n R a i l r o a d , h a d a v i s i o n f o r a n e w f i f t h t r u n k l i n e b e t w e e n t h e E a s t a n d W e s t , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e W a b a s h R a i l r o a d , t h e B u f f a l o , R o c h e s t e r a n d P i t t s b u r g h R a i l w a y , a n d t h e L V R R . T h r o u g h b o n d s i s s u e d b y t h e D & H , h e o b t a i n e d 3 0 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k , a n d w o n t h e s u p p o r t o f n e a r l y h a l f t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . I n 1 9 2 8 , h e a t t e m p t e d t o s e a t a n e w p r e s i d e n t a n d b o a r d . A m a s s i v e p r o x y f i g h t e n s u e d , w i t h e x i s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E d w a r d E u g e n e L o o m i s n a r r o w l y r e t a i n i n g h i s p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f E d w a r d T . S t o t e s b u r y o f J . P . M o r g a n . F o l l o w i n g t h e d e f e a t o f i t s p l a n , t h e D & H s o l d i t s s t o c k t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a q u i e t l y o b t a i n e d m o r e s t o c k , b o t h d i r e c t l y a n d t h r o u g h r a i l r o a d s i t c o n t r o l l e d , p r i m a r i l y t h e W a b a s h . B y 1 9 3 1 , t h e P R R c o n t r o l l e d 5 1 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k . F o l l o w i n g L o o m i s ' d e a t h i n 1 9 3 7 , t h e p r e s i d e n c y w e n t t o L o o m i s ' a s s i s t a n t D u n c a n J . K e r r , b u t i n 1 9 4 0 h e w a s r e p l a c e d b y A l b e r t N . W i l l i a m s , a n d t h e r o a d c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e P R R . I n 1 9 4 1 , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a p l a c e d i t s s h a r e s i n a v o t i n g t r u s t a f t e r r e a c h i n g a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l r e g a r d i n g t h e P R R ' s p u r c h a s e o f t h e W a b a s h . F o l l o w i n g t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n , t h e r a i l r o a d h a d a f e w p e r i o d s o f p r o s p e r i t y , b u t w a s c l e a r l y i n a s l o w d e c l i n e . P a s s e n g e r s p r e f e r r e d t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f a u t o m o b i l e s t o t r a i n s , a n d a i r l i n e s m u c h l a t e r p r o v i d e d f a s t e r l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a v e l t h a n t r a i n s . O i l a n d g a s w e r e s u p p l a n t i n g c o a l a s t h e f u e l o f c h o i c e . T h e D e p r e s s i o n h a d b e e n d i f f i c u l t f o r a l l t h e r a i l r o a d s , a n d C o n g r e s s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t b a n k r u p t c y l a w s n e e d e d r e v i s i o n . T h e C h a n d l e r A c t s o f 1 9 3 8 - 9 p r o v i d e d a n e w f o r m o f r e l i e f f o r r a i l r o a d s , a l l o w i n g t h e m t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e i r d e b t w h i l e c o n t i n u i n g t o o p e r a t e . T h e L V R R w a s a p p r o v e d f o r s u c h a r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n 1 9 4 0 w h e n s e v e r a l l a r g e m o r t g a g e l o a n s w e r e d u e . T h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o e x t e n d t h e m a t u r i t y o f i t s m o r t g a g e s , b u t i t n e e d e d t o r e p e a t t h e p r o c e s s i n 1 9 5 0 . T h e t e r m s o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g s p r e c l u d e d d i v i d e n d p a y m e n t s u n t i l 1 9 5 3 , w h e n L V R R c o m m o n s t o c k p a i d t h e f i r s t d i v i d e n d s i n c e 1 9 3 1 . I n 1 9 5 7 , t h e L V R R a g a i n s t o p p e d d i v i d e n d s . I n 1 9 4 4 , t h e L V R R ' s g r o s s r e v e n u e s c a m e c l o s e t o $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 w h i c h w a s a m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e r a i l r o a d . T w o f i n a l b l o w s f e l l i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s : t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e F e d e r a l - A i d H i g h w a y A c t i n 1 9 5 6 , b e t t e r k n o w n a s t h e I n t e r s t a t e H i g h w a y A c t , a n d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e S a i n t L a w r e n c e S e a w a y i n 1 9 5 9 . T h e i n t e r s t a t e h i g h w a y s h e l p e d t h e t r u c k i n g i n d u s t r y o f f e r d o o r - t o - d o o r s e r v i c e , a n d t h e S t . L a w r e n c e S e a w a y a l l o w e d g r a i n s h i p m e n t s t o b y p a s s t h e r a i l w a y s a n d g o d i r e c t l y t o o v e r s e a s m a r k e t s . B y t h e 1 9 6 0 s , r a i l r o a d s i n t h e E a s t w e r e s t r u g g l i n g t o s u r v i v e . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 6 2 r e q u e s t e d I C C a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o a c q u i r e c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e L V R R t h r o u g h a s w a p o f P R R s t o c k f o r L V R R a n d e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e v o t i n g t r u s t t h a t h a d b e e n i n p l a c e s i n c e 1 9 4 1 . I t m a n a g e d t o a c q u i r e m o r e t h a n 8 5 % o f a l l o u t s t a n d i n g s h a r e s , a n d f r o m t h a t t i m e t h e L V R R w a s l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a d i v i s i o n o f t h e P R R . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a m e r g e d w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l i n 1 9 6 8 , b u t t h e P e n n C e n t r a l f a i l e d i n 1 9 7 0 , c a u s i n g a c a s c a d e o f r a i l r o a d f a i l u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e E a s t . O n J u n e 2 1 , 1 9 7 0 , t h e P e n n C e n t r a l d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y a n d s o u g h t b a n k r u p t c y p r o t e c t i o n . A s a r e s u l t , t h e P C w a s r e l i e v e d o f i t s o b l i g a t i o n t o p a y f e e s t o v a r i o u s N o r t h e a s t e r n r a i l r o a d s — t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y i n c l u d e d — f o r t h e u s e o f t h e i r r a i l c a r s a n d o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e o t h e r r a i l r o a d s ' o b l i g a t i o n s t o p a y t h o s e f e e s t o t h e P e n n C e n t r a l w e r e n o t w a i v e d . T h i s i m b a l a n c e i n p a y m e n t s w o u l d p r o v e f a t a l t o t h e f i n a n c i a l l y - f r a i l L e h i g h V a l l e y , a n d i t d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y j u s t o v e r o n e m o n t h a f t e r t h e P e n n C e n t r a l , o n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 7 0 . T h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 b a n k r u p t c y , a s w a s t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e o f t h e t i m e . I n 1 9 7 2 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a s s u m e d t h e r e m a i n i n g P e n n s y l v a n i a t r a c k a g e o f t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , a c o m p e t i n g a n t h r a c i t e r a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d e n t e r e d b a n k r u p t c y a s w e l l . T h e t w o r o a d s h a d e n t e r e d a s h a r e d t r a c k a g e a g r e e m e n t i n t h i s a r e a i n 1 9 6 5 t o r e d u c e c o s t s , a s b o t h h a d p a r a l l e l r o u t e s f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e w a y t o m e t r o p o l i t a n N e w Y o r k , o f t e n o n a d j o i n i n g g r a d e s t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n t h e y e a r s l e a d i n g t o 1 9 7 3 , t h e f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d s y s t e m i n t h e n o r t h e a s t o f t h e U . S . w a s c o l l a p s i n g . A l t h o u g h g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d A m t r a k t o o k o v e r i n t e r c i t y p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e o n M a y 1 , 1 9 7 1 , r a i l r o a d c o m p a n i e s c o n t i n u e d t o l o s e m o n e y d u e t o e x t e n s i v e g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s , e x p e n s i v e a n d e x c e s s i v e l a b o r c o s t , c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m o t h e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m o d e s , d e c l i n i n g i n d u s t r i a l b u s i n e s s a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s ; t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s o n e o f t h e m . H u r r i c a n e A g n e s i n 1 9 7 2 d a m a g e d t h e r u n d o w n N o r t h e a s t r a i l w a y n e t w o r k , w h i c h p u t t h e s o l v e n c y o f o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n c l u d i n g t h e L V R R i n d a n g e r ; t h e s o m e w h a t m o r e s o l v e n t E r i e L a c k a w a n n a R a i l w a y ( E L ) w a s a l s o d a m a g e d b y H u r r i c a n e A g n e s . I n 1 9 7 3 , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n g r e s s a c t e d t o c r e a t e a b i l l t o n a t i o n a l i z e a l l b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e L V . T h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n R a i l r o a d s , w h i c h o p p o s e d n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , s u b m i t t e d a n a l t e r n a t e p r o p o s a l f o r a g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d p r i v a t e c o m p a n y . P r e s i d e n t R i c h a r d N i x o n s i g n e d t h e R e g i o n a l R a i l R e o r g a n i z a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 7 3 i n t o l a w . T h e " 3 R A c t , " a s i t w a s c a l l e d , p r o v i d e d i n t e r i m f u n d i n g t o t h e b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s a n d d e f i n e d a n e w " C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n " u n d e r t h e A A R ' s p l a n . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , t h e L V R R , i n c l u d i n g i t s m a i n l i n e , w a s m e r g e d i n t o t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t ' s C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n ( C o n r a i l ) e n d i n g 1 3 0 y e a r s o f e x i s t e n c e a n d 1 2 1 y e a r s o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e L V R R . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , m a j o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e a s s e t s o f t h e b a n k r u p t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w e r e a c q u i r e d b y C o n r a i l . T h i s p r i m a r i l y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e m a i n l i n e a n d r e l a t e d b r a n c h e s f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n ( n o r t h / R R w e s t o f S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o O a k I s l a n d Y a r d , t h e I t h a c a b r a n c h f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o I t h a c a , N e w Y o r k , c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e C a y u g a L a k e l i n e a n d o n t o t h e M i l l i k e n p o w e r s t a t i o n i n L a k e R i d g e , N e w Y o r k ( c l o s e d o n A u g u s t 2 9 , 2 0 1 9 ) a n d t h e C a r g i l l s a l t m i n e j u s t s o u t h o f A u b u r n , N Y ; a n d s m a l l s e g m e n t s i n G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k ( f r o m G e n e v a t o t h e S e n e c a A r m y D e p o t i n K e n d a i a ) ; B a t a v i a , N e w Y o r k ; A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k a n d C o r t l a n d , N e w Y o r k . A l o n g s e g m e n t w e s t f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o B u f f a l o w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o n r a i l t a k e o v e r , b u t w a s m o s t l y t o r n - u p n o t l o n g a f t e r w a r d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a s e g m e n t f r o m G e n e v a t o V i c t o r , N e w Y o r k , l a t e r c u t b a c k t o S h o r t s v i l l e , N e w Y o r k , t o V i c t o r , r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y E s t a t e u n d e r s u b s i d i z e d C o n r a i l o p e r a t i o n . T h e S h o r t s v i l l e t o V i c t o r s e g m e n t b e c a m e t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 7 9 ( t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e F i n g e r L a k e s R a i l w a y i n O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 ) . M o s t o f t h e r a i l e q u i p m e n t w e n t t o C o n r a i l a s w e l l , b u t 2 4 l o c o m o t i v e s ( u n i t s G P 3 8 - 2 3 1 4 - 3 2 5 a n d C 4 2 0 4 0 4 – 4 1 5 ) w e n t t o t h e D e l a w a r e & H u d s o n i n s t e a d . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e a s s e t s w e r e d i s p o s e d o f b y t h e e s t a t e u n t i l i t w a s f o l d e d i n t o t h e n o n - r a i l r o a d P e n n C e n t r a l C o r p o r a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s . T h e r o u t e a c r o s s P e n n s y l v a n i a , N e w J e r s e y a n d O a k I s l a n d Y a r d r e m a i n s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o d a y , t h e o n l y t w o C l a s s 1 r a i l r o a d s t h a t a r e b a s e d i n t h e E a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s r o u t e b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t t o C o n r a i l a s a n a l t e r n a t e r o u t e t o a v o i d A m t r a k ' s f o r m e r P R R / P C N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r e l e c t r i f i e d r o u t e . T o d a y , t h i s r o u t e c o n t i n u e s a s t w o l i n e s , o n e t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a n d t h e o t h e r t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w l i n e t h a t w a s o n c e p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e o r i g i n a l l i n e r e t a i n s i t s o r i g i n a l r o u t e w h e n i t w a s f i r s t c o n s t r u c t e d a n d i s s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y . T h e n e w l i n e i s a l s o s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , b u t i t i s s e r v e d t o g e t h e r w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n a j o i n t o w n e r s h i p c o m p a n y c a l l e d C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s . M o s t o f t h e o t h e r r e m a i n i n g L e h i g h V a l l e y t r a c k s e r v e s a s b r a n c h l i n e s , o r h a s b e e n s o l d t o s h o r t l i n e a n d r e g i o n a l o p e r a t o r s . T h e s e o p e r a t o r s i n c l u d e , i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r : T h e L e h i g h L i n e w a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d ' s f i r s t r a i l l i n e a n d s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e . I t w a s o p e n e d o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 b e t w e e n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h r e e m o n t h s l a t e r t h e l i n e b r a n c h e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t A l l e n t o w n t o J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e l i n e w a s l a t e r e x t e n d e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t J i m T h o r p e t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d l a t e r i t r e a c h e d t h e B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k a r e a a n d p a s t E a s t o n a l l t h e w a y t o P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y a n d t h e n s w i t c h e d d i r e c t i o n t o t h e n o r t h e a s t t o J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y l a t e r c u t b a c k t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y . D u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s , t h e l i n e s e r v e d a s t h e b o d y o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d u n t i l t h e r a i l r o a d e i t h e r b u i l t , a c q u i r e d , o r m e r g e d o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n t o i t s s y s t e m . D u r i n g t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t s o w n e r s h i p u n d e r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d , t h e l i n e w a s k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y M a i n l i n e , s t a r t i n g i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s . T h e l i n e a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o C o n r a i l i n 1 9 7 6 a n d w a s m a i n t a i n e d a s a m a i n l i n e i n t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . T h e l i n e b e c a m e k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h L i n e d u r i n g C o n r a i l o w n e r s h i p . C o n r a i l i n t e g r a t e d f o r m e r C N J m a i n l i n e l e a s e d t r a c k a g e i n t o t h e l i n e a n d k e p t t h e l i n e i n c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n ( s i n c e 1 8 5 5 ) ; h o w e v e r , i t d o w n s i z e d t h e l i n e i n t h e n o r t h w e s t f r o m t h e B u f f a l o a r e a o f N e w Y o r k S t a t e : f i r s t t o S a y r e Y a r d i n S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; t h e n t o M e h o o p a n y , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; a n d f i n a l l y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e ' s b e i n g d o w n s i z e d t h r e e t i m e s c r e a t e d t w o n e w r a i l l i n e s : t h e L e h i g h S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n , w h i c h w a s l a t e r s o l d t o t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ( R B M N ) i n 1 9 9 6 ; t h e R B M N w o u l d l a t e r c u t b a c k t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n f r o m M e h o o p a n y t o D u p o n t , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e t r a c k s f r o m D u p o n t t o M e h o o p a n y b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e c a l l e d t h e S u s q u e h a n n a B r a n c h . I n 1 9 9 9 , t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y w h i c h i s o w n e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n C o r p o r a t i o n a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h L i n e i n t h e C o n r a i l s p l i t w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n b u t t h e t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y w e r e k e p t w i t h C o n r a i l i n o r d e r f o r b o t h N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a n d C S X t o h a v e e q u a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e N o r t h e a s t . T h e e x i s t i n g t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a l o n g w i t h C S X o w n i t u n d e r a j o i n t v e n t u r e . H o w e v e r , f o r h i s t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e p a r t f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n p a r t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e . N o w u n d e r o w n e r s h i p o f t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e L e h i g h L i n e ' s r o u t e i s n o w f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h i s i s c u r r e n t l y t h e l a s t t i m e t h e l i n e h a s b e e n d o w n s i z e d . T h e L e h i g h L i n e s t i l l e x i s t s a n d s t i l l s e r v e s a s a m a j o r f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d l i n e t h a t o p e r a t e s i n N e w J e r s e y a n d P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e i s s t i l l o w n e d a n d o p e r a t e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d t h e l i n e s t i l l r u n s f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e c o n n e c t s w i t h C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s ' s L e h i g h L i n e ( t h e n e w r a i l l i n e ) a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ' s T r e n t o n S u b d i v i s i o n a t P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s R e a d i n g D i v i s i o n a t P a c k e r t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s L e h i g h D i v i s i o n a t L e h i g h t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ( o r i g i n a l l y M & H J u n c t i o n n e a r O l d P e n n H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) . T h e l i n e m a k e s n o t a b l e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n l i n e s s u c h a s t h e R e a d i n g L i n e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s h o r t l i n e r a i l r o a d s . A t T h r e e B r i d g e s , N e w J e r s e y i n R e a d i n g t o n T o w n s h i p , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h B l a c k R i v e r a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s N e w J e r s e y s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e W a s h i n g t o n S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r R a i l w a y w h i c h a l s o p a s s e s o v e r t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r a f t e r t h a t . A c r o s s t h e r i v e r i n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s P e n n s y l v a n i a s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e P o r t l a n d S e c o n d a r y w h i c h e x t e n d s f r o m E a s t o n t o P o r t l a n d , P e n n s y l v a n i a c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y p a r t o f t h e L a c k a w a n n a O l d R o a d ( o r s i m p l y O l d R o a d ) ; t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y g o e s u n d e r t h e L a c k a w a n n a C u t - O f f a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e D e l a w a r e - L a c k a w a n n a R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e h o s t s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y - f i v e t r a i n s p e r d a y , w i t h t r a f f i c p e a k i n g a t t h e e n d o f t h e w e e k . E a s t o f t h e j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e R e a d i n g L i n e i n A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d i n B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e s e r v e s a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s m a i n c o r r i d o r i n a n d o u t o f t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y , a n d t h e N e w Y o r k M e t r o A r e a a t l a r g e , a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n d o e s n ' t c u r r e n t l y u s e t h e e a s t e r n h a l f o f i t s S o u t h e r n T i e r L i n e , w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f r o m P o r t J e r v i s n o r t h t o B i n g h a m t o n , N e w Y o r k a n d w h i c h i s n o w ( 2 0 2 2 ) o p e r a t e d b y t h e C e n t r a l N e w Y o r k R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s H a r r i s b u r g D i v i s i o n a n d i t i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s C r e s c e n t C o r r i d o r , a r a i l r o a d c o r r i d o r . I t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 , 0 0 0 - f o o t P a t t e n b u r g T u n n e l i n W e s t P o r t a l , N e w J e r s e y a l o n g i t s r o u t e . M o s t o f t h e t r a f f i c a l o n g t h e l i n e c o n s i s t s o f i n t e r m o d a l a n d g e n e r a l m e r c h a n d i s e t r a i n s g o i n g t o y a r d s s u c h a s O a k I s l a n d Y a r d i n N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y a n d C r o x t o n Y a r d i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e f i r s t l o c o m o t i v e p u r c h a s e d b y t h e L V R R w a s t h e " D e l a w a r e " , a w o o d - b u r n i n g 4 - 4 - 0 b u i l t b y R i c h a r d N o r r i s & S o n s o f P h i l a d e l p h i a i n 1 8 5 5 . I t w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e " C a t a s a u q u a " 4 - 4 - 0 a n d " L e h i g h " 4 - 6 - 0 , w h i c h w e r e a l s o N o r r i s & S o n s e n g i n e s . I n 1 8 5 6 , t h e " E . A . P a c k e r " 4 - 4 - 0 w a s p u r c h a s e d f r o m W i l l i a m M a s o n o f T a u n t o n , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . S u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e L V R R f a v o r e d e n g i n e s f r o m B a l d w i n L o c o m o t i v e W o r k s a n d W i l l i a m M a s o n , b u t t r i e d m a n y o t h e r d e s i g n s a s i t e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h m o t i v e p o w e r t h a t c o u l d h a n d l e t h e l i n e ' s h e a v y g r a d e s . T h e L V R R o p e r a t e d s e v e r a l n a m e d t r a i n s i n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I e r a . A m o n g t h e m : T h e p r i m a r y p a s s e n g e r m o t i v e p o w e r f o r t h e L V R R i n t h e d i e s e l e r a w a s t h e A L C O P A - 1 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e , o f w h i c h t h e L V R R h a d f o u r t e e n . T h e s e l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o u s e d i n f r e i g h t s e r v i c e d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e e r a o f L V R R p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . A p a i r o f A L C O F A - 2 F B - 2 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o p u r c h a s e d t o a u g m e n t t h e P A s w h e n n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e w e r e F A s w i t h s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t d e s i g n a t e d a s F P A - 2 u n i t s . D u e t o d e c l i n i n g p a s s e n g e r p a t r o n a g e , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y s u c c e s s f u l l y p e t i t i o n e d t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e C o m m i s s i o n t o t e r m i n a t e a l l p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . T h i s t o o k e f f e c t o n F e b r u a r y 4 , 1 9 6 1 . T h e " M a p l e L e a f " a n d t h e " J o h n W i l k e s " w e r e t h e l a s t o p e r a t i n g l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a i n s , t e r m i n a t e d t h a t d a y . T h e o n l y d a y l i g h t N e w Y o r k - B u f f a l o t r a i n , t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " , w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 9 5 9 . B u d d R a i l D i e s e l C a r s e r v i c e w o u l d c o n t i n u e o n a b r a n c h l i n e ( L e h i g h t o n - H a z l e t o n ) f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l f o u r d a y s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f p a s s e n g e r e q u i p m e n t i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n s c r a p p e d s o m e t i m e a f t e r F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 1 . M o s t s e r v i c e a b l e e q u i p m e n t n o t r e t a i n e d f o r c o m p a n y s e r v i c e w a s s o l d t o o t h e r r o a d s .

History ; 1846–1860

The Lehigh Valley Railroad (LVRR) was founded in 1846 and initially operated between Mauch Chunk and Easton, Pennsylvania. The railroad expanded throughout the late 1800s, acquiring coal lands and extending its tracks into New York and New Jersey. The LVRR played a significant role in the development of the anthracite coal industry in Pennsylvania and was a major player in the coal trade. However, the railroad faced challenges in the late 1800s and early 1900s, including competition from other railroads and the formation of coal combinations to regulate production and prices. Despite these challenges, the LVRR continued to grow and expand, eventually becoming a major railroad system. However, the railroad struggled to survive in the mid-20th century due to increased competition from trucks and the construction of the Interstate Highway System.

6 x 7 inches and 7-1/2 feet long placed 2 feet apart and about a quarter of it was ballasted with stone or gravel. The line had a descending or level grade from Mauch Chunk to Easton and with the exception of the curve at Mauch Chunk had no curve of less than 700 feet radius. The LVRR connected at Mauch Chunk with the Beaver Meadow Railroad. The Beaver Meadow Railroad had been built in 1836, and it transported anthracite coal from Jeansville in Pennsylvania's Middle Coal Field to the Lehigh Canal at Mauch Chunk. For 25 years the Lehigh Canal had enjoyed a monopoly on downstream transportation and was charging independent producers high fees. When the LVRR opened, those producers eagerly sent their product by the railroad the Penn Haven and White Haven, the extension from White Haven to Wilkes-Barre opened. Construction of a rail line to the New York state line started immediately and, in 1867, the line was complete from Wilkes-Barre to Waverly, New York, where coal was transferred to the broad gauge Erie Railroad and shipped to western markets through Buffalo, New York. To reach Wilkes-Barre, the LVRR purchased the Penn Haven & White Haven Railroad in 1864, and began constructing an extension from White Haven to Wilkes-Barre that was opened in 1867. By 1869, the LVRR owned a continuous track through Pennsylvania from Easton to Waverly. In the following year, the LVRR—a standard gauge railroad—completed arrangements with the Erie Railroad, at that time having a six-foot gauge, for a third rail within the Erie mainline tracks to enable the LV equipment to run through to Elmira and later to Buffalo. Further rounds of acquisitions took place in 1868. The acquisitions in 1868 were notable because they marked the beginning of the LVRR's strategy of acquiring coal lands to ensure production and traffic for its own lines. Although the 1864 acquisition of the Beaver Meadow had included a few hundred acres of coal land, by 1868 the LVRR was feeling pressure from the Delaware and Hudson and the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad in the northern Wyoming Valley coal field, where the railroads mined and transported their own coal at a much reduced cost. The LVRR recognized that its own continued prosperity depended on obtaining what coal lands remained. In pursuit of that strategy, the 1868 purchases of the Hazleton Railroad and the Lehigh Luzerne Railroad brought of coal land to the LVRR, and additional lands were acquired along branches of the LVRR. Over the next dozen years the railroad acquired other large tracts of land: in 1870, in 1872, and acquisition of the Philadelphia Coal Company in 1873 with its large leases in the Mahanoy basin. In 1875, the holdings were consolidated into the Lehigh Valley Coal Company, which was wholly owned by the LVRR. By 1893, the LVRR owned or controlled of coal lands. With these acquisitions, the LVRR obtained the right to mine coal as well as transport it. The 1870s witnessed commencement of extension of the LVRR in a new direction. In the 1870s the age of 73. At the time of his death, the railroad was shipping 4.4 million tons of coal annually over of track, using 235 engines, 24,461 coal cars, and over 2,000 freight cars of various kinds. The company controlled of coal-producing lands and was expanding rapidly into New York and New Jersey. The railroad had survived the economic depression of 1873 and was seeing its business recover. Leadership of the company transferred smoothly to Charles Hartshorne who had been vice president under Packer. In 1883, Hartshorne retired to allow Harry E. Packer, Asa's 32-year-old youngest son, to assume the Presidency. A year later, Harry Packer died of illness, and Asa's 51-year-old nephew Elisha Packer Wilbur was elected president, a position he held for 13 years. The 1880s way at Greenville, but the Pennsylvania Railroad checkmated them by purchasing most of the properties needed. Then the CNJ opposed the LVRR's attempt to cross its line at Caven Point. Finally after settling the legal issues, the Newark Bay was bridged in 1892 by the Jersey City, Newark and Western Railway and connected to the National Docks Railway, which was partly owned by the LVRR and which reached the LVRR's terminal. In 1895, the LVRR constructed the Greenville and Hudson Railway parallel with the National Docks in order to relieve congestion and have a wholly-owned route into Jersey City. Finally in 1900, the LVRR purchased the National Docks Railway outright. The 1890s were a period of turmoil for the LVRR. Although the decade began with the completion of its terminals at Buffalo and Jersey City, and the establishment of a trunk line across New York, the company soon became entangled in costly business dealings which ultimately led to the Packer family's loss of control. The coal trade was always the backbone of the business but was subject to boom and bust as competition and production increased and the economy cycled. The coal railroads had begun in 1873 to form pools to regulate production and set quotas for each railroad. By controlling supply, the coal combination attempted to keep prices and profits high. Several combinations occurred, but each fell apart as one road or another abrogated its agreement. The first such combination occurred in 1873, followed by others in 1878, 1884, and 1886. Customers naturally resented the the LVRR's gross revenues came close to $100,000,000 which was a milestone for the railroad. Two final blows fell in the 1950s: the passage of the Federal-Aid Highway Act in 1956, better known as the Interstate Highway Act, and the opening of the Saint Lawrence Seaway in 1959. The interstate highways helped the trucking industry offer door-to-door service, and the St. Lawrence Seaway allowed grain shipments to bypass the railways and go directly to overseas markets. By the 1960s, railroads in the East were struggling to survive. The Pennsylvania Railroad in 1962 requested ICC authorization to acquire complete control of the LVRR through a swap of PRR stock for LVRR and elimination of the voting trust that had been in place since 1941. It managed to acquire more

Lehigh Valley Railroad

T h e D e l a w a r e , L e h i g h , S c h u y l k i l l a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( D L S & S ) w a s a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o n A p r i l 2 1 , 1 8 4 6 , t o c o n s t r u c t a r a i l r o a d f r o m M a u c h C h u n k , P e n n s y l v a n i a , ( n o w J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e r a i l r o a d w o u l d r u n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L e h i g h R i v e r a n d b r e a k t h e L e h i g h C o a l a n d N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ' s m o n o p o l y o n c o a l t r a f f i c o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . T h e r a i l r o a d w a s c h a r t e r e d o n A u g u s t 2 , 1 8 4 7 , a n d e l e c t e d J a m e s M . P o r t e r i t s p r e s i d e n t o n O c t o b e r 2 1 . L i t t l e o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1 8 4 7 a n d 1 8 5 1 , s a v e s o m e l i m i t e d g r a d i n g n e a r A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . A l l t h i s c h a n g e d i n O c t o b e r 1 8 5 1 , w h e n A s a P a c k e r t o o k m a j o r i t y c o n t r o l o f t h e D L S & S . P a c k e r b r o u g h t a d d i t i o n a l f i n a n c i n g t o t h e r a i l r o a d , i n s t a l l e d R o b e r t H . S a y r e a s c h i e f e n g i n e e r , a n d r e n a m e d t h e c o m p a n y t h e " L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . " C o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n i n e a r n e s t i n 1 8 5 3 , a n d t h e l i n e o p e n e d b e t w e e n E a s t o n a n d A l l e n t o w n o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e s e c t i o n b e t w e e n A l l e n t o w n a n d M a u c h C h u n k o p e n e d o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R i n t e r c h a n g e d c o a l a t t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r w h e r e c o a l c o u l d b e s h i p p e d t o P h i l a d e l p h i a o n t h e D e l a w a r e D i v i s i o n C a n a l o r t r a n s p o r t e d a c r o s s t h e r i v e r t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , w h e r e t h e M o r r i s C a n a l a n d t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y ( C N J ) c o u l d c a r r y i t t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y m a r k e t . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d a d o u b l e - d e c k e d b r i d g e a c r o s s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f o r c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e C N J a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d i n P h i l l i p s b u r g . T h r o u g h a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , L V R R p a s s e n g e r s h a d a r o u t e t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y , J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y , a n d o t h e r p o i n t s i n N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R ' s r o l l i n g s t o c k w a s h i r e d f r o m t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y a n d a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h t h e C N J t o r u n t w o p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s f r o m E a s t o n t o M a u c h C h u n k c o n n e c t i n g w i t h t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a t r a i n s o n t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d . A d a i l y f r e i g h t t r a i n w a s p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n l e a v i n g E a s t o n i n t h e m o r n i n g a n d r e t u r n i n g i n t h e e v e n i n g . I n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f O c t o b e r 1 8 5 5 , a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h H o w a r d & C o o f P h i l a d e l p h i a t o d o t h e f r e i g h t i n g b u s i n e s s o f t h e r a i l r o a d ( e x c e p t c o a l , i r o n , a n d i r o n o r e ) . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n w a s 4 6 m i l e s o f s i n g l e t r a c k . T h e l i n e w a s l a i d w i t h a r a i l w e i g h i n g 5 6 p o u n d s p e r y a r d s u p p o r t e d u p o n c r o s s t i e s 6 x 7 i n c h e s a n d 7 - 1 / 2 f e e t l o n g p l a c e d 2 f e e t a p a r t a n d a b o u t a q u a r t e r o f i t w a s b a l l a s t e d w i t h s t o n e o r g r a v e l . T h e l i n e h a d a d e s c e n d i n g o r l e v e l g r a d e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e c u r v e a t M a u c h C h u n k h a d n o c u r v e o f l e s s t h a n 7 0 0 f e e t r a d i u s . T h e L V R R c o n n e c t e d a t M a u c h C h u n k w i t h t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d . T h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d h a d b e e n b u i l t i n 1 8 3 6 , a n d i t t r a n s p o r t e d a n t h r a c i t e c o a l f r o m J e a n s v i l l e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a ' s M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d t o t h e L e h i g h C a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k . F o r 2 5 y e a r s t h e L e h i g h C a n a l h a d e n j o y e d a m o n o p o l y o n d o w n s t r e a m t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d w a s c h a r g i n g i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r s h i g h f e e s . W h e n t h e L V R R o p e n e d , t h o s e p r o d u c e r s e a g e r l y s e n t t h e i r p r o d u c t b y t h e r a i l r o a d i n s t e a d o f c a n a l , a n d w i t h i n t w o y e a r s o f i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e L V R R w a s c a r r y i n g o v e r 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y . B y 1 8 5 9 i t h a d 6 0 0 c o a l c a r s a n d 1 9 e n g i n e s . T h e L V R R i m m e d i a t e l y b e c a m e t h e t r u n k l i n e d o w n t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w i t h n u m e r o u s f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s c o n n e c t i n g a n d c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i t s t r a f f i c . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d c a m e t o t h e L V R R o v e r f e e d e r s t o t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w : t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d , t h e C a t a w i s s a , W i l l i a m s p o r t a n d E r i e R a i l r o a d , t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d , t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d a n d o t h e r s m a l l e r l i n e s . A t C a t a s a u q u a , t h e C a t a s a u q u a a n d F o g e l s v i l l e R a i l r o a d t r a n s p o r t e d c o a l , o r e , l i m e s t o n e a n d i r o n f o r f u r n a c e s o f t h e T h o m a s I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h C r a n e I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y I r o n W o r k s , t h e C a r b o n I r o n C o m p a n y , a n d o t h e r s . A t B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e N o r t h P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d w h i c h w a s c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g t h e S u m m e r o f 1 8 5 6 , p r o v i d e d a r a i l c o n n e c t i o n t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d t h u s b r o u g h t t h e L V R R a d i r e c t l i n e t o P h i l a d e l p h i a . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d c o n n e c t e d t o T r e n t o n , N e w J e r s e y . T o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e g a u g e o f t h e B e l v i d e r e , t h e c a r s w e r e f u r n i s h e d w i t h w h e e l s h a v i n g w i d e t r e a d s t h a t o p e r a t e d o n b o t h r o a d s . T h e 1 8 6 0 s s a w a n e x p a n s i o n o f t h e L V R R n o r t h w a r d t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d u p t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e . A s a P a c k e r w a s e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o n J a n u a r y 1 3 , 1 8 6 2 . I n 1 8 6 4 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a c q u i r i n g f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s a n d m e r g i n g t h e m w i t h i t s s y s t e m . T h e f i r s t a c q u i s i t i o n s w e r e t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d a n d C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , a n d t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d . T h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n w a s t h e f i r s t s t e p i n e x p a n d i n g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . T h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d a l l o w e d t h e L V t o r e a c h W h i t e H a v e n . I n 1 8 6 6 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h a n d M a h a n o y R a i l r o a d ( o r i g i n a l l y t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d ) a n d t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l a l o n g t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r , r e n a m i n g i t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d N e w Y o r k C a n a l & R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ( P & N Y ) . T h e p u r c h a s i n g o f t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l s a w a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a n e a r m o n o p o l y i n t h e r e g i o n n o r t h o f t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . I n 1 8 6 6 , t w o y e a r s a f t e r t h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n , t h e e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e o p e n e d . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r a i l l i n e t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e s t a r t e d i m m e d i a t e l y a n d , i n 1 8 6 7 , t h e l i n e w a s c o m p l e t e f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e t o W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k , w h e r e c o a l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b r o a d g a u g e E r i e R a i l r o a d a n d s h i p p e d t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s t h r o u g h B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e P e n n H a v e n & W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 4 , a n d b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e t h a t w a s o p e n e d i n 1 8 6 7 . B y 1 8 6 9 , t h e L V R R o w n e d a c o n t i n u o u s t r a c k t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a f r o m E a s t o n t o W a v e r l y . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e L V R R — a s t a n d a r d g a u g e r a i l r o a d — c o m p l e t e d a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d , a t t h a t t i m e h a v i n g a s i x - f o o t g a u g e , f o r a t h i r d r a i l w i t h i n t h e E r i e m a i n l i n e t r a c k s t o e n a b l e t h e L V e q u i p m e n t t o r u n t h r o u g h t o E l m i r a a n d l a t e r t o B u f f a l o . F u r t h e r r o u n d s o f a c q u i s i t i o n s t o o k p l a c e i n 1 8 6 8 . T h e a c q u i s i t i o n s i n 1 8 6 8 w e r e n o t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e L V R R ' s s t r a t e g y o f a c q u i r i n g c o a l l a n d s t o e n s u r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a f f i c f o r i t s o w n l i n e s . A l t h o u g h t h e 1 8 6 4 a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w h a d i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , b y 1 8 6 8 t h e L V R R w a s f e e l i n g p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n a n d t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d i n t h e n o r t h e r n W y o m i n g V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d , w h e r e t h e r a i l r o a d s m i n e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d t h e i r o w n c o a l a t a m u c h r e d u c e d c o s t . T h e L V R R r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i t s o w n c o n t i n u e d p r o s p e r i t y d e p e n d e d o n o b t a i n i n g w h a t c o a l l a n d s r e m a i n e d . I n p u r s u i t o f t h a t s t r a t e g y , t h e 1 8 6 8 p u r c h a s e s o f t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d a n d t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d b r o u g h t o f c o a l l a n d t o t h e L V R R , a n d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d s w e r e a c q u i r e d a l o n g b r a n c h e s o f t h e L V R R . O v e r t h e n e x t d o z e n y e a r s t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d : i n 1 8 7 0 , i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a C o a l C o m p a n y i n 1 8 7 3 w i t h i t s l a r g e l e a s e s i n t h e M a h a n o y b a s i n . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e h o l d i n g s w e r e c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h w a s w h o l l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R . B y 1 8 9 3 , t h e L V R R o w n e d o r c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l l a n d s . W i t h t h e s e a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L V R R o b t a i n e d t h e r i g h t t o m i n e c o a l a s w e l l a s t r a n s p o r t i t . T h e 1 8 7 0 s w i t n e s s e d c o m m e n c e m e n t o f e x t e n s i o n o f t h e L V R R i n a n e w d i r e c t i o n . I n t h e 1 8 7 0 s t h e L V R R a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d s t a r t i n g a t i n 1 8 7 0 , w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l o f i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d t u r n e d i t s e y e t o w a r d e x p a n s i o n a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y a l l t h e w a y t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . I n 1 8 7 0 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s t o A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t i n t h e e a s t w a s N e w Y o r k C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R w a s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l f o r t r a n s p o r t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e L V R R l e a s e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l , w h i c h h a d a v a l u a b l e o u t l e t i n J e r s e y C i t y o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r o p p o s i t e M a n h a t t a n . A s a P a c k e r p u r c h a s e d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d a t t h e c a n a l b a s i n i n s u p p o r t o f t h e N e w J e r s e y W e s t L i n e R a i l r o a d , w h i c h h e h o p e d t o u s e a s t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . T h a t p r o j e c t f a i l e d , b u t t h e l a n d s w e r e l a t e r u s e d f o r t h e L V R R ' s o w n t e r m i n a l i n 1 8 8 9 . T h e C N J , a n t i c i p a t i n g t h a t t h e L V R R i n t e n d e d t o c r e a t e i t s o w n l i n e a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y , p r o t e c t e d i t s e l f b y l e a s i n g t h e L e h i g h a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( L & S ) t o e n s u r e a c o n t i n u i n g s u p p l y o f c o a l t r a f f i c . T h e L & S h a d b e e n c h a r t e r e d i n 1 8 3 7 b y t h e L e h i g h C o a l & N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ( t h e L e h i g h C a n a l c o m p a n y ) t o c o n n e c t t h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e c a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . A f t e r t h e L V R R o p e n e d i t s l i n e , t h e L e h i g h & S u s q u e h a n n a e x t e n d e d t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s a n d E s s e x R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 8 . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e e n t i r e l i n e f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e w a s l e a s e d t o t h e C N J . F o r m o s t o f i t s l e n g t h , i t r a n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L V R R . T h e L V R R f o u n d t h a t t h e r o u t e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l w a s i m p r a c t i c a l f o r u s e a s a r a i l r o a d l i n e , s o i n 1 8 7 2 t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e d o r m a n t c h a r t e r o f t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k R a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d a c c e s s t o t h e P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y h a r b o r , a n d a d d e d t o i t a n e w c h a r t e r , t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n R a i l r o a d . T h e S t a t e o f N e w J e r s e y p a s s e d l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o c o n s o l i d a t e i t s N e w J e r s e y r a i l r o a d s i n t o o n e c o m p a n y ; t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k a n d t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n w e r e m e r g e d t o f o r m a n e w r a i l r o a d c o m p a n y c a l l e d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ( o r E a s t o n & A m b o y R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ) . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a r a i l r o a d b u i l t a c r o s s c e n t r a l N e w J e r s e y b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d t o r u n f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y t o B o u n d B r o o k , N e w J e r s e y a n d i t w a s b u i l t t o c o n n e c t t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d c o a l - h a u l i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y t o s e r v e c o n s u m e r m a r k e t s i n t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e P h i l l i p s b u r g c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C N J t h a t h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n t h e o n l y o u t l e t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r ; u n t i l i t w a s b u i l t , t h e t e r m i n u s o f t h e L V R R h a d b e e n a t P h i l l i p s b u r g o n t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r o p p o s i t e E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s u s e d a s a c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , w i t h a t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . C o n s t r u c t i o n c o m m e n c e d i n 1 8 7 2 a s s o o n t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s f o r m e d ; c o a l d o c k s a t P e r t h A m b o y w e r e s o o n c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d m o s t o f t h e l i n e f r o m E a s t o n t o P e r t h A m b o y w a s g r a d e d a n d r a i l s l a i d . H o w e v e r , t h e r o u t e r e q u i r e d a t u n n e l t h r o u g h / u n d e r M u s c o n e t c o n g M o u n t a i n n e a r P a t t e n b u r g , N e w J e r s e y ( a b o u t t w e l v e m i l e s e a s t o f P h i l l i p s b u r g ) , a n d t h a t p r o v e d t r o u b l e s o m e , d e l a y i n g t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e l i n e u n t i l M a y 1 8 7 5 , w h e n a c o a l t r a i n f i r s t p a s s e d o v e r t h e l i n e . T o s u p p o r t t h e e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s e i n t r a f f i c , t h e w o o d e n b r i d g e o v e r t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r a t E a s t o n w a s a l s o r e p l a c e d b y a d o u b l e - t r a c k e d , i r o n b r i d g e . A t P e r t h A m b o y , a t i d e w a t e r t e r m i n a l w a s b u i l t o n t h e A r t h u r K i l l c o m p r i s i n g a l a r g e c o a l d o c k u s e d t o t r a n s p o r t c o a l i n t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . T h e s e t r a c k s w e r e l a i d a n d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s o p e n e d f o r b u s i n e s s o n J u n e 2 8 , 1 8 7 5 w i t h h a u l i n g c o a l . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y ' s o p e r a t i o n s w e r e l a b e l e d t h e " N e w J e r s e y D i v i s i o n " o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y h a d a l r e a d y c o m p l e t e d l a r g e d o c k s a n d f a c i l i t i e s f o r s h i p p i n g c o a l a t P e r t h A m b o y u p o n a n e x t e n s i v e t r a c t o f l a n d f r o n t i n g t h e A r t h u r K i l l . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f a n t h r a c i t e m o v e d t o P e r t h A m b o y d u r i n g t h a t y e a r f o r t r a n s s h i p m e n t b y w a t e r . O p e r a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e L V R R ' s b a n k r u p t c y i n 1 9 7 6 . T h e m a r s h a l l i n g y a r d i s n o w t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a k n o w n a s H a r b o r t o w n . P a s s e n g e r t r a f f i c o n t h e L V R R ' s E a s t o n a n d A m b o y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ( P R R ) a t M e t u c h e n , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n t i n u e d t o t h e P R R ' S E x c h a n g e P l a c e t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y ( t h a t c o n n e c t i o n w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 8 9 1 a f t e r t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d ) . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e p a r e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e L V R R f i n a n c e d t h e a d d i t i o n o f a t h i r d r a i l t o t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e s o t h a t c a r s c o u l d r o l l d i r e c t l y f r o m c o l l i e r y t o t h e p o r t a t B u f f a l o . W h i l e t h e t h i r d r a i l o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e b e t w e e n W a v e r l y a n d B u f f a l o g a v e t h e L V R R a n u n b r o k e n c o n n e c t i o n t o B u f f a l o , t h e r o a d ' s m a n a g e m e n t d e s i r e d i t s o w n l i n e i n t o B u f f a l o . T h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d p a s s e d i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e L V R R i n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 6 , w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e n e a r S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k , a d i s t a n c e o f 7 5 m i l e s . O n M a y 1 7 , 1 8 7 9 , A s a P a c k e r , t h e c o m p a n y ' s f o u n d e r a n d l e a d e r , d i e d a t t h e a g e o f 7 3 . A t t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h , t h e r a i l r o a d w a s s h i p p i n g 4 . 4 m i l l i o n t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y o v e r o f t r a c k , u s i n g 2 3 5 e n g i n e s , 2 4 , 4 6 1 c o a l c a r s , a n d o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 f r e i g h t c a r s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s . T h e c o m p a n y c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l - p r o d u c i n g l a n d s a n d w a s e x p a n d i n g r a p i d l y i n t o N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y . T h e r a i l r o a d h a d s u r v i v e d t h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n o f 1 8 7 3 a n d w a s s e e i n g i t s b u s i n e s s r e c o v e r . L e a d e r s h i p o f t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s f e r r e d s m o o t h l y t o C h a r l e s H a r t s h o r n e w h o h a d b e e n v i c e p r e s i d e n t u n d e r P a c k e r . I n 1 8 8 3 , H a r t s h o r n e r e t i r e d t o a l l o w H a r r y E . P a c k e r , A s a ' s 3 2 - y e a r - o l d y o u n g e s t s o n , t o a s s u m e t h e P r e s i d e n c y . A y e a r l a t e r , H a r r y P a c k e r d i e d o f i l l n e s s , a n d A s a ' s 5 1 - y e a r - o l d n e p h e w E l i s h a P a c k e r W i l b u r w a s e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t , a p o s i t i o n h e h e l d f o r 1 3 y e a r s . T h e 1 8 8 0 s c o n t i n u e d t o b e a p e r i o d o f g r o w t h , a n d t h e L V R R m a d e i m p o r t a n t a c q u i s i t i o n s i n N e w Y o r k , e x p a n d e d i t s r e a c h i n t o t h e s o u t h e r n c o a l f i e l d o f P e n n s y l v a n i a w h i c h h a d h i t h e r t o b e e n t h e m o n o p o l y o f t h e R e a d i n g , a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y b a t t l e d t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . I n 1 8 8 0 , t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e t o o p e r a t e a f l e e t o f s h i p s o n t h e G r e a t L a k e s w i t h t e r m i n a l s i n C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , a n d D u l u t h . T h i s c o m p a n y b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e m o v e m e n t o f a n t h r a c i t e , g r a i n a n d p a c k a g e f r e i g h t b e t w e e n B u f f a l o , C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , D u l u t h , S u p e r i o r a n d o t h e r m i d w e s t e r n c i t i e s . F o l l o w i n g F e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s u c h s e r v i c e , t h e l a k e l i n e w a s s o l d t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s i n 1 9 2 0 . T h e p o r t o n L a k e E r i e a t B u f f a l o w a s c r i t i c a l t o t h e L V R R ' s s h i p m e n t s o f c o a l t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s a n d f o r r e c e i p t o f g r a i n s e n t b y t h e W e s t t o e a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l t h o u g h i n 1 8 7 0 t h e L V R R h a d i n v e s t e d i n t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k R a i l r o a d w h i c h c o n n e c t e d t h e E r i e t o t h e l a k e f r o n t , a n d h a d c o n s t r u c t e d t h e L e h i g h D o c k s o n B u f f a l o C r e e k , i t d e p e n d e d o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d f o r t h e c o n n e c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k t o B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . I n 1 8 8 2 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a n e x t e n s i v e e x p a n s i o n i n t o N e w Y o r k f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o . C o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o w a s s p l i t i n t o t w o p r o j e c t s , W a v e r l y t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k a n d G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o ( G e n e v a i s l o c a t e d a t t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f S e n e c a L a k e ) . F i r s t , i t p u r c h a s e d a l a r g e p a r c e l o f l a n d i n B u f f a l o , t h e T i f f t f a r m , f o r u s e a s t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s , a n d o b t a i n e d a N e w Y o r k c h a r t e r f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y ( a s i m i l a r n a m e t o t h e L V R R , b u t w i t h " r a i l w a y " i n s t e a d ) . L V R R s u b s i d i a r y , L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e m a i n l i n e ' s n o r t h e r n p a r t f r o m B u f f a l o t o L a n c a s t e r , N e w Y o r k i n 1 8 8 3 , a t o t a l d i s t a n c e o f t e n m i l e s . T h i s w a s t h e s e c o n d s t e p t o w a r d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a d i r e c t r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o , t h e f i r s t b e i n g t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d . T h e n i n 1 8 8 7 t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o b t a i n e d a l e a s e o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d ( t h e L V R R p r e v i o u s l y h a d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s o n t h e r a i l r o a d s t a r t i n g i n 1 8 7 0 ) , w h i c h h a d a r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y n o r t h w a r d i n t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e L V R R o r g a n i z e d t h e B u f f a l o a n d G e n e v a R a i l r o a d t o b u i l d t h e r e s t o f t h e 9 7 - m i l e G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o t r a c k a g e , f r o m G e n e v a t o L a n c a s t e r . F i n a l l y , i n 1 8 8 9 , t h e L V R R g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a , a n d S a y r e R a i l r o a d a n d c o m p l e t e d i t s l i n e o f r a i l t h r o u g h N e w Y o r k . A s a r e s u l t o f i t s l e a s e s a n d a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y g a i n e d a n e a r - m o n o p o l y o n t r a f f i c i n t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . I t a l s o c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w a n d d e v e l o p i t s r o u t e s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n 1 8 8 3 t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d l a n d i n n o r t h e a s t P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d f o r m e d a s u b s i d i a r y c a l l e d T h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l a n d L a n d C o m p a n y . I t o p e n e d a h o t e l i n G l e n S u m m i t , P e n n s y l v a n i a c a l l e d t h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l t o s e r v e l u n c h t o p a s s e n g e r s t r a v e l i n g o n t h e l i n e . T h e h o t e l r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e c o m p a n y u n t i l 1 9 0 9 , w h e n i t w a s b o u g h t b y r e s i d e n t s o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o t t a g e s . I n P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L e h i g h s c o r e d a c o u p b y o b t a i n i n g t h e c h a r t e r f o r m e r l y h e l d b y t h e S c h u y k i l l H a v e n a n d L e h i g h R i v e r R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 8 6 . T h a t c h a r t e r h a d b e e n h e l d b y t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d s i n c e 1 8 6 0 , w h e n i t h a d b l o c k e d c o n s t r u c t i o n i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n i t s m o n o p o l y i n t h e S o u t h e r n C o a l F i e l d . T h a t s o u t h e r n f i e l d h e l d t h e l a r g e s t r e s e r v e s o f a n t h r a c i t e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d a c c o u n t e d f o r a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n . T h r o u g h n e g l e c t , t h e R e a d i n g a l l o w e d t h e c h a r t e r t o l a p s e , a n d i t w a s a c q u i r e d b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d t h e S c h u y l k i l l a n d L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e g a v e t h e L V R R a r o u t e i n t o P o t t s v i l l e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e S c h u y l k i l l V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d s . T h e V o s b u r g T u n n e l w a s c o m p l e t e d a n d o p e n e d f o r s e r v i c e o n J u l y 2 5 , 1 8 8 6 . T h e 1 6 m i l e M o u n t a i n C u t - o f f , ( a r a i l s e g m e n t o f t h e l i n e ) w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m F a i r v i e w , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o t h e o u t s k i r t s o f P i t t s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , w a s c o m p l e t e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 8 8 8 . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e l i n e ' s e a s t b o u n d g r a d e t o b e r e d u c e d a n d a s h o r t e r r o u t e f o r h a n d l i n g t h r o u g h t r a f f i c e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e L V R R h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , b u t d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n N e w J e r s e y , t h e L V R R e m b a r k e d o n a d e c a d e - l o n g l e g a l b a t t l e w i t h t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . T h e l a n d t h a t A s a P a c k e r h a d o b t a i n e d i n 1 8 7 2 w a s s i t u a t e d o n t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l ' s S o u t h B a s i n , b u t t h e C N J a l r e a d y h a d i t s o w n f a c i l i t i e s a d j a c e n t t o t h a t p r o p e r t y a n d d i s p u t e d t h e L V R R ' s t i t l e , w h i c h p a r t l y o v e r l a p p e d l a n d t h e C N J h a d f i l l e d f o r i t s o w n t e r m i n a l . F i n a l l y i n 1 8 8 7 t h e t w o r a i l r o a d s r e a c h e d a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e L V R R ' s J e r s e y C i t y f r e i g h t y a r d b e g a n . T h e L V R R o b t a i n e d a 5 - y e a r a g r e e m e n t t o u s e t h e C N J l i n e t o a c c e s s t h e t e r m i n a l , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 8 8 9 . I t f r o n t e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l B a s i n w i t h a s e r i e s o f p i e r s a n g l i n g o u t f r o m t h e s h o r e l i n e b u t w a s t o o n a r r o w f o r a y a r d , s o t h e L V R R b u i l t a s e p a r a t e y a r d a t O a k I s l a n d i n N e w a r k t o s o r t a n d p r e p a r e t r a i n s . T h e S o u t h B a s i n t e r m i n a l w a s u s e d s o l e l y f o r f r e i g h t , h a v i n g d o c k s a n d c a r f l o a t f a c i l i t i e s . P a s s e n g e r s w e r e r o u t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y . T h e L V R R s t r o v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 8 0 s t o a c q u i r e i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y a n d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y w a t e r f r o n t . T h e L V R R d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d m o r e t o t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n N e w J e r s e y i n o r d e r t o r e a c h i t s f r e i g h t y a r d s w i t h o u t u s i n g t h e C N J m a i n l i n e . T h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f r a i l r o a d s t o c o n n e c t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y l i n e ( E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ) t o J e r s e y C i t y . T h e f i r s t l e g o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o J e r s e y C i t y w a s t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n 1 8 8 8 w h i c h c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a t R o s e l l e , N e w J e r s e y f o r a c c e s s o v e r t h e C N J t o t h e H u d s o n R i v e r w a t e r f r o n t i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R w h i c h h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n 1 8 9 1 , t h e L V R R c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y , a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r c o m p a n i e s w h i c h f o r m e d t h e r o u t e f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y t e r m i n a l . I n i t i a l l y , t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r r i g h t s f r o m R o s e l l e t o J e r s e y C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R e v e n t u a l l y f i n i s h e d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o i t s t e r m i n a l i n J e r s e y C i t y o v e r t h e N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y , t h e N e w a r k a n d P a s s a i c R a i l w a y , t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k , a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y , a n d t h e J e r s e y C i t y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y . T h e L V R R ' s N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y i n 1 8 9 1 b r o u g h t t h e l i n e f r o m R o s e l l e i n t o N e w a r k , w h e r e p a s s e n g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . B r i d g i n g N e w a r k B a y p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t . T h e L V R R f i r s t a t t e m p t e d t o o b t a i n a r i g h t o f w a y a t G r e e n v i l l e , b u t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d c h e c k m a t e d t h e m b y p u r c h a s i n g m o s t o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s n e e d e d . T h e n t h e C N J o p p o s e d t h e L V R R ' s a t t e m p t t o c r o s s i t s l i n e a t C a v e n P o i n t . F i n a l l y a f t e r s e t t l i n g t h e l e g a l i s s u e s , t h e N e w a r k B a y w a s b r i d g e d i n 1 8 9 2 b y t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y a n d c o n n e c t e d t o t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y , w h i c h w a s p a r t l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R a n d w h i c h r e a c h e d t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . I n 1 8 9 5 , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d t h e G r e e n v i l l e a n d H u d s o n R a i l w a y p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s i n o r d e r t o r e l i e v e c o n g e s t i o n a n d h a v e a w h o l l y - o w n e d r o u t e i n t o J e r s e y C i t y . F i n a l l y i n 1 9 0 0 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y o u t r i g h t . T h e 1 8 9 0 s w e r e a p e r i o d o f t u r m o i l f o r t h e L V R R . A l t h o u g h t h e d e c a d e b e g a n w i t h t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f i t s t e r m i n a l s a t B u f f a l o a n d J e r s e y C i t y , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a t r u n k l i n e a c r o s s N e w Y o r k , t h e c o m p a n y s o o n b e c a m e e n t a n g l e d i n c o s t l y b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o t h e P a c k e r f a m i l y ' s l o s s o f c o n t r o l . T h e c o a l t r a d e w a s a l w a y s t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e b u s i n e s s b u t w a s s u b j e c t t o b o o m a n d b u s t a s c o m p e t i t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e d a n d t h e e c o n o m y c y c l e d . T h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s h a d b e g u n i n 1 8 7 3 t o f o r m p o o l s t o r e g u l a t e p r o d u c t i o n a n d s e t q u o t a s f o r e a c h r a i l r o a d . B y c o n t r o l l i n g s u p p l y , t h e c o a l c o m b i n a t i o n a t t e m p t e d t o k e e p p r i c e s a n d p r o f i t s h i g h . S e v e r a l c o m b i n a t i o n s o c c u r r e d , b u t e a c h f e l l a p a r t a s o n e r o a d o r a n o t h e r a b r o g a t e d i t s a g r e e m e n t . T h e f i r s t s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n 1 8 7 3 , f o l l o w e d b y o t h e r s i n 1 8 7 8 , 1 8 8 4 , a n d 1 8 8 6 . C u s t o m e r s n a t u r a l l y r e s e n t e d t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e c a r t e l , a n d s i n c e c o a l w a s c r i t i c a l t o c o m m e r c e , C o n g r e s s i n t e r v e n e d i n 1 8 8 7 w i t h t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e A c t t h a t f o r b a d e t h e r o a d s f r o m j o i n i n g i n t o s u c h p o o l s . A l t h o u g h t h e r o a d s e f f e c t i v e l y i g n o r e d t h e A c t a n d t h e i r s a l e s a g e n t s c o n t i n u e d t o m e e t a n d s e t p r i c e s , t h e a g r e e m e n t s w e r e n e v e r e f f e c t i v e f o r l o n g . I n 1 8 9 2 , t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d t h o u g h t i t h a d a s o l u t i o n — i n s t e a d o f a t t e m p t i n g t o m a i n t a i n a g r e e m e n t s a m o n g t h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s , i t w o u l d p u r c h a s e o r l e a s e t h e m a j o r l i n e s a n d b r i n g t h e m i n t o a m o n o p o l y . I t l e a s e d t h e C N J a n d t h e L V R R , p u r c h a s e d t h e r a i l r o a d s ' c o a l c o m p a n i e s a n d a r r a n g e d f o r t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g 7 0 % o f t h e t r a d e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t o v e r r e a c h e d a n d i n 1 8 9 3 w a s u n a b l e t o m e e t i t s o b l i g a t i o n s . I t s b a n k r u p t c y r e s u l t e d i n e c o n o m i c c h a o s , b r i n g i n g o n t h e f i n a n c i a l p a n i c o f 1 8 9 3 a n d f o r c i n g t h e L V R R t o b r e a k t h e l e a s e a n d r e s u m e i t s o w n o p e r a t i o n s , l e a v i n g i t u n a b l e t o p a y d i v i d e n d s o n i t s s t o c k u n t i l 1 9 0 4 . T h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n f o l l o w i n g 1 8 9 3 w a s h a r s h , a n d b y 1 8 9 7 t h e L V R R w a s i n d i r e n e e d o f s u p p o r t . T h e b a n k i n g g i a n t J . P . M o r g a n s t e p p e d i n t o r e f i n a n c e t h e L V R R d e b t a n d o b t a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e r a i l r o a d i n t h e p r o c e s s . O u s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E l i s h a P . W i l b u r a n d s e v e r a l d i r e c t o r s i n 1 8 9 7 , t h e M o r g a n c o m p a n y i n s t a l l e d W . A l f r e d W a l t e r a s p r e s i d e n t a n d s e a t e d i t s o w n d i r e c t o r s . I n 1 9 0 1 M o r g a n a r r a n g e d t o h a v e t h e P a c k e r E s t a t e ' s h o l d i n g s p u r c h a s e d j o i n t l y b y t h e E r i e , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L a k e S h o r e a n d M i c h i g a n S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e D L & W a n d t h e C N J , a l l c o m p a n i e s i n w h i c h M o r g a n h a d i n t e r e s t s . N e w l y e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t E b e n B . T h o m a s ( f o r m e r l y o f t h e E r i e ) a n d h i s B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e c o m b i n e d i n t e r e s t s o f t h o s e r a i l r o a d s . A f i n a l a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h a c o a l c a r t e l t o o k p l a c e i n 1 9 0 4 w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y . P r i o r t o t h a t t i m e , t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s a s m a l l c o n c e r n t h a t h a p p e n e d t o h a v e a b r o a d c h a r t e r a l l o w i n g i t t o a c t a s a h o l d i n g c o m p a n y . T h e R e a d i n g , n o w o u t o f r e c e i v e r s h i p , p u r c h a s e d t h e c o m p a n y a n d b r o u g h t t h e o t h e r c o a l r a i l r o a d s i n t o t h e p a r t n e r s h i p , w i t h t h e R e a d i n g o w n i n g 3 0 % , t h e L V R R 2 3 % , t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 2 0 % , C N J 1 7 % , E r i e 6 % , a n d N e w Y o r k , S u s q u e h a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 4 p e r c e n t . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s t o l o c k - u p i n d e p e n d e n t c o a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l t h e s u p p l y . C o n g r e s s r e a c t e d w i t h t h e 1 9 0 6 H e p b u r n A c t , w h i c h a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s f o r b a d e r a i l r o a d s f r o m o w n i n g t h e c o m m o d i t i e s t h a t t h e y t r a n s p o r t e d . A l o n g s e r i e s o f a n t i t r u s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d l a w s u i t s r e s u l t e d , c u l m i n a t i n g i n a 1 9 1 1 S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n t h a t f o r c e d t h e L V R R t o d i v e s t i t s e l f o f t h e c o a l c o m p a n i e s i t h a d h e l d s i n c e 1 8 6 8 . T h e L V R R s h a r e h o l d e r s r e c e i v e d s h a r e s o f t h e n o w i n d e p e n d e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , b u t t h e r a i l r o a d n o l o n g e r h a d m a n a g e m e n t c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n , c o n t r a c t s , a n d s a l e s o f i t s l a r g e s t c u s t o m e r . I n 1 8 9 6 t h e v e r y e a r l y f i l m " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s " w a s p r o d u c e d b y T h o m a s A . E d i s o n ' s c o m p a n y K i n e t o s c o p e . T h e t r a i n a r r i v e s f r o m f a r a w a y a n d p a s s e s t h e c a m e r a , w h i l e w o r k e r s a r e w a v i n g t h e i r h a n d k e r c h i e f s . F o r t u n a t e l y , g r a i n t o n n a g e w a s i n c r e a s i n g a n d t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s p o r t e d l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s f r o m B u f f a l o t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d o t h e r E a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l s o , i n 1 9 1 4 t h e P a n a m a C a n a l w a s c o m p l e t e d , a n d t h e L V R R g a i n e d a n i m p o r t a n t n e w m a r k e t w i t h o r e s s h i p p e d f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a t o t h e B e t h l e h e m S t e e l c o m p a n y . I n o r d e r t o h a n d l e t h e a d d i t i o n a l n e w o c e a n t r a f f i c , t h e L V R R c r e a t e d a l a r g e n e w p i e r a t C o n s t a b l e H o o k , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 1 5 , a n d a n e w t e r m i n a l a t C l a r e m o n t w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 2 3 . I t a l s o b u i l t a p a s s e n g e r t e r m i n a l i n B u f f a l o i n 1 9 1 5 . S i n c e 1 8 9 6 t h e L V R R h a d r u n a n i m p o r t a n t a n d p r e s t i g i o u s e x p r e s s t r a i n n a m e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " w h i c h c a r r i e d p a s s e n g e r s t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s a n d B u f f a l o . A d d i t i o n a l p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s r a n f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a t o S c r a n t o n a n d w e s t w a r d . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e L V R R ' s N e w Y o r k C i t y p a s s e n g e r s h a d u s e d t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y a t J e r s e y C i t y , b u t i n 1 9 1 3 t h e P R R t e r m i n a t e d t h a t a g r e e m e n t , s o t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r u s e o f i t s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y , w h i c h w a s e x p a n d e d t o h a n d l e t h e i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r o f p a s s e n g e r s . T h e r a i l r o a d a l s o p u b l i s h e d a m o n t h l y m a g a z i n e p r o m o t i n g t r a v e l o n t h e t r a i n c a l l e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s M o n t h l y " . I n t h e w a r y e a r s 1 9 1 4 t o 1 9 1 8 , t h e L e h i g h h a n d l e d w a r m a t e r i a l s a n d e x p l o s i v e s a t i t s B l a c k T o m i s l a n d f a c i l i t y , w h i c h h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d a l o n g w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 0 0 . I n 1 9 1 6 , a h o r r e n d o u s e x p l o s i o n o c c u r r e d a t t h e f a c i l i t y , d e s t r o y i n g s h i p s a n d b u i l d i n g s , a n d b r e a k i n g w i n d o w s i n M a n h a t t a n . A t f i r s t t h e i n c i d e n t w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a c c i d e n t ; a l o n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n e v e n t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e x p l o s i o n w a s a n a c t o f G e r m a n s a b o t a g e , f o r w h i c h r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e f i n a l l y p a i d i n 1 9 7 9 . A f t e r t h e U . S . e n t e r e d W o r l d W a r I , t h e r a i l r o a d s w e r e n a t i o n a l i z e d i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t s t r i k e s a n d i n t e r r u p t i o n s . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s R a i l r o a d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n t r o l l e d t h e r a i l r o a d f r o m 1 9 1 8 t o 1 9 2 0 , a t w h i c h t i m e c o n t r o l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d b a c k t o t h e p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e h e a v y w a r t i m e t r a f f i c h a d l e f t t h e r a i l r o a d ' s p l a n t a n d e q u i p m e n t i n n e e d o f r e p a i r , t h e d a m a g e w a s p a r t l y o f f s e t b y n e w e q u i p m e n t t h a t h a d b e e n p u r c h a s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t . I n 1 9 2 0 , t h e L V R R s o l d i t s l a k e l i n e c o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e , t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s d u e t o n e w f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f r a i l r o a d s o w n i n g l a k e l i n e s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 2 0 s t h e r a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e M o r g a n / D r e x e l b a n k i n g f i r m , b u t i n 1 9 2 8 a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o w r e s t c o n t r o l f r o m i t . I n 1 9 2 7 , L e o n o r F r e s n e l L o r e e , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n R a i l r o a d , h a d a v i s i o n f o r a n e w f i f t h t r u n k l i n e b e t w e e n t h e E a s t a n d W e s t , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e W a b a s h R a i l r o a d , t h e B u f f a l o , R o c h e s t e r a n d P i t t s b u r g h R a i l w a y , a n d t h e L V R R . T h r o u g h b o n d s i s s u e d b y t h e D & H , h e o b t a i n e d 3 0 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k , a n d w o n t h e s u p p o r t o f n e a r l y h a l f t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . I n 1 9 2 8 , h e a t t e m p t e d t o s e a t a n e w p r e s i d e n t a n d b o a r d . A m a s s i v e p r o x y f i g h t e n s u e d , w i t h e x i s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E d w a r d E u g e n e L o o m i s n a r r o w l y r e t a i n i n g h i s p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f E d w a r d T . S t o t e s b u r y o f J . P . M o r g a n . F o l l o w i n g t h e d e f e a t o f i t s p l a n , t h e D & H s o l d i t s s t o c k t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a q u i e t l y o b t a i n e d m o r e s t o c k , b o t h d i r e c t l y a n d t h r o u g h r a i l r o a d s i t c o n t r o l l e d , p r i m a r i l y t h e W a b a s h . B y 1 9 3 1 , t h e P R R c o n t r o l l e d 5 1 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k . F o l l o w i n g L o o m i s ' d e a t h i n 1 9 3 7 , t h e p r e s i d e n c y w e n t t o L o o m i s ' a s s i s t a n t D u n c a n J . K e r r , b u t i n 1 9 4 0 h e w a s r e p l a c e d b y A l b e r t N . W i l l i a m s , a n d t h e r o a d c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e P R R . I n 1 9 4 1 , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a p l a c e d i t s s h a r e s i n a v o t i n g t r u s t a f t e r r e a c h i n g a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l r e g a r d i n g t h e P R R ' s p u r c h a s e o f t h e W a b a s h . F o l l o w i n g t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n , t h e r a i l r o a d h a d a f e w p e r i o d s o f p r o s p e r i t y , b u t w a s c l e a r l y i n a s l o w d e c l i n e . P a s s e n g e r s p r e f e r r e d t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f a u t o m o b i l e s t o t r a i n s , a n d a i r l i n e s m u c h l a t e r p r o v i d e d f a s t e r l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a v e l t h a n t r a i n s . O i l a n d g a s w e r e s u p p l a n t i n g c o a l a s t h e f u e l o f c h o i c e . T h e D e p r e s s i o n h a d b e e n d i f f i c u l t f o r a l l t h e r a i l r o a d s , a n d C o n g r e s s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t b a n k r u p t c y l a w s n e e d e d r e v i s i o n . T h e C h a n d l e r A c t s o f 1 9 3 8 - 9 p r o v i d e d a n e w f o r m o f r e l i e f f o r r a i l r o a d s , a l l o w i n g t h e m t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e i r d e b t w h i l e c o n t i n u i n g t o o p e r a t e . T h e L V R R w a s a p p r o v e d f o r s u c h a r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n 1 9 4 0 w h e n s e v e r a l l a r g e m o r t g a g e l o a n s w e r e d u e . T h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o e x t e n d t h e m a t u r i t y o f i t s m o r t g a g e s , b u t i t n e e d e d t o r e p e a t t h e p r o c e s s i n 1 9 5 0 . T h e t e r m s o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g s p r e c l u d e d d i v i d e n d p a y m e n t s u n t i l 1 9 5 3 , w h e n L V R R c o m m o n s t o c k p a i d t h e f i r s t d i v i d e n d s i n c e 1 9 3 1 . I n 1 9 5 7 , t h e L V R R a g a i n s t o p p e d d i v i d e n d s . I n 1 9 4 4 , t h e L V R R ' s g r o s s r e v e n u e s c a m e c l o s e t o $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 w h i c h w a s a m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e r a i l r o a d . T w o f i n a l b l o w s f e l l i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s : t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e F e d e r a l - A i d H i g h w a y A c t i n 1 9 5 6 , b e t t e r k n o w n a s t h e I n t e r s t a t e H i g h w a y A c t , a n d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e S a i n t L a w r e n c e S e a w a y i n 1 9 5 9 . T h e i n t e r s t a t e h i g h w a y s h e l p e d t h e t r u c k i n g i n d u s t r y o f f e r d o o r - t o - d o o r s e r v i c e , a n d t h e S t . L a w r e n c e S e a w a y a l l o w e d g r a i n s h i p m e n t s t o b y p a s s t h e r a i l w a y s a n d g o d i r e c t l y t o o v e r s e a s m a r k e t s . B y t h e 1 9 6 0 s , r a i l r o a d s i n t h e E a s t w e r e s t r u g g l i n g t o s u r v i v e . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 6 2 r e q u e s t e d I C C a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o a c q u i r e c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e L V R R t h r o u g h a s w a p o f P R R s t o c k f o r L V R R a n d e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e v o t i n g t r u s t t h a t h a d b e e n i n p l a c e s i n c e 1 9 4 1 . I t m a n a g e d t o a c q u i r e m o r e t h a n 8 5 % o f a l l o u t s t a n d i n g s h a r e s , a n d f r o m t h a t t i m e t h e L V R R w a s l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a d i v i s i o n o f t h e P R R . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a m e r g e d w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l i n 1 9 6 8 , b u t t h e P e n n C e n t r a l f a i l e d i n 1 9 7 0 , c a u s i n g a c a s c a d e o f r a i l r o a d f a i l u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e E a s t . O n J u n e 2 1 , 1 9 7 0 , t h e P e n n C e n t r a l d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y a n d s o u g h t b a n k r u p t c y p r o t e c t i o n . A s a r e s u l t , t h e P C w a s r e l i e v e d o f i t s o b l i g a t i o n t o p a y f e e s t o v a r i o u s N o r t h e a s t e r n r a i l r o a d s — t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y i n c l u d e d — f o r t h e u s e o f t h e i r r a i l c a r s a n d o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e o t h e r r a i l r o a d s ' o b l i g a t i o n s t o p a y t h o s e f e e s t o t h e P e n n C e n t r a l w e r e n o t w a i v e d . T h i s i m b a l a n c e i n p a y m e n t s w o u l d p r o v e f a t a l t o t h e f i n a n c i a l l y - f r a i l L e h i g h V a l l e y , a n d i t d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y j u s t o v e r o n e m o n t h a f t e r t h e P e n n C e n t r a l , o n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 7 0 . T h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 b a n k r u p t c y , a s w a s t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e o f t h e t i m e . I n 1 9 7 2 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a s s u m e d t h e r e m a i n i n g P e n n s y l v a n i a t r a c k a g e o f t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , a c o m p e t i n g a n t h r a c i t e r a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d e n t e r e d b a n k r u p t c y a s w e l l . T h e t w o r o a d s h a d e n t e r e d a s h a r e d t r a c k a g e a g r e e m e n t i n t h i s a r e a i n 1 9 6 5 t o r e d u c e c o s t s , a s b o t h h a d p a r a l l e l r o u t e s f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e w a y t o m e t r o p o l i t a n N e w Y o r k , o f t e n o n a d j o i n i n g g r a d e s t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n t h e y e a r s l e a d i n g t o 1 9 7 3 , t h e f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d s y s t e m i n t h e n o r t h e a s t o f t h e U . S . w a s c o l l a p s i n g . A l t h o u g h g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d A m t r a k t o o k o v e r i n t e r c i t y p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e o n M a y 1 , 1 9 7 1 , r a i l r o a d c o m p a n i e s c o n t i n u e d t o l o s e m o n e y d u e t o e x t e n s i v e g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s , e x p e n s i v e a n d e x c e s s i v e l a b o r c o s t , c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m o t h e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m o d e s , d e c l i n i n g i n d u s t r i a l b u s i n e s s a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s ; t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s o n e o f t h e m . H u r r i c a n e A g n e s i n 1 9 7 2 d a m a g e d t h e r u n d o w n N o r t h e a s t r a i l w a y n e t w o r k , w h i c h p u t t h e s o l v e n c y o f o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n c l u d i n g t h e L V R R i n d a n g e r ; t h e s o m e w h a t m o r e s o l v e n t E r i e L a c k a w a n n a R a i l w a y ( E L ) w a s a l s o d a m a g e d b y H u r r i c a n e A g n e s . I n 1 9 7 3 , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n g r e s s a c t e d t o c r e a t e a b i l l t o n a t i o n a l i z e a l l b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e L V . T h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n R a i l r o a d s , w h i c h o p p o s e d n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , s u b m i t t e d a n a l t e r n a t e p r o p o s a l f o r a g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d p r i v a t e c o m p a n y . P r e s i d e n t R i c h a r d N i x o n s i g n e d t h e R e g i o n a l R a i l R e o r g a n i z a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 7 3 i n t o l a w . T h e " 3 R A c t , " a s i t w a s c a l l e d , p r o v i d e d i n t e r i m f u n d i n g t o t h e b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s a n d d e f i n e d a n e w " C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n " u n d e r t h e A A R ' s p l a n . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , t h e L V R R , i n c l u d i n g i t s m a i n l i n e , w a s m e r g e d i n t o t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t ' s C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n ( C o n r a i l ) e n d i n g 1 3 0 y e a r s o f e x i s t e n c e a n d 1 2 1 y e a r s o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e L V R R . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , m a j o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e a s s e t s o f t h e b a n k r u p t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w e r e a c q u i r e d b y C o n r a i l . T h i s p r i m a r i l y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e m a i n l i n e a n d r e l a t e d b r a n c h e s f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n ( n o r t h / R R w e s t o f S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o O a k I s l a n d Y a r d , t h e I t h a c a b r a n c h f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o I t h a c a , N e w Y o r k , c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e C a y u g a L a k e l i n e a n d o n t o t h e M i l l i k e n p o w e r s t a t i o n i n L a k e R i d g e , N e w Y o r k ( c l o s e d o n A u g u s t 2 9 , 2 0 1 9 ) a n d t h e C a r g i l l s a l t m i n e j u s t s o u t h o f A u b u r n , N Y ; a n d s m a l l s e g m e n t s i n G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k ( f r o m G e n e v a t o t h e S e n e c a A r m y D e p o t i n K e n d a i a ) ; B a t a v i a , N e w Y o r k ; A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k a n d C o r t l a n d , N e w Y o r k . A l o n g s e g m e n t w e s t f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o B u f f a l o w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o n r a i l t a k e o v e r , b u t w a s m o s t l y t o r n - u p n o t l o n g a f t e r w a r d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a s e g m e n t f r o m G e n e v a t o V i c t o r , N e w Y o r k , l a t e r c u t b a c k t o S h o r t s v i l l e , N e w Y o r k , t o V i c t o r , r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y E s t a t e u n d e r s u b s i d i z e d C o n r a i l o p e r a t i o n . T h e S h o r t s v i l l e t o V i c t o r s e g m e n t b e c a m e t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 7 9 ( t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e F i n g e r L a k e s R a i l w a y i n O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 ) . M o s t o f t h e r a i l e q u i p m e n t w e n t t o C o n r a i l a s w e l l , b u t 2 4 l o c o m o t i v e s ( u n i t s G P 3 8 - 2 3 1 4 - 3 2 5 a n d C 4 2 0 4 0 4 – 4 1 5 ) w e n t t o t h e D e l a w a r e & H u d s o n i n s t e a d . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e a s s e t s w e r e d i s p o s e d o f b y t h e e s t a t e u n t i l i t w a s f o l d e d i n t o t h e n o n - r a i l r o a d P e n n C e n t r a l C o r p o r a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s . T h e r o u t e a c r o s s P e n n s y l v a n i a , N e w J e r s e y a n d O a k I s l a n d Y a r d r e m a i n s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o d a y , t h e o n l y t w o C l a s s 1 r a i l r o a d s t h a t a r e b a s e d i n t h e E a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s r o u t e b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t t o C o n r a i l a s a n a l t e r n a t e r o u t e t o a v o i d A m t r a k ' s f o r m e r P R R / P C N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r e l e c t r i f i e d r o u t e . T o d a y , t h i s r o u t e c o n t i n u e s a s t w o l i n e s , o n e t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a n d t h e o t h e r t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w l i n e t h a t w a s o n c e p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e o r i g i n a l l i n e r e t a i n s i t s o r i g i n a l r o u t e w h e n i t w a s f i r s t c o n s t r u c t e d a n d i s s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y . T h e n e w l i n e i s a l s o s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , b u t i t i s s e r v e d t o g e t h e r w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n a j o i n t o w n e r s h i p c o m p a n y c a l l e d C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s . M o s t o f t h e o t h e r r e m a i n i n g L e h i g h V a l l e y t r a c k s e r v e s a s b r a n c h l i n e s , o r h a s b e e n s o l d t o s h o r t l i n e a n d r e g i o n a l o p e r a t o r s . T h e s e o p e r a t o r s i n c l u d e , i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r : T h e L e h i g h L i n e w a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d ' s f i r s t r a i l l i n e a n d s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e . I t w a s o p e n e d o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 b e t w e e n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h r e e m o n t h s l a t e r t h e l i n e b r a n c h e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t A l l e n t o w n t o J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e l i n e w a s l a t e r e x t e n d e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t J i m T h o r p e t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d l a t e r i t r e a c h e d t h e B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k a r e a a n d p a s t E a s t o n a l l t h e w a y t o P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y a n d t h e n s w i t c h e d d i r e c t i o n t o t h e n o r t h e a s t t o J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y l a t e r c u t b a c k t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y . D u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s , t h e l i n e s e r v e d a s t h e b o d y o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d u n t i l t h e r a i l r o a d e i t h e r b u i l t , a c q u i r e d , o r m e r g e d o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n t o i t s s y s t e m . D u r i n g t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t s o w n e r s h i p u n d e r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d , t h e l i n e w a s k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y M a i n l i n e , s t a r t i n g i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s . T h e l i n e a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o C o n r a i l i n 1 9 7 6 a n d w a s m a i n t a i n e d a s a m a i n l i n e i n t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . T h e l i n e b e c a m e k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h L i n e d u r i n g C o n r a i l o w n e r s h i p . C o n r a i l i n t e g r a t e d f o r m e r C N J m a i n l i n e l e a s e d t r a c k a g e i n t o t h e l i n e a n d k e p t t h e l i n e i n c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n ( s i n c e 1 8 5 5 ) ; h o w e v e r , i t d o w n s i z e d t h e l i n e i n t h e n o r t h w e s t f r o m t h e B u f f a l o a r e a o f N e w Y o r k S t a t e : f i r s t t o S a y r e Y a r d i n S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; t h e n t o M e h o o p a n y , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; a n d f i n a l l y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e ' s b e i n g d o w n s i z e d t h r e e t i m e s c r e a t e d t w o n e w r a i l l i n e s : t h e L e h i g h S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n , w h i c h w a s l a t e r s o l d t o t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ( R B M N ) i n 1 9 9 6 ; t h e R B M N w o u l d l a t e r c u t b a c k t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n f r o m M e h o o p a n y t o D u p o n t , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e t r a c k s f r o m D u p o n t t o M e h o o p a n y b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e c a l l e d t h e S u s q u e h a n n a B r a n c h . I n 1 9 9 9 , t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y w h i c h i s o w n e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n C o r p o r a t i o n a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h L i n e i n t h e C o n r a i l s p l i t w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n b u t t h e t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y w e r e k e p t w i t h C o n r a i l i n o r d e r f o r b o t h N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a n d C S X t o h a v e e q u a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e N o r t h e a s t . T h e e x i s t i n g t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a l o n g w i t h C S X o w n i t u n d e r a j o i n t v e n t u r e . H o w e v e r , f o r h i s t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e p a r t f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n p a r t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e . N o w u n d e r o w n e r s h i p o f t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e L e h i g h L i n e ' s r o u t e i s n o w f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h i s i s c u r r e n t l y t h e l a s t t i m e t h e l i n e h a s b e e n d o w n s i z e d . T h e L e h i g h L i n e s t i l l e x i s t s a n d s t i l l s e r v e s a s a m a j o r f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d l i n e t h a t o p e r a t e s i n N e w J e r s e y a n d P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e i s s t i l l o w n e d a n d o p e r a t e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d t h e l i n e s t i l l r u n s f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e c o n n e c t s w i t h C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s ' s L e h i g h L i n e ( t h e n e w r a i l l i n e ) a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ' s T r e n t o n S u b d i v i s i o n a t P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s R e a d i n g D i v i s i o n a t P a c k e r t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s L e h i g h D i v i s i o n a t L e h i g h t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ( o r i g i n a l l y M & H J u n c t i o n n e a r O l d P e n n H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) . T h e l i n e m a k e s n o t a b l e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n l i n e s s u c h a s t h e R e a d i n g L i n e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s h o r t l i n e r a i l r o a d s . A t T h r e e B r i d g e s , N e w J e r s e y i n R e a d i n g t o n T o w n s h i p , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h B l a c k R i v e r a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s N e w J e r s e y s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e W a s h i n g t o n S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r R a i l w a y w h i c h a l s o p a s s e s o v e r t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r a f t e r t h a t . A c r o s s t h e r i v e r i n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s P e n n s y l v a n i a s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e P o r t l a n d S e c o n d a r y w h i c h e x t e n d s f r o m E a s t o n t o P o r t l a n d , P e n n s y l v a n i a c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y p a r t o f t h e L a c k a w a n n a O l d R o a d ( o r s i m p l y O l d R o a d ) ; t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y g o e s u n d e r t h e L a c k a w a n n a C u t - O f f a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e D e l a w a r e - L a c k a w a n n a R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e h o s t s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y - f i v e t r a i n s p e r d a y , w i t h t r a f f i c p e a k i n g a t t h e e n d o f t h e w e e k . E a s t o f t h e j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e R e a d i n g L i n e i n A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d i n B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e s e r v e s a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s m a i n c o r r i d o r i n a n d o u t o f t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y , a n d t h e N e w Y o r k M e t r o A r e a a t l a r g e , a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n d o e s n ' t c u r r e n t l y u s e t h e e a s t e r n h a l f o f i t s S o u t h e r n T i e r L i n e , w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f r o m P o r t J e r v i s n o r t h t o B i n g h a m t o n , N e w Y o r k a n d w h i c h i s n o w ( 2 0 2 2 ) o p e r a t e d b y t h e C e n t r a l N e w Y o r k R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s H a r r i s b u r g D i v i s i o n a n d i t i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s C r e s c e n t C o r r i d o r , a r a i l r o a d c o r r i d o r . I t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 , 0 0 0 - f o o t P a t t e n b u r g T u n n e l i n W e s t P o r t a l , N e w J e r s e y a l o n g i t s r o u t e . M o s t o f t h e t r a f f i c a l o n g t h e l i n e c o n s i s t s o f i n t e r m o d a l a n d g e n e r a l m e r c h a n d i s e t r a i n s g o i n g t o y a r d s s u c h a s O a k I s l a n d Y a r d i n N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y a n d C r o x t o n Y a r d i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e f i r s t l o c o m o t i v e p u r c h a s e d b y t h e L V R R w a s t h e " D e l a w a r e " , a w o o d - b u r n i n g 4 - 4 - 0 b u i l t b y R i c h a r d N o r r i s & S o n s o f P h i l a d e l p h i a i n 1 8 5 5 . I t w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e " C a t a s a u q u a " 4 - 4 - 0 a n d " L e h i g h " 4 - 6 - 0 , w h i c h w e r e a l s o N o r r i s & S o n s e n g i n e s . I n 1 8 5 6 , t h e " E . A . P a c k e r " 4 - 4 - 0 w a s p u r c h a s e d f r o m W i l l i a m M a s o n o f T a u n t o n , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . S u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e L V R R f a v o r e d e n g i n e s f r o m B a l d w i n L o c o m o t i v e W o r k s a n d W i l l i a m M a s o n , b u t t r i e d m a n y o t h e r d e s i g n s a s i t e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h m o t i v e p o w e r t h a t c o u l d h a n d l e t h e l i n e ' s h e a v y g r a d e s . T h e L V R R o p e r a t e d s e v e r a l n a m e d t r a i n s i n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I e r a . A m o n g t h e m : T h e p r i m a r y p a s s e n g e r m o t i v e p o w e r f o r t h e L V R R i n t h e d i e s e l e r a w a s t h e A L C O P A - 1 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e , o f w h i c h t h e L V R R h a d f o u r t e e n . T h e s e l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o u s e d i n f r e i g h t s e r v i c e d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e e r a o f L V R R p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . A p a i r o f A L C O F A - 2 F B - 2 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o p u r c h a s e d t o a u g m e n t t h e P A s w h e n n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e w e r e F A s w i t h s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t d e s i g n a t e d a s F P A - 2 u n i t s . D u e t o d e c l i n i n g p a s s e n g e r p a t r o n a g e , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y s u c c e s s f u l l y p e t i t i o n e d t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e C o m m i s s i o n t o t e r m i n a t e a l l p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . T h i s t o o k e f f e c t o n F e b r u a r y 4 , 1 9 6 1 . T h e " M a p l e L e a f " a n d t h e " J o h n W i l k e s " w e r e t h e l a s t o p e r a t i n g l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a i n s , t e r m i n a t e d t h a t d a y . T h e o n l y d a y l i g h t N e w Y o r k - B u f f a l o t r a i n , t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " , w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 9 5 9 . B u d d R a i l D i e s e l C a r s e r v i c e w o u l d c o n t i n u e o n a b r a n c h l i n e ( L e h i g h t o n - H a z l e t o n ) f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l f o u r d a y s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f p a s s e n g e r e q u i p m e n t i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n s c r a p p e d s o m e t i m e a f t e r F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 1 . M o s t s e r v i c e a b l e e q u i p m e n t n o t r e t a i n e d f o r c o m p a n y s e r v i c e w a s s o l d t o o t h e r r o a d s .

History ; 1870–1880

The history of the Lehigh Valley Railroad (LVRR) during the period of 1870-1880 is marked by significant expansion and strategic acquisitions. The railroad focused on acquiring coal lands to ensure production and traffic for its own lines, recognizing that its prosperity depended on obtaining remaining coal lands. Notable acquisitions include the Hazleton Railroad, Lehigh Luzerne Railroad, and Philadelphia Coal Company, consolidating its holdings into the Lehigh Valley Coal Company. The LVRR extended its reach into New York and New Jersey, shipping 4.4 million tons of coal annually by the end of the decade. Leadership transitioned smoothly after Asa Packer's death, with Charles Hartshorne and later Harry E. Packer taking the reins.

within the Erie mainline tracks to enable the LV equipment to run through to Elmira and later to Buffalo. Further rounds of acquisitions took place in 1868. The acquisitions in 1868 were notable because they marked the beginning of the LVRR's strategy of acquiring coal lands to ensure production and traffic for its own lines. Although the 1864 acquisition of the Beaver Meadow had included a few hundred acres of coal land, by 1868 the LVRR was feeling pressure from the Delaware and Hudson and the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad in the northern Wyoming Valley coal field, where the railroads mined and transported their own coal at a much reduced cost. The LVRR recognized that its own continued prosperity depended on obtaining what coal lands remained. In pursuit of that strategy, the 1868 purchases of the Hazleton Railroad and the Lehigh Luzerne Railroad brought of coal land to the LVRR, and additional lands were acquired along branches of the LVRR. Over the next dozen years the railroad acquired other large tracts of land: in 1870, in 1872, and acquisition of the Philadelphia Coal Company in 1873 with its large leases in the Mahanoy basin. In 1875, the holdings were consolidated into the Lehigh Valley Coal Company, which was wholly owned by the LVRR. By 1893, the LVRR owned or controlled of coal lands. With these acquisitions, the LVRR obtained the right to mine coal as well as transport it. The 1870s witnessed commencement of extension of the LVRR in a new direction. In the 1870s the age of 73. At the time of his death, the railroad was shipping 4.4 million tons of coal annually over of track, using 235 engines, 24,461 coal cars, and over 2,000 freight cars of various kinds. The company controlled of coal-producing lands and was expanding rapidly into New York and New Jersey. The railroad had survived the economic depression of 1873 and was seeing its business recover. Leadership of the company transferred smoothly to Charles Hartshorne who had been vice president under Packer. In 1883, Hartshorne retired to allow Harry E. Packer, Asa's 32-year-old youngest son, to assume the Presidency. A year later, Harry Packer died of illness, and Asa's 51-year-old nephew Elisha Packer Wilbur was elected president, a position he held for 13 years. The 1880s obtained a New York charter for the Lehigh Valley Railway (a similar name to the LVRR, but with "railway" instead). LVRR subsidiary, Lehigh Valley Railway began constructing the main line's northern part from Buffalo to Lancaster, New York in 1883, a total distance of ten miles. This was the second step toward establishment of a direct route from Waverly to Buffalo, the first being the acquisition of the Geneva, Ithaca & Athens Railroad. Then in 1887 the Lehigh Valley Railroad obtained a lease on the Southern Central Railroad (the LVRR previously had trackage rights on the railroad starting in 1870), which had a route from Waverly northward into the Finger Lakes region. At the same time, the LVRR organized the Buffalo and Geneva Railroad to build the rest its terminals at Buffalo and Jersey City, and the establishment of a trunk line across New York, the company soon became entangled in costly business dealings which ultimately led to the Packer family's loss of control. The coal trade was always the backbone of the business but was subject to boom and bust as competition and production increased and the economy cycled. The coal railroads had begun in 1873 to form pools to regulate production and set quotas for each railroad. By controlling supply, the coal combination attempted to keep prices and profits high. Several combinations occurred, but each fell apart as one road or another abrogated its agreement. The first such combination occurred in 1873, followed by others in 1878, 1884, and 1886. Customers naturally resented the actions of the cartel, and since coal was critical to commerce, Congress intervened in 1887 with the Interstate Commerce Act that forbade the roads from joining into such pools. Although the roads effectively ignored the Act and their sales agents continued to meet and set prices, the agreements were never effective for long. In 1892, the Reading Railroad thought it had a solution — instead of attempting to maintain agreements among the coal railroads, it would purchase or lease the major lines and bring them into a monopoly. It leased the CNJ and the LVRR, purchased the railroads' coal companies and arranged for the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad to cooperate with the combination, thereby controlling 70% of the trade. Unfortunately, it overreached and in 1893 was unable long investigation eventually concluded that the explosion was an act of German sabotage, for which reparations were finally paid in 1979. After the U.S. entered World War I, the railroads were nationalized in order to prevent strikes and interruptions. The United States Railroad Administration controlled the railroad from 1918 to 1920, at which time control was transferred back to the private companies. Although the heavy wartime traffic had left the railroad's plant and equipment in need of repair, the damage was partly offset by new equipment that had been purchased by the government. In 1920, the LVRR sold its lake line company, the Lehigh Valley Transportation Line, to private interests due to new federal legislation which stopped the practice of railroads owning lake lines. Throughout the 1920s the and airlines much later provided faster long-distance travel than trains. Oil and gas were supplanting coal as the fuel of choice. The Depression had been difficult for all the railroads, and Congress recognized that bankruptcy laws needed revision. The Chandler Acts of 1938-9 provided a new form of relief for railroads, allowing them to restructure their debt while continuing to operate. The LVRR was approved for such a restructuring in 1940 when several large mortgage loans were due. The restructuring allowed the LVRR to extend the maturity of its mortgages, but it needed to repeat the process in 1950. The terms of the restructurings precluded dividend payments until 1953, when LVRR common stock paid the first dividend since 1931. In 1957, the LVRR again stopped dividends. In 1944,

Lehigh Valley Railroad

T h e D e l a w a r e , L e h i g h , S c h u y l k i l l a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( D L S & S ) w a s a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o n A p r i l 2 1 , 1 8 4 6 , t o c o n s t r u c t a r a i l r o a d f r o m M a u c h C h u n k , P e n n s y l v a n i a , ( n o w J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e r a i l r o a d w o u l d r u n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L e h i g h R i v e r a n d b r e a k t h e L e h i g h C o a l a n d N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ' s m o n o p o l y o n c o a l t r a f f i c o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . T h e r a i l r o a d w a s c h a r t e r e d o n A u g u s t 2 , 1 8 4 7 , a n d e l e c t e d J a m e s M . P o r t e r i t s p r e s i d e n t o n O c t o b e r 2 1 . L i t t l e o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1 8 4 7 a n d 1 8 5 1 , s a v e s o m e l i m i t e d g r a d i n g n e a r A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . A l l t h i s c h a n g e d i n O c t o b e r 1 8 5 1 , w h e n A s a P a c k e r t o o k m a j o r i t y c o n t r o l o f t h e D L S & S . P a c k e r b r o u g h t a d d i t i o n a l f i n a n c i n g t o t h e r a i l r o a d , i n s t a l l e d R o b e r t H . S a y r e a s c h i e f e n g i n e e r , a n d r e n a m e d t h e c o m p a n y t h e " L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . " C o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n i n e a r n e s t i n 1 8 5 3 , a n d t h e l i n e o p e n e d b e t w e e n E a s t o n a n d A l l e n t o w n o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e s e c t i o n b e t w e e n A l l e n t o w n a n d M a u c h C h u n k o p e n e d o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R i n t e r c h a n g e d c o a l a t t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r w h e r e c o a l c o u l d b e s h i p p e d t o P h i l a d e l p h i a o n t h e D e l a w a r e D i v i s i o n C a n a l o r t r a n s p o r t e d a c r o s s t h e r i v e r t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , w h e r e t h e M o r r i s C a n a l a n d t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y ( C N J ) c o u l d c a r r y i t t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y m a r k e t . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d a d o u b l e - d e c k e d b r i d g e a c r o s s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f o r c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e C N J a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d i n P h i l l i p s b u r g . T h r o u g h a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , L V R R p a s s e n g e r s h a d a r o u t e t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y , J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y , a n d o t h e r p o i n t s i n N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R ' s r o l l i n g s t o c k w a s h i r e d f r o m t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y a n d a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h t h e C N J t o r u n t w o p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s f r o m E a s t o n t o M a u c h C h u n k c o n n e c t i n g w i t h t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a t r a i n s o n t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d . A d a i l y f r e i g h t t r a i n w a s p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n l e a v i n g E a s t o n i n t h e m o r n i n g a n d r e t u r n i n g i n t h e e v e n i n g . I n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f O c t o b e r 1 8 5 5 , a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h H o w a r d & C o o f P h i l a d e l p h i a t o d o t h e f r e i g h t i n g b u s i n e s s o f t h e r a i l r o a d ( e x c e p t c o a l , i r o n , a n d i r o n o r e ) . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n w a s 4 6 m i l e s o f s i n g l e t r a c k . T h e l i n e w a s l a i d w i t h a r a i l w e i g h i n g 5 6 p o u n d s p e r y a r d s u p p o r t e d u p o n c r o s s t i e s 6 x 7 i n c h e s a n d 7 - 1 / 2 f e e t l o n g p l a c e d 2 f e e t a p a r t a n d a b o u t a q u a r t e r o f i t w a s b a l l a s t e d w i t h s t o n e o r g r a v e l . T h e l i n e h a d a d e s c e n d i n g o r l e v e l g r a d e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e c u r v e a t M a u c h C h u n k h a d n o c u r v e o f l e s s t h a n 7 0 0 f e e t r a d i u s . T h e L V R R c o n n e c t e d a t M a u c h C h u n k w i t h t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d . T h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d h a d b e e n b u i l t i n 1 8 3 6 , a n d i t t r a n s p o r t e d a n t h r a c i t e c o a l f r o m J e a n s v i l l e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a ' s M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d t o t h e L e h i g h C a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k . F o r 2 5 y e a r s t h e L e h i g h C a n a l h a d e n j o y e d a m o n o p o l y o n d o w n s t r e a m t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d w a s c h a r g i n g i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r s h i g h f e e s . W h e n t h e L V R R o p e n e d , t h o s e p r o d u c e r s e a g e r l y s e n t t h e i r p r o d u c t b y t h e r a i l r o a d i n s t e a d o f c a n a l , a n d w i t h i n t w o y e a r s o f i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e L V R R w a s c a r r y i n g o v e r 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y . B y 1 8 5 9 i t h a d 6 0 0 c o a l c a r s a n d 1 9 e n g i n e s . T h e L V R R i m m e d i a t e l y b e c a m e t h e t r u n k l i n e d o w n t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w i t h n u m e r o u s f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s c o n n e c t i n g a n d c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i t s t r a f f i c . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d c a m e t o t h e L V R R o v e r f e e d e r s t o t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w : t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d , t h e C a t a w i s s a , W i l l i a m s p o r t a n d E r i e R a i l r o a d , t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d , t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d a n d o t h e r s m a l l e r l i n e s . A t C a t a s a u q u a , t h e C a t a s a u q u a a n d F o g e l s v i l l e R a i l r o a d t r a n s p o r t e d c o a l , o r e , l i m e s t o n e a n d i r o n f o r f u r n a c e s o f t h e T h o m a s I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h C r a n e I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y I r o n W o r k s , t h e C a r b o n I r o n C o m p a n y , a n d o t h e r s . A t B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e N o r t h P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d w h i c h w a s c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g t h e S u m m e r o f 1 8 5 6 , p r o v i d e d a r a i l c o n n e c t i o n t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d t h u s b r o u g h t t h e L V R R a d i r e c t l i n e t o P h i l a d e l p h i a . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d c o n n e c t e d t o T r e n t o n , N e w J e r s e y . T o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e g a u g e o f t h e B e l v i d e r e , t h e c a r s w e r e f u r n i s h e d w i t h w h e e l s h a v i n g w i d e t r e a d s t h a t o p e r a t e d o n b o t h r o a d s . T h e 1 8 6 0 s s a w a n e x p a n s i o n o f t h e L V R R n o r t h w a r d t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d u p t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e . A s a P a c k e r w a s e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o n J a n u a r y 1 3 , 1 8 6 2 . I n 1 8 6 4 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a c q u i r i n g f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s a n d m e r g i n g t h e m w i t h i t s s y s t e m . T h e f i r s t a c q u i s i t i o n s w e r e t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d a n d C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , a n d t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d . T h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n w a s t h e f i r s t s t e p i n e x p a n d i n g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . T h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d a l l o w e d t h e L V t o r e a c h W h i t e H a v e n . I n 1 8 6 6 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h a n d M a h a n o y R a i l r o a d ( o r i g i n a l l y t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d ) a n d t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l a l o n g t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r , r e n a m i n g i t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d N e w Y o r k C a n a l & R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ( P & N Y ) . T h e p u r c h a s i n g o f t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l s a w a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a n e a r m o n o p o l y i n t h e r e g i o n n o r t h o f t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . I n 1 8 6 6 , t w o y e a r s a f t e r t h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n , t h e e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e o p e n e d . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r a i l l i n e t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e s t a r t e d i m m e d i a t e l y a n d , i n 1 8 6 7 , t h e l i n e w a s c o m p l e t e f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e t o W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k , w h e r e c o a l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b r o a d g a u g e E r i e R a i l r o a d a n d s h i p p e d t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s t h r o u g h B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e P e n n H a v e n & W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 4 , a n d b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e t h a t w a s o p e n e d i n 1 8 6 7 . B y 1 8 6 9 , t h e L V R R o w n e d a c o n t i n u o u s t r a c k t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a f r o m E a s t o n t o W a v e r l y . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e L V R R — a s t a n d a r d g a u g e r a i l r o a d — c o m p l e t e d a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d , a t t h a t t i m e h a v i n g a s i x - f o o t g a u g e , f o r a t h i r d r a i l w i t h i n t h e E r i e m a i n l i n e t r a c k s t o e n a b l e t h e L V e q u i p m e n t t o r u n t h r o u g h t o E l m i r a a n d l a t e r t o B u f f a l o . F u r t h e r r o u n d s o f a c q u i s i t i o n s t o o k p l a c e i n 1 8 6 8 . T h e a c q u i s i t i o n s i n 1 8 6 8 w e r e n o t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e L V R R ' s s t r a t e g y o f a c q u i r i n g c o a l l a n d s t o e n s u r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a f f i c f o r i t s o w n l i n e s . A l t h o u g h t h e 1 8 6 4 a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w h a d i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , b y 1 8 6 8 t h e L V R R w a s f e e l i n g p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n a n d t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d i n t h e n o r t h e r n W y o m i n g V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d , w h e r e t h e r a i l r o a d s m i n e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d t h e i r o w n c o a l a t a m u c h r e d u c e d c o s t . T h e L V R R r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i t s o w n c o n t i n u e d p r o s p e r i t y d e p e n d e d o n o b t a i n i n g w h a t c o a l l a n d s r e m a i n e d . I n p u r s u i t o f t h a t s t r a t e g y , t h e 1 8 6 8 p u r c h a s e s o f t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d a n d t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d b r o u g h t o f c o a l l a n d t o t h e L V R R , a n d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d s w e r e a c q u i r e d a l o n g b r a n c h e s o f t h e L V R R . O v e r t h e n e x t d o z e n y e a r s t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d : i n 1 8 7 0 , i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a C o a l C o m p a n y i n 1 8 7 3 w i t h i t s l a r g e l e a s e s i n t h e M a h a n o y b a s i n . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e h o l d i n g s w e r e c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h w a s w h o l l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R . B y 1 8 9 3 , t h e L V R R o w n e d o r c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l l a n d s . W i t h t h e s e a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L V R R o b t a i n e d t h e r i g h t t o m i n e c o a l a s w e l l a s t r a n s p o r t i t . T h e 1 8 7 0 s w i t n e s s e d c o m m e n c e m e n t o f e x t e n s i o n o f t h e L V R R i n a n e w d i r e c t i o n . I n t h e 1 8 7 0 s t h e L V R R a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d s t a r t i n g a t i n 1 8 7 0 , w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l o f i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d t u r n e d i t s e y e t o w a r d e x p a n s i o n a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y a l l t h e w a y t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . I n 1 8 7 0 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s t o A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t i n t h e e a s t w a s N e w Y o r k C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R w a s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l f o r t r a n s p o r t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e L V R R l e a s e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l , w h i c h h a d a v a l u a b l e o u t l e t i n J e r s e y C i t y o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r o p p o s i t e M a n h a t t a n . A s a P a c k e r p u r c h a s e d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d a t t h e c a n a l b a s i n i n s u p p o r t o f t h e N e w J e r s e y W e s t L i n e R a i l r o a d , w h i c h h e h o p e d t o u s e a s t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . T h a t p r o j e c t f a i l e d , b u t t h e l a n d s w e r e l a t e r u s e d f o r t h e L V R R ' s o w n t e r m i n a l i n 1 8 8 9 . T h e C N J , a n t i c i p a t i n g t h a t t h e L V R R i n t e n d e d t o c r e a t e i t s o w n l i n e a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y , p r o t e c t e d i t s e l f b y l e a s i n g t h e L e h i g h a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( L & S ) t o e n s u r e a c o n t i n u i n g s u p p l y o f c o a l t r a f f i c . T h e L & S h a d b e e n c h a r t e r e d i n 1 8 3 7 b y t h e L e h i g h C o a l & N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ( t h e L e h i g h C a n a l c o m p a n y ) t o c o n n e c t t h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e c a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . A f t e r t h e L V R R o p e n e d i t s l i n e , t h e L e h i g h & S u s q u e h a n n a e x t e n d e d t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s a n d E s s e x R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 8 . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e e n t i r e l i n e f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e w a s l e a s e d t o t h e C N J . F o r m o s t o f i t s l e n g t h , i t r a n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L V R R . T h e L V R R f o u n d t h a t t h e r o u t e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l w a s i m p r a c t i c a l f o r u s e a s a r a i l r o a d l i n e , s o i n 1 8 7 2 t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e d o r m a n t c h a r t e r o f t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k R a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d a c c e s s t o t h e P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y h a r b o r , a n d a d d e d t o i t a n e w c h a r t e r , t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n R a i l r o a d . T h e S t a t e o f N e w J e r s e y p a s s e d l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o c o n s o l i d a t e i t s N e w J e r s e y r a i l r o a d s i n t o o n e c o m p a n y ; t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k a n d t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n w e r e m e r g e d t o f o r m a n e w r a i l r o a d c o m p a n y c a l l e d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ( o r E a s t o n & A m b o y R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ) . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a r a i l r o a d b u i l t a c r o s s c e n t r a l N e w J e r s e y b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d t o r u n f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y t o B o u n d B r o o k , N e w J e r s e y a n d i t w a s b u i l t t o c o n n e c t t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d c o a l - h a u l i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y t o s e r v e c o n s u m e r m a r k e t s i n t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e P h i l l i p s b u r g c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C N J t h a t h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n t h e o n l y o u t l e t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r ; u n t i l i t w a s b u i l t , t h e t e r m i n u s o f t h e L V R R h a d b e e n a t P h i l l i p s b u r g o n t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r o p p o s i t e E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s u s e d a s a c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , w i t h a t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . C o n s t r u c t i o n c o m m e n c e d i n 1 8 7 2 a s s o o n t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s f o r m e d ; c o a l d o c k s a t P e r t h A m b o y w e r e s o o n c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d m o s t o f t h e l i n e f r o m E a s t o n t o P e r t h A m b o y w a s g r a d e d a n d r a i l s l a i d . H o w e v e r , t h e r o u t e r e q u i r e d a t u n n e l t h r o u g h / u n d e r M u s c o n e t c o n g M o u n t a i n n e a r P a t t e n b u r g , N e w J e r s e y ( a b o u t t w e l v e m i l e s e a s t o f P h i l l i p s b u r g ) , a n d t h a t p r o v e d t r o u b l e s o m e , d e l a y i n g t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e l i n e u n t i l M a y 1 8 7 5 , w h e n a c o a l t r a i n f i r s t p a s s e d o v e r t h e l i n e . T o s u p p o r t t h e e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s e i n t r a f f i c , t h e w o o d e n b r i d g e o v e r t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r a t E a s t o n w a s a l s o r e p l a c e d b y a d o u b l e - t r a c k e d , i r o n b r i d g e . A t P e r t h A m b o y , a t i d e w a t e r t e r m i n a l w a s b u i l t o n t h e A r t h u r K i l l c o m p r i s i n g a l a r g e c o a l d o c k u s e d t o t r a n s p o r t c o a l i n t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . T h e s e t r a c k s w e r e l a i d a n d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s o p e n e d f o r b u s i n e s s o n J u n e 2 8 , 1 8 7 5 w i t h h a u l i n g c o a l . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y ' s o p e r a t i o n s w e r e l a b e l e d t h e " N e w J e r s e y D i v i s i o n " o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y h a d a l r e a d y c o m p l e t e d l a r g e d o c k s a n d f a c i l i t i e s f o r s h i p p i n g c o a l a t P e r t h A m b o y u p o n a n e x t e n s i v e t r a c t o f l a n d f r o n t i n g t h e A r t h u r K i l l . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f a n t h r a c i t e m o v e d t o P e r t h A m b o y d u r i n g t h a t y e a r f o r t r a n s s h i p m e n t b y w a t e r . O p e r a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e L V R R ' s b a n k r u p t c y i n 1 9 7 6 . T h e m a r s h a l l i n g y a r d i s n o w t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a k n o w n a s H a r b o r t o w n . P a s s e n g e r t r a f f i c o n t h e L V R R ' s E a s t o n a n d A m b o y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ( P R R ) a t M e t u c h e n , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n t i n u e d t o t h e P R R ' S E x c h a n g e P l a c e t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y ( t h a t c o n n e c t i o n w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 8 9 1 a f t e r t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d ) . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e p a r e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e L V R R f i n a n c e d t h e a d d i t i o n o f a t h i r d r a i l t o t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e s o t h a t c a r s c o u l d r o l l d i r e c t l y f r o m c o l l i e r y t o t h e p o r t a t B u f f a l o . W h i l e t h e t h i r d r a i l o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e b e t w e e n W a v e r l y a n d B u f f a l o g a v e t h e L V R R a n u n b r o k e n c o n n e c t i o n t o B u f f a l o , t h e r o a d ' s m a n a g e m e n t d e s i r e d i t s o w n l i n e i n t o B u f f a l o . T h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d p a s s e d i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e L V R R i n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 6 , w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e n e a r S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k , a d i s t a n c e o f 7 5 m i l e s . O n M a y 1 7 , 1 8 7 9 , A s a P a c k e r , t h e c o m p a n y ' s f o u n d e r a n d l e a d e r , d i e d a t t h e a g e o f 7 3 . A t t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h , t h e r a i l r o a d w a s s h i p p i n g 4 . 4 m i l l i o n t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y o v e r o f t r a c k , u s i n g 2 3 5 e n g i n e s , 2 4 , 4 6 1 c o a l c a r s , a n d o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 f r e i g h t c a r s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s . T h e c o m p a n y c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l - p r o d u c i n g l a n d s a n d w a s e x p a n d i n g r a p i d l y i n t o N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y . T h e r a i l r o a d h a d s u r v i v e d t h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n o f 1 8 7 3 a n d w a s s e e i n g i t s b u s i n e s s r e c o v e r . L e a d e r s h i p o f t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s f e r r e d s m o o t h l y t o C h a r l e s H a r t s h o r n e w h o h a d b e e n v i c e p r e s i d e n t u n d e r P a c k e r . I n 1 8 8 3 , H a r t s h o r n e r e t i r e d t o a l l o w H a r r y E . P a c k e r , A s a ' s 3 2 - y e a r - o l d y o u n g e s t s o n , t o a s s u m e t h e P r e s i d e n c y . A y e a r l a t e r , H a r r y P a c k e r d i e d o f i l l n e s s , a n d A s a ' s 5 1 - y e a r - o l d n e p h e w E l i s h a P a c k e r W i l b u r w a s e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t , a p o s i t i o n h e h e l d f o r 1 3 y e a r s . T h e 1 8 8 0 s c o n t i n u e d t o b e a p e r i o d o f g r o w t h , a n d t h e L V R R m a d e i m p o r t a n t a c q u i s i t i o n s i n N e w Y o r k , e x p a n d e d i t s r e a c h i n t o t h e s o u t h e r n c o a l f i e l d o f P e n n s y l v a n i a w h i c h h a d h i t h e r t o b e e n t h e m o n o p o l y o f t h e R e a d i n g , a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y b a t t l e d t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . I n 1 8 8 0 , t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e t o o p e r a t e a f l e e t o f s h i p s o n t h e G r e a t L a k e s w i t h t e r m i n a l s i n C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , a n d D u l u t h . T h i s c o m p a n y b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e m o v e m e n t o f a n t h r a c i t e , g r a i n a n d p a c k a g e f r e i g h t b e t w e e n B u f f a l o , C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , D u l u t h , S u p e r i o r a n d o t h e r m i d w e s t e r n c i t i e s . F o l l o w i n g F e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s u c h s e r v i c e , t h e l a k e l i n e w a s s o l d t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s i n 1 9 2 0 . T h e p o r t o n L a k e E r i e a t B u f f a l o w a s c r i t i c a l t o t h e L V R R ' s s h i p m e n t s o f c o a l t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s a n d f o r r e c e i p t o f g r a i n s e n t b y t h e W e s t t o e a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l t h o u g h i n 1 8 7 0 t h e L V R R h a d i n v e s t e d i n t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k R a i l r o a d w h i c h c o n n e c t e d t h e E r i e t o t h e l a k e f r o n t , a n d h a d c o n s t r u c t e d t h e L e h i g h D o c k s o n B u f f a l o C r e e k , i t d e p e n d e d o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d f o r t h e c o n n e c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k t o B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . I n 1 8 8 2 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a n e x t e n s i v e e x p a n s i o n i n t o N e w Y o r k f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o . C o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o w a s s p l i t i n t o t w o p r o j e c t s , W a v e r l y t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k a n d G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o ( G e n e v a i s l o c a t e d a t t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f S e n e c a L a k e ) . F i r s t , i t p u r c h a s e d a l a r g e p a r c e l o f l a n d i n B u f f a l o , t h e T i f f t f a r m , f o r u s e a s t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s , a n d o b t a i n e d a N e w Y o r k c h a r t e r f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y ( a s i m i l a r n a m e t o t h e L V R R , b u t w i t h " r a i l w a y " i n s t e a d ) . L V R R s u b s i d i a r y , L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e m a i n l i n e ' s n o r t h e r n p a r t f r o m B u f f a l o t o L a n c a s t e r , N e w Y o r k i n 1 8 8 3 , a t o t a l d i s t a n c e o f t e n m i l e s . T h i s w a s t h e s e c o n d s t e p t o w a r d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a d i r e c t r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o , t h e f i r s t b e i n g t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d . T h e n i n 1 8 8 7 t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o b t a i n e d a l e a s e o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d ( t h e L V R R p r e v i o u s l y h a d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s o n t h e r a i l r o a d s t a r t i n g i n 1 8 7 0 ) , w h i c h h a d a r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y n o r t h w a r d i n t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e L V R R o r g a n i z e d t h e B u f f a l o a n d G e n e v a R a i l r o a d t o b u i l d t h e r e s t o f t h e 9 7 - m i l e G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o t r a c k a g e , f r o m G e n e v a t o L a n c a s t e r . F i n a l l y , i n 1 8 8 9 , t h e L V R R g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a , a n d S a y r e R a i l r o a d a n d c o m p l e t e d i t s l i n e o f r a i l t h r o u g h N e w Y o r k . A s a r e s u l t o f i t s l e a s e s a n d a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y g a i n e d a n e a r - m o n o p o l y o n t r a f f i c i n t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . I t a l s o c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w a n d d e v e l o p i t s r o u t e s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n 1 8 8 3 t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d l a n d i n n o r t h e a s t P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d f o r m e d a s u b s i d i a r y c a l l e d T h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l a n d L a n d C o m p a n y . I t o p e n e d a h o t e l i n G l e n S u m m i t , P e n n s y l v a n i a c a l l e d t h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l t o s e r v e l u n c h t o p a s s e n g e r s t r a v e l i n g o n t h e l i n e . T h e h o t e l r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e c o m p a n y u n t i l 1 9 0 9 , w h e n i t w a s b o u g h t b y r e s i d e n t s o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o t t a g e s . I n P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L e h i g h s c o r e d a c o u p b y o b t a i n i n g t h e c h a r t e r f o r m e r l y h e l d b y t h e S c h u y k i l l H a v e n a n d L e h i g h R i v e r R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 8 6 . T h a t c h a r t e r h a d b e e n h e l d b y t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d s i n c e 1 8 6 0 , w h e n i t h a d b l o c k e d c o n s t r u c t i o n i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n i t s m o n o p o l y i n t h e S o u t h e r n C o a l F i e l d . T h a t s o u t h e r n f i e l d h e l d t h e l a r g e s t r e s e r v e s o f a n t h r a c i t e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d a c c o u n t e d f o r a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n . T h r o u g h n e g l e c t , t h e R e a d i n g a l l o w e d t h e c h a r t e r t o l a p s e , a n d i t w a s a c q u i r e d b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d t h e S c h u y l k i l l a n d L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e g a v e t h e L V R R a r o u t e i n t o P o t t s v i l l e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e S c h u y l k i l l V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d s . T h e V o s b u r g T u n n e l w a s c o m p l e t e d a n d o p e n e d f o r s e r v i c e o n J u l y 2 5 , 1 8 8 6 . T h e 1 6 m i l e M o u n t a i n C u t - o f f , ( a r a i l s e g m e n t o f t h e l i n e ) w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m F a i r v i e w , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o t h e o u t s k i r t s o f P i t t s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , w a s c o m p l e t e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 8 8 8 . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e l i n e ' s e a s t b o u n d g r a d e t o b e r e d u c e d a n d a s h o r t e r r o u t e f o r h a n d l i n g t h r o u g h t r a f f i c e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e L V R R h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , b u t d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n N e w J e r s e y , t h e L V R R e m b a r k e d o n a d e c a d e - l o n g l e g a l b a t t l e w i t h t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . T h e l a n d t h a t A s a P a c k e r h a d o b t a i n e d i n 1 8 7 2 w a s s i t u a t e d o n t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l ' s S o u t h B a s i n , b u t t h e C N J a l r e a d y h a d i t s o w n f a c i l i t i e s a d j a c e n t t o t h a t p r o p e r t y a n d d i s p u t e d t h e L V R R ' s t i t l e , w h i c h p a r t l y o v e r l a p p e d l a n d t h e C N J h a d f i l l e d f o r i t s o w n t e r m i n a l . F i n a l l y i n 1 8 8 7 t h e t w o r a i l r o a d s r e a c h e d a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e L V R R ' s J e r s e y C i t y f r e i g h t y a r d b e g a n . T h e L V R R o b t a i n e d a 5 - y e a r a g r e e m e n t t o u s e t h e C N J l i n e t o a c c e s s t h e t e r m i n a l , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 8 8 9 . I t f r o n t e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l B a s i n w i t h a s e r i e s o f p i e r s a n g l i n g o u t f r o m t h e s h o r e l i n e b u t w a s t o o n a r r o w f o r a y a r d , s o t h e L V R R b u i l t a s e p a r a t e y a r d a t O a k I s l a n d i n N e w a r k t o s o r t a n d p r e p a r e t r a i n s . T h e S o u t h B a s i n t e r m i n a l w a s u s e d s o l e l y f o r f r e i g h t , h a v i n g d o c k s a n d c a r f l o a t f a c i l i t i e s . P a s s e n g e r s w e r e r o u t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y . T h e L V R R s t r o v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 8 0 s t o a c q u i r e i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y a n d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y w a t e r f r o n t . T h e L V R R d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d m o r e t o t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n N e w J e r s e y i n o r d e r t o r e a c h i t s f r e i g h t y a r d s w i t h o u t u s i n g t h e C N J m a i n l i n e . T h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f r a i l r o a d s t o c o n n e c t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y l i n e ( E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ) t o J e r s e y C i t y . T h e f i r s t l e g o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o J e r s e y C i t y w a s t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n 1 8 8 8 w h i c h c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a t R o s e l l e , N e w J e r s e y f o r a c c e s s o v e r t h e C N J t o t h e H u d s o n R i v e r w a t e r f r o n t i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R w h i c h h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n 1 8 9 1 , t h e L V R R c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y , a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r c o m p a n i e s w h i c h f o r m e d t h e r o u t e f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y t e r m i n a l . I n i t i a l l y , t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r r i g h t s f r o m R o s e l l e t o J e r s e y C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R e v e n t u a l l y f i n i s h e d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o i t s t e r m i n a l i n J e r s e y C i t y o v e r t h e N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y , t h e N e w a r k a n d P a s s a i c R a i l w a y , t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k , a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y , a n d t h e J e r s e y C i t y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y . T h e L V R R ' s N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y i n 1 8 9 1 b r o u g h t t h e l i n e f r o m R o s e l l e i n t o N e w a r k , w h e r e p a s s e n g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . B r i d g i n g N e w a r k B a y p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t . T h e L V R R f i r s t a t t e m p t e d t o o b t a i n a r i g h t o f w a y a t G r e e n v i l l e , b u t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d c h e c k m a t e d t h e m b y p u r c h a s i n g m o s t o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s n e e d e d . T h e n t h e C N J o p p o s e d t h e L V R R ' s a t t e m p t t o c r o s s i t s l i n e a t C a v e n P o i n t . F i n a l l y a f t e r s e t t l i n g t h e l e g a l i s s u e s , t h e N e w a r k B a y w a s b r i d g e d i n 1 8 9 2 b y t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y a n d c o n n e c t e d t o t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y , w h i c h w a s p a r t l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R a n d w h i c h r e a c h e d t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . I n 1 8 9 5 , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d t h e G r e e n v i l l e a n d H u d s o n R a i l w a y p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s i n o r d e r t o r e l i e v e c o n g e s t i o n a n d h a v e a w h o l l y - o w n e d r o u t e i n t o J e r s e y C i t y . F i n a l l y i n 1 9 0 0 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y o u t r i g h t . T h e 1 8 9 0 s w e r e a p e r i o d o f t u r m o i l f o r t h e L V R R . A l t h o u g h t h e d e c a d e b e g a n w i t h t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f i t s t e r m i n a l s a t B u f f a l o a n d J e r s e y C i t y , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a t r u n k l i n e a c r o s s N e w Y o r k , t h e c o m p a n y s o o n b e c a m e e n t a n g l e d i n c o s t l y b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o t h e P a c k e r f a m i l y ' s l o s s o f c o n t r o l . T h e c o a l t r a d e w a s a l w a y s t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e b u s i n e s s b u t w a s s u b j e c t t o b o o m a n d b u s t a s c o m p e t i t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e d a n d t h e e c o n o m y c y c l e d . T h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s h a d b e g u n i n 1 8 7 3 t o f o r m p o o l s t o r e g u l a t e p r o d u c t i o n a n d s e t q u o t a s f o r e a c h r a i l r o a d . B y c o n t r o l l i n g s u p p l y , t h e c o a l c o m b i n a t i o n a t t e m p t e d t o k e e p p r i c e s a n d p r o f i t s h i g h . S e v e r a l c o m b i n a t i o n s o c c u r r e d , b u t e a c h f e l l a p a r t a s o n e r o a d o r a n o t h e r a b r o g a t e d i t s a g r e e m e n t . T h e f i r s t s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n 1 8 7 3 , f o l l o w e d b y o t h e r s i n 1 8 7 8 , 1 8 8 4 , a n d 1 8 8 6 . C u s t o m e r s n a t u r a l l y r e s e n t e d t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e c a r t e l , a n d s i n c e c o a l w a s c r i t i c a l t o c o m m e r c e , C o n g r e s s i n t e r v e n e d i n 1 8 8 7 w i t h t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e A c t t h a t f o r b a d e t h e r o a d s f r o m j o i n i n g i n t o s u c h p o o l s . A l t h o u g h t h e r o a d s e f f e c t i v e l y i g n o r e d t h e A c t a n d t h e i r s a l e s a g e n t s c o n t i n u e d t o m e e t a n d s e t p r i c e s , t h e a g r e e m e n t s w e r e n e v e r e f f e c t i v e f o r l o n g . I n 1 8 9 2 , t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d t h o u g h t i t h a d a s o l u t i o n — i n s t e a d o f a t t e m p t i n g t o m a i n t a i n a g r e e m e n t s a m o n g t h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s , i t w o u l d p u r c h a s e o r l e a s e t h e m a j o r l i n e s a n d b r i n g t h e m i n t o a m o n o p o l y . I t l e a s e d t h e C N J a n d t h e L V R R , p u r c h a s e d t h e r a i l r o a d s ' c o a l c o m p a n i e s a n d a r r a n g e d f o r t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g 7 0 % o f t h e t r a d e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t o v e r r e a c h e d a n d i n 1 8 9 3 w a s u n a b l e t o m e e t i t s o b l i g a t i o n s . I t s b a n k r u p t c y r e s u l t e d i n e c o n o m i c c h a o s , b r i n g i n g o n t h e f i n a n c i a l p a n i c o f 1 8 9 3 a n d f o r c i n g t h e L V R R t o b r e a k t h e l e a s e a n d r e s u m e i t s o w n o p e r a t i o n s , l e a v i n g i t u n a b l e t o p a y d i v i d e n d s o n i t s s t o c k u n t i l 1 9 0 4 . T h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n f o l l o w i n g 1 8 9 3 w a s h a r s h , a n d b y 1 8 9 7 t h e L V R R w a s i n d i r e n e e d o f s u p p o r t . T h e b a n k i n g g i a n t J . P . M o r g a n s t e p p e d i n t o r e f i n a n c e t h e L V R R d e b t a n d o b t a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e r a i l r o a d i n t h e p r o c e s s . O u s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E l i s h a P . W i l b u r a n d s e v e r a l d i r e c t o r s i n 1 8 9 7 , t h e M o r g a n c o m p a n y i n s t a l l e d W . A l f r e d W a l t e r a s p r e s i d e n t a n d s e a t e d i t s o w n d i r e c t o r s . I n 1 9 0 1 M o r g a n a r r a n g e d t o h a v e t h e P a c k e r E s t a t e ' s h o l d i n g s p u r c h a s e d j o i n t l y b y t h e E r i e , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L a k e S h o r e a n d M i c h i g a n S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e D L & W a n d t h e C N J , a l l c o m p a n i e s i n w h i c h M o r g a n h a d i n t e r e s t s . N e w l y e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t E b e n B . T h o m a s ( f o r m e r l y o f t h e E r i e ) a n d h i s B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e c o m b i n e d i n t e r e s t s o f t h o s e r a i l r o a d s . A f i n a l a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h a c o a l c a r t e l t o o k p l a c e i n 1 9 0 4 w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y . P r i o r t o t h a t t i m e , t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s a s m a l l c o n c e r n t h a t h a p p e n e d t o h a v e a b r o a d c h a r t e r a l l o w i n g i t t o a c t a s a h o l d i n g c o m p a n y . T h e R e a d i n g , n o w o u t o f r e c e i v e r s h i p , p u r c h a s e d t h e c o m p a n y a n d b r o u g h t t h e o t h e r c o a l r a i l r o a d s i n t o t h e p a r t n e r s h i p , w i t h t h e R e a d i n g o w n i n g 3 0 % , t h e L V R R 2 3 % , t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 2 0 % , C N J 1 7 % , E r i e 6 % , a n d N e w Y o r k , S u s q u e h a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 4 p e r c e n t . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s t o l o c k - u p i n d e p e n d e n t c o a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l t h e s u p p l y . C o n g r e s s r e a c t e d w i t h t h e 1 9 0 6 H e p b u r n A c t , w h i c h a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s f o r b a d e r a i l r o a d s f r o m o w n i n g t h e c o m m o d i t i e s t h a t t h e y t r a n s p o r t e d . A l o n g s e r i e s o f a n t i t r u s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d l a w s u i t s r e s u l t e d , c u l m i n a t i n g i n a 1 9 1 1 S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n t h a t f o r c e d t h e L V R R t o d i v e s t i t s e l f o f t h e c o a l c o m p a n i e s i t h a d h e l d s i n c e 1 8 6 8 . T h e L V R R s h a r e h o l d e r s r e c e i v e d s h a r e s o f t h e n o w i n d e p e n d e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , b u t t h e r a i l r o a d n o l o n g e r h a d m a n a g e m e n t c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n , c o n t r a c t s , a n d s a l e s o f i t s l a r g e s t c u s t o m e r . I n 1 8 9 6 t h e v e r y e a r l y f i l m " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s " w a s p r o d u c e d b y T h o m a s A . E d i s o n ' s c o m p a n y K i n e t o s c o p e . T h e t r a i n a r r i v e s f r o m f a r a w a y a n d p a s s e s t h e c a m e r a , w h i l e w o r k e r s a r e w a v i n g t h e i r h a n d k e r c h i e f s . F o r t u n a t e l y , g r a i n t o n n a g e w a s i n c r e a s i n g a n d t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s p o r t e d l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s f r o m B u f f a l o t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d o t h e r E a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l s o , i n 1 9 1 4 t h e P a n a m a C a n a l w a s c o m p l e t e d , a n d t h e L V R R g a i n e d a n i m p o r t a n t n e w m a r k e t w i t h o r e s s h i p p e d f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a t o t h e B e t h l e h e m S t e e l c o m p a n y . I n o r d e r t o h a n d l e t h e a d d i t i o n a l n e w o c e a n t r a f f i c , t h e L V R R c r e a t e d a l a r g e n e w p i e r a t C o n s t a b l e H o o k , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 1 5 , a n d a n e w t e r m i n a l a t C l a r e m o n t w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 2 3 . I t a l s o b u i l t a p a s s e n g e r t e r m i n a l i n B u f f a l o i n 1 9 1 5 . S i n c e 1 8 9 6 t h e L V R R h a d r u n a n i m p o r t a n t a n d p r e s t i g i o u s e x p r e s s t r a i n n a m e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " w h i c h c a r r i e d p a s s e n g e r s t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s a n d B u f f a l o . A d d i t i o n a l p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s r a n f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a t o S c r a n t o n a n d w e s t w a r d . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e L V R R ' s N e w Y o r k C i t y p a s s e n g e r s h a d u s e d t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y a t J e r s e y C i t y , b u t i n 1 9 1 3 t h e P R R t e r m i n a t e d t h a t a g r e e m e n t , s o t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r u s e o f i t s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y , w h i c h w a s e x p a n d e d t o h a n d l e t h e i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r o f p a s s e n g e r s . T h e r a i l r o a d a l s o p u b l i s h e d a m o n t h l y m a g a z i n e p r o m o t i n g t r a v e l o n t h e t r a i n c a l l e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s M o n t h l y " . I n t h e w a r y e a r s 1 9 1 4 t o 1 9 1 8 , t h e L e h i g h h a n d l e d w a r m a t e r i a l s a n d e x p l o s i v e s a t i t s B l a c k T o m i s l a n d f a c i l i t y , w h i c h h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d a l o n g w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 0 0 . I n 1 9 1 6 , a h o r r e n d o u s e x p l o s i o n o c c u r r e d a t t h e f a c i l i t y , d e s t r o y i n g s h i p s a n d b u i l d i n g s , a n d b r e a k i n g w i n d o w s i n M a n h a t t a n . A t f i r s t t h e i n c i d e n t w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a c c i d e n t ; a l o n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n e v e n t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e x p l o s i o n w a s a n a c t o f G e r m a n s a b o t a g e , f o r w h i c h r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e f i n a l l y p a i d i n 1 9 7 9 . A f t e r t h e U . S . e n t e r e d W o r l d W a r I , t h e r a i l r o a d s w e r e n a t i o n a l i z e d i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t s t r i k e s a n d i n t e r r u p t i o n s . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s R a i l r o a d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n t r o l l e d t h e r a i l r o a d f r o m 1 9 1 8 t o 1 9 2 0 , a t w h i c h t i m e c o n t r o l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d b a c k t o t h e p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e h e a v y w a r t i m e t r a f f i c h a d l e f t t h e r a i l r o a d ' s p l a n t a n d e q u i p m e n t i n n e e d o f r e p a i r , t h e d a m a g e w a s p a r t l y o f f s e t b y n e w e q u i p m e n t t h a t h a d b e e n p u r c h a s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t . I n 1 9 2 0 , t h e L V R R s o l d i t s l a k e l i n e c o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e , t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s d u e t o n e w f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f r a i l r o a d s o w n i n g l a k e l i n e s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 2 0 s t h e r a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e M o r g a n / D r e x e l b a n k i n g f i r m , b u t i n 1 9 2 8 a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o w r e s t c o n t r o l f r o m i t . I n 1 9 2 7 , L e o n o r F r e s n e l L o r e e , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n R a i l r o a d , h a d a v i s i o n f o r a n e w f i f t h t r u n k l i n e b e t w e e n t h e E a s t a n d W e s t , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e W a b a s h R a i l r o a d , t h e B u f f a l o , R o c h e s t e r a n d P i t t s b u r g h R a i l w a y , a n d t h e L V R R . T h r o u g h b o n d s i s s u e d b y t h e D & H , h e o b t a i n e d 3 0 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k , a n d w o n t h e s u p p o r t o f n e a r l y h a l f t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . I n 1 9 2 8 , h e a t t e m p t e d t o s e a t a n e w p r e s i d e n t a n d b o a r d . A m a s s i v e p r o x y f i g h t e n s u e d , w i t h e x i s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E d w a r d E u g e n e L o o m i s n a r r o w l y r e t a i n i n g h i s p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f E d w a r d T . S t o t e s b u r y o f J . P . M o r g a n . F o l l o w i n g t h e d e f e a t o f i t s p l a n , t h e D & H s o l d i t s s t o c k t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a q u i e t l y o b t a i n e d m o r e s t o c k , b o t h d i r e c t l y a n d t h r o u g h r a i l r o a d s i t c o n t r o l l e d , p r i m a r i l y t h e W a b a s h . B y 1 9 3 1 , t h e P R R c o n t r o l l e d 5 1 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k . F o l l o w i n g L o o m i s ' d e a t h i n 1 9 3 7 , t h e p r e s i d e n c y w e n t t o L o o m i s ' a s s i s t a n t D u n c a n J . K e r r , b u t i n 1 9 4 0 h e w a s r e p l a c e d b y A l b e r t N . W i l l i a m s , a n d t h e r o a d c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e P R R . I n 1 9 4 1 , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a p l a c e d i t s s h a r e s i n a v o t i n g t r u s t a f t e r r e a c h i n g a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l r e g a r d i n g t h e P R R ' s p u r c h a s e o f t h e W a b a s h . F o l l o w i n g t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n , t h e r a i l r o a d h a d a f e w p e r i o d s o f p r o s p e r i t y , b u t w a s c l e a r l y i n a s l o w d e c l i n e . P a s s e n g e r s p r e f e r r e d t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f a u t o m o b i l e s t o t r a i n s , a n d a i r l i n e s m u c h l a t e r p r o v i d e d f a s t e r l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a v e l t h a n t r a i n s . O i l a n d g a s w e r e s u p p l a n t i n g c o a l a s t h e f u e l o f c h o i c e . T h e D e p r e s s i o n h a d b e e n d i f f i c u l t f o r a l l t h e r a i l r o a d s , a n d C o n g r e s s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t b a n k r u p t c y l a w s n e e d e d r e v i s i o n . T h e C h a n d l e r A c t s o f 1 9 3 8 - 9 p r o v i d e d a n e w f o r m o f r e l i e f f o r r a i l r o a d s , a l l o w i n g t h e m t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e i r d e b t w h i l e c o n t i n u i n g t o o p e r a t e . T h e L V R R w a s a p p r o v e d f o r s u c h a r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n 1 9 4 0 w h e n s e v e r a l l a r g e m o r t g a g e l o a n s w e r e d u e . T h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o e x t e n d t h e m a t u r i t y o f i t s m o r t g a g e s , b u t i t n e e d e d t o r e p e a t t h e p r o c e s s i n 1 9 5 0 . T h e t e r m s o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g s p r e c l u d e d d i v i d e n d p a y m e n t s u n t i l 1 9 5 3 , w h e n L V R R c o m m o n s t o c k p a i d t h e f i r s t d i v i d e n d s i n c e 1 9 3 1 . I n 1 9 5 7 , t h e L V R R a g a i n s t o p p e d d i v i d e n d s . I n 1 9 4 4 , t h e L V R R ' s g r o s s r e v e n u e s c a m e c l o s e t o $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 w h i c h w a s a m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e r a i l r o a d . T w o f i n a l b l o w s f e l l i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s : t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e F e d e r a l - A i d H i g h w a y A c t i n 1 9 5 6 , b e t t e r k n o w n a s t h e I n t e r s t a t e H i g h w a y A c t , a n d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e S a i n t L a w r e n c e S e a w a y i n 1 9 5 9 . T h e i n t e r s t a t e h i g h w a y s h e l p e d t h e t r u c k i n g i n d u s t r y o f f e r d o o r - t o - d o o r s e r v i c e , a n d t h e S t . L a w r e n c e S e a w a y a l l o w e d g r a i n s h i p m e n t s t o b y p a s s t h e r a i l w a y s a n d g o d i r e c t l y t o o v e r s e a s m a r k e t s . B y t h e 1 9 6 0 s , r a i l r o a d s i n t h e E a s t w e r e s t r u g g l i n g t o s u r v i v e . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 6 2 r e q u e s t e d I C C a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o a c q u i r e c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e L V R R t h r o u g h a s w a p o f P R R s t o c k f o r L V R R a n d e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e v o t i n g t r u s t t h a t h a d b e e n i n p l a c e s i n c e 1 9 4 1 . I t m a n a g e d t o a c q u i r e m o r e t h a n 8 5 % o f a l l o u t s t a n d i n g s h a r e s , a n d f r o m t h a t t i m e t h e L V R R w a s l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a d i v i s i o n o f t h e P R R . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a m e r g e d w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l i n 1 9 6 8 , b u t t h e P e n n C e n t r a l f a i l e d i n 1 9 7 0 , c a u s i n g a c a s c a d e o f r a i l r o a d f a i l u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e E a s t . O n J u n e 2 1 , 1 9 7 0 , t h e P e n n C e n t r a l d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y a n d s o u g h t b a n k r u p t c y p r o t e c t i o n . A s a r e s u l t , t h e P C w a s r e l i e v e d o f i t s o b l i g a t i o n t o p a y f e e s t o v a r i o u s N o r t h e a s t e r n r a i l r o a d s — t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y i n c l u d e d — f o r t h e u s e o f t h e i r r a i l c a r s a n d o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e o t h e r r a i l r o a d s ' o b l i g a t i o n s t o p a y t h o s e f e e s t o t h e P e n n C e n t r a l w e r e n o t w a i v e d . T h i s i m b a l a n c e i n p a y m e n t s w o u l d p r o v e f a t a l t o t h e f i n a n c i a l l y - f r a i l L e h i g h V a l l e y , a n d i t d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y j u s t o v e r o n e m o n t h a f t e r t h e P e n n C e n t r a l , o n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 7 0 . T h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 b a n k r u p t c y , a s w a s t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e o f t h e t i m e . I n 1 9 7 2 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a s s u m e d t h e r e m a i n i n g P e n n s y l v a n i a t r a c k a g e o f t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , a c o m p e t i n g a n t h r a c i t e r a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d e n t e r e d b a n k r u p t c y a s w e l l . T h e t w o r o a d s h a d e n t e r e d a s h a r e d t r a c k a g e a g r e e m e n t i n t h i s a r e a i n 1 9 6 5 t o r e d u c e c o s t s , a s b o t h h a d p a r a l l e l r o u t e s f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e w a y t o m e t r o p o l i t a n N e w Y o r k , o f t e n o n a d j o i n i n g g r a d e s t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n t h e y e a r s l e a d i n g t o 1 9 7 3 , t h e f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d s y s t e m i n t h e n o r t h e a s t o f t h e U . S . w a s c o l l a p s i n g . A l t h o u g h g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d A m t r a k t o o k o v e r i n t e r c i t y p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e o n M a y 1 , 1 9 7 1 , r a i l r o a d c o m p a n i e s c o n t i n u e d t o l o s e m o n e y d u e t o e x t e n s i v e g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s , e x p e n s i v e a n d e x c e s s i v e l a b o r c o s t , c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m o t h e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m o d e s , d e c l i n i n g i n d u s t r i a l b u s i n e s s a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s ; t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s o n e o f t h e m . H u r r i c a n e A g n e s i n 1 9 7 2 d a m a g e d t h e r u n d o w n N o r t h e a s t r a i l w a y n e t w o r k , w h i c h p u t t h e s o l v e n c y o f o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n c l u d i n g t h e L V R R i n d a n g e r ; t h e s o m e w h a t m o r e s o l v e n t E r i e L a c k a w a n n a R a i l w a y ( E L ) w a s a l s o d a m a g e d b y H u r r i c a n e A g n e s . I n 1 9 7 3 , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n g r e s s a c t e d t o c r e a t e a b i l l t o n a t i o n a l i z e a l l b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e L V . T h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n R a i l r o a d s , w h i c h o p p o s e d n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , s u b m i t t e d a n a l t e r n a t e p r o p o s a l f o r a g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d p r i v a t e c o m p a n y . P r e s i d e n t R i c h a r d N i x o n s i g n e d t h e R e g i o n a l R a i l R e o r g a n i z a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 7 3 i n t o l a w . T h e " 3 R A c t , " a s i t w a s c a l l e d , p r o v i d e d i n t e r i m f u n d i n g t o t h e b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s a n d d e f i n e d a n e w " C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n " u n d e r t h e A A R ' s p l a n . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , t h e L V R R , i n c l u d i n g i t s m a i n l i n e , w a s m e r g e d i n t o t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t ' s C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n ( C o n r a i l ) e n d i n g 1 3 0 y e a r s o f e x i s t e n c e a n d 1 2 1 y e a r s o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e L V R R . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , m a j o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e a s s e t s o f t h e b a n k r u p t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w e r e a c q u i r e d b y C o n r a i l . T h i s p r i m a r i l y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e m a i n l i n e a n d r e l a t e d b r a n c h e s f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n ( n o r t h / R R w e s t o f S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o O a k I s l a n d Y a r d , t h e I t h a c a b r a n c h f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o I t h a c a , N e w Y o r k , c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e C a y u g a L a k e l i n e a n d o n t o t h e M i l l i k e n p o w e r s t a t i o n i n L a k e R i d g e , N e w Y o r k ( c l o s e d o n A u g u s t 2 9 , 2 0 1 9 ) a n d t h e C a r g i l l s a l t m i n e j u s t s o u t h o f A u b u r n , N Y ; a n d s m a l l s e g m e n t s i n G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k ( f r o m G e n e v a t o t h e S e n e c a A r m y D e p o t i n K e n d a i a ) ; B a t a v i a , N e w Y o r k ; A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k a n d C o r t l a n d , N e w Y o r k . A l o n g s e g m e n t w e s t f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o B u f f a l o w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o n r a i l t a k e o v e r , b u t w a s m o s t l y t o r n - u p n o t l o n g a f t e r w a r d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a s e g m e n t f r o m G e n e v a t o V i c t o r , N e w Y o r k , l a t e r c u t b a c k t o S h o r t s v i l l e , N e w Y o r k , t o V i c t o r , r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y E s t a t e u n d e r s u b s i d i z e d C o n r a i l o p e r a t i o n . T h e S h o r t s v i l l e t o V i c t o r s e g m e n t b e c a m e t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 7 9 ( t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e F i n g e r L a k e s R a i l w a y i n O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 ) . M o s t o f t h e r a i l e q u i p m e n t w e n t t o C o n r a i l a s w e l l , b u t 2 4 l o c o m o t i v e s ( u n i t s G P 3 8 - 2 3 1 4 - 3 2 5 a n d C 4 2 0 4 0 4 – 4 1 5 ) w e n t t o t h e D e l a w a r e & H u d s o n i n s t e a d . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e a s s e t s w e r e d i s p o s e d o f b y t h e e s t a t e u n t i l i t w a s f o l d e d i n t o t h e n o n - r a i l r o a d P e n n C e n t r a l C o r p o r a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s . T h e r o u t e a c r o s s P e n n s y l v a n i a , N e w J e r s e y a n d O a k I s l a n d Y a r d r e m a i n s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o d a y , t h e o n l y t w o C l a s s 1 r a i l r o a d s t h a t a r e b a s e d i n t h e E a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s r o u t e b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t t o C o n r a i l a s a n a l t e r n a t e r o u t e t o a v o i d A m t r a k ' s f o r m e r P R R / P C N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r e l e c t r i f i e d r o u t e . T o d a y , t h i s r o u t e c o n t i n u e s a s t w o l i n e s , o n e t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a n d t h e o t h e r t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w l i n e t h a t w a s o n c e p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e o r i g i n a l l i n e r e t a i n s i t s o r i g i n a l r o u t e w h e n i t w a s f i r s t c o n s t r u c t e d a n d i s s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y . T h e n e w l i n e i s a l s o s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , b u t i t i s s e r v e d t o g e t h e r w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n a j o i n t o w n e r s h i p c o m p a n y c a l l e d C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s . M o s t o f t h e o t h e r r e m a i n i n g L e h i g h V a l l e y t r a c k s e r v e s a s b r a n c h l i n e s , o r h a s b e e n s o l d t o s h o r t l i n e a n d r e g i o n a l o p e r a t o r s . T h e s e o p e r a t o r s i n c l u d e , i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r : T h e L e h i g h L i n e w a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d ' s f i r s t r a i l l i n e a n d s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e . I t w a s o p e n e d o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 b e t w e e n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h r e e m o n t h s l a t e r t h e l i n e b r a n c h e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t A l l e n t o w n t o J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e l i n e w a s l a t e r e x t e n d e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t J i m T h o r p e t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d l a t e r i t r e a c h e d t h e B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k a r e a a n d p a s t E a s t o n a l l t h e w a y t o P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y a n d t h e n s w i t c h e d d i r e c t i o n t o t h e n o r t h e a s t t o J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y l a t e r c u t b a c k t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y . D u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s , t h e l i n e s e r v e d a s t h e b o d y o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d u n t i l t h e r a i l r o a d e i t h e r b u i l t , a c q u i r e d , o r m e r g e d o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n t o i t s s y s t e m . D u r i n g t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t s o w n e r s h i p u n d e r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d , t h e l i n e w a s k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y M a i n l i n e , s t a r t i n g i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s . T h e l i n e a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o C o n r a i l i n 1 9 7 6 a n d w a s m a i n t a i n e d a s a m a i n l i n e i n t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . T h e l i n e b e c a m e k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h L i n e d u r i n g C o n r a i l o w n e r s h i p . C o n r a i l i n t e g r a t e d f o r m e r C N J m a i n l i n e l e a s e d t r a c k a g e i n t o t h e l i n e a n d k e p t t h e l i n e i n c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n ( s i n c e 1 8 5 5 ) ; h o w e v e r , i t d o w n s i z e d t h e l i n e i n t h e n o r t h w e s t f r o m t h e B u f f a l o a r e a o f N e w Y o r k S t a t e : f i r s t t o S a y r e Y a r d i n S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; t h e n t o M e h o o p a n y , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; a n d f i n a l l y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e ' s b e i n g d o w n s i z e d t h r e e t i m e s c r e a t e d t w o n e w r a i l l i n e s : t h e L e h i g h S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n , w h i c h w a s l a t e r s o l d t o t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ( R B M N ) i n 1 9 9 6 ; t h e R B M N w o u l d l a t e r c u t b a c k t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n f r o m M e h o o p a n y t o D u p o n t , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e t r a c k s f r o m D u p o n t t o M e h o o p a n y b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e c a l l e d t h e S u s q u e h a n n a B r a n c h . I n 1 9 9 9 , t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y w h i c h i s o w n e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n C o r p o r a t i o n a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h L i n e i n t h e C o n r a i l s p l i t w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n b u t t h e t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y w e r e k e p t w i t h C o n r a i l i n o r d e r f o r b o t h N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a n d C S X t o h a v e e q u a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e N o r t h e a s t . T h e e x i s t i n g t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a l o n g w i t h C S X o w n i t u n d e r a j o i n t v e n t u r e . H o w e v e r , f o r h i s t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e p a r t f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n p a r t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e . N o w u n d e r o w n e r s h i p o f t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e L e h i g h L i n e ' s r o u t e i s n o w f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h i s i s c u r r e n t l y t h e l a s t t i m e t h e l i n e h a s b e e n d o w n s i z e d . T h e L e h i g h L i n e s t i l l e x i s t s a n d s t i l l s e r v e s a s a m a j o r f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d l i n e t h a t o p e r a t e s i n N e w J e r s e y a n d P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e i s s t i l l o w n e d a n d o p e r a t e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d t h e l i n e s t i l l r u n s f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e c o n n e c t s w i t h C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s ' s L e h i g h L i n e ( t h e n e w r a i l l i n e ) a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ' s T r e n t o n S u b d i v i s i o n a t P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s R e a d i n g D i v i s i o n a t P a c k e r t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s L e h i g h D i v i s i o n a t L e h i g h t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ( o r i g i n a l l y M & H J u n c t i o n n e a r O l d P e n n H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) . T h e l i n e m a k e s n o t a b l e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n l i n e s s u c h a s t h e R e a d i n g L i n e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s h o r t l i n e r a i l r o a d s . A t T h r e e B r i d g e s , N e w J e r s e y i n R e a d i n g t o n T o w n s h i p , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h B l a c k R i v e r a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s N e w J e r s e y s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e W a s h i n g t o n S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r R a i l w a y w h i c h a l s o p a s s e s o v e r t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r a f t e r t h a t . A c r o s s t h e r i v e r i n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s P e n n s y l v a n i a s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e P o r t l a n d S e c o n d a r y w h i c h e x t e n d s f r o m E a s t o n t o P o r t l a n d , P e n n s y l v a n i a c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y p a r t o f t h e L a c k a w a n n a O l d R o a d ( o r s i m p l y O l d R o a d ) ; t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y g o e s u n d e r t h e L a c k a w a n n a C u t - O f f a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e D e l a w a r e - L a c k a w a n n a R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e h o s t s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y - f i v e t r a i n s p e r d a y , w i t h t r a f f i c p e a k i n g a t t h e e n d o f t h e w e e k . E a s t o f t h e j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e R e a d i n g L i n e i n A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d i n B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e s e r v e s a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s m a i n c o r r i d o r i n a n d o u t o f t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y , a n d t h e N e w Y o r k M e t r o A r e a a t l a r g e , a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n d o e s n ' t c u r r e n t l y u s e t h e e a s t e r n h a l f o f i t s S o u t h e r n T i e r L i n e , w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f r o m P o r t J e r v i s n o r t h t o B i n g h a m t o n , N e w Y o r k a n d w h i c h i s n o w ( 2 0 2 2 ) o p e r a t e d b y t h e C e n t r a l N e w Y o r k R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s H a r r i s b u r g D i v i s i o n a n d i t i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s C r e s c e n t C o r r i d o r , a r a i l r o a d c o r r i d o r . I t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 , 0 0 0 - f o o t P a t t e n b u r g T u n n e l i n W e s t P o r t a l , N e w J e r s e y a l o n g i t s r o u t e . M o s t o f t h e t r a f f i c a l o n g t h e l i n e c o n s i s t s o f i n t e r m o d a l a n d g e n e r a l m e r c h a n d i s e t r a i n s g o i n g t o y a r d s s u c h a s O a k I s l a n d Y a r d i n N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y a n d C r o x t o n Y a r d i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e f i r s t l o c o m o t i v e p u r c h a s e d b y t h e L V R R w a s t h e " D e l a w a r e " , a w o o d - b u r n i n g 4 - 4 - 0 b u i l t b y R i c h a r d N o r r i s & S o n s o f P h i l a d e l p h i a i n 1 8 5 5 . I t w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e " C a t a s a u q u a " 4 - 4 - 0 a n d " L e h i g h " 4 - 6 - 0 , w h i c h w e r e a l s o N o r r i s & S o n s e n g i n e s . I n 1 8 5 6 , t h e " E . A . P a c k e r " 4 - 4 - 0 w a s p u r c h a s e d f r o m W i l l i a m M a s o n o f T a u n t o n , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . S u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e L V R R f a v o r e d e n g i n e s f r o m B a l d w i n L o c o m o t i v e W o r k s a n d W i l l i a m M a s o n , b u t t r i e d m a n y o t h e r d e s i g n s a s i t e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h m o t i v e p o w e r t h a t c o u l d h a n d l e t h e l i n e ' s h e a v y g r a d e s . T h e L V R R o p e r a t e d s e v e r a l n a m e d t r a i n s i n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I e r a . A m o n g t h e m : T h e p r i m a r y p a s s e n g e r m o t i v e p o w e r f o r t h e L V R R i n t h e d i e s e l e r a w a s t h e A L C O P A - 1 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e , o f w h i c h t h e L V R R h a d f o u r t e e n . T h e s e l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o u s e d i n f r e i g h t s e r v i c e d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e e r a o f L V R R p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . A p a i r o f A L C O F A - 2 F B - 2 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o p u r c h a s e d t o a u g m e n t t h e P A s w h e n n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e w e r e F A s w i t h s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t d e s i g n a t e d a s F P A - 2 u n i t s . D u e t o d e c l i n i n g p a s s e n g e r p a t r o n a g e , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y s u c c e s s f u l l y p e t i t i o n e d t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e C o m m i s s i o n t o t e r m i n a t e a l l p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . T h i s t o o k e f f e c t o n F e b r u a r y 4 , 1 9 6 1 . T h e " M a p l e L e a f " a n d t h e " J o h n W i l k e s " w e r e t h e l a s t o p e r a t i n g l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a i n s , t e r m i n a t e d t h a t d a y . T h e o n l y d a y l i g h t N e w Y o r k - B u f f a l o t r a i n , t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " , w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 9 5 9 . B u d d R a i l D i e s e l C a r s e r v i c e w o u l d c o n t i n u e o n a b r a n c h l i n e ( L e h i g h t o n - H a z l e t o n ) f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l f o u r d a y s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f p a s s e n g e r e q u i p m e n t i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n s c r a p p e d s o m e t i m e a f t e r F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 1 . M o s t s e r v i c e a b l e e q u i p m e n t n o t r e t a i n e d f o r c o m p a n y s e r v i c e w a s s o l d t o o t h e r r o a d s .

History ; Decline and bankruptcy

The Lehigh Valley Railroad faced significant challenges throughout its history, including boom and bust cycles in the coal industry, costly business dealings, and eventual bankruptcy. Despite efforts to restructure and refinance, the railroad struggled to stay afloat, eventually merging with Conrail in 1976.

its terminals at Buffalo and Jersey City, and the establishment of a trunk line across New York, the company soon became entangled in costly business dealings which ultimately led to the Packer family's loss of control. The coal trade was always the backbone of the business but was subject to boom and bust as competition and production increased and the economy cycled. The coal railroads had begun in 1873 to form pools to regulate production and set quotas for each railroad. By controlling supply, the coal combination attempted to keep prices and profits high. Several combinations occurred, but each fell apart as one road or another abrogated its agreement. The first such combination occurred in 1873, followed by others in 1878, 1884, and 1886. Customers naturally resented the to meet its obligations. Its bankruptcy resulted in economic chaos, bringing on the financial panic of 1893 and forcing the LVRR to break the lease and resume its own operations, leaving it unable to pay dividends on its stock until 1904. The economic depression following 1893 was harsh, and by 1897 the LVRR was in dire need of support. The banking giant J. P. Morgan stepped in to refinance the LVRR debt and obtained control of the railroad in the process. Ousting President Elisha P. Wilbur and several directors in 1897, the Morgan company installed W. Alfred Walter as president and seated its own directors. In 1901 Morgan arranged to have the Packer Estate's holdings purchased jointly by the Erie, the Pennsylvania, the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern plan, the D&H sold its stock to the Pennsylvania Railroad. In the following years, the Pennsylvania quietly obtained more stock, both directly and through railroads it controlled, primarily the Wabash. By 1931, the PRR controlled 51% of the LVRR stock. Following Loomis' death in 1937, the presidency went to Loomis' assistant Duncan J. Kerr, but in 1940 he was replaced by Albert N. Williams, and the road came under the influence of the PRR. In 1941, the Pennsylvania placed its shares in a voting trust after reaching an agreement with the New York Central regarding the PRR's purchase of the Wabash. Following the Great Depression, the railroad had a few periods of prosperity, but was clearly in a slow decline. Passengers preferred the convenience of automobiles to trains, and airlines much later provided faster long-distance travel than trains. Oil and gas were supplanting coal as the fuel of choice. The Depression had been difficult for all the railroads, and Congress recognized that bankruptcy laws needed revision. The Chandler Acts of 1938-9 provided a new form of relief for railroads, allowing them to restructure their debt while continuing to operate. The LVRR was approved for such a restructuring in 1940 when several large mortgage loans were due. The restructuring allowed the LVRR to extend the maturity of its mortgages, but it needed to repeat the process in 1950. The terms of the restructurings precluded dividend payments until 1953, when LVRR common stock paid the first dividend since 1931. In 1957, the LVRR again stopped dividends. In 1944, than 85% of all outstanding shares, and from that time the LVRR was little more than a division of the PRR. The Pennsylvania merged with the New York Central in 1968, but the Penn Central failed in 1970, causing a cascade of railroad failures throughout the East. On June 21, 1970, the Penn Central declared bankruptcy and sought bankruptcy protection. As a result, the PC was relieved of its obligation to pay fees to various Northeastern railroads—the Lehigh Valley included—for the use of their railcars and other operations. Conversely, the other railroads' obligations to pay those fees to the Penn Central were not waived. This imbalance in payments would prove fatal to the financially-frail Lehigh Valley, and it declared bankruptcy just over one month after the Penn Central, on July 24, 1970. The Lehigh Valley Railroad remained in operation during the 1970 bankruptcy, as was the common practice of the time. In 1972, the Lehigh Valley Railroad assumed the remaining Pennsylvania trackage of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, a competing anthracite railroad which had entered bankruptcy as well. The two roads had entered a shared trackage agreement in this area in 1965 to reduce costs, as both had parallel routes from Wilkes-Barre virtually all the way to metropolitan New York, often on adjoining grades through Pennsylvania. In the years leading to 1973, the freight railroad system in the northeast of the U.S. was collapsing. Although government-funded Amtrak took over intercity passenger service on May 1, 1971, railroad companies continued to lose money due to extensive government regulations, expensive and excessive labor cost, competition from other transportation modes, declining industrial business and other factors; the Lehigh Valley Railroad was one of them. Hurricane Agnes in 1972 damaged the rundown Northeast railway network, which put the solvency of other railroads including the LVRR in danger; the somewhat more solvent Erie Lackawanna Railway (EL) was also damaged by Hurricane Agnes. In 1973, the United States Congress acted to create a bill to nationalize all bankrupt railroads which included the LV. The Association of American Railroads, which opposed nationalization, submitted an alternate proposal for a government-funded private company. President Richard Nixon signed the Regional Rail Reorganization Act of 1973 into law. The "3R Act," as it was called, provided interim funding to the bankrupt railroads and defined a new "Consolidated Rail Corporation" under the AAR's plan. On April 1, 1976, the LVRR, including its main line, was merged into the U.S. government's Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail) ending 130 years of existence and 121 years of operation of the LVRR. On April 1, 1976, major portions of the assets of the bankrupt Lehigh Valley Railroad were acquired by Conrail. This primarily consisted of the main line and related branches from Van Etten Junction (north/RR west of Sayre, Pennsylvania) to Oak Island Yard, the Ithaca branch from Van Etten Junction to Ithaca, New York, connecting to the Cayuga Lake line and on to the Milliken power station in Lake Ridge, New York (closed on August 29, 2019) and the Cargill salt mine just south of Auburn, NY;

Lehigh Valley Railroad

T h e D e l a w a r e , L e h i g h , S c h u y l k i l l a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( D L S & S ) w a s a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o n A p r i l 2 1 , 1 8 4 6 , t o c o n s t r u c t a r a i l r o a d f r o m M a u c h C h u n k , P e n n s y l v a n i a , ( n o w J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e r a i l r o a d w o u l d r u n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L e h i g h R i v e r a n d b r e a k t h e L e h i g h C o a l a n d N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ' s m o n o p o l y o n c o a l t r a f f i c o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . T h e r a i l r o a d w a s c h a r t e r e d o n A u g u s t 2 , 1 8 4 7 , a n d e l e c t e d J a m e s M . P o r t e r i t s p r e s i d e n t o n O c t o b e r 2 1 . L i t t l e o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1 8 4 7 a n d 1 8 5 1 , s a v e s o m e l i m i t e d g r a d i n g n e a r A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . A l l t h i s c h a n g e d i n O c t o b e r 1 8 5 1 , w h e n A s a P a c k e r t o o k m a j o r i t y c o n t r o l o f t h e D L S & S . P a c k e r b r o u g h t a d d i t i o n a l f i n a n c i n g t o t h e r a i l r o a d , i n s t a l l e d R o b e r t H . S a y r e a s c h i e f e n g i n e e r , a n d r e n a m e d t h e c o m p a n y t h e " L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . " C o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n i n e a r n e s t i n 1 8 5 3 , a n d t h e l i n e o p e n e d b e t w e e n E a s t o n a n d A l l e n t o w n o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e s e c t i o n b e t w e e n A l l e n t o w n a n d M a u c h C h u n k o p e n e d o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R i n t e r c h a n g e d c o a l a t t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r w h e r e c o a l c o u l d b e s h i p p e d t o P h i l a d e l p h i a o n t h e D e l a w a r e D i v i s i o n C a n a l o r t r a n s p o r t e d a c r o s s t h e r i v e r t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , w h e r e t h e M o r r i s C a n a l a n d t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y ( C N J ) c o u l d c a r r y i t t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y m a r k e t . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d a d o u b l e - d e c k e d b r i d g e a c r o s s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f o r c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e C N J a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d i n P h i l l i p s b u r g . T h r o u g h a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , L V R R p a s s e n g e r s h a d a r o u t e t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y , J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y , a n d o t h e r p o i n t s i n N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R ' s r o l l i n g s t o c k w a s h i r e d f r o m t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y a n d a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h t h e C N J t o r u n t w o p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s f r o m E a s t o n t o M a u c h C h u n k c o n n e c t i n g w i t h t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a t r a i n s o n t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d . A d a i l y f r e i g h t t r a i n w a s p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n l e a v i n g E a s t o n i n t h e m o r n i n g a n d r e t u r n i n g i n t h e e v e n i n g . I n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f O c t o b e r 1 8 5 5 , a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h H o w a r d & C o o f P h i l a d e l p h i a t o d o t h e f r e i g h t i n g b u s i n e s s o f t h e r a i l r o a d ( e x c e p t c o a l , i r o n , a n d i r o n o r e ) . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n w a s 4 6 m i l e s o f s i n g l e t r a c k . T h e l i n e w a s l a i d w i t h a r a i l w e i g h i n g 5 6 p o u n d s p e r y a r d s u p p o r t e d u p o n c r o s s t i e s 6 x 7 i n c h e s a n d 7 - 1 / 2 f e e t l o n g p l a c e d 2 f e e t a p a r t a n d a b o u t a q u a r t e r o f i t w a s b a l l a s t e d w i t h s t o n e o r g r a v e l . T h e l i n e h a d a d e s c e n d i n g o r l e v e l g r a d e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e c u r v e a t M a u c h C h u n k h a d n o c u r v e o f l e s s t h a n 7 0 0 f e e t r a d i u s . T h e L V R R c o n n e c t e d a t M a u c h C h u n k w i t h t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d . T h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d h a d b e e n b u i l t i n 1 8 3 6 , a n d i t t r a n s p o r t e d a n t h r a c i t e c o a l f r o m J e a n s v i l l e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a ' s M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d t o t h e L e h i g h C a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k . F o r 2 5 y e a r s t h e L e h i g h C a n a l h a d e n j o y e d a m o n o p o l y o n d o w n s t r e a m t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d w a s c h a r g i n g i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r s h i g h f e e s . W h e n t h e L V R R o p e n e d , t h o s e p r o d u c e r s e a g e r l y s e n t t h e i r p r o d u c t b y t h e r a i l r o a d i n s t e a d o f c a n a l , a n d w i t h i n t w o y e a r s o f i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e L V R R w a s c a r r y i n g o v e r 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y . B y 1 8 5 9 i t h a d 6 0 0 c o a l c a r s a n d 1 9 e n g i n e s . T h e L V R R i m m e d i a t e l y b e c a m e t h e t r u n k l i n e d o w n t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w i t h n u m e r o u s f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s c o n n e c t i n g a n d c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i t s t r a f f i c . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d c a m e t o t h e L V R R o v e r f e e d e r s t o t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w : t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d , t h e C a t a w i s s a , W i l l i a m s p o r t a n d E r i e R a i l r o a d , t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d , t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d a n d o t h e r s m a l l e r l i n e s . A t C a t a s a u q u a , t h e C a t a s a u q u a a n d F o g e l s v i l l e R a i l r o a d t r a n s p o r t e d c o a l , o r e , l i m e s t o n e a n d i r o n f o r f u r n a c e s o f t h e T h o m a s I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h C r a n e I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y I r o n W o r k s , t h e C a r b o n I r o n C o m p a n y , a n d o t h e r s . A t B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e N o r t h P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d w h i c h w a s c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g t h e S u m m e r o f 1 8 5 6 , p r o v i d e d a r a i l c o n n e c t i o n t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d t h u s b r o u g h t t h e L V R R a d i r e c t l i n e t o P h i l a d e l p h i a . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d c o n n e c t e d t o T r e n t o n , N e w J e r s e y . T o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e g a u g e o f t h e B e l v i d e r e , t h e c a r s w e r e f u r n i s h e d w i t h w h e e l s h a v i n g w i d e t r e a d s t h a t o p e r a t e d o n b o t h r o a d s . T h e 1 8 6 0 s s a w a n e x p a n s i o n o f t h e L V R R n o r t h w a r d t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d u p t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e . A s a P a c k e r w a s e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o n J a n u a r y 1 3 , 1 8 6 2 . I n 1 8 6 4 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a c q u i r i n g f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s a n d m e r g i n g t h e m w i t h i t s s y s t e m . T h e f i r s t a c q u i s i t i o n s w e r e t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d a n d C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , a n d t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d . T h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n w a s t h e f i r s t s t e p i n e x p a n d i n g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . T h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d a l l o w e d t h e L V t o r e a c h W h i t e H a v e n . I n 1 8 6 6 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h a n d M a h a n o y R a i l r o a d ( o r i g i n a l l y t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d ) a n d t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l a l o n g t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r , r e n a m i n g i t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d N e w Y o r k C a n a l & R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ( P & N Y ) . T h e p u r c h a s i n g o f t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l s a w a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a n e a r m o n o p o l y i n t h e r e g i o n n o r t h o f t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . I n 1 8 6 6 , t w o y e a r s a f t e r t h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n , t h e e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e o p e n e d . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r a i l l i n e t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e s t a r t e d i m m e d i a t e l y a n d , i n 1 8 6 7 , t h e l i n e w a s c o m p l e t e f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e t o W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k , w h e r e c o a l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b r o a d g a u g e E r i e R a i l r o a d a n d s h i p p e d t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s t h r o u g h B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e P e n n H a v e n & W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 4 , a n d b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e t h a t w a s o p e n e d i n 1 8 6 7 . B y 1 8 6 9 , t h e L V R R o w n e d a c o n t i n u o u s t r a c k t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a f r o m E a s t o n t o W a v e r l y . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e L V R R — a s t a n d a r d g a u g e r a i l r o a d — c o m p l e t e d a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d , a t t h a t t i m e h a v i n g a s i x - f o o t g a u g e , f o r a t h i r d r a i l w i t h i n t h e E r i e m a i n l i n e t r a c k s t o e n a b l e t h e L V e q u i p m e n t t o r u n t h r o u g h t o E l m i r a a n d l a t e r t o B u f f a l o . F u r t h e r r o u n d s o f a c q u i s i t i o n s t o o k p l a c e i n 1 8 6 8 . T h e a c q u i s i t i o n s i n 1 8 6 8 w e r e n o t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e L V R R ' s s t r a t e g y o f a c q u i r i n g c o a l l a n d s t o e n s u r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a f f i c f o r i t s o w n l i n e s . A l t h o u g h t h e 1 8 6 4 a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w h a d i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , b y 1 8 6 8 t h e L V R R w a s f e e l i n g p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n a n d t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d i n t h e n o r t h e r n W y o m i n g V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d , w h e r e t h e r a i l r o a d s m i n e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d t h e i r o w n c o a l a t a m u c h r e d u c e d c o s t . T h e L V R R r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i t s o w n c o n t i n u e d p r o s p e r i t y d e p e n d e d o n o b t a i n i n g w h a t c o a l l a n d s r e m a i n e d . I n p u r s u i t o f t h a t s t r a t e g y , t h e 1 8 6 8 p u r c h a s e s o f t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d a n d t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d b r o u g h t o f c o a l l a n d t o t h e L V R R , a n d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d s w e r e a c q u i r e d a l o n g b r a n c h e s o f t h e L V R R . O v e r t h e n e x t d o z e n y e a r s t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d : i n 1 8 7 0 , i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a C o a l C o m p a n y i n 1 8 7 3 w i t h i t s l a r g e l e a s e s i n t h e M a h a n o y b a s i n . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e h o l d i n g s w e r e c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h w a s w h o l l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R . B y 1 8 9 3 , t h e L V R R o w n e d o r c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l l a n d s . W i t h t h e s e a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L V R R o b t a i n e d t h e r i g h t t o m i n e c o a l a s w e l l a s t r a n s p o r t i t . T h e 1 8 7 0 s w i t n e s s e d c o m m e n c e m e n t o f e x t e n s i o n o f t h e L V R R i n a n e w d i r e c t i o n . I n t h e 1 8 7 0 s t h e L V R R a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d s t a r t i n g a t i n 1 8 7 0 , w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l o f i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d t u r n e d i t s e y e t o w a r d e x p a n s i o n a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y a l l t h e w a y t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . I n 1 8 7 0 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s t o A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t i n t h e e a s t w a s N e w Y o r k C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R w a s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l f o r t r a n s p o r t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e L V R R l e a s e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l , w h i c h h a d a v a l u a b l e o u t l e t i n J e r s e y C i t y o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r o p p o s i t e M a n h a t t a n . A s a P a c k e r p u r c h a s e d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d a t t h e c a n a l b a s i n i n s u p p o r t o f t h e N e w J e r s e y W e s t L i n e R a i l r o a d , w h i c h h e h o p e d t o u s e a s t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . T h a t p r o j e c t f a i l e d , b u t t h e l a n d s w e r e l a t e r u s e d f o r t h e L V R R ' s o w n t e r m i n a l i n 1 8 8 9 . T h e C N J , a n t i c i p a t i n g t h a t t h e L V R R i n t e n d e d t o c r e a t e i t s o w n l i n e a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y , p r o t e c t e d i t s e l f b y l e a s i n g t h e L e h i g h a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( L & S ) t o e n s u r e a c o n t i n u i n g s u p p l y o f c o a l t r a f f i c . T h e L & S h a d b e e n c h a r t e r e d i n 1 8 3 7 b y t h e L e h i g h C o a l & N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ( t h e L e h i g h C a n a l c o m p a n y ) t o c o n n e c t t h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e c a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . A f t e r t h e L V R R o p e n e d i t s l i n e , t h e L e h i g h & S u s q u e h a n n a e x t e n d e d t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s a n d E s s e x R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 8 . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e e n t i r e l i n e f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e w a s l e a s e d t o t h e C N J . F o r m o s t o f i t s l e n g t h , i t r a n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L V R R . T h e L V R R f o u n d t h a t t h e r o u t e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l w a s i m p r a c t i c a l f o r u s e a s a r a i l r o a d l i n e , s o i n 1 8 7 2 t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e d o r m a n t c h a r t e r o f t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k R a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d a c c e s s t o t h e P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y h a r b o r , a n d a d d e d t o i t a n e w c h a r t e r , t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n R a i l r o a d . T h e S t a t e o f N e w J e r s e y p a s s e d l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o c o n s o l i d a t e i t s N e w J e r s e y r a i l r o a d s i n t o o n e c o m p a n y ; t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k a n d t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n w e r e m e r g e d t o f o r m a n e w r a i l r o a d c o m p a n y c a l l e d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ( o r E a s t o n & A m b o y R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ) . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a r a i l r o a d b u i l t a c r o s s c e n t r a l N e w J e r s e y b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d t o r u n f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y t o B o u n d B r o o k , N e w J e r s e y a n d i t w a s b u i l t t o c o n n e c t t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d c o a l - h a u l i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y t o s e r v e c o n s u m e r m a r k e t s i n t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e P h i l l i p s b u r g c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C N J t h a t h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n t h e o n l y o u t l e t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r ; u n t i l i t w a s b u i l t , t h e t e r m i n u s o f t h e L V R R h a d b e e n a t P h i l l i p s b u r g o n t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r o p p o s i t e E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s u s e d a s a c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , w i t h a t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . C o n s t r u c t i o n c o m m e n c e d i n 1 8 7 2 a s s o o n t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s f o r m e d ; c o a l d o c k s a t P e r t h A m b o y w e r e s o o n c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d m o s t o f t h e l i n e f r o m E a s t o n t o P e r t h A m b o y w a s g r a d e d a n d r a i l s l a i d . H o w e v e r , t h e r o u t e r e q u i r e d a t u n n e l t h r o u g h / u n d e r M u s c o n e t c o n g M o u n t a i n n e a r P a t t e n b u r g , N e w J e r s e y ( a b o u t t w e l v e m i l e s e a s t o f P h i l l i p s b u r g ) , a n d t h a t p r o v e d t r o u b l e s o m e , d e l a y i n g t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e l i n e u n t i l M a y 1 8 7 5 , w h e n a c o a l t r a i n f i r s t p a s s e d o v e r t h e l i n e . T o s u p p o r t t h e e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s e i n t r a f f i c , t h e w o o d e n b r i d g e o v e r t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r a t E a s t o n w a s a l s o r e p l a c e d b y a d o u b l e - t r a c k e d , i r o n b r i d g e . A t P e r t h A m b o y , a t i d e w a t e r t e r m i n a l w a s b u i l t o n t h e A r t h u r K i l l c o m p r i s i n g a l a r g e c o a l d o c k u s e d t o t r a n s p o r t c o a l i n t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . T h e s e t r a c k s w e r e l a i d a n d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s o p e n e d f o r b u s i n e s s o n J u n e 2 8 , 1 8 7 5 w i t h h a u l i n g c o a l . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y ' s o p e r a t i o n s w e r e l a b e l e d t h e " N e w J e r s e y D i v i s i o n " o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y h a d a l r e a d y c o m p l e t e d l a r g e d o c k s a n d f a c i l i t i e s f o r s h i p p i n g c o a l a t P e r t h A m b o y u p o n a n e x t e n s i v e t r a c t o f l a n d f r o n t i n g t h e A r t h u r K i l l . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f a n t h r a c i t e m o v e d t o P e r t h A m b o y d u r i n g t h a t y e a r f o r t r a n s s h i p m e n t b y w a t e r . O p e r a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e L V R R ' s b a n k r u p t c y i n 1 9 7 6 . T h e m a r s h a l l i n g y a r d i s n o w t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a k n o w n a s H a r b o r t o w n . P a s s e n g e r t r a f f i c o n t h e L V R R ' s E a s t o n a n d A m b o y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ( P R R ) a t M e t u c h e n , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n t i n u e d t o t h e P R R ' S E x c h a n g e P l a c e t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y ( t h a t c o n n e c t i o n w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 8 9 1 a f t e r t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d ) . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e p a r e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e L V R R f i n a n c e d t h e a d d i t i o n o f a t h i r d r a i l t o t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e s o t h a t c a r s c o u l d r o l l d i r e c t l y f r o m c o l l i e r y t o t h e p o r t a t B u f f a l o . W h i l e t h e t h i r d r a i l o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e b e t w e e n W a v e r l y a n d B u f f a l o g a v e t h e L V R R a n u n b r o k e n c o n n e c t i o n t o B u f f a l o , t h e r o a d ' s m a n a g e m e n t d e s i r e d i t s o w n l i n e i n t o B u f f a l o . T h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d p a s s e d i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e L V R R i n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 6 , w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e n e a r S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k , a d i s t a n c e o f 7 5 m i l e s . O n M a y 1 7 , 1 8 7 9 , A s a P a c k e r , t h e c o m p a n y ' s f o u n d e r a n d l e a d e r , d i e d a t t h e a g e o f 7 3 . A t t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h , t h e r a i l r o a d w a s s h i p p i n g 4 . 4 m i l l i o n t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y o v e r o f t r a c k , u s i n g 2 3 5 e n g i n e s , 2 4 , 4 6 1 c o a l c a r s , a n d o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 f r e i g h t c a r s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s . T h e c o m p a n y c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l - p r o d u c i n g l a n d s a n d w a s e x p a n d i n g r a p i d l y i n t o N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y . T h e r a i l r o a d h a d s u r v i v e d t h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n o f 1 8 7 3 a n d w a s s e e i n g i t s b u s i n e s s r e c o v e r . L e a d e r s h i p o f t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s f e r r e d s m o o t h l y t o C h a r l e s H a r t s h o r n e w h o h a d b e e n v i c e p r e s i d e n t u n d e r P a c k e r . I n 1 8 8 3 , H a r t s h o r n e r e t i r e d t o a l l o w H a r r y E . P a c k e r , A s a ' s 3 2 - y e a r - o l d y o u n g e s t s o n , t o a s s u m e t h e P r e s i d e n c y . A y e a r l a t e r , H a r r y P a c k e r d i e d o f i l l n e s s , a n d A s a ' s 5 1 - y e a r - o l d n e p h e w E l i s h a P a c k e r W i l b u r w a s e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t , a p o s i t i o n h e h e l d f o r 1 3 y e a r s . T h e 1 8 8 0 s c o n t i n u e d t o b e a p e r i o d o f g r o w t h , a n d t h e L V R R m a d e i m p o r t a n t a c q u i s i t i o n s i n N e w Y o r k , e x p a n d e d i t s r e a c h i n t o t h e s o u t h e r n c o a l f i e l d o f P e n n s y l v a n i a w h i c h h a d h i t h e r t o b e e n t h e m o n o p o l y o f t h e R e a d i n g , a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y b a t t l e d t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . I n 1 8 8 0 , t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e t o o p e r a t e a f l e e t o f s h i p s o n t h e G r e a t L a k e s w i t h t e r m i n a l s i n C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , a n d D u l u t h . T h i s c o m p a n y b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e m o v e m e n t o f a n t h r a c i t e , g r a i n a n d p a c k a g e f r e i g h t b e t w e e n B u f f a l o , C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , D u l u t h , S u p e r i o r a n d o t h e r m i d w e s t e r n c i t i e s . F o l l o w i n g F e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s u c h s e r v i c e , t h e l a k e l i n e w a s s o l d t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s i n 1 9 2 0 . T h e p o r t o n L a k e E r i e a t B u f f a l o w a s c r i t i c a l t o t h e L V R R ' s s h i p m e n t s o f c o a l t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s a n d f o r r e c e i p t o f g r a i n s e n t b y t h e W e s t t o e a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l t h o u g h i n 1 8 7 0 t h e L V R R h a d i n v e s t e d i n t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k R a i l r o a d w h i c h c o n n e c t e d t h e E r i e t o t h e l a k e f r o n t , a n d h a d c o n s t r u c t e d t h e L e h i g h D o c k s o n B u f f a l o C r e e k , i t d e p e n d e d o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d f o r t h e c o n n e c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k t o B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . I n 1 8 8 2 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a n e x t e n s i v e e x p a n s i o n i n t o N e w Y o r k f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o . C o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o w a s s p l i t i n t o t w o p r o j e c t s , W a v e r l y t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k a n d G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o ( G e n e v a i s l o c a t e d a t t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f S e n e c a L a k e ) . F i r s t , i t p u r c h a s e d a l a r g e p a r c e l o f l a n d i n B u f f a l o , t h e T i f f t f a r m , f o r u s e a s t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s , a n d o b t a i n e d a N e w Y o r k c h a r t e r f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y ( a s i m i l a r n a m e t o t h e L V R R , b u t w i t h " r a i l w a y " i n s t e a d ) . L V R R s u b s i d i a r y , L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e m a i n l i n e ' s n o r t h e r n p a r t f r o m B u f f a l o t o L a n c a s t e r , N e w Y o r k i n 1 8 8 3 , a t o t a l d i s t a n c e o f t e n m i l e s . T h i s w a s t h e s e c o n d s t e p t o w a r d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a d i r e c t r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o , t h e f i r s t b e i n g t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d . T h e n i n 1 8 8 7 t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o b t a i n e d a l e a s e o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d ( t h e L V R R p r e v i o u s l y h a d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s o n t h e r a i l r o a d s t a r t i n g i n 1 8 7 0 ) , w h i c h h a d a r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y n o r t h w a r d i n t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e L V R R o r g a n i z e d t h e B u f f a l o a n d G e n e v a R a i l r o a d t o b u i l d t h e r e s t o f t h e 9 7 - m i l e G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o t r a c k a g e , f r o m G e n e v a t o L a n c a s t e r . F i n a l l y , i n 1 8 8 9 , t h e L V R R g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a , a n d S a y r e R a i l r o a d a n d c o m p l e t e d i t s l i n e o f r a i l t h r o u g h N e w Y o r k . A s a r e s u l t o f i t s l e a s e s a n d a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y g a i n e d a n e a r - m o n o p o l y o n t r a f f i c i n t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . I t a l s o c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w a n d d e v e l o p i t s r o u t e s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n 1 8 8 3 t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d l a n d i n n o r t h e a s t P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d f o r m e d a s u b s i d i a r y c a l l e d T h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l a n d L a n d C o m p a n y . I t o p e n e d a h o t e l i n G l e n S u m m i t , P e n n s y l v a n i a c a l l e d t h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l t o s e r v e l u n c h t o p a s s e n g e r s t r a v e l i n g o n t h e l i n e . T h e h o t e l r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e c o m p a n y u n t i l 1 9 0 9 , w h e n i t w a s b o u g h t b y r e s i d e n t s o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o t t a g e s . I n P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L e h i g h s c o r e d a c o u p b y o b t a i n i n g t h e c h a r t e r f o r m e r l y h e l d b y t h e S c h u y k i l l H a v e n a n d L e h i g h R i v e r R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 8 6 . T h a t c h a r t e r h a d b e e n h e l d b y t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d s i n c e 1 8 6 0 , w h e n i t h a d b l o c k e d c o n s t r u c t i o n i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n i t s m o n o p o l y i n t h e S o u t h e r n C o a l F i e l d . T h a t s o u t h e r n f i e l d h e l d t h e l a r g e s t r e s e r v e s o f a n t h r a c i t e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d a c c o u n t e d f o r a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n . T h r o u g h n e g l e c t , t h e R e a d i n g a l l o w e d t h e c h a r t e r t o l a p s e , a n d i t w a s a c q u i r e d b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d t h e S c h u y l k i l l a n d L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e g a v e t h e L V R R a r o u t e i n t o P o t t s v i l l e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e S c h u y l k i l l V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d s . T h e V o s b u r g T u n n e l w a s c o m p l e t e d a n d o p e n e d f o r s e r v i c e o n J u l y 2 5 , 1 8 8 6 . T h e 1 6 m i l e M o u n t a i n C u t - o f f , ( a r a i l s e g m e n t o f t h e l i n e ) w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m F a i r v i e w , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o t h e o u t s k i r t s o f P i t t s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , w a s c o m p l e t e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 8 8 8 . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e l i n e ' s e a s t b o u n d g r a d e t o b e r e d u c e d a n d a s h o r t e r r o u t e f o r h a n d l i n g t h r o u g h t r a f f i c e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e L V R R h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , b u t d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n N e w J e r s e y , t h e L V R R e m b a r k e d o n a d e c a d e - l o n g l e g a l b a t t l e w i t h t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . T h e l a n d t h a t A s a P a c k e r h a d o b t a i n e d i n 1 8 7 2 w a s s i t u a t e d o n t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l ' s S o u t h B a s i n , b u t t h e C N J a l r e a d y h a d i t s o w n f a c i l i t i e s a d j a c e n t t o t h a t p r o p e r t y a n d d i s p u t e d t h e L V R R ' s t i t l e , w h i c h p a r t l y o v e r l a p p e d l a n d t h e C N J h a d f i l l e d f o r i t s o w n t e r m i n a l . F i n a l l y i n 1 8 8 7 t h e t w o r a i l r o a d s r e a c h e d a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e L V R R ' s J e r s e y C i t y f r e i g h t y a r d b e g a n . T h e L V R R o b t a i n e d a 5 - y e a r a g r e e m e n t t o u s e t h e C N J l i n e t o a c c e s s t h e t e r m i n a l , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 8 8 9 . I t f r o n t e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l B a s i n w i t h a s e r i e s o f p i e r s a n g l i n g o u t f r o m t h e s h o r e l i n e b u t w a s t o o n a r r o w f o r a y a r d , s o t h e L V R R b u i l t a s e p a r a t e y a r d a t O a k I s l a n d i n N e w a r k t o s o r t a n d p r e p a r e t r a i n s . T h e S o u t h B a s i n t e r m i n a l w a s u s e d s o l e l y f o r f r e i g h t , h a v i n g d o c k s a n d c a r f l o a t f a c i l i t i e s . P a s s e n g e r s w e r e r o u t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y . T h e L V R R s t r o v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 8 0 s t o a c q u i r e i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y a n d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y w a t e r f r o n t . T h e L V R R d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d m o r e t o t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n N e w J e r s e y i n o r d e r t o r e a c h i t s f r e i g h t y a r d s w i t h o u t u s i n g t h e C N J m a i n l i n e . T h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f r a i l r o a d s t o c o n n e c t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y l i n e ( E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ) t o J e r s e y C i t y . T h e f i r s t l e g o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o J e r s e y C i t y w a s t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n 1 8 8 8 w h i c h c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a t R o s e l l e , N e w J e r s e y f o r a c c e s s o v e r t h e C N J t o t h e H u d s o n R i v e r w a t e r f r o n t i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R w h i c h h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n 1 8 9 1 , t h e L V R R c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y , a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r c o m p a n i e s w h i c h f o r m e d t h e r o u t e f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y t e r m i n a l . I n i t i a l l y , t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r r i g h t s f r o m R o s e l l e t o J e r s e y C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R e v e n t u a l l y f i n i s h e d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o i t s t e r m i n a l i n J e r s e y C i t y o v e r t h e N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y , t h e N e w a r k a n d P a s s a i c R a i l w a y , t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k , a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y , a n d t h e J e r s e y C i t y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y . T h e L V R R ' s N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y i n 1 8 9 1 b r o u g h t t h e l i n e f r o m R o s e l l e i n t o N e w a r k , w h e r e p a s s e n g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . B r i d g i n g N e w a r k B a y p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t . T h e L V R R f i r s t a t t e m p t e d t o o b t a i n a r i g h t o f w a y a t G r e e n v i l l e , b u t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d c h e c k m a t e d t h e m b y p u r c h a s i n g m o s t o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s n e e d e d . T h e n t h e C N J o p p o s e d t h e L V R R ' s a t t e m p t t o c r o s s i t s l i n e a t C a v e n P o i n t . F i n a l l y a f t e r s e t t l i n g t h e l e g a l i s s u e s , t h e N e w a r k B a y w a s b r i d g e d i n 1 8 9 2 b y t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y a n d c o n n e c t e d t o t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y , w h i c h w a s p a r t l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R a n d w h i c h r e a c h e d t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . I n 1 8 9 5 , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d t h e G r e e n v i l l e a n d H u d s o n R a i l w a y p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s i n o r d e r t o r e l i e v e c o n g e s t i o n a n d h a v e a w h o l l y - o w n e d r o u t e i n t o J e r s e y C i t y . F i n a l l y i n 1 9 0 0 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y o u t r i g h t . T h e 1 8 9 0 s w e r e a p e r i o d o f t u r m o i l f o r t h e L V R R . A l t h o u g h t h e d e c a d e b e g a n w i t h t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f i t s t e r m i n a l s a t B u f f a l o a n d J e r s e y C i t y , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a t r u n k l i n e a c r o s s N e w Y o r k , t h e c o m p a n y s o o n b e c a m e e n t a n g l e d i n c o s t l y b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o t h e P a c k e r f a m i l y ' s l o s s o f c o n t r o l . T h e c o a l t r a d e w a s a l w a y s t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e b u s i n e s s b u t w a s s u b j e c t t o b o o m a n d b u s t a s c o m p e t i t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e d a n d t h e e c o n o m y c y c l e d . T h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s h a d b e g u n i n 1 8 7 3 t o f o r m p o o l s t o r e g u l a t e p r o d u c t i o n a n d s e t q u o t a s f o r e a c h r a i l r o a d . B y c o n t r o l l i n g s u p p l y , t h e c o a l c o m b i n a t i o n a t t e m p t e d t o k e e p p r i c e s a n d p r o f i t s h i g h . S e v e r a l c o m b i n a t i o n s o c c u r r e d , b u t e a c h f e l l a p a r t a s o n e r o a d o r a n o t h e r a b r o g a t e d i t s a g r e e m e n t . T h e f i r s t s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n 1 8 7 3 , f o l l o w e d b y o t h e r s i n 1 8 7 8 , 1 8 8 4 , a n d 1 8 8 6 . C u s t o m e r s n a t u r a l l y r e s e n t e d t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e c a r t e l , a n d s i n c e c o a l w a s c r i t i c a l t o c o m m e r c e , C o n g r e s s i n t e r v e n e d i n 1 8 8 7 w i t h t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e A c t t h a t f o r b a d e t h e r o a d s f r o m j o i n i n g i n t o s u c h p o o l s . A l t h o u g h t h e r o a d s e f f e c t i v e l y i g n o r e d t h e A c t a n d t h e i r s a l e s a g e n t s c o n t i n u e d t o m e e t a n d s e t p r i c e s , t h e a g r e e m e n t s w e r e n e v e r e f f e c t i v e f o r l o n g . I n 1 8 9 2 , t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d t h o u g h t i t h a d a s o l u t i o n — i n s t e a d o f a t t e m p t i n g t o m a i n t a i n a g r e e m e n t s a m o n g t h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s , i t w o u l d p u r c h a s e o r l e a s e t h e m a j o r l i n e s a n d b r i n g t h e m i n t o a m o n o p o l y . I t l e a s e d t h e C N J a n d t h e L V R R , p u r c h a s e d t h e r a i l r o a d s ' c o a l c o m p a n i e s a n d a r r a n g e d f o r t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g 7 0 % o f t h e t r a d e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t o v e r r e a c h e d a n d i n 1 8 9 3 w a s u n a b l e t o m e e t i t s o b l i g a t i o n s . I t s b a n k r u p t c y r e s u l t e d i n e c o n o m i c c h a o s , b r i n g i n g o n t h e f i n a n c i a l p a n i c o f 1 8 9 3 a n d f o r c i n g t h e L V R R t o b r e a k t h e l e a s e a n d r e s u m e i t s o w n o p e r a t i o n s , l e a v i n g i t u n a b l e t o p a y d i v i d e n d s o n i t s s t o c k u n t i l 1 9 0 4 . T h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n f o l l o w i n g 1 8 9 3 w a s h a r s h , a n d b y 1 8 9 7 t h e L V R R w a s i n d i r e n e e d o f s u p p o r t . T h e b a n k i n g g i a n t J . P . M o r g a n s t e p p e d i n t o r e f i n a n c e t h e L V R R d e b t a n d o b t a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e r a i l r o a d i n t h e p r o c e s s . O u s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E l i s h a P . W i l b u r a n d s e v e r a l d i r e c t o r s i n 1 8 9 7 , t h e M o r g a n c o m p a n y i n s t a l l e d W . A l f r e d W a l t e r a s p r e s i d e n t a n d s e a t e d i t s o w n d i r e c t o r s . I n 1 9 0 1 M o r g a n a r r a n g e d t o h a v e t h e P a c k e r E s t a t e ' s h o l d i n g s p u r c h a s e d j o i n t l y b y t h e E r i e , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L a k e S h o r e a n d M i c h i g a n S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e D L & W a n d t h e C N J , a l l c o m p a n i e s i n w h i c h M o r g a n h a d i n t e r e s t s . N e w l y e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t E b e n B . T h o m a s ( f o r m e r l y o f t h e E r i e ) a n d h i s B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e c o m b i n e d i n t e r e s t s o f t h o s e r a i l r o a d s . A f i n a l a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h a c o a l c a r t e l t o o k p l a c e i n 1 9 0 4 w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y . P r i o r t o t h a t t i m e , t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s a s m a l l c o n c e r n t h a t h a p p e n e d t o h a v e a b r o a d c h a r t e r a l l o w i n g i t t o a c t a s a h o l d i n g c o m p a n y . T h e R e a d i n g , n o w o u t o f r e c e i v e r s h i p , p u r c h a s e d t h e c o m p a n y a n d b r o u g h t t h e o t h e r c o a l r a i l r o a d s i n t o t h e p a r t n e r s h i p , w i t h t h e R e a d i n g o w n i n g 3 0 % , t h e L V R R 2 3 % , t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 2 0 % , C N J 1 7 % , E r i e 6 % , a n d N e w Y o r k , S u s q u e h a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 4 p e r c e n t . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s t o l o c k - u p i n d e p e n d e n t c o a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l t h e s u p p l y . C o n g r e s s r e a c t e d w i t h t h e 1 9 0 6 H e p b u r n A c t , w h i c h a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s f o r b a d e r a i l r o a d s f r o m o w n i n g t h e c o m m o d i t i e s t h a t t h e y t r a n s p o r t e d . A l o n g s e r i e s o f a n t i t r u s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d l a w s u i t s r e s u l t e d , c u l m i n a t i n g i n a 1 9 1 1 S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n t h a t f o r c e d t h e L V R R t o d i v e s t i t s e l f o f t h e c o a l c o m p a n i e s i t h a d h e l d s i n c e 1 8 6 8 . T h e L V R R s h a r e h o l d e r s r e c e i v e d s h a r e s o f t h e n o w i n d e p e n d e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , b u t t h e r a i l r o a d n o l o n g e r h a d m a n a g e m e n t c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n , c o n t r a c t s , a n d s a l e s o f i t s l a r g e s t c u s t o m e r . I n 1 8 9 6 t h e v e r y e a r l y f i l m " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s " w a s p r o d u c e d b y T h o m a s A . E d i s o n ' s c o m p a n y K i n e t o s c o p e . T h e t r a i n a r r i v e s f r o m f a r a w a y a n d p a s s e s t h e c a m e r a , w h i l e w o r k e r s a r e w a v i n g t h e i r h a n d k e r c h i e f s . F o r t u n a t e l y , g r a i n t o n n a g e w a s i n c r e a s i n g a n d t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s p o r t e d l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s f r o m B u f f a l o t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d o t h e r E a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l s o , i n 1 9 1 4 t h e P a n a m a C a n a l w a s c o m p l e t e d , a n d t h e L V R R g a i n e d a n i m p o r t a n t n e w m a r k e t w i t h o r e s s h i p p e d f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a t o t h e B e t h l e h e m S t e e l c o m p a n y . I n o r d e r t o h a n d l e t h e a d d i t i o n a l n e w o c e a n t r a f f i c , t h e L V R R c r e a t e d a l a r g e n e w p i e r a t C o n s t a b l e H o o k , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 1 5 , a n d a n e w t e r m i n a l a t C l a r e m o n t w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 2 3 . I t a l s o b u i l t a p a s s e n g e r t e r m i n a l i n B u f f a l o i n 1 9 1 5 . S i n c e 1 8 9 6 t h e L V R R h a d r u n a n i m p o r t a n t a n d p r e s t i g i o u s e x p r e s s t r a i n n a m e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " w h i c h c a r r i e d p a s s e n g e r s t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s a n d B u f f a l o . A d d i t i o n a l p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s r a n f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a t o S c r a n t o n a n d w e s t w a r d . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e L V R R ' s N e w Y o r k C i t y p a s s e n g e r s h a d u s e d t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y a t J e r s e y C i t y , b u t i n 1 9 1 3 t h e P R R t e r m i n a t e d t h a t a g r e e m e n t , s o t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r u s e o f i t s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y , w h i c h w a s e x p a n d e d t o h a n d l e t h e i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r o f p a s s e n g e r s . T h e r a i l r o a d a l s o p u b l i s h e d a m o n t h l y m a g a z i n e p r o m o t i n g t r a v e l o n t h e t r a i n c a l l e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s M o n t h l y " . I n t h e w a r y e a r s 1 9 1 4 t o 1 9 1 8 , t h e L e h i g h h a n d l e d w a r m a t e r i a l s a n d e x p l o s i v e s a t i t s B l a c k T o m i s l a n d f a c i l i t y , w h i c h h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d a l o n g w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 0 0 . I n 1 9 1 6 , a h o r r e n d o u s e x p l o s i o n o c c u r r e d a t t h e f a c i l i t y , d e s t r o y i n g s h i p s a n d b u i l d i n g s , a n d b r e a k i n g w i n d o w s i n M a n h a t t a n . A t f i r s t t h e i n c i d e n t w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a c c i d e n t ; a l o n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n e v e n t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e x p l o s i o n w a s a n a c t o f G e r m a n s a b o t a g e , f o r w h i c h r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e f i n a l l y p a i d i n 1 9 7 9 . A f t e r t h e U . S . e n t e r e d W o r l d W a r I , t h e r a i l r o a d s w e r e n a t i o n a l i z e d i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t s t r i k e s a n d i n t e r r u p t i o n s . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s R a i l r o a d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n t r o l l e d t h e r a i l r o a d f r o m 1 9 1 8 t o 1 9 2 0 , a t w h i c h t i m e c o n t r o l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d b a c k t o t h e p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e h e a v y w a r t i m e t r a f f i c h a d l e f t t h e r a i l r o a d ' s p l a n t a n d e q u i p m e n t i n n e e d o f r e p a i r , t h e d a m a g e w a s p a r t l y o f f s e t b y n e w e q u i p m e n t t h a t h a d b e e n p u r c h a s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t . I n 1 9 2 0 , t h e L V R R s o l d i t s l a k e l i n e c o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e , t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s d u e t o n e w f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f r a i l r o a d s o w n i n g l a k e l i n e s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 2 0 s t h e r a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e M o r g a n / D r e x e l b a n k i n g f i r m , b u t i n 1 9 2 8 a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o w r e s t c o n t r o l f r o m i t . I n 1 9 2 7 , L e o n o r F r e s n e l L o r e e , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n R a i l r o a d , h a d a v i s i o n f o r a n e w f i f t h t r u n k l i n e b e t w e e n t h e E a s t a n d W e s t , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e W a b a s h R a i l r o a d , t h e B u f f a l o , R o c h e s t e r a n d P i t t s b u r g h R a i l w a y , a n d t h e L V R R . T h r o u g h b o n d s i s s u e d b y t h e D & H , h e o b t a i n e d 3 0 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k , a n d w o n t h e s u p p o r t o f n e a r l y h a l f t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . I n 1 9 2 8 , h e a t t e m p t e d t o s e a t a n e w p r e s i d e n t a n d b o a r d . A m a s s i v e p r o x y f i g h t e n s u e d , w i t h e x i s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E d w a r d E u g e n e L o o m i s n a r r o w l y r e t a i n i n g h i s p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f E d w a r d T . S t o t e s b u r y o f J . P . M o r g a n . F o l l o w i n g t h e d e f e a t o f i t s p l a n , t h e D & H s o l d i t s s t o c k t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a q u i e t l y o b t a i n e d m o r e s t o c k , b o t h d i r e c t l y a n d t h r o u g h r a i l r o a d s i t c o n t r o l l e d , p r i m a r i l y t h e W a b a s h . B y 1 9 3 1 , t h e P R R c o n t r o l l e d 5 1 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k . F o l l o w i n g L o o m i s ' d e a t h i n 1 9 3 7 , t h e p r e s i d e n c y w e n t t o L o o m i s ' a s s i s t a n t D u n c a n J . K e r r , b u t i n 1 9 4 0 h e w a s r e p l a c e d b y A l b e r t N . W i l l i a m s , a n d t h e r o a d c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e P R R . I n 1 9 4 1 , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a p l a c e d i t s s h a r e s i n a v o t i n g t r u s t a f t e r r e a c h i n g a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l r e g a r d i n g t h e P R R ' s p u r c h a s e o f t h e W a b a s h . F o l l o w i n g t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n , t h e r a i l r o a d h a d a f e w p e r i o d s o f p r o s p e r i t y , b u t w a s c l e a r l y i n a s l o w d e c l i n e . P a s s e n g e r s p r e f e r r e d t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f a u t o m o b i l e s t o t r a i n s , a n d a i r l i n e s m u c h l a t e r p r o v i d e d f a s t e r l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a v e l t h a n t r a i n s . O i l a n d g a s w e r e s u p p l a n t i n g c o a l a s t h e f u e l o f c h o i c e . T h e D e p r e s s i o n h a d b e e n d i f f i c u l t f o r a l l t h e r a i l r o a d s , a n d C o n g r e s s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t b a n k r u p t c y l a w s n e e d e d r e v i s i o n . T h e C h a n d l e r A c t s o f 1 9 3 8 - 9 p r o v i d e d a n e w f o r m o f r e l i e f f o r r a i l r o a d s , a l l o w i n g t h e m t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e i r d e b t w h i l e c o n t i n u i n g t o o p e r a t e . T h e L V R R w a s a p p r o v e d f o r s u c h a r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n 1 9 4 0 w h e n s e v e r a l l a r g e m o r t g a g e l o a n s w e r e d u e . T h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o e x t e n d t h e m a t u r i t y o f i t s m o r t g a g e s , b u t i t n e e d e d t o r e p e a t t h e p r o c e s s i n 1 9 5 0 . T h e t e r m s o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g s p r e c l u d e d d i v i d e n d p a y m e n t s u n t i l 1 9 5 3 , w h e n L V R R c o m m o n s t o c k p a i d t h e f i r s t d i v i d e n d s i n c e 1 9 3 1 . I n 1 9 5 7 , t h e L V R R a g a i n s t o p p e d d i v i d e n d s . I n 1 9 4 4 , t h e L V R R ' s g r o s s r e v e n u e s c a m e c l o s e t o $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 w h i c h w a s a m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e r a i l r o a d . T w o f i n a l b l o w s f e l l i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s : t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e F e d e r a l - A i d H i g h w a y A c t i n 1 9 5 6 , b e t t e r k n o w n a s t h e I n t e r s t a t e H i g h w a y A c t , a n d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e S a i n t L a w r e n c e S e a w a y i n 1 9 5 9 . T h e i n t e r s t a t e h i g h w a y s h e l p e d t h e t r u c k i n g i n d u s t r y o f f e r d o o r - t o - d o o r s e r v i c e , a n d t h e S t . L a w r e n c e S e a w a y a l l o w e d g r a i n s h i p m e n t s t o b y p a s s t h e r a i l w a y s a n d g o d i r e c t l y t o o v e r s e a s m a r k e t s . B y t h e 1 9 6 0 s , r a i l r o a d s i n t h e E a s t w e r e s t r u g g l i n g t o s u r v i v e . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 6 2 r e q u e s t e d I C C a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o a c q u i r e c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e L V R R t h r o u g h a s w a p o f P R R s t o c k f o r L V R R a n d e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e v o t i n g t r u s t t h a t h a d b e e n i n p l a c e s i n c e 1 9 4 1 . I t m a n a g e d t o a c q u i r e m o r e t h a n 8 5 % o f a l l o u t s t a n d i n g s h a r e s , a n d f r o m t h a t t i m e t h e L V R R w a s l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a d i v i s i o n o f t h e P R R . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a m e r g e d w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l i n 1 9 6 8 , b u t t h e P e n n C e n t r a l f a i l e d i n 1 9 7 0 , c a u s i n g a c a s c a d e o f r a i l r o a d f a i l u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e E a s t . O n J u n e 2 1 , 1 9 7 0 , t h e P e n n C e n t r a l d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y a n d s o u g h t b a n k r u p t c y p r o t e c t i o n . A s a r e s u l t , t h e P C w a s r e l i e v e d o f i t s o b l i g a t i o n t o p a y f e e s t o v a r i o u s N o r t h e a s t e r n r a i l r o a d s — t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y i n c l u d e d — f o r t h e u s e o f t h e i r r a i l c a r s a n d o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e o t h e r r a i l r o a d s ' o b l i g a t i o n s t o p a y t h o s e f e e s t o t h e P e n n C e n t r a l w e r e n o t w a i v e d . T h i s i m b a l a n c e i n p a y m e n t s w o u l d p r o v e f a t a l t o t h e f i n a n c i a l l y - f r a i l L e h i g h V a l l e y , a n d i t d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y j u s t o v e r o n e m o n t h a f t e r t h e P e n n C e n t r a l , o n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 7 0 . T h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 b a n k r u p t c y , a s w a s t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e o f t h e t i m e . I n 1 9 7 2 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a s s u m e d t h e r e m a i n i n g P e n n s y l v a n i a t r a c k a g e o f t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , a c o m p e t i n g a n t h r a c i t e r a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d e n t e r e d b a n k r u p t c y a s w e l l . T h e t w o r o a d s h a d e n t e r e d a s h a r e d t r a c k a g e a g r e e m e n t i n t h i s a r e a i n 1 9 6 5 t o r e d u c e c o s t s , a s b o t h h a d p a r a l l e l r o u t e s f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e w a y t o m e t r o p o l i t a n N e w Y o r k , o f t e n o n a d j o i n i n g g r a d e s t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n t h e y e a r s l e a d i n g t o 1 9 7 3 , t h e f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d s y s t e m i n t h e n o r t h e a s t o f t h e U . S . w a s c o l l a p s i n g . A l t h o u g h g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d A m t r a k t o o k o v e r i n t e r c i t y p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e o n M a y 1 , 1 9 7 1 , r a i l r o a d c o m p a n i e s c o n t i n u e d t o l o s e m o n e y d u e t o e x t e n s i v e g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s , e x p e n s i v e a n d e x c e s s i v e l a b o r c o s t , c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m o t h e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m o d e s , d e c l i n i n g i n d u s t r i a l b u s i n e s s a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s ; t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s o n e o f t h e m . H u r r i c a n e A g n e s i n 1 9 7 2 d a m a g e d t h e r u n d o w n N o r t h e a s t r a i l w a y n e t w o r k , w h i c h p u t t h e s o l v e n c y o f o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n c l u d i n g t h e L V R R i n d a n g e r ; t h e s o m e w h a t m o r e s o l v e n t E r i e L a c k a w a n n a R a i l w a y ( E L ) w a s a l s o d a m a g e d b y H u r r i c a n e A g n e s . I n 1 9 7 3 , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n g r e s s a c t e d t o c r e a t e a b i l l t o n a t i o n a l i z e a l l b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e L V . T h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n R a i l r o a d s , w h i c h o p p o s e d n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , s u b m i t t e d a n a l t e r n a t e p r o p o s a l f o r a g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d p r i v a t e c o m p a n y . P r e s i d e n t R i c h a r d N i x o n s i g n e d t h e R e g i o n a l R a i l R e o r g a n i z a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 7 3 i n t o l a w . T h e " 3 R A c t , " a s i t w a s c a l l e d , p r o v i d e d i n t e r i m f u n d i n g t o t h e b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s a n d d e f i n e d a n e w " C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n " u n d e r t h e A A R ' s p l a n . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , t h e L V R R , i n c l u d i n g i t s m a i n l i n e , w a s m e r g e d i n t o t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t ' s C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n ( C o n r a i l ) e n d i n g 1 3 0 y e a r s o f e x i s t e n c e a n d 1 2 1 y e a r s o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e L V R R . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , m a j o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e a s s e t s o f t h e b a n k r u p t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w e r e a c q u i r e d b y C o n r a i l . T h i s p r i m a r i l y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e m a i n l i n e a n d r e l a t e d b r a n c h e s f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n ( n o r t h / R R w e s t o f S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o O a k I s l a n d Y a r d , t h e I t h a c a b r a n c h f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o I t h a c a , N e w Y o r k , c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e C a y u g a L a k e l i n e a n d o n t o t h e M i l l i k e n p o w e r s t a t i o n i n L a k e R i d g e , N e w Y o r k ( c l o s e d o n A u g u s t 2 9 , 2 0 1 9 ) a n d t h e C a r g i l l s a l t m i n e j u s t s o u t h o f A u b u r n , N Y ; a n d s m a l l s e g m e n t s i n G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k ( f r o m G e n e v a t o t h e S e n e c a A r m y D e p o t i n K e n d a i a ) ; B a t a v i a , N e w Y o r k ; A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k a n d C o r t l a n d , N e w Y o r k . A l o n g s e g m e n t w e s t f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o B u f f a l o w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o n r a i l t a k e o v e r , b u t w a s m o s t l y t o r n - u p n o t l o n g a f t e r w a r d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a s e g m e n t f r o m G e n e v a t o V i c t o r , N e w Y o r k , l a t e r c u t b a c k t o S h o r t s v i l l e , N e w Y o r k , t o V i c t o r , r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y E s t a t e u n d e r s u b s i d i z e d C o n r a i l o p e r a t i o n . T h e S h o r t s v i l l e t o V i c t o r s e g m e n t b e c a m e t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 7 9 ( t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e F i n g e r L a k e s R a i l w a y i n O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 ) . M o s t o f t h e r a i l e q u i p m e n t w e n t t o C o n r a i l a s w e l l , b u t 2 4 l o c o m o t i v e s ( u n i t s G P 3 8 - 2 3 1 4 - 3 2 5 a n d C 4 2 0 4 0 4 – 4 1 5 ) w e n t t o t h e D e l a w a r e & H u d s o n i n s t e a d . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e a s s e t s w e r e d i s p o s e d o f b y t h e e s t a t e u n t i l i t w a s f o l d e d i n t o t h e n o n - r a i l r o a d P e n n C e n t r a l C o r p o r a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s . T h e r o u t e a c r o s s P e n n s y l v a n i a , N e w J e r s e y a n d O a k I s l a n d Y a r d r e m a i n s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o d a y , t h e o n l y t w o C l a s s 1 r a i l r o a d s t h a t a r e b a s e d i n t h e E a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s r o u t e b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t t o C o n r a i l a s a n a l t e r n a t e r o u t e t o a v o i d A m t r a k ' s f o r m e r P R R / P C N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r e l e c t r i f i e d r o u t e . T o d a y , t h i s r o u t e c o n t i n u e s a s t w o l i n e s , o n e t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a n d t h e o t h e r t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w l i n e t h a t w a s o n c e p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e o r i g i n a l l i n e r e t a i n s i t s o r i g i n a l r o u t e w h e n i t w a s f i r s t c o n s t r u c t e d a n d i s s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y . T h e n e w l i n e i s a l s o s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , b u t i t i s s e r v e d t o g e t h e r w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n a j o i n t o w n e r s h i p c o m p a n y c a l l e d C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s . M o s t o f t h e o t h e r r e m a i n i n g L e h i g h V a l l e y t r a c k s e r v e s a s b r a n c h l i n e s , o r h a s b e e n s o l d t o s h o r t l i n e a n d r e g i o n a l o p e r a t o r s . T h e s e o p e r a t o r s i n c l u d e , i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r : T h e L e h i g h L i n e w a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d ' s f i r s t r a i l l i n e a n d s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e . I t w a s o p e n e d o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 b e t w e e n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h r e e m o n t h s l a t e r t h e l i n e b r a n c h e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t A l l e n t o w n t o J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e l i n e w a s l a t e r e x t e n d e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t J i m T h o r p e t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d l a t e r i t r e a c h e d t h e B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k a r e a a n d p a s t E a s t o n a l l t h e w a y t o P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y a n d t h e n s w i t c h e d d i r e c t i o n t o t h e n o r t h e a s t t o J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y l a t e r c u t b a c k t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y . D u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s , t h e l i n e s e r v e d a s t h e b o d y o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d u n t i l t h e r a i l r o a d e i t h e r b u i l t , a c q u i r e d , o r m e r g e d o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n t o i t s s y s t e m . D u r i n g t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t s o w n e r s h i p u n d e r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d , t h e l i n e w a s k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y M a i n l i n e , s t a r t i n g i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s . T h e l i n e a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o C o n r a i l i n 1 9 7 6 a n d w a s m a i n t a i n e d a s a m a i n l i n e i n t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . T h e l i n e b e c a m e k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h L i n e d u r i n g C o n r a i l o w n e r s h i p . C o n r a i l i n t e g r a t e d f o r m e r C N J m a i n l i n e l e a s e d t r a c k a g e i n t o t h e l i n e a n d k e p t t h e l i n e i n c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n ( s i n c e 1 8 5 5 ) ; h o w e v e r , i t d o w n s i z e d t h e l i n e i n t h e n o r t h w e s t f r o m t h e B u f f a l o a r e a o f N e w Y o r k S t a t e : f i r s t t o S a y r e Y a r d i n S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; t h e n t o M e h o o p a n y , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; a n d f i n a l l y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e ' s b e i n g d o w n s i z e d t h r e e t i m e s c r e a t e d t w o n e w r a i l l i n e s : t h e L e h i g h S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n , w h i c h w a s l a t e r s o l d t o t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ( R B M N ) i n 1 9 9 6 ; t h e R B M N w o u l d l a t e r c u t b a c k t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n f r o m M e h o o p a n y t o D u p o n t , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e t r a c k s f r o m D u p o n t t o M e h o o p a n y b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e c a l l e d t h e S u s q u e h a n n a B r a n c h . I n 1 9 9 9 , t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y w h i c h i s o w n e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n C o r p o r a t i o n a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h L i n e i n t h e C o n r a i l s p l i t w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n b u t t h e t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y w e r e k e p t w i t h C o n r a i l i n o r d e r f o r b o t h N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a n d C S X t o h a v e e q u a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e N o r t h e a s t . T h e e x i s t i n g t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a l o n g w i t h C S X o w n i t u n d e r a j o i n t v e n t u r e . H o w e v e r , f o r h i s t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e p a r t f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n p a r t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e . N o w u n d e r o w n e r s h i p o f t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e L e h i g h L i n e ' s r o u t e i s n o w f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h i s i s c u r r e n t l y t h e l a s t t i m e t h e l i n e h a s b e e n d o w n s i z e d . T h e L e h i g h L i n e s t i l l e x i s t s a n d s t i l l s e r v e s a s a m a j o r f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d l i n e t h a t o p e r a t e s i n N e w J e r s e y a n d P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e i s s t i l l o w n e d a n d o p e r a t e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d t h e l i n e s t i l l r u n s f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e c o n n e c t s w i t h C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s ' s L e h i g h L i n e ( t h e n e w r a i l l i n e ) a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ' s T r e n t o n S u b d i v i s i o n a t P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s R e a d i n g D i v i s i o n a t P a c k e r t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s L e h i g h D i v i s i o n a t L e h i g h t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ( o r i g i n a l l y M & H J u n c t i o n n e a r O l d P e n n H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) . T h e l i n e m a k e s n o t a b l e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n l i n e s s u c h a s t h e R e a d i n g L i n e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s h o r t l i n e r a i l r o a d s . A t T h r e e B r i d g e s , N e w J e r s e y i n R e a d i n g t o n T o w n s h i p , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h B l a c k R i v e r a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s N e w J e r s e y s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e W a s h i n g t o n S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r R a i l w a y w h i c h a l s o p a s s e s o v e r t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r a f t e r t h a t . A c r o s s t h e r i v e r i n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s P e n n s y l v a n i a s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e P o r t l a n d S e c o n d a r y w h i c h e x t e n d s f r o m E a s t o n t o P o r t l a n d , P e n n s y l v a n i a c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y p a r t o f t h e L a c k a w a n n a O l d R o a d ( o r s i m p l y O l d R o a d ) ; t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y g o e s u n d e r t h e L a c k a w a n n a C u t - O f f a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e D e l a w a r e - L a c k a w a n n a R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e h o s t s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y - f i v e t r a i n s p e r d a y , w i t h t r a f f i c p e a k i n g a t t h e e n d o f t h e w e e k . E a s t o f t h e j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e R e a d i n g L i n e i n A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d i n B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e s e r v e s a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s m a i n c o r r i d o r i n a n d o u t o f t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y , a n d t h e N e w Y o r k M e t r o A r e a a t l a r g e , a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n d o e s n ' t c u r r e n t l y u s e t h e e a s t e r n h a l f o f i t s S o u t h e r n T i e r L i n e , w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f r o m P o r t J e r v i s n o r t h t o B i n g h a m t o n , N e w Y o r k a n d w h i c h i s n o w ( 2 0 2 2 ) o p e r a t e d b y t h e C e n t r a l N e w Y o r k R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s H a r r i s b u r g D i v i s i o n a n d i t i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s C r e s c e n t C o r r i d o r , a r a i l r o a d c o r r i d o r . I t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 , 0 0 0 - f o o t P a t t e n b u r g T u n n e l i n W e s t P o r t a l , N e w J e r s e y a l o n g i t s r o u t e . M o s t o f t h e t r a f f i c a l o n g t h e l i n e c o n s i s t s o f i n t e r m o d a l a n d g e n e r a l m e r c h a n d i s e t r a i n s g o i n g t o y a r d s s u c h a s O a k I s l a n d Y a r d i n N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y a n d C r o x t o n Y a r d i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e f i r s t l o c o m o t i v e p u r c h a s e d b y t h e L V R R w a s t h e " D e l a w a r e " , a w o o d - b u r n i n g 4 - 4 - 0 b u i l t b y R i c h a r d N o r r i s & S o n s o f P h i l a d e l p h i a i n 1 8 5 5 . I t w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e " C a t a s a u q u a " 4 - 4 - 0 a n d " L e h i g h " 4 - 6 - 0 , w h i c h w e r e a l s o N o r r i s & S o n s e n g i n e s . I n 1 8 5 6 , t h e " E . A . P a c k e r " 4 - 4 - 0 w a s p u r c h a s e d f r o m W i l l i a m M a s o n o f T a u n t o n , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . S u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e L V R R f a v o r e d e n g i n e s f r o m B a l d w i n L o c o m o t i v e W o r k s a n d W i l l i a m M a s o n , b u t t r i e d m a n y o t h e r d e s i g n s a s i t e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h m o t i v e p o w e r t h a t c o u l d h a n d l e t h e l i n e ' s h e a v y g r a d e s . T h e L V R R o p e r a t e d s e v e r a l n a m e d t r a i n s i n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I e r a . A m o n g t h e m : T h e p r i m a r y p a s s e n g e r m o t i v e p o w e r f o r t h e L V R R i n t h e d i e s e l e r a w a s t h e A L C O P A - 1 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e , o f w h i c h t h e L V R R h a d f o u r t e e n . T h e s e l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o u s e d i n f r e i g h t s e r v i c e d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e e r a o f L V R R p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . A p a i r o f A L C O F A - 2 F B - 2 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o p u r c h a s e d t o a u g m e n t t h e P A s w h e n n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e w e r e F A s w i t h s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t d e s i g n a t e d a s F P A - 2 u n i t s . D u e t o d e c l i n i n g p a s s e n g e r p a t r o n a g e , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y s u c c e s s f u l l y p e t i t i o n e d t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e C o m m i s s i o n t o t e r m i n a t e a l l p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . T h i s t o o k e f f e c t o n F e b r u a r y 4 , 1 9 6 1 . T h e " M a p l e L e a f " a n d t h e " J o h n W i l k e s " w e r e t h e l a s t o p e r a t i n g l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a i n s , t e r m i n a t e d t h a t d a y . T h e o n l y d a y l i g h t N e w Y o r k - B u f f a l o t r a i n , t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " , w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 9 5 9 . B u d d R a i l D i e s e l C a r s e r v i c e w o u l d c o n t i n u e o n a b r a n c h l i n e ( L e h i g h t o n - H a z l e t o n ) f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l f o u r d a y s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f p a s s e n g e r e q u i p m e n t i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n s c r a p p e d s o m e t i m e a f t e r F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 1 . M o s t s e r v i c e a b l e e q u i p m e n t n o t r e t a i n e d f o r c o m p a n y s e r v i c e w a s s o l d t o o t h e r r o a d s .

Surviving segments

The surviving segments of the Lehigh Valley Railroad include parts in New Jersey and New York. The original line connected Mauch Chunk to Easton, Pennsylvania, and was later extended to Buffalo, New York. Over time, the line was downsized, and segments were sold or abandoned. Today, the remaining sections are operated by different railroads, including Norfolk Southern, Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad, and others.

and other points in New Jersey. The LVRR's rolling stock was hired from the Central Railroad of New Jersey and a contract was made with the CNJ to run two passenger trains from Easton to Mauch Chunk connecting with the Philadelphia trains on the Belvidere Delaware Railroad. A daily freight train was put into operation leaving Easton in the morning and returning in the evening. In the early part of October 1855, a contract was made with Howard & Co of Philadelphia to do the freighting business of the railroad (except coal, iron, and iron ore). The length of the line from Mauch Chunk to Easton was 46 miles of single track. The line was laid with a rail weighing 56 pounds per yard supported upon cross ties 6 x 7 inches and 7-1/2 feet long placed 2 feet apart and about a quarter of it was ballasted with stone or gravel. The line had a descending or level grade from Mauch Chunk to Easton and with the exception of the curve at Mauch Chunk had no curve of less than 700 feet radius. The LVRR connected at Mauch Chunk with the Beaver Meadow Railroad. The Beaver Meadow Railroad had been built in 1836, and it transported anthracite coal from Jeansville in Pennsylvania's Middle Coal Field to the Lehigh Canal at Mauch Chunk. For 25 years the Lehigh Canal had enjoyed a monopoly on downstream transportation and was charging independent producers high fees. When the LVRR opened, those producers eagerly sent their product by the railroad the age of 73. At the time of his death, the railroad was shipping 4.4 million tons of coal annually over of track, using 235 engines, 24,461 coal cars, and over 2,000 freight cars of various kinds. The company controlled of coal-producing lands and was expanding rapidly into New York and New Jersey. The railroad had survived the economic depression of 1873 and was seeing its business recover. Leadership of the company transferred smoothly to Charles Hartshorne who had been vice president under Packer. In 1883, Hartshorne retired to allow Harry E. Packer, Asa's 32-year-old youngest son, to assume the Presidency. A year later, Harry Packer died of illness, and Asa's 51-year-old nephew Elisha Packer Wilbur was elected president, a position he held for 13 years. The 1880s and airlines much later provided faster long-distance travel than trains. Oil and gas were supplanting coal as the fuel of choice. The Depression had been difficult for all the railroads, and Congress recognized that bankruptcy laws needed revision. The Chandler Acts of 1938-9 provided a new form of relief for railroads, allowing them to restructure their debt while continuing to operate. The LVRR was approved for such a restructuring in 1940 when several large mortgage loans were due. The restructuring allowed the LVRR to extend the maturity of its mortgages, but it needed to repeat the process in 1950. The terms of the restructurings precluded dividend payments until 1953, when LVRR common stock paid the first dividend since 1931. In 1957, the LVRR again stopped dividends. In 1944, the LVRR's gross revenues came close to $100,000,000 which was a milestone for the railroad. Two final blows fell in the 1950s: the passage of the Federal-Aid Highway Act in 1956, better known as the Interstate Highway Act, and the opening of the Saint Lawrence Seaway in 1959. The interstate highways helped the trucking industry offer door-to-door service, and the St. Lawrence Seaway allowed grain shipments to bypass the railways and go directly to overseas markets. By the 1960s, railroads in the East were struggling to survive. The Pennsylvania Railroad in 1962 requested ICC authorization to acquire complete control of the LVRR through a swap of PRR stock for LVRR and elimination of the voting trust that had been in place since 1941. It managed to acquire more and small segments in Geneva, New York (from Geneva to the Seneca Army Depot in Kendaia); Batavia, New York; Auburn, New York and Cortland, New York. A long segment west from Van Etten Junction to Buffalo was included in the Conrail takeover, but was mostly torn-up not long afterward. Additionally, a segment from Geneva to Victor, New York, later cut back to Shortsville, New York, to Victor, remained with the Lehigh Valley Estate under subsidized Conrail operation. The Shortsville to Victor segment became the Ontario Central Railroad in 1979 (the Ontario Central became part of the Finger Lakes Railway in October 2007). Most of the rail equipment went to Conrail as well, but 24 locomotives (units GP38-2 314-325 and C420 404–415) went to the Delaware & Hudson instead. and was maintained as a main line into the New York City area. The line became known as the Lehigh Line during Conrail ownership. Conrail integrated former CNJ main line leased trackage into the line and kept the line in continuous operation (since 1855); however, it downsized the line in the northwest from the Buffalo area of New York State: first to Sayre Yard in Sayre, Pennsylvania; then to Mehoopany, Pennsylvania; and finally to Penn Haven Junction in Lehigh Township, Carbon County, Pennsylvania. The line's being downsized three times created two new rail lines: the Lehigh Secondary and the Lehigh Division, which was later sold to the Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad (RBMN) in 1996; the RBMN would later cut back the Lehigh Division from Mehoopany to which was originally part of the Lackawanna Old Road (or simply Old Road); the Stroudsburg Secondary goes under the Lackawanna Cut-Off and connects with the Delaware-Lackawanna Railroad. The line hosts approximately twenty-five trains per day, with traffic peaking at the end of the week. East of the junction with the Reading Line in Allentown, Pennsylvania and in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, the line serves as Norfolk Southern's main corridor in and out of the Port of New York and New Jersey, and the New York Metro Area at large, as Norfolk Southern doesn't currently use the eastern half of its Southern Tier Line, which follows the Delaware River from Port Jervis north to Binghamton, New York and which is now (2022) operated by the Central New York Railroad. The line

Lehigh Valley Railroad

T h e D e l a w a r e , L e h i g h , S c h u y l k i l l a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( D L S & S ) w a s a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o n A p r i l 2 1 , 1 8 4 6 , t o c o n s t r u c t a r a i l r o a d f r o m M a u c h C h u n k , P e n n s y l v a n i a , ( n o w J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e r a i l r o a d w o u l d r u n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L e h i g h R i v e r a n d b r e a k t h e L e h i g h C o a l a n d N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ' s m o n o p o l y o n c o a l t r a f f i c o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . T h e r a i l r o a d w a s c h a r t e r e d o n A u g u s t 2 , 1 8 4 7 , a n d e l e c t e d J a m e s M . P o r t e r i t s p r e s i d e n t o n O c t o b e r 2 1 . L i t t l e o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1 8 4 7 a n d 1 8 5 1 , s a v e s o m e l i m i t e d g r a d i n g n e a r A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . A l l t h i s c h a n g e d i n O c t o b e r 1 8 5 1 , w h e n A s a P a c k e r t o o k m a j o r i t y c o n t r o l o f t h e D L S & S . P a c k e r b r o u g h t a d d i t i o n a l f i n a n c i n g t o t h e r a i l r o a d , i n s t a l l e d R o b e r t H . S a y r e a s c h i e f e n g i n e e r , a n d r e n a m e d t h e c o m p a n y t h e " L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . " C o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n i n e a r n e s t i n 1 8 5 3 , a n d t h e l i n e o p e n e d b e t w e e n E a s t o n a n d A l l e n t o w n o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e s e c t i o n b e t w e e n A l l e n t o w n a n d M a u c h C h u n k o p e n e d o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R i n t e r c h a n g e d c o a l a t t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r w h e r e c o a l c o u l d b e s h i p p e d t o P h i l a d e l p h i a o n t h e D e l a w a r e D i v i s i o n C a n a l o r t r a n s p o r t e d a c r o s s t h e r i v e r t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , w h e r e t h e M o r r i s C a n a l a n d t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y ( C N J ) c o u l d c a r r y i t t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y m a r k e t . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d a d o u b l e - d e c k e d b r i d g e a c r o s s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f o r c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e C N J a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d i n P h i l l i p s b u r g . T h r o u g h a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , L V R R p a s s e n g e r s h a d a r o u t e t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y , J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y , a n d o t h e r p o i n t s i n N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R ' s r o l l i n g s t o c k w a s h i r e d f r o m t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y a n d a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h t h e C N J t o r u n t w o p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s f r o m E a s t o n t o M a u c h C h u n k c o n n e c t i n g w i t h t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a t r a i n s o n t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d . A d a i l y f r e i g h t t r a i n w a s p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n l e a v i n g E a s t o n i n t h e m o r n i n g a n d r e t u r n i n g i n t h e e v e n i n g . I n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f O c t o b e r 1 8 5 5 , a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h H o w a r d & C o o f P h i l a d e l p h i a t o d o t h e f r e i g h t i n g b u s i n e s s o f t h e r a i l r o a d ( e x c e p t c o a l , i r o n , a n d i r o n o r e ) . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n w a s 4 6 m i l e s o f s i n g l e t r a c k . T h e l i n e w a s l a i d w i t h a r a i l w e i g h i n g 5 6 p o u n d s p e r y a r d s u p p o r t e d u p o n c r o s s t i e s 6 x 7 i n c h e s a n d 7 - 1 / 2 f e e t l o n g p l a c e d 2 f e e t a p a r t a n d a b o u t a q u a r t e r o f i t w a s b a l l a s t e d w i t h s t o n e o r g r a v e l . T h e l i n e h a d a d e s c e n d i n g o r l e v e l g r a d e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e c u r v e a t M a u c h C h u n k h a d n o c u r v e o f l e s s t h a n 7 0 0 f e e t r a d i u s . T h e L V R R c o n n e c t e d a t M a u c h C h u n k w i t h t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d . T h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d h a d b e e n b u i l t i n 1 8 3 6 , a n d i t t r a n s p o r t e d a n t h r a c i t e c o a l f r o m J e a n s v i l l e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a ' s M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d t o t h e L e h i g h C a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k . F o r 2 5 y e a r s t h e L e h i g h C a n a l h a d e n j o y e d a m o n o p o l y o n d o w n s t r e a m t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d w a s c h a r g i n g i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r s h i g h f e e s . W h e n t h e L V R R o p e n e d , t h o s e p r o d u c e r s e a g e r l y s e n t t h e i r p r o d u c t b y t h e r a i l r o a d i n s t e a d o f c a n a l , a n d w i t h i n t w o y e a r s o f i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e L V R R w a s c a r r y i n g o v e r 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y . B y 1 8 5 9 i t h a d 6 0 0 c o a l c a r s a n d 1 9 e n g i n e s . T h e L V R R i m m e d i a t e l y b e c a m e t h e t r u n k l i n e d o w n t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w i t h n u m e r o u s f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s c o n n e c t i n g a n d c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i t s t r a f f i c . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d c a m e t o t h e L V R R o v e r f e e d e r s t o t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w : t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d , t h e C a t a w i s s a , W i l l i a m s p o r t a n d E r i e R a i l r o a d , t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d , t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d a n d o t h e r s m a l l e r l i n e s . A t C a t a s a u q u a , t h e C a t a s a u q u a a n d F o g e l s v i l l e R a i l r o a d t r a n s p o r t e d c o a l , o r e , l i m e s t o n e a n d i r o n f o r f u r n a c e s o f t h e T h o m a s I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h C r a n e I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y I r o n W o r k s , t h e C a r b o n I r o n C o m p a n y , a n d o t h e r s . A t B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e N o r t h P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d w h i c h w a s c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g t h e S u m m e r o f 1 8 5 6 , p r o v i d e d a r a i l c o n n e c t i o n t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d t h u s b r o u g h t t h e L V R R a d i r e c t l i n e t o P h i l a d e l p h i a . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d c o n n e c t e d t o T r e n t o n , N e w J e r s e y . T o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e g a u g e o f t h e B e l v i d e r e , t h e c a r s w e r e f u r n i s h e d w i t h w h e e l s h a v i n g w i d e t r e a d s t h a t o p e r a t e d o n b o t h r o a d s . T h e 1 8 6 0 s s a w a n e x p a n s i o n o f t h e L V R R n o r t h w a r d t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d u p t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e . A s a P a c k e r w a s e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o n J a n u a r y 1 3 , 1 8 6 2 . I n 1 8 6 4 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a c q u i r i n g f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s a n d m e r g i n g t h e m w i t h i t s s y s t e m . T h e f i r s t a c q u i s i t i o n s w e r e t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d a n d C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , a n d t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d . T h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n w a s t h e f i r s t s t e p i n e x p a n d i n g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . T h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d a l l o w e d t h e L V t o r e a c h W h i t e H a v e n . I n 1 8 6 6 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h a n d M a h a n o y R a i l r o a d ( o r i g i n a l l y t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d ) a n d t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l a l o n g t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r , r e n a m i n g i t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d N e w Y o r k C a n a l & R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ( P & N Y ) . T h e p u r c h a s i n g o f t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l s a w a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a n e a r m o n o p o l y i n t h e r e g i o n n o r t h o f t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . I n 1 8 6 6 , t w o y e a r s a f t e r t h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n , t h e e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e o p e n e d . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r a i l l i n e t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e s t a r t e d i m m e d i a t e l y a n d , i n 1 8 6 7 , t h e l i n e w a s c o m p l e t e f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e t o W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k , w h e r e c o a l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b r o a d g a u g e E r i e R a i l r o a d a n d s h i p p e d t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s t h r o u g h B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e P e n n H a v e n & W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 4 , a n d b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e t h a t w a s o p e n e d i n 1 8 6 7 . B y 1 8 6 9 , t h e L V R R o w n e d a c o n t i n u o u s t r a c k t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a f r o m E a s t o n t o W a v e r l y . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e L V R R — a s t a n d a r d g a u g e r a i l r o a d — c o m p l e t e d a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d , a t t h a t t i m e h a v i n g a s i x - f o o t g a u g e , f o r a t h i r d r a i l w i t h i n t h e E r i e m a i n l i n e t r a c k s t o e n a b l e t h e L V e q u i p m e n t t o r u n t h r o u g h t o E l m i r a a n d l a t e r t o B u f f a l o . F u r t h e r r o u n d s o f a c q u i s i t i o n s t o o k p l a c e i n 1 8 6 8 . T h e a c q u i s i t i o n s i n 1 8 6 8 w e r e n o t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e L V R R ' s s t r a t e g y o f a c q u i r i n g c o a l l a n d s t o e n s u r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a f f i c f o r i t s o w n l i n e s . A l t h o u g h t h e 1 8 6 4 a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w h a d i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , b y 1 8 6 8 t h e L V R R w a s f e e l i n g p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n a n d t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d i n t h e n o r t h e r n W y o m i n g V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d , w h e r e t h e r a i l r o a d s m i n e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d t h e i r o w n c o a l a t a m u c h r e d u c e d c o s t . T h e L V R R r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i t s o w n c o n t i n u e d p r o s p e r i t y d e p e n d e d o n o b t a i n i n g w h a t c o a l l a n d s r e m a i n e d . I n p u r s u i t o f t h a t s t r a t e g y , t h e 1 8 6 8 p u r c h a s e s o f t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d a n d t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d b r o u g h t o f c o a l l a n d t o t h e L V R R , a n d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d s w e r e a c q u i r e d a l o n g b r a n c h e s o f t h e L V R R . O v e r t h e n e x t d o z e n y e a r s t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d : i n 1 8 7 0 , i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a C o a l C o m p a n y i n 1 8 7 3 w i t h i t s l a r g e l e a s e s i n t h e M a h a n o y b a s i n . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e h o l d i n g s w e r e c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h w a s w h o l l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R . B y 1 8 9 3 , t h e L V R R o w n e d o r c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l l a n d s . W i t h t h e s e a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L V R R o b t a i n e d t h e r i g h t t o m i n e c o a l a s w e l l a s t r a n s p o r t i t . T h e 1 8 7 0 s w i t n e s s e d c o m m e n c e m e n t o f e x t e n s i o n o f t h e L V R R i n a n e w d i r e c t i o n . I n t h e 1 8 7 0 s t h e L V R R a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d s t a r t i n g a t i n 1 8 7 0 , w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l o f i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d t u r n e d i t s e y e t o w a r d e x p a n s i o n a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y a l l t h e w a y t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . I n 1 8 7 0 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s t o A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t i n t h e e a s t w a s N e w Y o r k C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R w a s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l f o r t r a n s p o r t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e L V R R l e a s e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l , w h i c h h a d a v a l u a b l e o u t l e t i n J e r s e y C i t y o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r o p p o s i t e M a n h a t t a n . A s a P a c k e r p u r c h a s e d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d a t t h e c a n a l b a s i n i n s u p p o r t o f t h e N e w J e r s e y W e s t L i n e R a i l r o a d , w h i c h h e h o p e d t o u s e a s t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . T h a t p r o j e c t f a i l e d , b u t t h e l a n d s w e r e l a t e r u s e d f o r t h e L V R R ' s o w n t e r m i n a l i n 1 8 8 9 . T h e C N J , a n t i c i p a t i n g t h a t t h e L V R R i n t e n d e d t o c r e a t e i t s o w n l i n e a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y , p r o t e c t e d i t s e l f b y l e a s i n g t h e L e h i g h a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( L & S ) t o e n s u r e a c o n t i n u i n g s u p p l y o f c o a l t r a f f i c . T h e L & S h a d b e e n c h a r t e r e d i n 1 8 3 7 b y t h e L e h i g h C o a l & N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ( t h e L e h i g h C a n a l c o m p a n y ) t o c o n n e c t t h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e c a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . A f t e r t h e L V R R o p e n e d i t s l i n e , t h e L e h i g h & S u s q u e h a n n a e x t e n d e d t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s a n d E s s e x R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 8 . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e e n t i r e l i n e f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e w a s l e a s e d t o t h e C N J . F o r m o s t o f i t s l e n g t h , i t r a n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L V R R . T h e L V R R f o u n d t h a t t h e r o u t e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l w a s i m p r a c t i c a l f o r u s e a s a r a i l r o a d l i n e , s o i n 1 8 7 2 t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e d o r m a n t c h a r t e r o f t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k R a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d a c c e s s t o t h e P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y h a r b o r , a n d a d d e d t o i t a n e w c h a r t e r , t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n R a i l r o a d . T h e S t a t e o f N e w J e r s e y p a s s e d l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o c o n s o l i d a t e i t s N e w J e r s e y r a i l r o a d s i n t o o n e c o m p a n y ; t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k a n d t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n w e r e m e r g e d t o f o r m a n e w r a i l r o a d c o m p a n y c a l l e d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ( o r E a s t o n & A m b o y R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ) . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a r a i l r o a d b u i l t a c r o s s c e n t r a l N e w J e r s e y b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d t o r u n f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y t o B o u n d B r o o k , N e w J e r s e y a n d i t w a s b u i l t t o c o n n e c t t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d c o a l - h a u l i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y t o s e r v e c o n s u m e r m a r k e t s i n t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e P h i l l i p s b u r g c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C N J t h a t h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n t h e o n l y o u t l e t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r ; u n t i l i t w a s b u i l t , t h e t e r m i n u s o f t h e L V R R h a d b e e n a t P h i l l i p s b u r g o n t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r o p p o s i t e E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s u s e d a s a c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , w i t h a t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . C o n s t r u c t i o n c o m m e n c e d i n 1 8 7 2 a s s o o n t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s f o r m e d ; c o a l d o c k s a t P e r t h A m b o y w e r e s o o n c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d m o s t o f t h e l i n e f r o m E a s t o n t o P e r t h A m b o y w a s g r a d e d a n d r a i l s l a i d . H o w e v e r , t h e r o u t e r e q u i r e d a t u n n e l t h r o u g h / u n d e r M u s c o n e t c o n g M o u n t a i n n e a r P a t t e n b u r g , N e w J e r s e y ( a b o u t t w e l v e m i l e s e a s t o f P h i l l i p s b u r g ) , a n d t h a t p r o v e d t r o u b l e s o m e , d e l a y i n g t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e l i n e u n t i l M a y 1 8 7 5 , w h e n a c o a l t r a i n f i r s t p a s s e d o v e r t h e l i n e . T o s u p p o r t t h e e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s e i n t r a f f i c , t h e w o o d e n b r i d g e o v e r t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r a t E a s t o n w a s a l s o r e p l a c e d b y a d o u b l e - t r a c k e d , i r o n b r i d g e . A t P e r t h A m b o y , a t i d e w a t e r t e r m i n a l w a s b u i l t o n t h e A r t h u r K i l l c o m p r i s i n g a l a r g e c o a l d o c k u s e d t o t r a n s p o r t c o a l i n t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . T h e s e t r a c k s w e r e l a i d a n d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s o p e n e d f o r b u s i n e s s o n J u n e 2 8 , 1 8 7 5 w i t h h a u l i n g c o a l . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y ' s o p e r a t i o n s w e r e l a b e l e d t h e " N e w J e r s e y D i v i s i o n " o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y h a d a l r e a d y c o m p l e t e d l a r g e d o c k s a n d f a c i l i t i e s f o r s h i p p i n g c o a l a t P e r t h A m b o y u p o n a n e x t e n s i v e t r a c t o f l a n d f r o n t i n g t h e A r t h u r K i l l . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f a n t h r a c i t e m o v e d t o P e r t h A m b o y d u r i n g t h a t y e a r f o r t r a n s s h i p m e n t b y w a t e r . O p e r a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e L V R R ' s b a n k r u p t c y i n 1 9 7 6 . T h e m a r s h a l l i n g y a r d i s n o w t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a k n o w n a s H a r b o r t o w n . P a s s e n g e r t r a f f i c o n t h e L V R R ' s E a s t o n a n d A m b o y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ( P R R ) a t M e t u c h e n , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n t i n u e d t o t h e P R R ' S E x c h a n g e P l a c e t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y ( t h a t c o n n e c t i o n w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 8 9 1 a f t e r t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d ) . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e p a r e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e L V R R f i n a n c e d t h e a d d i t i o n o f a t h i r d r a i l t o t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e s o t h a t c a r s c o u l d r o l l d i r e c t l y f r o m c o l l i e r y t o t h e p o r t a t B u f f a l o . W h i l e t h e t h i r d r a i l o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e b e t w e e n W a v e r l y a n d B u f f a l o g a v e t h e L V R R a n u n b r o k e n c o n n e c t i o n t o B u f f a l o , t h e r o a d ' s m a n a g e m e n t d e s i r e d i t s o w n l i n e i n t o B u f f a l o . T h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d p a s s e d i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e L V R R i n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 6 , w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e n e a r S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k , a d i s t a n c e o f 7 5 m i l e s . O n M a y 1 7 , 1 8 7 9 , A s a P a c k e r , t h e c o m p a n y ' s f o u n d e r a n d l e a d e r , d i e d a t t h e a g e o f 7 3 . A t t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h , t h e r a i l r o a d w a s s h i p p i n g 4 . 4 m i l l i o n t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y o v e r o f t r a c k , u s i n g 2 3 5 e n g i n e s , 2 4 , 4 6 1 c o a l c a r s , a n d o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 f r e i g h t c a r s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s . T h e c o m p a n y c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l - p r o d u c i n g l a n d s a n d w a s e x p a n d i n g r a p i d l y i n t o N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y . T h e r a i l r o a d h a d s u r v i v e d t h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n o f 1 8 7 3 a n d w a s s e e i n g i t s b u s i n e s s r e c o v e r . L e a d e r s h i p o f t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s f e r r e d s m o o t h l y t o C h a r l e s H a r t s h o r n e w h o h a d b e e n v i c e p r e s i d e n t u n d e r P a c k e r . I n 1 8 8 3 , H a r t s h o r n e r e t i r e d t o a l l o w H a r r y E . P a c k e r , A s a ' s 3 2 - y e a r - o l d y o u n g e s t s o n , t o a s s u m e t h e P r e s i d e n c y . A y e a r l a t e r , H a r r y P a c k e r d i e d o f i l l n e s s , a n d A s a ' s 5 1 - y e a r - o l d n e p h e w E l i s h a P a c k e r W i l b u r w a s e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t , a p o s i t i o n h e h e l d f o r 1 3 y e a r s . T h e 1 8 8 0 s c o n t i n u e d t o b e a p e r i o d o f g r o w t h , a n d t h e L V R R m a d e i m p o r t a n t a c q u i s i t i o n s i n N e w Y o r k , e x p a n d e d i t s r e a c h i n t o t h e s o u t h e r n c o a l f i e l d o f P e n n s y l v a n i a w h i c h h a d h i t h e r t o b e e n t h e m o n o p o l y o f t h e R e a d i n g , a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y b a t t l e d t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . I n 1 8 8 0 , t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e t o o p e r a t e a f l e e t o f s h i p s o n t h e G r e a t L a k e s w i t h t e r m i n a l s i n C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , a n d D u l u t h . T h i s c o m p a n y b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e m o v e m e n t o f a n t h r a c i t e , g r a i n a n d p a c k a g e f r e i g h t b e t w e e n B u f f a l o , C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , D u l u t h , S u p e r i o r a n d o t h e r m i d w e s t e r n c i t i e s . F o l l o w i n g F e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s u c h s e r v i c e , t h e l a k e l i n e w a s s o l d t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s i n 1 9 2 0 . T h e p o r t o n L a k e E r i e a t B u f f a l o w a s c r i t i c a l t o t h e L V R R ' s s h i p m e n t s o f c o a l t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s a n d f o r r e c e i p t o f g r a i n s e n t b y t h e W e s t t o e a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l t h o u g h i n 1 8 7 0 t h e L V R R h a d i n v e s t e d i n t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k R a i l r o a d w h i c h c o n n e c t e d t h e E r i e t o t h e l a k e f r o n t , a n d h a d c o n s t r u c t e d t h e L e h i g h D o c k s o n B u f f a l o C r e e k , i t d e p e n d e d o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d f o r t h e c o n n e c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k t o B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . I n 1 8 8 2 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a n e x t e n s i v e e x p a n s i o n i n t o N e w Y o r k f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o . C o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o w a s s p l i t i n t o t w o p r o j e c t s , W a v e r l y t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k a n d G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o ( G e n e v a i s l o c a t e d a t t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f S e n e c a L a k e ) . F i r s t , i t p u r c h a s e d a l a r g e p a r c e l o f l a n d i n B u f f a l o , t h e T i f f t f a r m , f o r u s e a s t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s , a n d o b t a i n e d a N e w Y o r k c h a r t e r f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y ( a s i m i l a r n a m e t o t h e L V R R , b u t w i t h " r a i l w a y " i n s t e a d ) . L V R R s u b s i d i a r y , L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e m a i n l i n e ' s n o r t h e r n p a r t f r o m B u f f a l o t o L a n c a s t e r , N e w Y o r k i n 1 8 8 3 , a t o t a l d i s t a n c e o f t e n m i l e s . T h i s w a s t h e s e c o n d s t e p t o w a r d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a d i r e c t r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o , t h e f i r s t b e i n g t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d . T h e n i n 1 8 8 7 t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o b t a i n e d a l e a s e o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d ( t h e L V R R p r e v i o u s l y h a d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s o n t h e r a i l r o a d s t a r t i n g i n 1 8 7 0 ) , w h i c h h a d a r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y n o r t h w a r d i n t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e L V R R o r g a n i z e d t h e B u f f a l o a n d G e n e v a R a i l r o a d t o b u i l d t h e r e s t o f t h e 9 7 - m i l e G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o t r a c k a g e , f r o m G e n e v a t o L a n c a s t e r . F i n a l l y , i n 1 8 8 9 , t h e L V R R g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a , a n d S a y r e R a i l r o a d a n d c o m p l e t e d i t s l i n e o f r a i l t h r o u g h N e w Y o r k . A s a r e s u l t o f i t s l e a s e s a n d a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y g a i n e d a n e a r - m o n o p o l y o n t r a f f i c i n t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . I t a l s o c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w a n d d e v e l o p i t s r o u t e s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n 1 8 8 3 t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d l a n d i n n o r t h e a s t P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d f o r m e d a s u b s i d i a r y c a l l e d T h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l a n d L a n d C o m p a n y . I t o p e n e d a h o t e l i n G l e n S u m m i t , P e n n s y l v a n i a c a l l e d t h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l t o s e r v e l u n c h t o p a s s e n g e r s t r a v e l i n g o n t h e l i n e . T h e h o t e l r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e c o m p a n y u n t i l 1 9 0 9 , w h e n i t w a s b o u g h t b y r e s i d e n t s o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o t t a g e s . I n P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L e h i g h s c o r e d a c o u p b y o b t a i n i n g t h e c h a r t e r f o r m e r l y h e l d b y t h e S c h u y k i l l H a v e n a n d L e h i g h R i v e r R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 8 6 . T h a t c h a r t e r h a d b e e n h e l d b y t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d s i n c e 1 8 6 0 , w h e n i t h a d b l o c k e d c o n s t r u c t i o n i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n i t s m o n o p o l y i n t h e S o u t h e r n C o a l F i e l d . T h a t s o u t h e r n f i e l d h e l d t h e l a r g e s t r e s e r v e s o f a n t h r a c i t e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d a c c o u n t e d f o r a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n . T h r o u g h n e g l e c t , t h e R e a d i n g a l l o w e d t h e c h a r t e r t o l a p s e , a n d i t w a s a c q u i r e d b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d t h e S c h u y l k i l l a n d L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e g a v e t h e L V R R a r o u t e i n t o P o t t s v i l l e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e S c h u y l k i l l V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d s . T h e V o s b u r g T u n n e l w a s c o m p l e t e d a n d o p e n e d f o r s e r v i c e o n J u l y 2 5 , 1 8 8 6 . T h e 1 6 m i l e M o u n t a i n C u t - o f f , ( a r a i l s e g m e n t o f t h e l i n e ) w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m F a i r v i e w , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o t h e o u t s k i r t s o f P i t t s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , w a s c o m p l e t e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 8 8 8 . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e l i n e ' s e a s t b o u n d g r a d e t o b e r e d u c e d a n d a s h o r t e r r o u t e f o r h a n d l i n g t h r o u g h t r a f f i c e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e L V R R h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , b u t d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n N e w J e r s e y , t h e L V R R e m b a r k e d o n a d e c a d e - l o n g l e g a l b a t t l e w i t h t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . T h e l a n d t h a t A s a P a c k e r h a d o b t a i n e d i n 1 8 7 2 w a s s i t u a t e d o n t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l ' s S o u t h B a s i n , b u t t h e C N J a l r e a d y h a d i t s o w n f a c i l i t i e s a d j a c e n t t o t h a t p r o p e r t y a n d d i s p u t e d t h e L V R R ' s t i t l e , w h i c h p a r t l y o v e r l a p p e d l a n d t h e C N J h a d f i l l e d f o r i t s o w n t e r m i n a l . F i n a l l y i n 1 8 8 7 t h e t w o r a i l r o a d s r e a c h e d a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e L V R R ' s J e r s e y C i t y f r e i g h t y a r d b e g a n . T h e L V R R o b t a i n e d a 5 - y e a r a g r e e m e n t t o u s e t h e C N J l i n e t o a c c e s s t h e t e r m i n a l , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 8 8 9 . I t f r o n t e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l B a s i n w i t h a s e r i e s o f p i e r s a n g l i n g o u t f r o m t h e s h o r e l i n e b u t w a s t o o n a r r o w f o r a y a r d , s o t h e L V R R b u i l t a s e p a r a t e y a r d a t O a k I s l a n d i n N e w a r k t o s o r t a n d p r e p a r e t r a i n s . T h e S o u t h B a s i n t e r m i n a l w a s u s e d s o l e l y f o r f r e i g h t , h a v i n g d o c k s a n d c a r f l o a t f a c i l i t i e s . P a s s e n g e r s w e r e r o u t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y . T h e L V R R s t r o v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 8 0 s t o a c q u i r e i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y a n d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y w a t e r f r o n t . T h e L V R R d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d m o r e t o t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n N e w J e r s e y i n o r d e r t o r e a c h i t s f r e i g h t y a r d s w i t h o u t u s i n g t h e C N J m a i n l i n e . T h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f r a i l r o a d s t o c o n n e c t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y l i n e ( E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ) t o J e r s e y C i t y . T h e f i r s t l e g o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o J e r s e y C i t y w a s t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n 1 8 8 8 w h i c h c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a t R o s e l l e , N e w J e r s e y f o r a c c e s s o v e r t h e C N J t o t h e H u d s o n R i v e r w a t e r f r o n t i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R w h i c h h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n 1 8 9 1 , t h e L V R R c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y , a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r c o m p a n i e s w h i c h f o r m e d t h e r o u t e f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y t e r m i n a l . I n i t i a l l y , t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r r i g h t s f r o m R o s e l l e t o J e r s e y C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R e v e n t u a l l y f i n i s h e d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o i t s t e r m i n a l i n J e r s e y C i t y o v e r t h e N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y , t h e N e w a r k a n d P a s s a i c R a i l w a y , t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k , a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y , a n d t h e J e r s e y C i t y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y . T h e L V R R ' s N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y i n 1 8 9 1 b r o u g h t t h e l i n e f r o m R o s e l l e i n t o N e w a r k , w h e r e p a s s e n g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . B r i d g i n g N e w a r k B a y p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t . T h e L V R R f i r s t a t t e m p t e d t o o b t a i n a r i g h t o f w a y a t G r e e n v i l l e , b u t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d c h e c k m a t e d t h e m b y p u r c h a s i n g m o s t o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s n e e d e d . T h e n t h e C N J o p p o s e d t h e L V R R ' s a t t e m p t t o c r o s s i t s l i n e a t C a v e n P o i n t . F i n a l l y a f t e r s e t t l i n g t h e l e g a l i s s u e s , t h e N e w a r k B a y w a s b r i d g e d i n 1 8 9 2 b y t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y a n d c o n n e c t e d t o t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y , w h i c h w a s p a r t l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R a n d w h i c h r e a c h e d t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . I n 1 8 9 5 , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d t h e G r e e n v i l l e a n d H u d s o n R a i l w a y p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s i n o r d e r t o r e l i e v e c o n g e s t i o n a n d h a v e a w h o l l y - o w n e d r o u t e i n t o J e r s e y C i t y . F i n a l l y i n 1 9 0 0 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y o u t r i g h t . T h e 1 8 9 0 s w e r e a p e r i o d o f t u r m o i l f o r t h e L V R R . A l t h o u g h t h e d e c a d e b e g a n w i t h t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f i t s t e r m i n a l s a t B u f f a l o a n d J e r s e y C i t y , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a t r u n k l i n e a c r o s s N e w Y o r k , t h e c o m p a n y s o o n b e c a m e e n t a n g l e d i n c o s t l y b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o t h e P a c k e r f a m i l y ' s l o s s o f c o n t r o l . T h e c o a l t r a d e w a s a l w a y s t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e b u s i n e s s b u t w a s s u b j e c t t o b o o m a n d b u s t a s c o m p e t i t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e d a n d t h e e c o n o m y c y c l e d . T h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s h a d b e g u n i n 1 8 7 3 t o f o r m p o o l s t o r e g u l a t e p r o d u c t i o n a n d s e t q u o t a s f o r e a c h r a i l r o a d . B y c o n t r o l l i n g s u p p l y , t h e c o a l c o m b i n a t i o n a t t e m p t e d t o k e e p p r i c e s a n d p r o f i t s h i g h . S e v e r a l c o m b i n a t i o n s o c c u r r e d , b u t e a c h f e l l a p a r t a s o n e r o a d o r a n o t h e r a b r o g a t e d i t s a g r e e m e n t . T h e f i r s t s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n 1 8 7 3 , f o l l o w e d b y o t h e r s i n 1 8 7 8 , 1 8 8 4 , a n d 1 8 8 6 . C u s t o m e r s n a t u r a l l y r e s e n t e d t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e c a r t e l , a n d s i n c e c o a l w a s c r i t i c a l t o c o m m e r c e , C o n g r e s s i n t e r v e n e d i n 1 8 8 7 w i t h t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e A c t t h a t f o r b a d e t h e r o a d s f r o m j o i n i n g i n t o s u c h p o o l s . A l t h o u g h t h e r o a d s e f f e c t i v e l y i g n o r e d t h e A c t a n d t h e i r s a l e s a g e n t s c o n t i n u e d t o m e e t a n d s e t p r i c e s , t h e a g r e e m e n t s w e r e n e v e r e f f e c t i v e f o r l o n g . I n 1 8 9 2 , t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d t h o u g h t i t h a d a s o l u t i o n — i n s t e a d o f a t t e m p t i n g t o m a i n t a i n a g r e e m e n t s a m o n g t h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s , i t w o u l d p u r c h a s e o r l e a s e t h e m a j o r l i n e s a n d b r i n g t h e m i n t o a m o n o p o l y . I t l e a s e d t h e C N J a n d t h e L V R R , p u r c h a s e d t h e r a i l r o a d s ' c o a l c o m p a n i e s a n d a r r a n g e d f o r t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g 7 0 % o f t h e t r a d e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t o v e r r e a c h e d a n d i n 1 8 9 3 w a s u n a b l e t o m e e t i t s o b l i g a t i o n s . I t s b a n k r u p t c y r e s u l t e d i n e c o n o m i c c h a o s , b r i n g i n g o n t h e f i n a n c i a l p a n i c o f 1 8 9 3 a n d f o r c i n g t h e L V R R t o b r e a k t h e l e a s e a n d r e s u m e i t s o w n o p e r a t i o n s , l e a v i n g i t u n a b l e t o p a y d i v i d e n d s o n i t s s t o c k u n t i l 1 9 0 4 . T h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n f o l l o w i n g 1 8 9 3 w a s h a r s h , a n d b y 1 8 9 7 t h e L V R R w a s i n d i r e n e e d o f s u p p o r t . T h e b a n k i n g g i a n t J . P . M o r g a n s t e p p e d i n t o r e f i n a n c e t h e L V R R d e b t a n d o b t a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e r a i l r o a d i n t h e p r o c e s s . O u s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E l i s h a P . W i l b u r a n d s e v e r a l d i r e c t o r s i n 1 8 9 7 , t h e M o r g a n c o m p a n y i n s t a l l e d W . A l f r e d W a l t e r a s p r e s i d e n t a n d s e a t e d i t s o w n d i r e c t o r s . I n 1 9 0 1 M o r g a n a r r a n g e d t o h a v e t h e P a c k e r E s t a t e ' s h o l d i n g s p u r c h a s e d j o i n t l y b y t h e E r i e , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L a k e S h o r e a n d M i c h i g a n S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e D L & W a n d t h e C N J , a l l c o m p a n i e s i n w h i c h M o r g a n h a d i n t e r e s t s . N e w l y e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t E b e n B . T h o m a s ( f o r m e r l y o f t h e E r i e ) a n d h i s B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e c o m b i n e d i n t e r e s t s o f t h o s e r a i l r o a d s . A f i n a l a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h a c o a l c a r t e l t o o k p l a c e i n 1 9 0 4 w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y . P r i o r t o t h a t t i m e , t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s a s m a l l c o n c e r n t h a t h a p p e n e d t o h a v e a b r o a d c h a r t e r a l l o w i n g i t t o a c t a s a h o l d i n g c o m p a n y . T h e R e a d i n g , n o w o u t o f r e c e i v e r s h i p , p u r c h a s e d t h e c o m p a n y a n d b r o u g h t t h e o t h e r c o a l r a i l r o a d s i n t o t h e p a r t n e r s h i p , w i t h t h e R e a d i n g o w n i n g 3 0 % , t h e L V R R 2 3 % , t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 2 0 % , C N J 1 7 % , E r i e 6 % , a n d N e w Y o r k , S u s q u e h a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 4 p e r c e n t . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s t o l o c k - u p i n d e p e n d e n t c o a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l t h e s u p p l y . C o n g r e s s r e a c t e d w i t h t h e 1 9 0 6 H e p b u r n A c t , w h i c h a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s f o r b a d e r a i l r o a d s f r o m o w n i n g t h e c o m m o d i t i e s t h a t t h e y t r a n s p o r t e d . A l o n g s e r i e s o f a n t i t r u s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d l a w s u i t s r e s u l t e d , c u l m i n a t i n g i n a 1 9 1 1 S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n t h a t f o r c e d t h e L V R R t o d i v e s t i t s e l f o f t h e c o a l c o m p a n i e s i t h a d h e l d s i n c e 1 8 6 8 . T h e L V R R s h a r e h o l d e r s r e c e i v e d s h a r e s o f t h e n o w i n d e p e n d e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , b u t t h e r a i l r o a d n o l o n g e r h a d m a n a g e m e n t c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n , c o n t r a c t s , a n d s a l e s o f i t s l a r g e s t c u s t o m e r . I n 1 8 9 6 t h e v e r y e a r l y f i l m " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s " w a s p r o d u c e d b y T h o m a s A . E d i s o n ' s c o m p a n y K i n e t o s c o p e . T h e t r a i n a r r i v e s f r o m f a r a w a y a n d p a s s e s t h e c a m e r a , w h i l e w o r k e r s a r e w a v i n g t h e i r h a n d k e r c h i e f s . F o r t u n a t e l y , g r a i n t o n n a g e w a s i n c r e a s i n g a n d t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s p o r t e d l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s f r o m B u f f a l o t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d o t h e r E a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l s o , i n 1 9 1 4 t h e P a n a m a C a n a l w a s c o m p l e t e d , a n d t h e L V R R g a i n e d a n i m p o r t a n t n e w m a r k e t w i t h o r e s s h i p p e d f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a t o t h e B e t h l e h e m S t e e l c o m p a n y . I n o r d e r t o h a n d l e t h e a d d i t i o n a l n e w o c e a n t r a f f i c , t h e L V R R c r e a t e d a l a r g e n e w p i e r a t C o n s t a b l e H o o k , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 1 5 , a n d a n e w t e r m i n a l a t C l a r e m o n t w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 2 3 . I t a l s o b u i l t a p a s s e n g e r t e r m i n a l i n B u f f a l o i n 1 9 1 5 . S i n c e 1 8 9 6 t h e L V R R h a d r u n a n i m p o r t a n t a n d p r e s t i g i o u s e x p r e s s t r a i n n a m e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " w h i c h c a r r i e d p a s s e n g e r s t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s a n d B u f f a l o . A d d i t i o n a l p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s r a n f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a t o S c r a n t o n a n d w e s t w a r d . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e L V R R ' s N e w Y o r k C i t y p a s s e n g e r s h a d u s e d t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y a t J e r s e y C i t y , b u t i n 1 9 1 3 t h e P R R t e r m i n a t e d t h a t a g r e e m e n t , s o t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r u s e o f i t s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y , w h i c h w a s e x p a n d e d t o h a n d l e t h e i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r o f p a s s e n g e r s . T h e r a i l r o a d a l s o p u b l i s h e d a m o n t h l y m a g a z i n e p r o m o t i n g t r a v e l o n t h e t r a i n c a l l e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s M o n t h l y " . I n t h e w a r y e a r s 1 9 1 4 t o 1 9 1 8 , t h e L e h i g h h a n d l e d w a r m a t e r i a l s a n d e x p l o s i v e s a t i t s B l a c k T o m i s l a n d f a c i l i t y , w h i c h h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d a l o n g w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 0 0 . I n 1 9 1 6 , a h o r r e n d o u s e x p l o s i o n o c c u r r e d a t t h e f a c i l i t y , d e s t r o y i n g s h i p s a n d b u i l d i n g s , a n d b r e a k i n g w i n d o w s i n M a n h a t t a n . A t f i r s t t h e i n c i d e n t w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a c c i d e n t ; a l o n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n e v e n t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e x p l o s i o n w a s a n a c t o f G e r m a n s a b o t a g e , f o r w h i c h r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e f i n a l l y p a i d i n 1 9 7 9 . A f t e r t h e U . S . e n t e r e d W o r l d W a r I , t h e r a i l r o a d s w e r e n a t i o n a l i z e d i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t s t r i k e s a n d i n t e r r u p t i o n s . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s R a i l r o a d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n t r o l l e d t h e r a i l r o a d f r o m 1 9 1 8 t o 1 9 2 0 , a t w h i c h t i m e c o n t r o l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d b a c k t o t h e p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e h e a v y w a r t i m e t r a f f i c h a d l e f t t h e r a i l r o a d ' s p l a n t a n d e q u i p m e n t i n n e e d o f r e p a i r , t h e d a m a g e w a s p a r t l y o f f s e t b y n e w e q u i p m e n t t h a t h a d b e e n p u r c h a s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t . I n 1 9 2 0 , t h e L V R R s o l d i t s l a k e l i n e c o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e , t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s d u e t o n e w f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f r a i l r o a d s o w n i n g l a k e l i n e s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 2 0 s t h e r a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e M o r g a n / D r e x e l b a n k i n g f i r m , b u t i n 1 9 2 8 a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o w r e s t c o n t r o l f r o m i t . I n 1 9 2 7 , L e o n o r F r e s n e l L o r e e , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n R a i l r o a d , h a d a v i s i o n f o r a n e w f i f t h t r u n k l i n e b e t w e e n t h e E a s t a n d W e s t , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e W a b a s h R a i l r o a d , t h e B u f f a l o , R o c h e s t e r a n d P i t t s b u r g h R a i l w a y , a n d t h e L V R R . T h r o u g h b o n d s i s s u e d b y t h e D & H , h e o b t a i n e d 3 0 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k , a n d w o n t h e s u p p o r t o f n e a r l y h a l f t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . I n 1 9 2 8 , h e a t t e m p t e d t o s e a t a n e w p r e s i d e n t a n d b o a r d . A m a s s i v e p r o x y f i g h t e n s u e d , w i t h e x i s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E d w a r d E u g e n e L o o m i s n a r r o w l y r e t a i n i n g h i s p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f E d w a r d T . S t o t e s b u r y o f J . P . M o r g a n . F o l l o w i n g t h e d e f e a t o f i t s p l a n , t h e D & H s o l d i t s s t o c k t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a q u i e t l y o b t a i n e d m o r e s t o c k , b o t h d i r e c t l y a n d t h r o u g h r a i l r o a d s i t c o n t r o l l e d , p r i m a r i l y t h e W a b a s h . B y 1 9 3 1 , t h e P R R c o n t r o l l e d 5 1 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k . F o l l o w i n g L o o m i s ' d e a t h i n 1 9 3 7 , t h e p r e s i d e n c y w e n t t o L o o m i s ' a s s i s t a n t D u n c a n J . K e r r , b u t i n 1 9 4 0 h e w a s r e p l a c e d b y A l b e r t N . W i l l i a m s , a n d t h e r o a d c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e P R R . I n 1 9 4 1 , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a p l a c e d i t s s h a r e s i n a v o t i n g t r u s t a f t e r r e a c h i n g a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l r e g a r d i n g t h e P R R ' s p u r c h a s e o f t h e W a b a s h . F o l l o w i n g t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n , t h e r a i l r o a d h a d a f e w p e r i o d s o f p r o s p e r i t y , b u t w a s c l e a r l y i n a s l o w d e c l i n e . P a s s e n g e r s p r e f e r r e d t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f a u t o m o b i l e s t o t r a i n s , a n d a i r l i n e s m u c h l a t e r p r o v i d e d f a s t e r l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a v e l t h a n t r a i n s . O i l a n d g a s w e r e s u p p l a n t i n g c o a l a s t h e f u e l o f c h o i c e . T h e D e p r e s s i o n h a d b e e n d i f f i c u l t f o r a l l t h e r a i l r o a d s , a n d C o n g r e s s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t b a n k r u p t c y l a w s n e e d e d r e v i s i o n . T h e C h a n d l e r A c t s o f 1 9 3 8 - 9 p r o v i d e d a n e w f o r m o f r e l i e f f o r r a i l r o a d s , a l l o w i n g t h e m t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e i r d e b t w h i l e c o n t i n u i n g t o o p e r a t e . T h e L V R R w a s a p p r o v e d f o r s u c h a r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n 1 9 4 0 w h e n s e v e r a l l a r g e m o r t g a g e l o a n s w e r e d u e . T h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o e x t e n d t h e m a t u r i t y o f i t s m o r t g a g e s , b u t i t n e e d e d t o r e p e a t t h e p r o c e s s i n 1 9 5 0 . T h e t e r m s o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g s p r e c l u d e d d i v i d e n d p a y m e n t s u n t i l 1 9 5 3 , w h e n L V R R c o m m o n s t o c k p a i d t h e f i r s t d i v i d e n d s i n c e 1 9 3 1 . I n 1 9 5 7 , t h e L V R R a g a i n s t o p p e d d i v i d e n d s . I n 1 9 4 4 , t h e L V R R ' s g r o s s r e v e n u e s c a m e c l o s e t o $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 w h i c h w a s a m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e r a i l r o a d . T w o f i n a l b l o w s f e l l i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s : t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e F e d e r a l - A i d H i g h w a y A c t i n 1 9 5 6 , b e t t e r k n o w n a s t h e I n t e r s t a t e H i g h w a y A c t , a n d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e S a i n t L a w r e n c e S e a w a y i n 1 9 5 9 . T h e i n t e r s t a t e h i g h w a y s h e l p e d t h e t r u c k i n g i n d u s t r y o f f e r d o o r - t o - d o o r s e r v i c e , a n d t h e S t . L a w r e n c e S e a w a y a l l o w e d g r a i n s h i p m e n t s t o b y p a s s t h e r a i l w a y s a n d g o d i r e c t l y t o o v e r s e a s m a r k e t s . B y t h e 1 9 6 0 s , r a i l r o a d s i n t h e E a s t w e r e s t r u g g l i n g t o s u r v i v e . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 6 2 r e q u e s t e d I C C a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o a c q u i r e c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e L V R R t h r o u g h a s w a p o f P R R s t o c k f o r L V R R a n d e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e v o t i n g t r u s t t h a t h a d b e e n i n p l a c e s i n c e 1 9 4 1 . I t m a n a g e d t o a c q u i r e m o r e t h a n 8 5 % o f a l l o u t s t a n d i n g s h a r e s , a n d f r o m t h a t t i m e t h e L V R R w a s l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a d i v i s i o n o f t h e P R R . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a m e r g e d w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l i n 1 9 6 8 , b u t t h e P e n n C e n t r a l f a i l e d i n 1 9 7 0 , c a u s i n g a c a s c a d e o f r a i l r o a d f a i l u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e E a s t . O n J u n e 2 1 , 1 9 7 0 , t h e P e n n C e n t r a l d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y a n d s o u g h t b a n k r u p t c y p r o t e c t i o n . A s a r e s u l t , t h e P C w a s r e l i e v e d o f i t s o b l i g a t i o n t o p a y f e e s t o v a r i o u s N o r t h e a s t e r n r a i l r o a d s — t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y i n c l u d e d — f o r t h e u s e o f t h e i r r a i l c a r s a n d o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e o t h e r r a i l r o a d s ' o b l i g a t i o n s t o p a y t h o s e f e e s t o t h e P e n n C e n t r a l w e r e n o t w a i v e d . T h i s i m b a l a n c e i n p a y m e n t s w o u l d p r o v e f a t a l t o t h e f i n a n c i a l l y - f r a i l L e h i g h V a l l e y , a n d i t d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y j u s t o v e r o n e m o n t h a f t e r t h e P e n n C e n t r a l , o n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 7 0 . T h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 b a n k r u p t c y , a s w a s t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e o f t h e t i m e . I n 1 9 7 2 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a s s u m e d t h e r e m a i n i n g P e n n s y l v a n i a t r a c k a g e o f t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , a c o m p e t i n g a n t h r a c i t e r a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d e n t e r e d b a n k r u p t c y a s w e l l . T h e t w o r o a d s h a d e n t e r e d a s h a r e d t r a c k a g e a g r e e m e n t i n t h i s a r e a i n 1 9 6 5 t o r e d u c e c o s t s , a s b o t h h a d p a r a l l e l r o u t e s f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e w a y t o m e t r o p o l i t a n N e w Y o r k , o f t e n o n a d j o i n i n g g r a d e s t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n t h e y e a r s l e a d i n g t o 1 9 7 3 , t h e f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d s y s t e m i n t h e n o r t h e a s t o f t h e U . S . w a s c o l l a p s i n g . A l t h o u g h g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d A m t r a k t o o k o v e r i n t e r c i t y p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e o n M a y 1 , 1 9 7 1 , r a i l r o a d c o m p a n i e s c o n t i n u e d t o l o s e m o n e y d u e t o e x t e n s i v e g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s , e x p e n s i v e a n d e x c e s s i v e l a b o r c o s t , c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m o t h e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m o d e s , d e c l i n i n g i n d u s t r i a l b u s i n e s s a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s ; t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s o n e o f t h e m . H u r r i c a n e A g n e s i n 1 9 7 2 d a m a g e d t h e r u n d o w n N o r t h e a s t r a i l w a y n e t w o r k , w h i c h p u t t h e s o l v e n c y o f o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n c l u d i n g t h e L V R R i n d a n g e r ; t h e s o m e w h a t m o r e s o l v e n t E r i e L a c k a w a n n a R a i l w a y ( E L ) w a s a l s o d a m a g e d b y H u r r i c a n e A g n e s . I n 1 9 7 3 , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n g r e s s a c t e d t o c r e a t e a b i l l t o n a t i o n a l i z e a l l b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e L V . T h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n R a i l r o a d s , w h i c h o p p o s e d n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , s u b m i t t e d a n a l t e r n a t e p r o p o s a l f o r a g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d p r i v a t e c o m p a n y . P r e s i d e n t R i c h a r d N i x o n s i g n e d t h e R e g i o n a l R a i l R e o r g a n i z a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 7 3 i n t o l a w . T h e " 3 R A c t , " a s i t w a s c a l l e d , p r o v i d e d i n t e r i m f u n d i n g t o t h e b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s a n d d e f i n e d a n e w " C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n " u n d e r t h e A A R ' s p l a n . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , t h e L V R R , i n c l u d i n g i t s m a i n l i n e , w a s m e r g e d i n t o t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t ' s C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n ( C o n r a i l ) e n d i n g 1 3 0 y e a r s o f e x i s t e n c e a n d 1 2 1 y e a r s o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e L V R R . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , m a j o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e a s s e t s o f t h e b a n k r u p t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w e r e a c q u i r e d b y C o n r a i l . T h i s p r i m a r i l y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e m a i n l i n e a n d r e l a t e d b r a n c h e s f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n ( n o r t h / R R w e s t o f S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o O a k I s l a n d Y a r d , t h e I t h a c a b r a n c h f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o I t h a c a , N e w Y o r k , c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e C a y u g a L a k e l i n e a n d o n t o t h e M i l l i k e n p o w e r s t a t i o n i n L a k e R i d g e , N e w Y o r k ( c l o s e d o n A u g u s t 2 9 , 2 0 1 9 ) a n d t h e C a r g i l l s a l t m i n e j u s t s o u t h o f A u b u r n , N Y ; a n d s m a l l s e g m e n t s i n G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k ( f r o m G e n e v a t o t h e S e n e c a A r m y D e p o t i n K e n d a i a ) ; B a t a v i a , N e w Y o r k ; A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k a n d C o r t l a n d , N e w Y o r k . A l o n g s e g m e n t w e s t f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o B u f f a l o w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o n r a i l t a k e o v e r , b u t w a s m o s t l y t o r n - u p n o t l o n g a f t e r w a r d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a s e g m e n t f r o m G e n e v a t o V i c t o r , N e w Y o r k , l a t e r c u t b a c k t o S h o r t s v i l l e , N e w Y o r k , t o V i c t o r , r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y E s t a t e u n d e r s u b s i d i z e d C o n r a i l o p e r a t i o n . T h e S h o r t s v i l l e t o V i c t o r s e g m e n t b e c a m e t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 7 9 ( t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e F i n g e r L a k e s R a i l w a y i n O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 ) . M o s t o f t h e r a i l e q u i p m e n t w e n t t o C o n r a i l a s w e l l , b u t 2 4 l o c o m o t i v e s ( u n i t s G P 3 8 - 2 3 1 4 - 3 2 5 a n d C 4 2 0 4 0 4 – 4 1 5 ) w e n t t o t h e D e l a w a r e & H u d s o n i n s t e a d . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e a s s e t s w e r e d i s p o s e d o f b y t h e e s t a t e u n t i l i t w a s f o l d e d i n t o t h e n o n - r a i l r o a d P e n n C e n t r a l C o r p o r a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s . T h e r o u t e a c r o s s P e n n s y l v a n i a , N e w J e r s e y a n d O a k I s l a n d Y a r d r e m a i n s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o d a y , t h e o n l y t w o C l a s s 1 r a i l r o a d s t h a t a r e b a s e d i n t h e E a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s r o u t e b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t t o C o n r a i l a s a n a l t e r n a t e r o u t e t o a v o i d A m t r a k ' s f o r m e r P R R / P C N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r e l e c t r i f i e d r o u t e . T o d a y , t h i s r o u t e c o n t i n u e s a s t w o l i n e s , o n e t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a n d t h e o t h e r t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w l i n e t h a t w a s o n c e p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e o r i g i n a l l i n e r e t a i n s i t s o r i g i n a l r o u t e w h e n i t w a s f i r s t c o n s t r u c t e d a n d i s s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y . T h e n e w l i n e i s a l s o s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , b u t i t i s s e r v e d t o g e t h e r w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n a j o i n t o w n e r s h i p c o m p a n y c a l l e d C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s . M o s t o f t h e o t h e r r e m a i n i n g L e h i g h V a l l e y t r a c k s e r v e s a s b r a n c h l i n e s , o r h a s b e e n s o l d t o s h o r t l i n e a n d r e g i o n a l o p e r a t o r s . T h e s e o p e r a t o r s i n c l u d e , i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r : T h e L e h i g h L i n e w a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d ' s f i r s t r a i l l i n e a n d s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e . I t w a s o p e n e d o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 b e t w e e n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h r e e m o n t h s l a t e r t h e l i n e b r a n c h e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t A l l e n t o w n t o J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e l i n e w a s l a t e r e x t e n d e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t J i m T h o r p e t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d l a t e r i t r e a c h e d t h e B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k a r e a a n d p a s t E a s t o n a l l t h e w a y t o P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y a n d t h e n s w i t c h e d d i r e c t i o n t o t h e n o r t h e a s t t o J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y l a t e r c u t b a c k t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y . D u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s , t h e l i n e s e r v e d a s t h e b o d y o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d u n t i l t h e r a i l r o a d e i t h e r b u i l t , a c q u i r e d , o r m e r g e d o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n t o i t s s y s t e m . D u r i n g t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t s o w n e r s h i p u n d e r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d , t h e l i n e w a s k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y M a i n l i n e , s t a r t i n g i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s . T h e l i n e a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o C o n r a i l i n 1 9 7 6 a n d w a s m a i n t a i n e d a s a m a i n l i n e i n t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . T h e l i n e b e c a m e k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h L i n e d u r i n g C o n r a i l o w n e r s h i p . C o n r a i l i n t e g r a t e d f o r m e r C N J m a i n l i n e l e a s e d t r a c k a g e i n t o t h e l i n e a n d k e p t t h e l i n e i n c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n ( s i n c e 1 8 5 5 ) ; h o w e v e r , i t d o w n s i z e d t h e l i n e i n t h e n o r t h w e s t f r o m t h e B u f f a l o a r e a o f N e w Y o r k S t a t e : f i r s t t o S a y r e Y a r d i n S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; t h e n t o M e h o o p a n y , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; a n d f i n a l l y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e ' s b e i n g d o w n s i z e d t h r e e t i m e s c r e a t e d t w o n e w r a i l l i n e s : t h e L e h i g h S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n , w h i c h w a s l a t e r s o l d t o t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ( R B M N ) i n 1 9 9 6 ; t h e R B M N w o u l d l a t e r c u t b a c k t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n f r o m M e h o o p a n y t o D u p o n t , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e t r a c k s f r o m D u p o n t t o M e h o o p a n y b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e c a l l e d t h e S u s q u e h a n n a B r a n c h . I n 1 9 9 9 , t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y w h i c h i s o w n e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n C o r p o r a t i o n a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h L i n e i n t h e C o n r a i l s p l i t w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n b u t t h e t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y w e r e k e p t w i t h C o n r a i l i n o r d e r f o r b o t h N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a n d C S X t o h a v e e q u a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e N o r t h e a s t . T h e e x i s t i n g t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a l o n g w i t h C S X o w n i t u n d e r a j o i n t v e n t u r e . H o w e v e r , f o r h i s t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e p a r t f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n p a r t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e . N o w u n d e r o w n e r s h i p o f t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e L e h i g h L i n e ' s r o u t e i s n o w f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h i s i s c u r r e n t l y t h e l a s t t i m e t h e l i n e h a s b e e n d o w n s i z e d . T h e L e h i g h L i n e s t i l l e x i s t s a n d s t i l l s e r v e s a s a m a j o r f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d l i n e t h a t o p e r a t e s i n N e w J e r s e y a n d P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e i s s t i l l o w n e d a n d o p e r a t e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d t h e l i n e s t i l l r u n s f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e c o n n e c t s w i t h C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s ' s L e h i g h L i n e ( t h e n e w r a i l l i n e ) a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ' s T r e n t o n S u b d i v i s i o n a t P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s R e a d i n g D i v i s i o n a t P a c k e r t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s L e h i g h D i v i s i o n a t L e h i g h t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ( o r i g i n a l l y M & H J u n c t i o n n e a r O l d P e n n H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) . T h e l i n e m a k e s n o t a b l e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n l i n e s s u c h a s t h e R e a d i n g L i n e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s h o r t l i n e r a i l r o a d s . A t T h r e e B r i d g e s , N e w J e r s e y i n R e a d i n g t o n T o w n s h i p , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h B l a c k R i v e r a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s N e w J e r s e y s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e W a s h i n g t o n S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r R a i l w a y w h i c h a l s o p a s s e s o v e r t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r a f t e r t h a t . A c r o s s t h e r i v e r i n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s P e n n s y l v a n i a s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e P o r t l a n d S e c o n d a r y w h i c h e x t e n d s f r o m E a s t o n t o P o r t l a n d , P e n n s y l v a n i a c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y p a r t o f t h e L a c k a w a n n a O l d R o a d ( o r s i m p l y O l d R o a d ) ; t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y g o e s u n d e r t h e L a c k a w a n n a C u t - O f f a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e D e l a w a r e - L a c k a w a n n a R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e h o s t s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y - f i v e t r a i n s p e r d a y , w i t h t r a f f i c p e a k i n g a t t h e e n d o f t h e w e e k . E a s t o f t h e j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e R e a d i n g L i n e i n A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d i n B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e s e r v e s a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s m a i n c o r r i d o r i n a n d o u t o f t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y , a n d t h e N e w Y o r k M e t r o A r e a a t l a r g e , a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n d o e s n ' t c u r r e n t l y u s e t h e e a s t e r n h a l f o f i t s S o u t h e r n T i e r L i n e , w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f r o m P o r t J e r v i s n o r t h t o B i n g h a m t o n , N e w Y o r k a n d w h i c h i s n o w ( 2 0 2 2 ) o p e r a t e d b y t h e C e n t r a l N e w Y o r k R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s H a r r i s b u r g D i v i s i o n a n d i t i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s C r e s c e n t C o r r i d o r , a r a i l r o a d c o r r i d o r . I t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 , 0 0 0 - f o o t P a t t e n b u r g T u n n e l i n W e s t P o r t a l , N e w J e r s e y a l o n g i t s r o u t e . M o s t o f t h e t r a f f i c a l o n g t h e l i n e c o n s i s t s o f i n t e r m o d a l a n d g e n e r a l m e r c h a n d i s e t r a i n s g o i n g t o y a r d s s u c h a s O a k I s l a n d Y a r d i n N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y a n d C r o x t o n Y a r d i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e f i r s t l o c o m o t i v e p u r c h a s e d b y t h e L V R R w a s t h e " D e l a w a r e " , a w o o d - b u r n i n g 4 - 4 - 0 b u i l t b y R i c h a r d N o r r i s & S o n s o f P h i l a d e l p h i a i n 1 8 5 5 . I t w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e " C a t a s a u q u a " 4 - 4 - 0 a n d " L e h i g h " 4 - 6 - 0 , w h i c h w e r e a l s o N o r r i s & S o n s e n g i n e s . I n 1 8 5 6 , t h e " E . A . P a c k e r " 4 - 4 - 0 w a s p u r c h a s e d f r o m W i l l i a m M a s o n o f T a u n t o n , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . S u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e L V R R f a v o r e d e n g i n e s f r o m B a l d w i n L o c o m o t i v e W o r k s a n d W i l l i a m M a s o n , b u t t r i e d m a n y o t h e r d e s i g n s a s i t e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h m o t i v e p o w e r t h a t c o u l d h a n d l e t h e l i n e ' s h e a v y g r a d e s . T h e L V R R o p e r a t e d s e v e r a l n a m e d t r a i n s i n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I e r a . A m o n g t h e m : T h e p r i m a r y p a s s e n g e r m o t i v e p o w e r f o r t h e L V R R i n t h e d i e s e l e r a w a s t h e A L C O P A - 1 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e , o f w h i c h t h e L V R R h a d f o u r t e e n . T h e s e l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o u s e d i n f r e i g h t s e r v i c e d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e e r a o f L V R R p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . A p a i r o f A L C O F A - 2 F B - 2 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o p u r c h a s e d t o a u g m e n t t h e P A s w h e n n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e w e r e F A s w i t h s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t d e s i g n a t e d a s F P A - 2 u n i t s . D u e t o d e c l i n i n g p a s s e n g e r p a t r o n a g e , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y s u c c e s s f u l l y p e t i t i o n e d t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e C o m m i s s i o n t o t e r m i n a t e a l l p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . T h i s t o o k e f f e c t o n F e b r u a r y 4 , 1 9 6 1 . T h e " M a p l e L e a f " a n d t h e " J o h n W i l k e s " w e r e t h e l a s t o p e r a t i n g l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a i n s , t e r m i n a t e d t h a t d a y . T h e o n l y d a y l i g h t N e w Y o r k - B u f f a l o t r a i n , t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " , w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 9 5 9 . B u d d R a i l D i e s e l C a r s e r v i c e w o u l d c o n t i n u e o n a b r a n c h l i n e ( L e h i g h t o n - H a z l e t o n ) f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l f o u r d a y s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f p a s s e n g e r e q u i p m e n t i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n s c r a p p e d s o m e t i m e a f t e r F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 1 . M o s t s e r v i c e a b l e e q u i p m e n t n o t r e t a i n e d f o r c o m p a n y s e r v i c e w a s s o l d t o o t h e r r o a d s .

Surviving segments ; The Lehigh Line, the first rail line and main line of the Lehigh Valley Railroad

The Lehigh Line was the first rail line of the Lehigh Valley Railroad, serving as the main line. Opened in 1855, it connected Easton, PA to Allentown, PA, then expanded to Jim Thorpe, PA, and eventually reached Buffalo, NY, and Perth Amboy, NJ. Later, it was absorbed into Conrail in 1976 and renamed the Lehigh Line. Today, it remains a major freight railroad line, owned and operated by Norfolk Southern Railway, running from Port Reading Junction, NJ to Penn Haven Junction, PA.

6 x 7 inches and 7-1/2 feet long placed 2 feet apart and about a quarter of it was ballasted with stone or gravel. The line had a descending or level grade from Mauch Chunk to Easton and with the exception of the curve at Mauch Chunk had no curve of less than 700 feet radius. The LVRR connected at Mauch Chunk with the Beaver Meadow Railroad. The Beaver Meadow Railroad had been built in 1836, and it transported anthracite coal from Jeansville in Pennsylvania's Middle Coal Field to the Lehigh Canal at Mauch Chunk. For 25 years the Lehigh Canal had enjoyed a monopoly on downstream transportation and was charging independent producers high fees. When the LVRR opened, those producers eagerly sent their product by the railroad obtained a New York charter for the Lehigh Valley Railway (a similar name to the LVRR, but with "railway" instead). LVRR subsidiary, Lehigh Valley Railway began constructing the main line's northern part from Buffalo to Lancaster, New York in 1883, a total distance of ten miles. This was the second step toward establishment of a direct route from Waverly to Buffalo, the first being the acquisition of the Geneva, Ithaca & Athens Railroad. Then in 1887 the Lehigh Valley Railroad obtained a lease on the Southern Central Railroad (the LVRR previously had trackage rights on the railroad starting in 1870), which had a route from Waverly northward into the Finger Lakes region. At the same time, the LVRR organized the Buffalo and Geneva Railroad to build the rest on July 24, 1970. The Lehigh Valley Railroad remained in operation during the 1970 bankruptcy, as was the common practice of the time. In 1972, the Lehigh Valley Railroad assumed the remaining Pennsylvania trackage of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, a competing anthracite railroad which had entered bankruptcy as well. The two roads had entered a shared trackage agreement in this area in 1965 to reduce costs, as both had parallel routes from Wilkes-Barre virtually all the way to metropolitan New York, often on adjoining grades through Pennsylvania. In the years leading to 1973, the freight railroad system in the northeast of the U.S. was collapsing. Although government-funded Amtrak took over intercity passenger service on May 1, 1971, railroad companies continued to lose money due to extensive a new "Consolidated Rail Corporation" under the AAR's plan. On April 1, 1976, the LVRR, including its main line, was merged into the U.S. government's Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail) ending 130 years of existence and 121 years of operation of the LVRR. On April 1, 1976, major portions of the assets of the bankrupt Lehigh Valley Railroad were acquired by Conrail. This primarily consisted of the main line and related branches from Van Etten Junction (north/RR west of Sayre, Pennsylvania) to Oak Island Yard, the Ithaca branch from Van Etten Junction to Ithaca, New York, connecting to the Cayuga Lake line and on to the Milliken power station in Lake Ridge, New York (closed on August 29, 2019) and the Cargill salt mine just south of Auburn, NY; the Lehigh Valley Railroad. The original line retains its original route when it was first constructed and is served by Norfolk Southern Railway. The new line is also served by Norfolk Southern Railway, but it is served together with CSX Transportation in a joint ownership company called Conrail Shared Assets Operations. Most of the other remaining Lehigh Valley track serves as branch lines, or has been sold to shortline and regional operators. These operators include, in alphabetical order: The Lehigh Line was the Lehigh Valley Railroad's first rail line and served as the main line. It was opened on June 11, 1855 between Easton, Pennsylvania and Allentown, Pennsylvania, passing through Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Three months later the line branched out to the northwest past Allentown to Jim Thorpe, Pennsylvania on September 12, 1855. The line was later extended out to the northwest past Jim Thorpe to the Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania area and later it reached the Buffalo, New York area and past Easton all the way to Perth Amboy, New Jersey and then switched direction to the northeast to Jersey City, New Jersey later cut back to Newark, New Jersey. During the early years, the line served as the body of the Lehigh Valley Railroad until the railroad either built, acquired, or merged other railroads into its system. During the majority of its ownership under the Lehigh Valley Railroad, the line was known as the Lehigh Valley Mainline, starting in the 1930s. The line and the rest of the Lehigh Valley Railroad was absorbed into Conrail in 1976 and was maintained as a main line into the New York City area. The line became known as the Lehigh Line during Conrail ownership. Conrail integrated former CNJ main line leased trackage into the line and kept the line in continuous operation (since 1855); however, it downsized the line in the northwest from the Buffalo area of New York State: first to Sayre Yard in Sayre, Pennsylvania; then to Mehoopany, Pennsylvania; and finally to Penn Haven Junction in Lehigh Township, Carbon County, Pennsylvania. The line's being downsized three times created two new rail lines: the Lehigh Secondary and the Lehigh Division, which was later sold to the Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad (RBMN) in 1996; the RBMN would later cut back the Lehigh Division from Mehoopany to Southern Railway, the Lehigh Line's route is now from Port Reading Junction in Manville, New Jersey to Penn Haven Junction in Lehigh Township, Carbon County, Pennsylvania. This is currently the last time the line has been downsized. The Lehigh Line still exists and still serves as a major freight railroad line that operates in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The line is still owned and operated by the Norfolk Southern Railway and the line still runs from Port Reading Junction in Manville, New Jersey to Penn Haven Junction in Lehigh Township, Carbon County, Pennsylvania. The line connects with Conrail Shared Assets Operations's Lehigh Line (the new rail line) and CSX Transportation's Trenton Subdivision at Port Reading Junction in Manville, New Jersey and connects with the Reading Blue Mountain and

Lehigh Valley Railroad

T h e D e l a w a r e , L e h i g h , S c h u y l k i l l a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( D L S & S ) w a s a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o n A p r i l 2 1 , 1 8 4 6 , t o c o n s t r u c t a r a i l r o a d f r o m M a u c h C h u n k , P e n n s y l v a n i a , ( n o w J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e r a i l r o a d w o u l d r u n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L e h i g h R i v e r a n d b r e a k t h e L e h i g h C o a l a n d N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ' s m o n o p o l y o n c o a l t r a f f i c o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . T h e r a i l r o a d w a s c h a r t e r e d o n A u g u s t 2 , 1 8 4 7 , a n d e l e c t e d J a m e s M . P o r t e r i t s p r e s i d e n t o n O c t o b e r 2 1 . L i t t l e o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1 8 4 7 a n d 1 8 5 1 , s a v e s o m e l i m i t e d g r a d i n g n e a r A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . A l l t h i s c h a n g e d i n O c t o b e r 1 8 5 1 , w h e n A s a P a c k e r t o o k m a j o r i t y c o n t r o l o f t h e D L S & S . P a c k e r b r o u g h t a d d i t i o n a l f i n a n c i n g t o t h e r a i l r o a d , i n s t a l l e d R o b e r t H . S a y r e a s c h i e f e n g i n e e r , a n d r e n a m e d t h e c o m p a n y t h e " L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . " C o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n i n e a r n e s t i n 1 8 5 3 , a n d t h e l i n e o p e n e d b e t w e e n E a s t o n a n d A l l e n t o w n o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e s e c t i o n b e t w e e n A l l e n t o w n a n d M a u c h C h u n k o p e n e d o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R i n t e r c h a n g e d c o a l a t t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r w h e r e c o a l c o u l d b e s h i p p e d t o P h i l a d e l p h i a o n t h e D e l a w a r e D i v i s i o n C a n a l o r t r a n s p o r t e d a c r o s s t h e r i v e r t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , w h e r e t h e M o r r i s C a n a l a n d t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y ( C N J ) c o u l d c a r r y i t t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y m a r k e t . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d a d o u b l e - d e c k e d b r i d g e a c r o s s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f o r c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e C N J a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d i n P h i l l i p s b u r g . T h r o u g h a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , L V R R p a s s e n g e r s h a d a r o u t e t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y , J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y , a n d o t h e r p o i n t s i n N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R ' s r o l l i n g s t o c k w a s h i r e d f r o m t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y a n d a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h t h e C N J t o r u n t w o p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s f r o m E a s t o n t o M a u c h C h u n k c o n n e c t i n g w i t h t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a t r a i n s o n t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d . A d a i l y f r e i g h t t r a i n w a s p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n l e a v i n g E a s t o n i n t h e m o r n i n g a n d r e t u r n i n g i n t h e e v e n i n g . I n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f O c t o b e r 1 8 5 5 , a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h H o w a r d & C o o f P h i l a d e l p h i a t o d o t h e f r e i g h t i n g b u s i n e s s o f t h e r a i l r o a d ( e x c e p t c o a l , i r o n , a n d i r o n o r e ) . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n w a s 4 6 m i l e s o f s i n g l e t r a c k . T h e l i n e w a s l a i d w i t h a r a i l w e i g h i n g 5 6 p o u n d s p e r y a r d s u p p o r t e d u p o n c r o s s t i e s 6 x 7 i n c h e s a n d 7 - 1 / 2 f e e t l o n g p l a c e d 2 f e e t a p a r t a n d a b o u t a q u a r t e r o f i t w a s b a l l a s t e d w i t h s t o n e o r g r a v e l . T h e l i n e h a d a d e s c e n d i n g o r l e v e l g r a d e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e c u r v e a t M a u c h C h u n k h a d n o c u r v e o f l e s s t h a n 7 0 0 f e e t r a d i u s . T h e L V R R c o n n e c t e d a t M a u c h C h u n k w i t h t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d . T h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d h a d b e e n b u i l t i n 1 8 3 6 , a n d i t t r a n s p o r t e d a n t h r a c i t e c o a l f r o m J e a n s v i l l e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a ' s M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d t o t h e L e h i g h C a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k . F o r 2 5 y e a r s t h e L e h i g h C a n a l h a d e n j o y e d a m o n o p o l y o n d o w n s t r e a m t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d w a s c h a r g i n g i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r s h i g h f e e s . W h e n t h e L V R R o p e n e d , t h o s e p r o d u c e r s e a g e r l y s e n t t h e i r p r o d u c t b y t h e r a i l r o a d i n s t e a d o f c a n a l , a n d w i t h i n t w o y e a r s o f i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e L V R R w a s c a r r y i n g o v e r 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y . B y 1 8 5 9 i t h a d 6 0 0 c o a l c a r s a n d 1 9 e n g i n e s . T h e L V R R i m m e d i a t e l y b e c a m e t h e t r u n k l i n e d o w n t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w i t h n u m e r o u s f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s c o n n e c t i n g a n d c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i t s t r a f f i c . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d c a m e t o t h e L V R R o v e r f e e d e r s t o t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w : t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d , t h e C a t a w i s s a , W i l l i a m s p o r t a n d E r i e R a i l r o a d , t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d , t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d a n d o t h e r s m a l l e r l i n e s . A t C a t a s a u q u a , t h e C a t a s a u q u a a n d F o g e l s v i l l e R a i l r o a d t r a n s p o r t e d c o a l , o r e , l i m e s t o n e a n d i r o n f o r f u r n a c e s o f t h e T h o m a s I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h C r a n e I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y I r o n W o r k s , t h e C a r b o n I r o n C o m p a n y , a n d o t h e r s . A t B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e N o r t h P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d w h i c h w a s c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g t h e S u m m e r o f 1 8 5 6 , p r o v i d e d a r a i l c o n n e c t i o n t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d t h u s b r o u g h t t h e L V R R a d i r e c t l i n e t o P h i l a d e l p h i a . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d c o n n e c t e d t o T r e n t o n , N e w J e r s e y . T o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e g a u g e o f t h e B e l v i d e r e , t h e c a r s w e r e f u r n i s h e d w i t h w h e e l s h a v i n g w i d e t r e a d s t h a t o p e r a t e d o n b o t h r o a d s . T h e 1 8 6 0 s s a w a n e x p a n s i o n o f t h e L V R R n o r t h w a r d t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d u p t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e . A s a P a c k e r w a s e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o n J a n u a r y 1 3 , 1 8 6 2 . I n 1 8 6 4 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a c q u i r i n g f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s a n d m e r g i n g t h e m w i t h i t s s y s t e m . T h e f i r s t a c q u i s i t i o n s w e r e t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d a n d C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , a n d t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d . T h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n w a s t h e f i r s t s t e p i n e x p a n d i n g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . T h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d a l l o w e d t h e L V t o r e a c h W h i t e H a v e n . I n 1 8 6 6 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h a n d M a h a n o y R a i l r o a d ( o r i g i n a l l y t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d ) a n d t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l a l o n g t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r , r e n a m i n g i t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d N e w Y o r k C a n a l & R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ( P & N Y ) . T h e p u r c h a s i n g o f t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l s a w a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a n e a r m o n o p o l y i n t h e r e g i o n n o r t h o f t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . I n 1 8 6 6 , t w o y e a r s a f t e r t h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n , t h e e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e o p e n e d . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r a i l l i n e t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e s t a r t e d i m m e d i a t e l y a n d , i n 1 8 6 7 , t h e l i n e w a s c o m p l e t e f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e t o W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k , w h e r e c o a l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b r o a d g a u g e E r i e R a i l r o a d a n d s h i p p e d t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s t h r o u g h B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e P e n n H a v e n & W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 4 , a n d b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e t h a t w a s o p e n e d i n 1 8 6 7 . B y 1 8 6 9 , t h e L V R R o w n e d a c o n t i n u o u s t r a c k t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a f r o m E a s t o n t o W a v e r l y . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e L V R R — a s t a n d a r d g a u g e r a i l r o a d — c o m p l e t e d a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d , a t t h a t t i m e h a v i n g a s i x - f o o t g a u g e , f o r a t h i r d r a i l w i t h i n t h e E r i e m a i n l i n e t r a c k s t o e n a b l e t h e L V e q u i p m e n t t o r u n t h r o u g h t o E l m i r a a n d l a t e r t o B u f f a l o . F u r t h e r r o u n d s o f a c q u i s i t i o n s t o o k p l a c e i n 1 8 6 8 . T h e a c q u i s i t i o n s i n 1 8 6 8 w e r e n o t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e L V R R ' s s t r a t e g y o f a c q u i r i n g c o a l l a n d s t o e n s u r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a f f i c f o r i t s o w n l i n e s . A l t h o u g h t h e 1 8 6 4 a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w h a d i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , b y 1 8 6 8 t h e L V R R w a s f e e l i n g p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n a n d t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d i n t h e n o r t h e r n W y o m i n g V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d , w h e r e t h e r a i l r o a d s m i n e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d t h e i r o w n c o a l a t a m u c h r e d u c e d c o s t . T h e L V R R r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i t s o w n c o n t i n u e d p r o s p e r i t y d e p e n d e d o n o b t a i n i n g w h a t c o a l l a n d s r e m a i n e d . I n p u r s u i t o f t h a t s t r a t e g y , t h e 1 8 6 8 p u r c h a s e s o f t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d a n d t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d b r o u g h t o f c o a l l a n d t o t h e L V R R , a n d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d s w e r e a c q u i r e d a l o n g b r a n c h e s o f t h e L V R R . O v e r t h e n e x t d o z e n y e a r s t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d : i n 1 8 7 0 , i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a C o a l C o m p a n y i n 1 8 7 3 w i t h i t s l a r g e l e a s e s i n t h e M a h a n o y b a s i n . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e h o l d i n g s w e r e c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h w a s w h o l l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R . B y 1 8 9 3 , t h e L V R R o w n e d o r c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l l a n d s . W i t h t h e s e a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L V R R o b t a i n e d t h e r i g h t t o m i n e c o a l a s w e l l a s t r a n s p o r t i t . T h e 1 8 7 0 s w i t n e s s e d c o m m e n c e m e n t o f e x t e n s i o n o f t h e L V R R i n a n e w d i r e c t i o n . I n t h e 1 8 7 0 s t h e L V R R a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d s t a r t i n g a t i n 1 8 7 0 , w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l o f i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d t u r n e d i t s e y e t o w a r d e x p a n s i o n a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y a l l t h e w a y t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . I n 1 8 7 0 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s t o A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t i n t h e e a s t w a s N e w Y o r k C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R w a s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l f o r t r a n s p o r t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e L V R R l e a s e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l , w h i c h h a d a v a l u a b l e o u t l e t i n J e r s e y C i t y o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r o p p o s i t e M a n h a t t a n . A s a P a c k e r p u r c h a s e d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d a t t h e c a n a l b a s i n i n s u p p o r t o f t h e N e w J e r s e y W e s t L i n e R a i l r o a d , w h i c h h e h o p e d t o u s e a s t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . T h a t p r o j e c t f a i l e d , b u t t h e l a n d s w e r e l a t e r u s e d f o r t h e L V R R ' s o w n t e r m i n a l i n 1 8 8 9 . T h e C N J , a n t i c i p a t i n g t h a t t h e L V R R i n t e n d e d t o c r e a t e i t s o w n l i n e a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y , p r o t e c t e d i t s e l f b y l e a s i n g t h e L e h i g h a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( L & S ) t o e n s u r e a c o n t i n u i n g s u p p l y o f c o a l t r a f f i c . T h e L & S h a d b e e n c h a r t e r e d i n 1 8 3 7 b y t h e L e h i g h C o a l & N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ( t h e L e h i g h C a n a l c o m p a n y ) t o c o n n e c t t h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e c a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . A f t e r t h e L V R R o p e n e d i t s l i n e , t h e L e h i g h & S u s q u e h a n n a e x t e n d e d t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s a n d E s s e x R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 8 . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e e n t i r e l i n e f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e w a s l e a s e d t o t h e C N J . F o r m o s t o f i t s l e n g t h , i t r a n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L V R R . T h e L V R R f o u n d t h a t t h e r o u t e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l w a s i m p r a c t i c a l f o r u s e a s a r a i l r o a d l i n e , s o i n 1 8 7 2 t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e d o r m a n t c h a r t e r o f t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k R a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d a c c e s s t o t h e P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y h a r b o r , a n d a d d e d t o i t a n e w c h a r t e r , t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n R a i l r o a d . T h e S t a t e o f N e w J e r s e y p a s s e d l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o c o n s o l i d a t e i t s N e w J e r s e y r a i l r o a d s i n t o o n e c o m p a n y ; t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k a n d t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n w e r e m e r g e d t o f o r m a n e w r a i l r o a d c o m p a n y c a l l e d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ( o r E a s t o n & A m b o y R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ) . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a r a i l r o a d b u i l t a c r o s s c e n t r a l N e w J e r s e y b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d t o r u n f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y t o B o u n d B r o o k , N e w J e r s e y a n d i t w a s b u i l t t o c o n n e c t t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d c o a l - h a u l i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y t o s e r v e c o n s u m e r m a r k e t s i n t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e P h i l l i p s b u r g c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C N J t h a t h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n t h e o n l y o u t l e t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r ; u n t i l i t w a s b u i l t , t h e t e r m i n u s o f t h e L V R R h a d b e e n a t P h i l l i p s b u r g o n t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r o p p o s i t e E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s u s e d a s a c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , w i t h a t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . C o n s t r u c t i o n c o m m e n c e d i n 1 8 7 2 a s s o o n t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s f o r m e d ; c o a l d o c k s a t P e r t h A m b o y w e r e s o o n c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d m o s t o f t h e l i n e f r o m E a s t o n t o P e r t h A m b o y w a s g r a d e d a n d r a i l s l a i d . H o w e v e r , t h e r o u t e r e q u i r e d a t u n n e l t h r o u g h / u n d e r M u s c o n e t c o n g M o u n t a i n n e a r P a t t e n b u r g , N e w J e r s e y ( a b o u t t w e l v e m i l e s e a s t o f P h i l l i p s b u r g ) , a n d t h a t p r o v e d t r o u b l e s o m e , d e l a y i n g t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e l i n e u n t i l M a y 1 8 7 5 , w h e n a c o a l t r a i n f i r s t p a s s e d o v e r t h e l i n e . T o s u p p o r t t h e e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s e i n t r a f f i c , t h e w o o d e n b r i d g e o v e r t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r a t E a s t o n w a s a l s o r e p l a c e d b y a d o u b l e - t r a c k e d , i r o n b r i d g e . A t P e r t h A m b o y , a t i d e w a t e r t e r m i n a l w a s b u i l t o n t h e A r t h u r K i l l c o m p r i s i n g a l a r g e c o a l d o c k u s e d t o t r a n s p o r t c o a l i n t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . T h e s e t r a c k s w e r e l a i d a n d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s o p e n e d f o r b u s i n e s s o n J u n e 2 8 , 1 8 7 5 w i t h h a u l i n g c o a l . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y ' s o p e r a t i o n s w e r e l a b e l e d t h e " N e w J e r s e y D i v i s i o n " o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y h a d a l r e a d y c o m p l e t e d l a r g e d o c k s a n d f a c i l i t i e s f o r s h i p p i n g c o a l a t P e r t h A m b o y u p o n a n e x t e n s i v e t r a c t o f l a n d f r o n t i n g t h e A r t h u r K i l l . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f a n t h r a c i t e m o v e d t o P e r t h A m b o y d u r i n g t h a t y e a r f o r t r a n s s h i p m e n t b y w a t e r . O p e r a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e L V R R ' s b a n k r u p t c y i n 1 9 7 6 . T h e m a r s h a l l i n g y a r d i s n o w t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a k n o w n a s H a r b o r t o w n . P a s s e n g e r t r a f f i c o n t h e L V R R ' s E a s t o n a n d A m b o y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ( P R R ) a t M e t u c h e n , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n t i n u e d t o t h e P R R ' S E x c h a n g e P l a c e t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y ( t h a t c o n n e c t i o n w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 8 9 1 a f t e r t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d ) . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e p a r e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e L V R R f i n a n c e d t h e a d d i t i o n o f a t h i r d r a i l t o t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e s o t h a t c a r s c o u l d r o l l d i r e c t l y f r o m c o l l i e r y t o t h e p o r t a t B u f f a l o . W h i l e t h e t h i r d r a i l o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e b e t w e e n W a v e r l y a n d B u f f a l o g a v e t h e L V R R a n u n b r o k e n c o n n e c t i o n t o B u f f a l o , t h e r o a d ' s m a n a g e m e n t d e s i r e d i t s o w n l i n e i n t o B u f f a l o . T h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d p a s s e d i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e L V R R i n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 6 , w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e n e a r S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k , a d i s t a n c e o f 7 5 m i l e s . O n M a y 1 7 , 1 8 7 9 , A s a P a c k e r , t h e c o m p a n y ' s f o u n d e r a n d l e a d e r , d i e d a t t h e a g e o f 7 3 . A t t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h , t h e r a i l r o a d w a s s h i p p i n g 4 . 4 m i l l i o n t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y o v e r o f t r a c k , u s i n g 2 3 5 e n g i n e s , 2 4 , 4 6 1 c o a l c a r s , a n d o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 f r e i g h t c a r s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s . T h e c o m p a n y c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l - p r o d u c i n g l a n d s a n d w a s e x p a n d i n g r a p i d l y i n t o N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y . T h e r a i l r o a d h a d s u r v i v e d t h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n o f 1 8 7 3 a n d w a s s e e i n g i t s b u s i n e s s r e c o v e r . L e a d e r s h i p o f t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s f e r r e d s m o o t h l y t o C h a r l e s H a r t s h o r n e w h o h a d b e e n v i c e p r e s i d e n t u n d e r P a c k e r . I n 1 8 8 3 , H a r t s h o r n e r e t i r e d t o a l l o w H a r r y E . P a c k e r , A s a ' s 3 2 - y e a r - o l d y o u n g e s t s o n , t o a s s u m e t h e P r e s i d e n c y . A y e a r l a t e r , H a r r y P a c k e r d i e d o f i l l n e s s , a n d A s a ' s 5 1 - y e a r - o l d n e p h e w E l i s h a P a c k e r W i l b u r w a s e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t , a p o s i t i o n h e h e l d f o r 1 3 y e a r s . T h e 1 8 8 0 s c o n t i n u e d t o b e a p e r i o d o f g r o w t h , a n d t h e L V R R m a d e i m p o r t a n t a c q u i s i t i o n s i n N e w Y o r k , e x p a n d e d i t s r e a c h i n t o t h e s o u t h e r n c o a l f i e l d o f P e n n s y l v a n i a w h i c h h a d h i t h e r t o b e e n t h e m o n o p o l y o f t h e R e a d i n g , a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y b a t t l e d t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . I n 1 8 8 0 , t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e t o o p e r a t e a f l e e t o f s h i p s o n t h e G r e a t L a k e s w i t h t e r m i n a l s i n C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , a n d D u l u t h . T h i s c o m p a n y b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e m o v e m e n t o f a n t h r a c i t e , g r a i n a n d p a c k a g e f r e i g h t b e t w e e n B u f f a l o , C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , D u l u t h , S u p e r i o r a n d o t h e r m i d w e s t e r n c i t i e s . F o l l o w i n g F e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s u c h s e r v i c e , t h e l a k e l i n e w a s s o l d t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s i n 1 9 2 0 . T h e p o r t o n L a k e E r i e a t B u f f a l o w a s c r i t i c a l t o t h e L V R R ' s s h i p m e n t s o f c o a l t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s a n d f o r r e c e i p t o f g r a i n s e n t b y t h e W e s t t o e a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l t h o u g h i n 1 8 7 0 t h e L V R R h a d i n v e s t e d i n t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k R a i l r o a d w h i c h c o n n e c t e d t h e E r i e t o t h e l a k e f r o n t , a n d h a d c o n s t r u c t e d t h e L e h i g h D o c k s o n B u f f a l o C r e e k , i t d e p e n d e d o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d f o r t h e c o n n e c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k t o B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . I n 1 8 8 2 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a n e x t e n s i v e e x p a n s i o n i n t o N e w Y o r k f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o . C o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o w a s s p l i t i n t o t w o p r o j e c t s , W a v e r l y t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k a n d G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o ( G e n e v a i s l o c a t e d a t t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f S e n e c a L a k e ) . F i r s t , i t p u r c h a s e d a l a r g e p a r c e l o f l a n d i n B u f f a l o , t h e T i f f t f a r m , f o r u s e a s t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s , a n d o b t a i n e d a N e w Y o r k c h a r t e r f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y ( a s i m i l a r n a m e t o t h e L V R R , b u t w i t h " r a i l w a y " i n s t e a d ) . L V R R s u b s i d i a r y , L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e m a i n l i n e ' s n o r t h e r n p a r t f r o m B u f f a l o t o L a n c a s t e r , N e w Y o r k i n 1 8 8 3 , a t o t a l d i s t a n c e o f t e n m i l e s . T h i s w a s t h e s e c o n d s t e p t o w a r d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a d i r e c t r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o , t h e f i r s t b e i n g t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d . T h e n i n 1 8 8 7 t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o b t a i n e d a l e a s e o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d ( t h e L V R R p r e v i o u s l y h a d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s o n t h e r a i l r o a d s t a r t i n g i n 1 8 7 0 ) , w h i c h h a d a r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y n o r t h w a r d i n t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e L V R R o r g a n i z e d t h e B u f f a l o a n d G e n e v a R a i l r o a d t o b u i l d t h e r e s t o f t h e 9 7 - m i l e G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o t r a c k a g e , f r o m G e n e v a t o L a n c a s t e r . F i n a l l y , i n 1 8 8 9 , t h e L V R R g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a , a n d S a y r e R a i l r o a d a n d c o m p l e t e d i t s l i n e o f r a i l t h r o u g h N e w Y o r k . A s a r e s u l t o f i t s l e a s e s a n d a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y g a i n e d a n e a r - m o n o p o l y o n t r a f f i c i n t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . I t a l s o c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w a n d d e v e l o p i t s r o u t e s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n 1 8 8 3 t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d l a n d i n n o r t h e a s t P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d f o r m e d a s u b s i d i a r y c a l l e d T h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l a n d L a n d C o m p a n y . I t o p e n e d a h o t e l i n G l e n S u m m i t , P e n n s y l v a n i a c a l l e d t h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l t o s e r v e l u n c h t o p a s s e n g e r s t r a v e l i n g o n t h e l i n e . T h e h o t e l r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e c o m p a n y u n t i l 1 9 0 9 , w h e n i t w a s b o u g h t b y r e s i d e n t s o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o t t a g e s . I n P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L e h i g h s c o r e d a c o u p b y o b t a i n i n g t h e c h a r t e r f o r m e r l y h e l d b y t h e S c h u y k i l l H a v e n a n d L e h i g h R i v e r R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 8 6 . T h a t c h a r t e r h a d b e e n h e l d b y t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d s i n c e 1 8 6 0 , w h e n i t h a d b l o c k e d c o n s t r u c t i o n i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n i t s m o n o p o l y i n t h e S o u t h e r n C o a l F i e l d . T h a t s o u t h e r n f i e l d h e l d t h e l a r g e s t r e s e r v e s o f a n t h r a c i t e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d a c c o u n t e d f o r a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n . T h r o u g h n e g l e c t , t h e R e a d i n g a l l o w e d t h e c h a r t e r t o l a p s e , a n d i t w a s a c q u i r e d b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d t h e S c h u y l k i l l a n d L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e g a v e t h e L V R R a r o u t e i n t o P o t t s v i l l e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e S c h u y l k i l l V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d s . T h e V o s b u r g T u n n e l w a s c o m p l e t e d a n d o p e n e d f o r s e r v i c e o n J u l y 2 5 , 1 8 8 6 . T h e 1 6 m i l e M o u n t a i n C u t - o f f , ( a r a i l s e g m e n t o f t h e l i n e ) w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m F a i r v i e w , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o t h e o u t s k i r t s o f P i t t s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , w a s c o m p l e t e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 8 8 8 . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e l i n e ' s e a s t b o u n d g r a d e t o b e r e d u c e d a n d a s h o r t e r r o u t e f o r h a n d l i n g t h r o u g h t r a f f i c e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e L V R R h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , b u t d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n N e w J e r s e y , t h e L V R R e m b a r k e d o n a d e c a d e - l o n g l e g a l b a t t l e w i t h t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . T h e l a n d t h a t A s a P a c k e r h a d o b t a i n e d i n 1 8 7 2 w a s s i t u a t e d o n t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l ' s S o u t h B a s i n , b u t t h e C N J a l r e a d y h a d i t s o w n f a c i l i t i e s a d j a c e n t t o t h a t p r o p e r t y a n d d i s p u t e d t h e L V R R ' s t i t l e , w h i c h p a r t l y o v e r l a p p e d l a n d t h e C N J h a d f i l l e d f o r i t s o w n t e r m i n a l . F i n a l l y i n 1 8 8 7 t h e t w o r a i l r o a d s r e a c h e d a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e L V R R ' s J e r s e y C i t y f r e i g h t y a r d b e g a n . T h e L V R R o b t a i n e d a 5 - y e a r a g r e e m e n t t o u s e t h e C N J l i n e t o a c c e s s t h e t e r m i n a l , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 8 8 9 . I t f r o n t e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l B a s i n w i t h a s e r i e s o f p i e r s a n g l i n g o u t f r o m t h e s h o r e l i n e b u t w a s t o o n a r r o w f o r a y a r d , s o t h e L V R R b u i l t a s e p a r a t e y a r d a t O a k I s l a n d i n N e w a r k t o s o r t a n d p r e p a r e t r a i n s . T h e S o u t h B a s i n t e r m i n a l w a s u s e d s o l e l y f o r f r e i g h t , h a v i n g d o c k s a n d c a r f l o a t f a c i l i t i e s . P a s s e n g e r s w e r e r o u t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y . T h e L V R R s t r o v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 8 0 s t o a c q u i r e i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y a n d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y w a t e r f r o n t . T h e L V R R d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d m o r e t o t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n N e w J e r s e y i n o r d e r t o r e a c h i t s f r e i g h t y a r d s w i t h o u t u s i n g t h e C N J m a i n l i n e . T h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f r a i l r o a d s t o c o n n e c t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y l i n e ( E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ) t o J e r s e y C i t y . T h e f i r s t l e g o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o J e r s e y C i t y w a s t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n 1 8 8 8 w h i c h c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a t R o s e l l e , N e w J e r s e y f o r a c c e s s o v e r t h e C N J t o t h e H u d s o n R i v e r w a t e r f r o n t i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R w h i c h h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n 1 8 9 1 , t h e L V R R c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y , a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r c o m p a n i e s w h i c h f o r m e d t h e r o u t e f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y t e r m i n a l . I n i t i a l l y , t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r r i g h t s f r o m R o s e l l e t o J e r s e y C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R e v e n t u a l l y f i n i s h e d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o i t s t e r m i n a l i n J e r s e y C i t y o v e r t h e N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y , t h e N e w a r k a n d P a s s a i c R a i l w a y , t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k , a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y , a n d t h e J e r s e y C i t y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y . T h e L V R R ' s N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y i n 1 8 9 1 b r o u g h t t h e l i n e f r o m R o s e l l e i n t o N e w a r k , w h e r e p a s s e n g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . B r i d g i n g N e w a r k B a y p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t . T h e L V R R f i r s t a t t e m p t e d t o o b t a i n a r i g h t o f w a y a t G r e e n v i l l e , b u t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d c h e c k m a t e d t h e m b y p u r c h a s i n g m o s t o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s n e e d e d . T h e n t h e C N J o p p o s e d t h e L V R R ' s a t t e m p t t o c r o s s i t s l i n e a t C a v e n P o i n t . F i n a l l y a f t e r s e t t l i n g t h e l e g a l i s s u e s , t h e N e w a r k B a y w a s b r i d g e d i n 1 8 9 2 b y t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y a n d c o n n e c t e d t o t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y , w h i c h w a s p a r t l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R a n d w h i c h r e a c h e d t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . I n 1 8 9 5 , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d t h e G r e e n v i l l e a n d H u d s o n R a i l w a y p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s i n o r d e r t o r e l i e v e c o n g e s t i o n a n d h a v e a w h o l l y - o w n e d r o u t e i n t o J e r s e y C i t y . F i n a l l y i n 1 9 0 0 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y o u t r i g h t . T h e 1 8 9 0 s w e r e a p e r i o d o f t u r m o i l f o r t h e L V R R . A l t h o u g h t h e d e c a d e b e g a n w i t h t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f i t s t e r m i n a l s a t B u f f a l o a n d J e r s e y C i t y , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a t r u n k l i n e a c r o s s N e w Y o r k , t h e c o m p a n y s o o n b e c a m e e n t a n g l e d i n c o s t l y b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o t h e P a c k e r f a m i l y ' s l o s s o f c o n t r o l . T h e c o a l t r a d e w a s a l w a y s t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e b u s i n e s s b u t w a s s u b j e c t t o b o o m a n d b u s t a s c o m p e t i t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e d a n d t h e e c o n o m y c y c l e d . T h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s h a d b e g u n i n 1 8 7 3 t o f o r m p o o l s t o r e g u l a t e p r o d u c t i o n a n d s e t q u o t a s f o r e a c h r a i l r o a d . B y c o n t r o l l i n g s u p p l y , t h e c o a l c o m b i n a t i o n a t t e m p t e d t o k e e p p r i c e s a n d p r o f i t s h i g h . S e v e r a l c o m b i n a t i o n s o c c u r r e d , b u t e a c h f e l l a p a r t a s o n e r o a d o r a n o t h e r a b r o g a t e d i t s a g r e e m e n t . T h e f i r s t s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n 1 8 7 3 , f o l l o w e d b y o t h e r s i n 1 8 7 8 , 1 8 8 4 , a n d 1 8 8 6 . C u s t o m e r s n a t u r a l l y r e s e n t e d t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e c a r t e l , a n d s i n c e c o a l w a s c r i t i c a l t o c o m m e r c e , C o n g r e s s i n t e r v e n e d i n 1 8 8 7 w i t h t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e A c t t h a t f o r b a d e t h e r o a d s f r o m j o i n i n g i n t o s u c h p o o l s . A l t h o u g h t h e r o a d s e f f e c t i v e l y i g n o r e d t h e A c t a n d t h e i r s a l e s a g e n t s c o n t i n u e d t o m e e t a n d s e t p r i c e s , t h e a g r e e m e n t s w e r e n e v e r e f f e c t i v e f o r l o n g . I n 1 8 9 2 , t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d t h o u g h t i t h a d a s o l u t i o n — i n s t e a d o f a t t e m p t i n g t o m a i n t a i n a g r e e m e n t s a m o n g t h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s , i t w o u l d p u r c h a s e o r l e a s e t h e m a j o r l i n e s a n d b r i n g t h e m i n t o a m o n o p o l y . I t l e a s e d t h e C N J a n d t h e L V R R , p u r c h a s e d t h e r a i l r o a d s ' c o a l c o m p a n i e s a n d a r r a n g e d f o r t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g 7 0 % o f t h e t r a d e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t o v e r r e a c h e d a n d i n 1 8 9 3 w a s u n a b l e t o m e e t i t s o b l i g a t i o n s . I t s b a n k r u p t c y r e s u l t e d i n e c o n o m i c c h a o s , b r i n g i n g o n t h e f i n a n c i a l p a n i c o f 1 8 9 3 a n d f o r c i n g t h e L V R R t o b r e a k t h e l e a s e a n d r e s u m e i t s o w n o p e r a t i o n s , l e a v i n g i t u n a b l e t o p a y d i v i d e n d s o n i t s s t o c k u n t i l 1 9 0 4 . T h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n f o l l o w i n g 1 8 9 3 w a s h a r s h , a n d b y 1 8 9 7 t h e L V R R w a s i n d i r e n e e d o f s u p p o r t . T h e b a n k i n g g i a n t J . P . M o r g a n s t e p p e d i n t o r e f i n a n c e t h e L V R R d e b t a n d o b t a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e r a i l r o a d i n t h e p r o c e s s . O u s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E l i s h a P . W i l b u r a n d s e v e r a l d i r e c t o r s i n 1 8 9 7 , t h e M o r g a n c o m p a n y i n s t a l l e d W . A l f r e d W a l t e r a s p r e s i d e n t a n d s e a t e d i t s o w n d i r e c t o r s . I n 1 9 0 1 M o r g a n a r r a n g e d t o h a v e t h e P a c k e r E s t a t e ' s h o l d i n g s p u r c h a s e d j o i n t l y b y t h e E r i e , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L a k e S h o r e a n d M i c h i g a n S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e D L & W a n d t h e C N J , a l l c o m p a n i e s i n w h i c h M o r g a n h a d i n t e r e s t s . N e w l y e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t E b e n B . T h o m a s ( f o r m e r l y o f t h e E r i e ) a n d h i s B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e c o m b i n e d i n t e r e s t s o f t h o s e r a i l r o a d s . A f i n a l a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h a c o a l c a r t e l t o o k p l a c e i n 1 9 0 4 w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y . P r i o r t o t h a t t i m e , t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s a s m a l l c o n c e r n t h a t h a p p e n e d t o h a v e a b r o a d c h a r t e r a l l o w i n g i t t o a c t a s a h o l d i n g c o m p a n y . T h e R e a d i n g , n o w o u t o f r e c e i v e r s h i p , p u r c h a s e d t h e c o m p a n y a n d b r o u g h t t h e o t h e r c o a l r a i l r o a d s i n t o t h e p a r t n e r s h i p , w i t h t h e R e a d i n g o w n i n g 3 0 % , t h e L V R R 2 3 % , t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 2 0 % , C N J 1 7 % , E r i e 6 % , a n d N e w Y o r k , S u s q u e h a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 4 p e r c e n t . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s t o l o c k - u p i n d e p e n d e n t c o a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l t h e s u p p l y . C o n g r e s s r e a c t e d w i t h t h e 1 9 0 6 H e p b u r n A c t , w h i c h a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s f o r b a d e r a i l r o a d s f r o m o w n i n g t h e c o m m o d i t i e s t h a t t h e y t r a n s p o r t e d . A l o n g s e r i e s o f a n t i t r u s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d l a w s u i t s r e s u l t e d , c u l m i n a t i n g i n a 1 9 1 1 S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n t h a t f o r c e d t h e L V R R t o d i v e s t i t s e l f o f t h e c o a l c o m p a n i e s i t h a d h e l d s i n c e 1 8 6 8 . T h e L V R R s h a r e h o l d e r s r e c e i v e d s h a r e s o f t h e n o w i n d e p e n d e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , b u t t h e r a i l r o a d n o l o n g e r h a d m a n a g e m e n t c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n , c o n t r a c t s , a n d s a l e s o f i t s l a r g e s t c u s t o m e r . I n 1 8 9 6 t h e v e r y e a r l y f i l m " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s " w a s p r o d u c e d b y T h o m a s A . E d i s o n ' s c o m p a n y K i n e t o s c o p e . T h e t r a i n a r r i v e s f r o m f a r a w a y a n d p a s s e s t h e c a m e r a , w h i l e w o r k e r s a r e w a v i n g t h e i r h a n d k e r c h i e f s . F o r t u n a t e l y , g r a i n t o n n a g e w a s i n c r e a s i n g a n d t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s p o r t e d l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s f r o m B u f f a l o t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d o t h e r E a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l s o , i n 1 9 1 4 t h e P a n a m a C a n a l w a s c o m p l e t e d , a n d t h e L V R R g a i n e d a n i m p o r t a n t n e w m a r k e t w i t h o r e s s h i p p e d f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a t o t h e B e t h l e h e m S t e e l c o m p a n y . I n o r d e r t o h a n d l e t h e a d d i t i o n a l n e w o c e a n t r a f f i c , t h e L V R R c r e a t e d a l a r g e n e w p i e r a t C o n s t a b l e H o o k , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 1 5 , a n d a n e w t e r m i n a l a t C l a r e m o n t w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 2 3 . I t a l s o b u i l t a p a s s e n g e r t e r m i n a l i n B u f f a l o i n 1 9 1 5 . S i n c e 1 8 9 6 t h e L V R R h a d r u n a n i m p o r t a n t a n d p r e s t i g i o u s e x p r e s s t r a i n n a m e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " w h i c h c a r r i e d p a s s e n g e r s t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s a n d B u f f a l o . A d d i t i o n a l p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s r a n f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a t o S c r a n t o n a n d w e s t w a r d . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e L V R R ' s N e w Y o r k C i t y p a s s e n g e r s h a d u s e d t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y a t J e r s e y C i t y , b u t i n 1 9 1 3 t h e P R R t e r m i n a t e d t h a t a g r e e m e n t , s o t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r u s e o f i t s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y , w h i c h w a s e x p a n d e d t o h a n d l e t h e i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r o f p a s s e n g e r s . T h e r a i l r o a d a l s o p u b l i s h e d a m o n t h l y m a g a z i n e p r o m o t i n g t r a v e l o n t h e t r a i n c a l l e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s M o n t h l y " . I n t h e w a r y e a r s 1 9 1 4 t o 1 9 1 8 , t h e L e h i g h h a n d l e d w a r m a t e r i a l s a n d e x p l o s i v e s a t i t s B l a c k T o m i s l a n d f a c i l i t y , w h i c h h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d a l o n g w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 0 0 . I n 1 9 1 6 , a h o r r e n d o u s e x p l o s i o n o c c u r r e d a t t h e f a c i l i t y , d e s t r o y i n g s h i p s a n d b u i l d i n g s , a n d b r e a k i n g w i n d o w s i n M a n h a t t a n . A t f i r s t t h e i n c i d e n t w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a c c i d e n t ; a l o n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n e v e n t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e x p l o s i o n w a s a n a c t o f G e r m a n s a b o t a g e , f o r w h i c h r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e f i n a l l y p a i d i n 1 9 7 9 . A f t e r t h e U . S . e n t e r e d W o r l d W a r I , t h e r a i l r o a d s w e r e n a t i o n a l i z e d i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t s t r i k e s a n d i n t e r r u p t i o n s . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s R a i l r o a d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n t r o l l e d t h e r a i l r o a d f r o m 1 9 1 8 t o 1 9 2 0 , a t w h i c h t i m e c o n t r o l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d b a c k t o t h e p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e h e a v y w a r t i m e t r a f f i c h a d l e f t t h e r a i l r o a d ' s p l a n t a n d e q u i p m e n t i n n e e d o f r e p a i r , t h e d a m a g e w a s p a r t l y o f f s e t b y n e w e q u i p m e n t t h a t h a d b e e n p u r c h a s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t . I n 1 9 2 0 , t h e L V R R s o l d i t s l a k e l i n e c o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e , t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s d u e t o n e w f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f r a i l r o a d s o w n i n g l a k e l i n e s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 2 0 s t h e r a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e M o r g a n / D r e x e l b a n k i n g f i r m , b u t i n 1 9 2 8 a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o w r e s t c o n t r o l f r o m i t . I n 1 9 2 7 , L e o n o r F r e s n e l L o r e e , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n R a i l r o a d , h a d a v i s i o n f o r a n e w f i f t h t r u n k l i n e b e t w e e n t h e E a s t a n d W e s t , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e W a b a s h R a i l r o a d , t h e B u f f a l o , R o c h e s t e r a n d P i t t s b u r g h R a i l w a y , a n d t h e L V R R . T h r o u g h b o n d s i s s u e d b y t h e D & H , h e o b t a i n e d 3 0 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k , a n d w o n t h e s u p p o r t o f n e a r l y h a l f t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . I n 1 9 2 8 , h e a t t e m p t e d t o s e a t a n e w p r e s i d e n t a n d b o a r d . A m a s s i v e p r o x y f i g h t e n s u e d , w i t h e x i s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E d w a r d E u g e n e L o o m i s n a r r o w l y r e t a i n i n g h i s p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f E d w a r d T . S t o t e s b u r y o f J . P . M o r g a n . F o l l o w i n g t h e d e f e a t o f i t s p l a n , t h e D & H s o l d i t s s t o c k t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a q u i e t l y o b t a i n e d m o r e s t o c k , b o t h d i r e c t l y a n d t h r o u g h r a i l r o a d s i t c o n t r o l l e d , p r i m a r i l y t h e W a b a s h . B y 1 9 3 1 , t h e P R R c o n t r o l l e d 5 1 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k . F o l l o w i n g L o o m i s ' d e a t h i n 1 9 3 7 , t h e p r e s i d e n c y w e n t t o L o o m i s ' a s s i s t a n t D u n c a n J . K e r r , b u t i n 1 9 4 0 h e w a s r e p l a c e d b y A l b e r t N . W i l l i a m s , a n d t h e r o a d c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e P R R . I n 1 9 4 1 , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a p l a c e d i t s s h a r e s i n a v o t i n g t r u s t a f t e r r e a c h i n g a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l r e g a r d i n g t h e P R R ' s p u r c h a s e o f t h e W a b a s h . F o l l o w i n g t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n , t h e r a i l r o a d h a d a f e w p e r i o d s o f p r o s p e r i t y , b u t w a s c l e a r l y i n a s l o w d e c l i n e . P a s s e n g e r s p r e f e r r e d t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f a u t o m o b i l e s t o t r a i n s , a n d a i r l i n e s m u c h l a t e r p r o v i d e d f a s t e r l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a v e l t h a n t r a i n s . O i l a n d g a s w e r e s u p p l a n t i n g c o a l a s t h e f u e l o f c h o i c e . T h e D e p r e s s i o n h a d b e e n d i f f i c u l t f o r a l l t h e r a i l r o a d s , a n d C o n g r e s s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t b a n k r u p t c y l a w s n e e d e d r e v i s i o n . T h e C h a n d l e r A c t s o f 1 9 3 8 - 9 p r o v i d e d a n e w f o r m o f r e l i e f f o r r a i l r o a d s , a l l o w i n g t h e m t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e i r d e b t w h i l e c o n t i n u i n g t o o p e r a t e . T h e L V R R w a s a p p r o v e d f o r s u c h a r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n 1 9 4 0 w h e n s e v e r a l l a r g e m o r t g a g e l o a n s w e r e d u e . T h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o e x t e n d t h e m a t u r i t y o f i t s m o r t g a g e s , b u t i t n e e d e d t o r e p e a t t h e p r o c e s s i n 1 9 5 0 . T h e t e r m s o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g s p r e c l u d e d d i v i d e n d p a y m e n t s u n t i l 1 9 5 3 , w h e n L V R R c o m m o n s t o c k p a i d t h e f i r s t d i v i d e n d s i n c e 1 9 3 1 . I n 1 9 5 7 , t h e L V R R a g a i n s t o p p e d d i v i d e n d s . I n 1 9 4 4 , t h e L V R R ' s g r o s s r e v e n u e s c a m e c l o s e t o $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 w h i c h w a s a m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e r a i l r o a d . T w o f i n a l b l o w s f e l l i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s : t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e F e d e r a l - A i d H i g h w a y A c t i n 1 9 5 6 , b e t t e r k n o w n a s t h e I n t e r s t a t e H i g h w a y A c t , a n d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e S a i n t L a w r e n c e S e a w a y i n 1 9 5 9 . T h e i n t e r s t a t e h i g h w a y s h e l p e d t h e t r u c k i n g i n d u s t r y o f f e r d o o r - t o - d o o r s e r v i c e , a n d t h e S t . L a w r e n c e S e a w a y a l l o w e d g r a i n s h i p m e n t s t o b y p a s s t h e r a i l w a y s a n d g o d i r e c t l y t o o v e r s e a s m a r k e t s . B y t h e 1 9 6 0 s , r a i l r o a d s i n t h e E a s t w e r e s t r u g g l i n g t o s u r v i v e . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 6 2 r e q u e s t e d I C C a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o a c q u i r e c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e L V R R t h r o u g h a s w a p o f P R R s t o c k f o r L V R R a n d e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e v o t i n g t r u s t t h a t h a d b e e n i n p l a c e s i n c e 1 9 4 1 . I t m a n a g e d t o a c q u i r e m o r e t h a n 8 5 % o f a l l o u t s t a n d i n g s h a r e s , a n d f r o m t h a t t i m e t h e L V R R w a s l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a d i v i s i o n o f t h e P R R . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a m e r g e d w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l i n 1 9 6 8 , b u t t h e P e n n C e n t r a l f a i l e d i n 1 9 7 0 , c a u s i n g a c a s c a d e o f r a i l r o a d f a i l u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e E a s t . O n J u n e 2 1 , 1 9 7 0 , t h e P e n n C e n t r a l d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y a n d s o u g h t b a n k r u p t c y p r o t e c t i o n . A s a r e s u l t , t h e P C w a s r e l i e v e d o f i t s o b l i g a t i o n t o p a y f e e s t o v a r i o u s N o r t h e a s t e r n r a i l r o a d s — t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y i n c l u d e d — f o r t h e u s e o f t h e i r r a i l c a r s a n d o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e o t h e r r a i l r o a d s ' o b l i g a t i o n s t o p a y t h o s e f e e s t o t h e P e n n C e n t r a l w e r e n o t w a i v e d . T h i s i m b a l a n c e i n p a y m e n t s w o u l d p r o v e f a t a l t o t h e f i n a n c i a l l y - f r a i l L e h i g h V a l l e y , a n d i t d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y j u s t o v e r o n e m o n t h a f t e r t h e P e n n C e n t r a l , o n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 7 0 . T h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 b a n k r u p t c y , a s w a s t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e o f t h e t i m e . I n 1 9 7 2 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a s s u m e d t h e r e m a i n i n g P e n n s y l v a n i a t r a c k a g e o f t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , a c o m p e t i n g a n t h r a c i t e r a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d e n t e r e d b a n k r u p t c y a s w e l l . T h e t w o r o a d s h a d e n t e r e d a s h a r e d t r a c k a g e a g r e e m e n t i n t h i s a r e a i n 1 9 6 5 t o r e d u c e c o s t s , a s b o t h h a d p a r a l l e l r o u t e s f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e w a y t o m e t r o p o l i t a n N e w Y o r k , o f t e n o n a d j o i n i n g g r a d e s t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n t h e y e a r s l e a d i n g t o 1 9 7 3 , t h e f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d s y s t e m i n t h e n o r t h e a s t o f t h e U . S . w a s c o l l a p s i n g . A l t h o u g h g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d A m t r a k t o o k o v e r i n t e r c i t y p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e o n M a y 1 , 1 9 7 1 , r a i l r o a d c o m p a n i e s c o n t i n u e d t o l o s e m o n e y d u e t o e x t e n s i v e g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s , e x p e n s i v e a n d e x c e s s i v e l a b o r c o s t , c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m o t h e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m o d e s , d e c l i n i n g i n d u s t r i a l b u s i n e s s a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s ; t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s o n e o f t h e m . H u r r i c a n e A g n e s i n 1 9 7 2 d a m a g e d t h e r u n d o w n N o r t h e a s t r a i l w a y n e t w o r k , w h i c h p u t t h e s o l v e n c y o f o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n c l u d i n g t h e L V R R i n d a n g e r ; t h e s o m e w h a t m o r e s o l v e n t E r i e L a c k a w a n n a R a i l w a y ( E L ) w a s a l s o d a m a g e d b y H u r r i c a n e A g n e s . I n 1 9 7 3 , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n g r e s s a c t e d t o c r e a t e a b i l l t o n a t i o n a l i z e a l l b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e L V . T h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n R a i l r o a d s , w h i c h o p p o s e d n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , s u b m i t t e d a n a l t e r n a t e p r o p o s a l f o r a g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d p r i v a t e c o m p a n y . P r e s i d e n t R i c h a r d N i x o n s i g n e d t h e R e g i o n a l R a i l R e o r g a n i z a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 7 3 i n t o l a w . T h e " 3 R A c t , " a s i t w a s c a l l e d , p r o v i d e d i n t e r i m f u n d i n g t o t h e b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s a n d d e f i n e d a n e w " C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n " u n d e r t h e A A R ' s p l a n . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , t h e L V R R , i n c l u d i n g i t s m a i n l i n e , w a s m e r g e d i n t o t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t ' s C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n ( C o n r a i l ) e n d i n g 1 3 0 y e a r s o f e x i s t e n c e a n d 1 2 1 y e a r s o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e L V R R . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , m a j o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e a s s e t s o f t h e b a n k r u p t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w e r e a c q u i r e d b y C o n r a i l . T h i s p r i m a r i l y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e m a i n l i n e a n d r e l a t e d b r a n c h e s f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n ( n o r t h / R R w e s t o f S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o O a k I s l a n d Y a r d , t h e I t h a c a b r a n c h f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o I t h a c a , N e w Y o r k , c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e C a y u g a L a k e l i n e a n d o n t o t h e M i l l i k e n p o w e r s t a t i o n i n L a k e R i d g e , N e w Y o r k ( c l o s e d o n A u g u s t 2 9 , 2 0 1 9 ) a n d t h e C a r g i l l s a l t m i n e j u s t s o u t h o f A u b u r n , N Y ; a n d s m a l l s e g m e n t s i n G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k ( f r o m G e n e v a t o t h e S e n e c a A r m y D e p o t i n K e n d a i a ) ; B a t a v i a , N e w Y o r k ; A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k a n d C o r t l a n d , N e w Y o r k . A l o n g s e g m e n t w e s t f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o B u f f a l o w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o n r a i l t a k e o v e r , b u t w a s m o s t l y t o r n - u p n o t l o n g a f t e r w a r d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a s e g m e n t f r o m G e n e v a t o V i c t o r , N e w Y o r k , l a t e r c u t b a c k t o S h o r t s v i l l e , N e w Y o r k , t o V i c t o r , r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y E s t a t e u n d e r s u b s i d i z e d C o n r a i l o p e r a t i o n . T h e S h o r t s v i l l e t o V i c t o r s e g m e n t b e c a m e t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 7 9 ( t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e F i n g e r L a k e s R a i l w a y i n O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 ) . M o s t o f t h e r a i l e q u i p m e n t w e n t t o C o n r a i l a s w e l l , b u t 2 4 l o c o m o t i v e s ( u n i t s G P 3 8 - 2 3 1 4 - 3 2 5 a n d C 4 2 0 4 0 4 – 4 1 5 ) w e n t t o t h e D e l a w a r e & H u d s o n i n s t e a d . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e a s s e t s w e r e d i s p o s e d o f b y t h e e s t a t e u n t i l i t w a s f o l d e d i n t o t h e n o n - r a i l r o a d P e n n C e n t r a l C o r p o r a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s . T h e r o u t e a c r o s s P e n n s y l v a n i a , N e w J e r s e y a n d O a k I s l a n d Y a r d r e m a i n s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o d a y , t h e o n l y t w o C l a s s 1 r a i l r o a d s t h a t a r e b a s e d i n t h e E a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s r o u t e b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t t o C o n r a i l a s a n a l t e r n a t e r o u t e t o a v o i d A m t r a k ' s f o r m e r P R R / P C N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r e l e c t r i f i e d r o u t e . T o d a y , t h i s r o u t e c o n t i n u e s a s t w o l i n e s , o n e t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a n d t h e o t h e r t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w l i n e t h a t w a s o n c e p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e o r i g i n a l l i n e r e t a i n s i t s o r i g i n a l r o u t e w h e n i t w a s f i r s t c o n s t r u c t e d a n d i s s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y . T h e n e w l i n e i s a l s o s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , b u t i t i s s e r v e d t o g e t h e r w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n a j o i n t o w n e r s h i p c o m p a n y c a l l e d C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s . M o s t o f t h e o t h e r r e m a i n i n g L e h i g h V a l l e y t r a c k s e r v e s a s b r a n c h l i n e s , o r h a s b e e n s o l d t o s h o r t l i n e a n d r e g i o n a l o p e r a t o r s . T h e s e o p e r a t o r s i n c l u d e , i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r : T h e L e h i g h L i n e w a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d ' s f i r s t r a i l l i n e a n d s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e . I t w a s o p e n e d o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 b e t w e e n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h r e e m o n t h s l a t e r t h e l i n e b r a n c h e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t A l l e n t o w n t o J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e l i n e w a s l a t e r e x t e n d e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t J i m T h o r p e t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d l a t e r i t r e a c h e d t h e B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k a r e a a n d p a s t E a s t o n a l l t h e w a y t o P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y a n d t h e n s w i t c h e d d i r e c t i o n t o t h e n o r t h e a s t t o J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y l a t e r c u t b a c k t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y . D u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s , t h e l i n e s e r v e d a s t h e b o d y o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d u n t i l t h e r a i l r o a d e i t h e r b u i l t , a c q u i r e d , o r m e r g e d o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n t o i t s s y s t e m . D u r i n g t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t s o w n e r s h i p u n d e r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d , t h e l i n e w a s k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y M a i n l i n e , s t a r t i n g i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s . T h e l i n e a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o C o n r a i l i n 1 9 7 6 a n d w a s m a i n t a i n e d a s a m a i n l i n e i n t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . T h e l i n e b e c a m e k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h L i n e d u r i n g C o n r a i l o w n e r s h i p . C o n r a i l i n t e g r a t e d f o r m e r C N J m a i n l i n e l e a s e d t r a c k a g e i n t o t h e l i n e a n d k e p t t h e l i n e i n c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n ( s i n c e 1 8 5 5 ) ; h o w e v e r , i t d o w n s i z e d t h e l i n e i n t h e n o r t h w e s t f r o m t h e B u f f a l o a r e a o f N e w Y o r k S t a t e : f i r s t t o S a y r e Y a r d i n S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; t h e n t o M e h o o p a n y , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; a n d f i n a l l y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e ' s b e i n g d o w n s i z e d t h r e e t i m e s c r e a t e d t w o n e w r a i l l i n e s : t h e L e h i g h S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n , w h i c h w a s l a t e r s o l d t o t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ( R B M N ) i n 1 9 9 6 ; t h e R B M N w o u l d l a t e r c u t b a c k t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n f r o m M e h o o p a n y t o D u p o n t , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e t r a c k s f r o m D u p o n t t o M e h o o p a n y b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e c a l l e d t h e S u s q u e h a n n a B r a n c h . I n 1 9 9 9 , t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y w h i c h i s o w n e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n C o r p o r a t i o n a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h L i n e i n t h e C o n r a i l s p l i t w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n b u t t h e t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y w e r e k e p t w i t h C o n r a i l i n o r d e r f o r b o t h N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a n d C S X t o h a v e e q u a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e N o r t h e a s t . T h e e x i s t i n g t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a l o n g w i t h C S X o w n i t u n d e r a j o i n t v e n t u r e . H o w e v e r , f o r h i s t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e p a r t f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n p a r t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e . N o w u n d e r o w n e r s h i p o f t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e L e h i g h L i n e ' s r o u t e i s n o w f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h i s i s c u r r e n t l y t h e l a s t t i m e t h e l i n e h a s b e e n d o w n s i z e d . T h e L e h i g h L i n e s t i l l e x i s t s a n d s t i l l s e r v e s a s a m a j o r f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d l i n e t h a t o p e r a t e s i n N e w J e r s e y a n d P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e i s s t i l l o w n e d a n d o p e r a t e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d t h e l i n e s t i l l r u n s f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e c o n n e c t s w i t h C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s ' s L e h i g h L i n e ( t h e n e w r a i l l i n e ) a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ' s T r e n t o n S u b d i v i s i o n a t P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s R e a d i n g D i v i s i o n a t P a c k e r t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s L e h i g h D i v i s i o n a t L e h i g h t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ( o r i g i n a l l y M & H J u n c t i o n n e a r O l d P e n n H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) . T h e l i n e m a k e s n o t a b l e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n l i n e s s u c h a s t h e R e a d i n g L i n e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s h o r t l i n e r a i l r o a d s . A t T h r e e B r i d g e s , N e w J e r s e y i n R e a d i n g t o n T o w n s h i p , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h B l a c k R i v e r a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s N e w J e r s e y s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e W a s h i n g t o n S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r R a i l w a y w h i c h a l s o p a s s e s o v e r t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r a f t e r t h a t . A c r o s s t h e r i v e r i n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s P e n n s y l v a n i a s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e P o r t l a n d S e c o n d a r y w h i c h e x t e n d s f r o m E a s t o n t o P o r t l a n d , P e n n s y l v a n i a c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y p a r t o f t h e L a c k a w a n n a O l d R o a d ( o r s i m p l y O l d R o a d ) ; t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y g o e s u n d e r t h e L a c k a w a n n a C u t - O f f a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e D e l a w a r e - L a c k a w a n n a R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e h o s t s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y - f i v e t r a i n s p e r d a y , w i t h t r a f f i c p e a k i n g a t t h e e n d o f t h e w e e k . E a s t o f t h e j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e R e a d i n g L i n e i n A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d i n B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e s e r v e s a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s m a i n c o r r i d o r i n a n d o u t o f t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y , a n d t h e N e w Y o r k M e t r o A r e a a t l a r g e , a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n d o e s n ' t c u r r e n t l y u s e t h e e a s t e r n h a l f o f i t s S o u t h e r n T i e r L i n e , w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f r o m P o r t J e r v i s n o r t h t o B i n g h a m t o n , N e w Y o r k a n d w h i c h i s n o w ( 2 0 2 2 ) o p e r a t e d b y t h e C e n t r a l N e w Y o r k R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s H a r r i s b u r g D i v i s i o n a n d i t i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s C r e s c e n t C o r r i d o r , a r a i l r o a d c o r r i d o r . I t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 , 0 0 0 - f o o t P a t t e n b u r g T u n n e l i n W e s t P o r t a l , N e w J e r s e y a l o n g i t s r o u t e . M o s t o f t h e t r a f f i c a l o n g t h e l i n e c o n s i s t s o f i n t e r m o d a l a n d g e n e r a l m e r c h a n d i s e t r a i n s g o i n g t o y a r d s s u c h a s O a k I s l a n d Y a r d i n N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y a n d C r o x t o n Y a r d i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e f i r s t l o c o m o t i v e p u r c h a s e d b y t h e L V R R w a s t h e " D e l a w a r e " , a w o o d - b u r n i n g 4 - 4 - 0 b u i l t b y R i c h a r d N o r r i s & S o n s o f P h i l a d e l p h i a i n 1 8 5 5 . I t w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e " C a t a s a u q u a " 4 - 4 - 0 a n d " L e h i g h " 4 - 6 - 0 , w h i c h w e r e a l s o N o r r i s & S o n s e n g i n e s . I n 1 8 5 6 , t h e " E . A . P a c k e r " 4 - 4 - 0 w a s p u r c h a s e d f r o m W i l l i a m M a s o n o f T a u n t o n , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . S u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e L V R R f a v o r e d e n g i n e s f r o m B a l d w i n L o c o m o t i v e W o r k s a n d W i l l i a m M a s o n , b u t t r i e d m a n y o t h e r d e s i g n s a s i t e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h m o t i v e p o w e r t h a t c o u l d h a n d l e t h e l i n e ' s h e a v y g r a d e s . T h e L V R R o p e r a t e d s e v e r a l n a m e d t r a i n s i n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I e r a . A m o n g t h e m : T h e p r i m a r y p a s s e n g e r m o t i v e p o w e r f o r t h e L V R R i n t h e d i e s e l e r a w a s t h e A L C O P A - 1 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e , o f w h i c h t h e L V R R h a d f o u r t e e n . T h e s e l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o u s e d i n f r e i g h t s e r v i c e d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e e r a o f L V R R p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . A p a i r o f A L C O F A - 2 F B - 2 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o p u r c h a s e d t o a u g m e n t t h e P A s w h e n n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e w e r e F A s w i t h s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t d e s i g n a t e d a s F P A - 2 u n i t s . D u e t o d e c l i n i n g p a s s e n g e r p a t r o n a g e , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y s u c c e s s f u l l y p e t i t i o n e d t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e C o m m i s s i o n t o t e r m i n a t e a l l p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . T h i s t o o k e f f e c t o n F e b r u a r y 4 , 1 9 6 1 . T h e " M a p l e L e a f " a n d t h e " J o h n W i l k e s " w e r e t h e l a s t o p e r a t i n g l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a i n s , t e r m i n a t e d t h a t d a y . T h e o n l y d a y l i g h t N e w Y o r k - B u f f a l o t r a i n , t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " , w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 9 5 9 . B u d d R a i l D i e s e l C a r s e r v i c e w o u l d c o n t i n u e o n a b r a n c h l i n e ( L e h i g h t o n - H a z l e t o n ) f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l f o u r d a y s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f p a s s e n g e r e q u i p m e n t i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n s c r a p p e d s o m e t i m e a f t e r F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 1 . M o s t s e r v i c e a b l e e q u i p m e n t n o t r e t a i n e d f o r c o m p a n y s e r v i c e w a s s o l d t o o t h e r r o a d s .

Surviving segments ; The Lehigh Line, the first rail line and main line of the Lehigh Valley Railroad ; Background

The Lehigh Line was the first rail line and main line of the Lehigh Valley Railroad. Opened in 1855, it connected Easton, PA to Allentown, PA, then expanded to Jim Thorpe, PA, and eventually reached Buffalo, NY and Perth Amboy, NJ. The line was later extended to Jersey City, NJ before being cut back to Newark, NJ. After being absorbed into Conrail in 1976, the line was downsized multiple times, creating new rail lines such as the Lehigh Secondary and Lehigh Division. Today, the Lehigh Line remains a major freight railroad line, operating in NJ and PA, and is owned and operated by Norfolk Southern Railway.

6 x 7 inches and 7-1/2 feet long placed 2 feet apart and about a quarter of it was ballasted with stone or gravel. The line had a descending or level grade from Mauch Chunk to Easton and with the exception of the curve at Mauch Chunk had no curve of less than 700 feet radius. The LVRR connected at Mauch Chunk with the Beaver Meadow Railroad. The Beaver Meadow Railroad had been built in 1836, and it transported anthracite coal from Jeansville in Pennsylvania's Middle Coal Field to the Lehigh Canal at Mauch Chunk. For 25 years the Lehigh Canal had enjoyed a monopoly on downstream transportation and was charging independent producers high fees. When the LVRR opened, those producers eagerly sent their product by the railroad instead of canal, and within two years of its construction the LVRR was carrying over 400,000 tons of coal annually. By 1859 it had 600 coal cars and 19 engines. The LVRR immediately became the trunk line down the Lehigh Valley, with numerous feeder railroads connecting and contributing to its traffic. The production of the entire Middle Coal Field came to the LVRR over feeders to the Beaver Meadow: the Quakake Railroad, the Catawissa, Williamsport and Erie Railroad, the Hazleton Railroad, the Lehigh Luzerne Railroad and other smaller lines. At Catasauqua, the Catasauqua and Fogelsville Railroad transported coal, ore, limestone and iron for furnaces of the Thomas Iron Company, the Lehigh Crane Iron Company, the Lehigh Valley Iron Works, the Carbon Iron Company, and others. At Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, obtained a New York charter for the Lehigh Valley Railway (a similar name to the LVRR, but with "railway" instead). LVRR subsidiary, Lehigh Valley Railway began constructing the main line's northern part from Buffalo to Lancaster, New York in 1883, a total distance of ten miles. This was the second step toward establishment of a direct route from Waverly to Buffalo, the first being the acquisition of the Geneva, Ithaca & Athens Railroad. Then in 1887 the Lehigh Valley Railroad obtained a lease on the Southern Central Railroad (the LVRR previously had trackage rights on the railroad starting in 1870), which had a route from Waverly northward into the Finger Lakes region. At the same time, the LVRR organized the Buffalo and Geneva Railroad to build the rest on July 24, 1970. The Lehigh Valley Railroad remained in operation during the 1970 bankruptcy, as was the common practice of the time. In 1972, the Lehigh Valley Railroad assumed the remaining Pennsylvania trackage of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, a competing anthracite railroad which had entered bankruptcy as well. The two roads had entered a shared trackage agreement in this area in 1965 to reduce costs, as both had parallel routes from Wilkes-Barre virtually all the way to metropolitan New York, often on adjoining grades through Pennsylvania. In the years leading to 1973, the freight railroad system in the northeast of the U.S. was collapsing. Although government-funded Amtrak took over intercity passenger service on May 1, 1971, railroad companies continued to lose money due to extensive the Lehigh Valley Railroad. The original line retains its original route when it was first constructed and is served by Norfolk Southern Railway. The new line is also served by Norfolk Southern Railway, but it is served together with CSX Transportation in a joint ownership company called Conrail Shared Assets Operations. Most of the other remaining Lehigh Valley track serves as branch lines, or has been sold to shortline and regional operators. These operators include, in alphabetical order: The Lehigh Line was the Lehigh Valley Railroad's first rail line and served as the main line. It was opened on June 11, 1855 between Easton, Pennsylvania and Allentown, Pennsylvania, passing through Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Three months later the line branched out to the northwest past Allentown to Jim Thorpe, Pennsylvania on September 12, 1855. The line was later extended out to the northwest past Jim Thorpe to the Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania area and later it reached the Buffalo, New York area and past Easton all the way to Perth Amboy, New Jersey and then switched direction to the northeast to Jersey City, New Jersey later cut back to Newark, New Jersey. During the early years, the line served as the body of the Lehigh Valley Railroad until the railroad either built, acquired, or merged other railroads into its system. During the majority of its ownership under the Lehigh Valley Railroad, the line was known as the Lehigh Valley Mainline, starting in the 1930s. The line and the rest of the Lehigh Valley Railroad was absorbed into Conrail in 1976 and was maintained as a main line into the New York City area. The line became known as the Lehigh Line during Conrail ownership. Conrail integrated former CNJ main line leased trackage into the line and kept the line in continuous operation (since 1855); however, it downsized the line in the northwest from the Buffalo area of New York State: first to Sayre Yard in Sayre, Pennsylvania; then to Mehoopany, Pennsylvania; and finally to Penn Haven Junction in Lehigh Township, Carbon County, Pennsylvania. The line's being downsized three times created two new rail lines: the Lehigh Secondary and the Lehigh Division, which was later sold to the Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad (RBMN) in 1996; the RBMN would later cut back the Lehigh Division from Mehoopany to Southern Railway, the Lehigh Line's route is now from Port Reading Junction in Manville, New Jersey to Penn Haven Junction in Lehigh Township, Carbon County, Pennsylvania. This is currently the last time the line has been downsized. The Lehigh Line still exists and still serves as a major freight railroad line that operates in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The line is still owned and operated by the Norfolk Southern Railway and the line still runs from Port Reading Junction in Manville, New Jersey to Penn Haven Junction in Lehigh Township, Carbon County, Pennsylvania. The line connects with Conrail Shared Assets Operations's Lehigh Line (the new rail line) and CSX Transportation's Trenton Subdivision at Port Reading Junction in Manville, New Jersey and connects with the Reading Blue Mountain and

Lehigh Valley Railroad

T h e D e l a w a r e , L e h i g h , S c h u y l k i l l a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( D L S & S ) w a s a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y o n A p r i l 2 1 , 1 8 4 6 , t o c o n s t r u c t a r a i l r o a d f r o m M a u c h C h u n k , P e n n s y l v a n i a , ( n o w J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e r a i l r o a d w o u l d r u n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L e h i g h R i v e r a n d b r e a k t h e L e h i g h C o a l a n d N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ' s m o n o p o l y o n c o a l t r a f f i c o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . T h e r a i l r o a d w a s c h a r t e r e d o n A u g u s t 2 , 1 8 4 7 , a n d e l e c t e d J a m e s M . P o r t e r i t s p r e s i d e n t o n O c t o b e r 2 1 . L i t t l e o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1 8 4 7 a n d 1 8 5 1 , s a v e s o m e l i m i t e d g r a d i n g n e a r A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . A l l t h i s c h a n g e d i n O c t o b e r 1 8 5 1 , w h e n A s a P a c k e r t o o k m a j o r i t y c o n t r o l o f t h e D L S & S . P a c k e r b r o u g h t a d d i t i o n a l f i n a n c i n g t o t h e r a i l r o a d , i n s t a l l e d R o b e r t H . S a y r e a s c h i e f e n g i n e e r , a n d r e n a m e d t h e c o m p a n y t h e " L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . " C o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n i n e a r n e s t i n 1 8 5 3 , a n d t h e l i n e o p e n e d b e t w e e n E a s t o n a n d A l l e n t o w n o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e s e c t i o n b e t w e e n A l l e n t o w n a n d M a u c h C h u n k o p e n e d o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R i n t e r c h a n g e d c o a l a t t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r w h e r e c o a l c o u l d b e s h i p p e d t o P h i l a d e l p h i a o n t h e D e l a w a r e D i v i s i o n C a n a l o r t r a n s p o r t e d a c r o s s t h e r i v e r t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , w h e r e t h e M o r r i s C a n a l a n d t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y ( C N J ) c o u l d c a r r y i t t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y m a r k e t . A t E a s t o n , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d a d o u b l e - d e c k e d b r i d g e a c r o s s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f o r c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e C N J a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d i n P h i l l i p s b u r g . T h r o u g h a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , L V R R p a s s e n g e r s h a d a r o u t e t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y , J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y , a n d o t h e r p o i n t s i n N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R ' s r o l l i n g s t o c k w a s h i r e d f r o m t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y a n d a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h t h e C N J t o r u n t w o p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s f r o m E a s t o n t o M a u c h C h u n k c o n n e c t i n g w i t h t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a t r a i n s o n t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d . A d a i l y f r e i g h t t r a i n w a s p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n l e a v i n g E a s t o n i n t h e m o r n i n g a n d r e t u r n i n g i n t h e e v e n i n g . I n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f O c t o b e r 1 8 5 5 , a c o n t r a c t w a s m a d e w i t h H o w a r d & C o o f P h i l a d e l p h i a t o d o t h e f r e i g h t i n g b u s i n e s s o f t h e r a i l r o a d ( e x c e p t c o a l , i r o n , a n d i r o n o r e ) . T h e l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n w a s 4 6 m i l e s o f s i n g l e t r a c k . T h e l i n e w a s l a i d w i t h a r a i l w e i g h i n g 5 6 p o u n d s p e r y a r d s u p p o r t e d u p o n c r o s s t i e s 6 x 7 i n c h e s a n d 7 - 1 / 2 f e e t l o n g p l a c e d 2 f e e t a p a r t a n d a b o u t a q u a r t e r o f i t w a s b a l l a s t e d w i t h s t o n e o r g r a v e l . T h e l i n e h a d a d e s c e n d i n g o r l e v e l g r a d e f r o m M a u c h C h u n k t o E a s t o n a n d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e c u r v e a t M a u c h C h u n k h a d n o c u r v e o f l e s s t h a n 7 0 0 f e e t r a d i u s . T h e L V R R c o n n e c t e d a t M a u c h C h u n k w i t h t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d . T h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d h a d b e e n b u i l t i n 1 8 3 6 , a n d i t t r a n s p o r t e d a n t h r a c i t e c o a l f r o m J e a n s v i l l e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a ' s M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d t o t h e L e h i g h C a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k . F o r 2 5 y e a r s t h e L e h i g h C a n a l h a d e n j o y e d a m o n o p o l y o n d o w n s t r e a m t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d w a s c h a r g i n g i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r s h i g h f e e s . W h e n t h e L V R R o p e n e d , t h o s e p r o d u c e r s e a g e r l y s e n t t h e i r p r o d u c t b y t h e r a i l r o a d i n s t e a d o f c a n a l , a n d w i t h i n t w o y e a r s o f i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e L V R R w a s c a r r y i n g o v e r 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y . B y 1 8 5 9 i t h a d 6 0 0 c o a l c a r s a n d 1 9 e n g i n e s . T h e L V R R i m m e d i a t e l y b e c a m e t h e t r u n k l i n e d o w n t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w i t h n u m e r o u s f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s c o n n e c t i n g a n d c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i t s t r a f f i c . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e M i d d l e C o a l F i e l d c a m e t o t h e L V R R o v e r f e e d e r s t o t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w : t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d , t h e C a t a w i s s a , W i l l i a m s p o r t a n d E r i e R a i l r o a d , t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d , t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d a n d o t h e r s m a l l e r l i n e s . A t C a t a s a u q u a , t h e C a t a s a u q u a a n d F o g e l s v i l l e R a i l r o a d t r a n s p o r t e d c o a l , o r e , l i m e s t o n e a n d i r o n f o r f u r n a c e s o f t h e T h o m a s I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h C r a n e I r o n C o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y I r o n W o r k s , t h e C a r b o n I r o n C o m p a n y , a n d o t h e r s . A t B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e N o r t h P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d w h i c h w a s c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g t h e S u m m e r o f 1 8 5 6 , p r o v i d e d a r a i l c o n n e c t i o n t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d t h u s b r o u g h t t h e L V R R a d i r e c t l i n e t o P h i l a d e l p h i a . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e B e l v i d e r e D e l a w a r e R a i l r o a d c o n n e c t e d t o T r e n t o n , N e w J e r s e y . T o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e g a u g e o f t h e B e l v i d e r e , t h e c a r s w e r e f u r n i s h e d w i t h w h e e l s h a v i n g w i d e t r e a d s t h a t o p e r a t e d o n b o t h r o a d s . T h e 1 8 6 0 s s a w a n e x p a n s i o n o f t h e L V R R n o r t h w a r d t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d u p t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e . A s a P a c k e r w a s e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o n J a n u a r y 1 3 , 1 8 6 2 . I n 1 8 6 4 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a c q u i r i n g f e e d e r r a i l r o a d s a n d m e r g i n g t h e m w i t h i t s s y s t e m . T h e f i r s t a c q u i s i t i o n s w e r e t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w R a i l r o a d a n d C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , a n d t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d . T h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n w a s t h e f i r s t s t e p i n e x p a n d i n g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . T h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d a l l o w e d t h e L V t o r e a c h W h i t e H a v e n . I n 1 8 6 6 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h a n d M a h a n o y R a i l r o a d ( o r i g i n a l l y t h e Q u a k a k e R a i l r o a d ) a n d t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l a l o n g t h e S u s q u e h a n n a R i v e r , r e n a m i n g i t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d N e w Y o r k C a n a l & R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ( P & N Y ) . T h e p u r c h a s i n g o f t h e N o r t h B r a n c h C a n a l s a w a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a n e a r m o n o p o l y i n t h e r e g i o n n o r t h o f t h e W y o m i n g V a l l e y . I n 1 8 6 6 , t w o y e a r s a f t e r t h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e P e n n H a v e n a n d W h i t e H a v e n , t h e e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e o p e n e d . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r a i l l i n e t o t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e s t a r t e d i m m e d i a t e l y a n d , i n 1 8 6 7 , t h e l i n e w a s c o m p l e t e f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e t o W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k , w h e r e c o a l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b r o a d g a u g e E r i e R a i l r o a d a n d s h i p p e d t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s t h r o u g h B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . T o r e a c h W i l k e s - B a r r e , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e P e n n H a v e n & W h i t e H a v e n R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 4 , a n d b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e x t e n s i o n f r o m W h i t e H a v e n t o W i l k e s - B a r r e t h a t w a s o p e n e d i n 1 8 6 7 . B y 1 8 6 9 , t h e L V R R o w n e d a c o n t i n u o u s t r a c k t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a f r o m E a s t o n t o W a v e r l y . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e L V R R — a s t a n d a r d g a u g e r a i l r o a d — c o m p l e t e d a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d , a t t h a t t i m e h a v i n g a s i x - f o o t g a u g e , f o r a t h i r d r a i l w i t h i n t h e E r i e m a i n l i n e t r a c k s t o e n a b l e t h e L V e q u i p m e n t t o r u n t h r o u g h t o E l m i r a a n d l a t e r t o B u f f a l o . F u r t h e r r o u n d s o f a c q u i s i t i o n s t o o k p l a c e i n 1 8 6 8 . T h e a c q u i s i t i o n s i n 1 8 6 8 w e r e n o t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e L V R R ' s s t r a t e g y o f a c q u i r i n g c o a l l a n d s t o e n s u r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t r a f f i c f o r i t s o w n l i n e s . A l t h o u g h t h e 1 8 6 4 a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e B e a v e r M e a d o w h a d i n c l u d e d a f e w h u n d r e d a c r e s o f c o a l l a n d , b y 1 8 6 8 t h e L V R R w a s f e e l i n g p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n a n d t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d i n t h e n o r t h e r n W y o m i n g V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d , w h e r e t h e r a i l r o a d s m i n e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d t h e i r o w n c o a l a t a m u c h r e d u c e d c o s t . T h e L V R R r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i t s o w n c o n t i n u e d p r o s p e r i t y d e p e n d e d o n o b t a i n i n g w h a t c o a l l a n d s r e m a i n e d . I n p u r s u i t o f t h a t s t r a t e g y , t h e 1 8 6 8 p u r c h a s e s o f t h e H a z l e t o n R a i l r o a d a n d t h e L e h i g h L u z e r n e R a i l r o a d b r o u g h t o f c o a l l a n d t o t h e L V R R , a n d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d s w e r e a c q u i r e d a l o n g b r a n c h e s o f t h e L V R R . O v e r t h e n e x t d o z e n y e a r s t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d : i n 1 8 7 0 , i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a C o a l C o m p a n y i n 1 8 7 3 w i t h i t s l a r g e l e a s e s i n t h e M a h a n o y b a s i n . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e h o l d i n g s w e r e c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , w h i c h w a s w h o l l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R . B y 1 8 9 3 , t h e L V R R o w n e d o r c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l l a n d s . W i t h t h e s e a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L V R R o b t a i n e d t h e r i g h t t o m i n e c o a l a s w e l l a s t r a n s p o r t i t . T h e 1 8 7 0 s w i t n e s s e d c o m m e n c e m e n t o f e x t e n s i o n o f t h e L V R R i n a n e w d i r e c t i o n . I n t h e 1 8 7 0 s t h e L V R R a c q u i r e d o t h e r l a r g e t r a c t s o f l a n d s t a r t i n g a t i n 1 8 7 0 , w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l o f i n 1 8 7 2 , a n d t u r n e d i t s e y e t o w a r d e x p a n s i o n a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y a l l t h e w a y t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . I n 1 8 7 0 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s t o A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t i n t h e e a s t w a s N e w Y o r k C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R w a s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l f o r t r a n s p o r t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e L V R R l e a s e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l , w h i c h h a d a v a l u a b l e o u t l e t i n J e r s e y C i t y o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r o p p o s i t e M a n h a t t a n . A s a P a c k e r p u r c h a s e d a d d i t i o n a l l a n d a t t h e c a n a l b a s i n i n s u p p o r t o f t h e N e w J e r s e y W e s t L i n e R a i l r o a d , w h i c h h e h o p e d t o u s e a s t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . T h a t p r o j e c t f a i l e d , b u t t h e l a n d s w e r e l a t e r u s e d f o r t h e L V R R ' s o w n t e r m i n a l i n 1 8 8 9 . T h e C N J , a n t i c i p a t i n g t h a t t h e L V R R i n t e n d e d t o c r e a t e i t s o w n l i n e a c r o s s N e w J e r s e y , p r o t e c t e d i t s e l f b y l e a s i n g t h e L e h i g h a n d S u s q u e h a n n a R a i l r o a d ( L & S ) t o e n s u r e a c o n t i n u i n g s u p p l y o f c o a l t r a f f i c . T h e L & S h a d b e e n c h a r t e r e d i n 1 8 3 7 b y t h e L e h i g h C o a l & N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y ( t h e L e h i g h C a n a l c o m p a n y ) t o c o n n e c t t h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e c a n a l a t M a u c h C h u n k t o W i l k e s - B a r r e . A f t e r t h e L V R R o p e n e d i t s l i n e , t h e L e h i g h & S u s q u e h a n n a e x t e n d e d t o P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a n d t h e M o r r i s a n d E s s e x R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 6 8 . I n 1 8 7 1 , t h e e n t i r e l i n e f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g t o W i l k e s - B a r r e w a s l e a s e d t o t h e C N J . F o r m o s t o f i t s l e n g t h , i t r a n p a r a l l e l t o t h e L V R R . T h e L V R R f o u n d t h a t t h e r o u t e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l w a s i m p r a c t i c a l f o r u s e a s a r a i l r o a d l i n e , s o i n 1 8 7 2 t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e d o r m a n t c h a r t e r o f t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k R a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d a c c e s s t o t h e P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y h a r b o r , a n d a d d e d t o i t a n e w c h a r t e r , t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n R a i l r o a d . T h e S t a t e o f N e w J e r s e y p a s s e d l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o c o n s o l i d a t e i t s N e w J e r s e y r a i l r o a d s i n t o o n e c o m p a n y ; t h e P e r t h A m b o y a n d B o u n d B r o o k a n d t h e B o u n d B r o o k a n d E a s t o n w e r e m e r g e d t o f o r m a n e w r a i l r o a d c o m p a n y c a l l e d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ( o r E a s t o n & A m b o y R a i l r o a d C o m p a n y ) . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a r a i l r o a d b u i l t a c r o s s c e n t r a l N e w J e r s e y b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d t o r u n f r o m P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y t o B o u n d B r o o k , N e w J e r s e y a n d i t w a s b u i l t t o c o n n e c t t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d c o a l - h a u l i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y t o s e r v e c o n s u m e r m a r k e t s i n t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e P h i l l i p s b u r g c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C N J t h a t h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n t h e o n l y o u t l e t t o t h e N e w Y o r k t i d e w a t e r ; u n t i l i t w a s b u i l t , t h e t e r m i n u s o f t h e L V R R h a d b e e n a t P h i l l i p s b u r g o n t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r o p p o s i t e E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s u s e d a s a c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e N e w Y o r k m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , w i t h a t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . C o n s t r u c t i o n c o m m e n c e d i n 1 8 7 2 a s s o o n t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y w a s f o r m e d ; c o a l d o c k s a t P e r t h A m b o y w e r e s o o n c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d m o s t o f t h e l i n e f r o m E a s t o n t o P e r t h A m b o y w a s g r a d e d a n d r a i l s l a i d . H o w e v e r , t h e r o u t e r e q u i r e d a t u n n e l t h r o u g h / u n d e r M u s c o n e t c o n g M o u n t a i n n e a r P a t t e n b u r g , N e w J e r s e y ( a b o u t t w e l v e m i l e s e a s t o f P h i l l i p s b u r g ) , a n d t h a t p r o v e d t r o u b l e s o m e , d e l a y i n g t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e l i n e u n t i l M a y 1 8 7 5 , w h e n a c o a l t r a i n f i r s t p a s s e d o v e r t h e l i n e . T o s u p p o r t t h e e x p e c t e d i n c r e a s e i n t r a f f i c , t h e w o o d e n b r i d g e o v e r t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r a t E a s t o n w a s a l s o r e p l a c e d b y a d o u b l e - t r a c k e d , i r o n b r i d g e . A t P e r t h A m b o y , a t i d e w a t e r t e r m i n a l w a s b u i l t o n t h e A r t h u r K i l l c o m p r i s i n g a l a r g e c o a l d o c k u s e d t o t r a n s p o r t c o a l i n t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . T h e s e t r a c k s w e r e l a i d a n d t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s o p e n e d f o r b u s i n e s s o n J u n e 2 8 , 1 8 7 5 w i t h h a u l i n g c o a l . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y ' s o p e r a t i o n s w e r e l a b e l e d t h e " N e w J e r s e y D i v i s i o n " o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y h a d a l r e a d y c o m p l e t e d l a r g e d o c k s a n d f a c i l i t i e s f o r s h i p p i n g c o a l a t P e r t h A m b o y u p o n a n e x t e n s i v e t r a c t o f l a n d f r o n t i n g t h e A r t h u r K i l l . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f a n t h r a c i t e m o v e d t o P e r t h A m b o y d u r i n g t h a t y e a r f o r t r a n s s h i p m e n t b y w a t e r . O p e r a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e L V R R ' s b a n k r u p t c y i n 1 9 7 6 . T h e m a r s h a l l i n g y a r d i s n o w t h e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a k n o w n a s H a r b o r t o w n . P a s s e n g e r t r a f f i c o n t h e L V R R ' s E a s t o n a n d A m b o y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ( P R R ) a t M e t u c h e n , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n t i n u e d t o t h e P R R ' S E x c h a n g e P l a c e t e r m i n u s i n J e r s e y C i t y ( t h a t c o n n e c t i o n w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 8 9 1 a f t e r t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d ) . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e p a r e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . I n 1 8 7 5 , t h e L V R R f i n a n c e d t h e a d d i t i o n o f a t h i r d r a i l t o t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e s o t h a t c a r s c o u l d r o l l d i r e c t l y f r o m c o l l i e r y t o t h e p o r t a t B u f f a l o . W h i l e t h e t h i r d r a i l o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d m a i n l i n e b e t w e e n W a v e r l y a n d B u f f a l o g a v e t h e L V R R a n u n b r o k e n c o n n e c t i o n t o B u f f a l o , t h e r o a d ' s m a n a g e m e n t d e s i r e d i t s o w n l i n e i n t o B u f f a l o . T h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d p a s s e d i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e L V R R i n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 6 , w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m t h e N e w Y o r k s t a t e l i n e n e a r S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k , a d i s t a n c e o f 7 5 m i l e s . O n M a y 1 7 , 1 8 7 9 , A s a P a c k e r , t h e c o m p a n y ' s f o u n d e r a n d l e a d e r , d i e d a t t h e a g e o f 7 3 . A t t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h , t h e r a i l r o a d w a s s h i p p i n g 4 . 4 m i l l i o n t o n s o f c o a l a n n u a l l y o v e r o f t r a c k , u s i n g 2 3 5 e n g i n e s , 2 4 , 4 6 1 c o a l c a r s , a n d o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 f r e i g h t c a r s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s . T h e c o m p a n y c o n t r o l l e d o f c o a l - p r o d u c i n g l a n d s a n d w a s e x p a n d i n g r a p i d l y i n t o N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y . T h e r a i l r o a d h a d s u r v i v e d t h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n o f 1 8 7 3 a n d w a s s e e i n g i t s b u s i n e s s r e c o v e r . L e a d e r s h i p o f t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s f e r r e d s m o o t h l y t o C h a r l e s H a r t s h o r n e w h o h a d b e e n v i c e p r e s i d e n t u n d e r P a c k e r . I n 1 8 8 3 , H a r t s h o r n e r e t i r e d t o a l l o w H a r r y E . P a c k e r , A s a ' s 3 2 - y e a r - o l d y o u n g e s t s o n , t o a s s u m e t h e P r e s i d e n c y . A y e a r l a t e r , H a r r y P a c k e r d i e d o f i l l n e s s , a n d A s a ' s 5 1 - y e a r - o l d n e p h e w E l i s h a P a c k e r W i l b u r w a s e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t , a p o s i t i o n h e h e l d f o r 1 3 y e a r s . T h e 1 8 8 0 s c o n t i n u e d t o b e a p e r i o d o f g r o w t h , a n d t h e L V R R m a d e i m p o r t a n t a c q u i s i t i o n s i n N e w Y o r k , e x p a n d e d i t s r e a c h i n t o t h e s o u t h e r n c o a l f i e l d o f P e n n s y l v a n i a w h i c h h a d h i t h e r t o b e e n t h e m o n o p o l y o f t h e R e a d i n g , a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y b a t t l e d t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . I n 1 8 8 0 , t h e L V R R e s t a b l i s h e d t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e t o o p e r a t e a f l e e t o f s h i p s o n t h e G r e a t L a k e s w i t h t e r m i n a l s i n C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , a n d D u l u t h . T h i s c o m p a n y b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e m o v e m e n t o f a n t h r a c i t e , g r a i n a n d p a c k a g e f r e i g h t b e t w e e n B u f f a l o , C h i c a g o , M i l w a u k e e , D u l u t h , S u p e r i o r a n d o t h e r m i d w e s t e r n c i t i e s . F o l l o w i n g F e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s u c h s e r v i c e , t h e l a k e l i n e w a s s o l d t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s i n 1 9 2 0 . T h e p o r t o n L a k e E r i e a t B u f f a l o w a s c r i t i c a l t o t h e L V R R ' s s h i p m e n t s o f c o a l t o w e s t e r n m a r k e t s a n d f o r r e c e i p t o f g r a i n s e n t b y t h e W e s t t o e a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l t h o u g h i n 1 8 7 0 t h e L V R R h a d i n v e s t e d i n t h e B u f f a l o C r e e k R a i l r o a d w h i c h c o n n e c t e d t h e E r i e t o t h e l a k e f r o n t , a n d h a d c o n s t r u c t e d t h e L e h i g h D o c k s o n B u f f a l o C r e e k , i t d e p e n d e d o n t h e E r i e R a i l r o a d f o r t h e c o n n e c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y , N e w Y o r k t o B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k . I n 1 8 8 2 , t h e L V R R b e g a n a n e x t e n s i v e e x p a n s i o n i n t o N e w Y o r k f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o . C o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o w a s s p l i t i n t o t w o p r o j e c t s , W a v e r l y t o G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k a n d G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o ( G e n e v a i s l o c a t e d a t t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f S e n e c a L a k e ) . F i r s t , i t p u r c h a s e d a l a r g e p a r c e l o f l a n d i n B u f f a l o , t h e T i f f t f a r m , f o r u s e a s t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s , a n d o b t a i n e d a N e w Y o r k c h a r t e r f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y ( a s i m i l a r n a m e t o t h e L V R R , b u t w i t h " r a i l w a y " i n s t e a d ) . L V R R s u b s i d i a r y , L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l w a y b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e m a i n l i n e ' s n o r t h e r n p a r t f r o m B u f f a l o t o L a n c a s t e r , N e w Y o r k i n 1 8 8 3 , a t o t a l d i s t a n c e o f t e n m i l e s . T h i s w a s t h e s e c o n d s t e p t o w a r d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a d i r e c t r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y t o B u f f a l o , t h e f i r s t b e i n g t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a & A t h e n s R a i l r o a d . T h e n i n 1 8 8 7 t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d o b t a i n e d a l e a s e o n t h e S o u t h e r n C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d ( t h e L V R R p r e v i o u s l y h a d t r a c k a g e r i g h t s o n t h e r a i l r o a d s t a r t i n g i n 1 8 7 0 ) , w h i c h h a d a r o u t e f r o m W a v e r l y n o r t h w a r d i n t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e L V R R o r g a n i z e d t h e B u f f a l o a n d G e n e v a R a i l r o a d t o b u i l d t h e r e s t o f t h e 9 7 - m i l e G e n e v a t o B u f f a l o t r a c k a g e , f r o m G e n e v a t o L a n c a s t e r . F i n a l l y , i n 1 8 8 9 , t h e L V R R g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e G e n e v a , I t h a c a , a n d S a y r e R a i l r o a d a n d c o m p l e t e d i t s l i n e o f r a i l t h r o u g h N e w Y o r k . A s a r e s u l t o f i t s l e a s e s a n d a c q u i s i t i o n s , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y g a i n e d a n e a r - m o n o p o l y o n t r a f f i c i n t h e F i n g e r L a k e s r e g i o n . I t a l s o c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w a n d d e v e l o p i t s r o u t e s i n P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n 1 8 8 3 t h e r a i l r o a d a c q u i r e d l a n d i n n o r t h e a s t P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d f o r m e d a s u b s i d i a r y c a l l e d T h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l a n d L a n d C o m p a n y . I t o p e n e d a h o t e l i n G l e n S u m m i t , P e n n s y l v a n i a c a l l e d t h e G l e n S u m m i t H o t e l t o s e r v e l u n c h t o p a s s e n g e r s t r a v e l i n g o n t h e l i n e . T h e h o t e l r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e c o m p a n y u n t i l 1 9 0 9 , w h e n i t w a s b o u g h t b y r e s i d e n t s o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o t t a g e s . I n P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L e h i g h s c o r e d a c o u p b y o b t a i n i n g t h e c h a r t e r f o r m e r l y h e l d b y t h e S c h u y k i l l H a v e n a n d L e h i g h R i v e r R a i l r o a d i n 1 8 8 6 . T h a t c h a r t e r h a d b e e n h e l d b y t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d s i n c e 1 8 6 0 , w h e n i t h a d b l o c k e d c o n s t r u c t i o n i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n i t s m o n o p o l y i n t h e S o u t h e r n C o a l F i e l d . T h a t s o u t h e r n f i e l d h e l d t h e l a r g e s t r e s e r v e s o f a n t h r a c i t e i n P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d a c c o u n t e d f o r a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n . T h r o u g h n e g l e c t , t h e R e a d i n g a l l o w e d t h e c h a r t e r t o l a p s e , a n d i t w a s a c q u i r e d b y t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y , w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d t h e S c h u y l k i l l a n d L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e g a v e t h e L V R R a r o u t e i n t o P o t t s v i l l e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d t h e S c h u y l k i l l V a l l e y c o a l f i e l d s . T h e V o s b u r g T u n n e l w a s c o m p l e t e d a n d o p e n e d f o r s e r v i c e o n J u l y 2 5 , 1 8 8 6 . T h e 1 6 m i l e M o u n t a i n C u t - o f f , ( a r a i l s e g m e n t o f t h e l i n e ) w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m F a i r v i e w , P e n n s y l v a n i a t o t h e o u t s k i r t s o f P i t t s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , w a s c o m p l e t e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 8 8 8 . T h i s a l l o w e d t h e l i n e ' s e a s t b o u n d g r a d e t o b e r e d u c e d a n d a s h o r t e r r o u t e f o r h a n d l i n g t h r o u g h t r a f f i c e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e L V R R h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , b u t d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n N e w J e r s e y , t h e L V R R e m b a r k e d o n a d e c a d e - l o n g l e g a l b a t t l e w i t h t h e C N J o v e r t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s i n J e r s e y C i t y . T h e l a n d t h a t A s a P a c k e r h a d o b t a i n e d i n 1 8 7 2 w a s s i t u a t e d o n t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e o f t h e M o r r i s C a n a l ' s S o u t h B a s i n , b u t t h e C N J a l r e a d y h a d i t s o w n f a c i l i t i e s a d j a c e n t t o t h a t p r o p e r t y a n d d i s p u t e d t h e L V R R ' s t i t l e , w h i c h p a r t l y o v e r l a p p e d l a n d t h e C N J h a d f i l l e d f o r i t s o w n t e r m i n a l . F i n a l l y i n 1 8 8 7 t h e t w o r a i l r o a d s r e a c h e d a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e L V R R ' s J e r s e y C i t y f r e i g h t y a r d b e g a n . T h e L V R R o b t a i n e d a 5 - y e a r a g r e e m e n t t o u s e t h e C N J l i n e t o a c c e s s t h e t e r m i n a l , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 8 8 9 . I t f r o n t e d t h e M o r r i s C a n a l B a s i n w i t h a s e r i e s o f p i e r s a n g l i n g o u t f r o m t h e s h o r e l i n e b u t w a s t o o n a r r o w f o r a y a r d , s o t h e L V R R b u i l t a s e p a r a t e y a r d a t O a k I s l a n d i n N e w a r k t o s o r t a n d p r e p a r e t r a i n s . T h e S o u t h B a s i n t e r m i n a l w a s u s e d s o l e l y f o r f r e i g h t , h a v i n g d o c k s a n d c a r f l o a t f a c i l i t i e s . P a s s e n g e r s w e r e r o u t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y . T h e L V R R s t r o v e t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 8 8 0 s t o a c q u i r e i t s o w n r o u t e t o J e r s e y C i t y a n d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y w a t e r f r o n t . T h e L V R R d e c i d e d t o e x p a n d m o r e t o t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n N e w J e r s e y i n o r d e r t o r e a c h i t s f r e i g h t y a r d s w i t h o u t u s i n g t h e C N J m a i n l i n e . T h e L V R R b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f r a i l r o a d s t o c o n n e c t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y l i n e ( E a s t o n a n d A m b o y R a i l r o a d ) t o J e r s e y C i t y . T h e f i r s t l e g o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o J e r s e y C i t y w a s t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n 1 8 8 8 w h i c h c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e C N J a t R o s e l l e , N e w J e r s e y f o r a c c e s s o v e r t h e C N J t o t h e H u d s o n R i v e r w a t e r f r o n t i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e L V R R w h i c h h a d b u i l t c o a l d o c k s i n P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y w h e n i t b u i l t t h e E a s t o n a n d A m b o y i n t h e 1 8 7 0 s , d e s i r e d a t e r m i n a l o n t h e H u d s o n R i v e r c l o s e t o N e w Y o r k C i t y . I n 1 8 9 1 , t h e L V R R c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e R o s e l l e a n d S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d R a i l w a y i n t o t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y , a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r c o m p a n i e s w h i c h f o r m e d t h e r o u t e f r o m S o u t h P l a i n f i e l d t o t h e J e r s e y C i t y t e r m i n a l . I n i t i a l l y , t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r r i g h t s f r o m R o s e l l e t o J e r s e y C i t y , b u t t h e L V R R e v e n t u a l l y f i n i s h e d c o n s t r u c t i o n t o i t s t e r m i n a l i n J e r s e y C i t y o v e r t h e N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y , t h e N e w a r k a n d P a s s a i c R a i l w a y , t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k , a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y , a n d t h e J e r s e y C i t y T e r m i n a l R a i l w a y . T h e L V R R ' s N e w a r k a n d R o s e l l e R a i l w a y i n 1 8 9 1 b r o u g h t t h e l i n e f r o m R o s e l l e i n t o N e w a r k , w h e r e p a s s e n g e r s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . B r i d g i n g N e w a r k B a y p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t . T h e L V R R f i r s t a t t e m p t e d t o o b t a i n a r i g h t o f w a y a t G r e e n v i l l e , b u t t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d c h e c k m a t e d t h e m b y p u r c h a s i n g m o s t o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s n e e d e d . T h e n t h e C N J o p p o s e d t h e L V R R ' s a t t e m p t t o c r o s s i t s l i n e a t C a v e n P o i n t . F i n a l l y a f t e r s e t t l i n g t h e l e g a l i s s u e s , t h e N e w a r k B a y w a s b r i d g e d i n 1 8 9 2 b y t h e J e r s e y C i t y , N e w a r k a n d W e s t e r n R a i l w a y a n d c o n n e c t e d t o t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y , w h i c h w a s p a r t l y o w n e d b y t h e L V R R a n d w h i c h r e a c h e d t h e L V R R ' s t e r m i n a l . I n 1 8 9 5 , t h e L V R R c o n s t r u c t e d t h e G r e e n v i l l e a n d H u d s o n R a i l w a y p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s i n o r d e r t o r e l i e v e c o n g e s t i o n a n d h a v e a w h o l l y - o w n e d r o u t e i n t o J e r s e y C i t y . F i n a l l y i n 1 9 0 0 , t h e L V R R p u r c h a s e d t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l w a y o u t r i g h t . T h e 1 8 9 0 s w e r e a p e r i o d o f t u r m o i l f o r t h e L V R R . A l t h o u g h t h e d e c a d e b e g a n w i t h t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f i t s t e r m i n a l s a t B u f f a l o a n d J e r s e y C i t y , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a t r u n k l i n e a c r o s s N e w Y o r k , t h e c o m p a n y s o o n b e c a m e e n t a n g l e d i n c o s t l y b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o t h e P a c k e r f a m i l y ' s l o s s o f c o n t r o l . T h e c o a l t r a d e w a s a l w a y s t h e b a c k b o n e o f t h e b u s i n e s s b u t w a s s u b j e c t t o b o o m a n d b u s t a s c o m p e t i t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e d a n d t h e e c o n o m y c y c l e d . T h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s h a d b e g u n i n 1 8 7 3 t o f o r m p o o l s t o r e g u l a t e p r o d u c t i o n a n d s e t q u o t a s f o r e a c h r a i l r o a d . B y c o n t r o l l i n g s u p p l y , t h e c o a l c o m b i n a t i o n a t t e m p t e d t o k e e p p r i c e s a n d p r o f i t s h i g h . S e v e r a l c o m b i n a t i o n s o c c u r r e d , b u t e a c h f e l l a p a r t a s o n e r o a d o r a n o t h e r a b r o g a t e d i t s a g r e e m e n t . T h e f i r s t s u c h c o m b i n a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n 1 8 7 3 , f o l l o w e d b y o t h e r s i n 1 8 7 8 , 1 8 8 4 , a n d 1 8 8 6 . C u s t o m e r s n a t u r a l l y r e s e n t e d t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e c a r t e l , a n d s i n c e c o a l w a s c r i t i c a l t o c o m m e r c e , C o n g r e s s i n t e r v e n e d i n 1 8 8 7 w i t h t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e A c t t h a t f o r b a d e t h e r o a d s f r o m j o i n i n g i n t o s u c h p o o l s . A l t h o u g h t h e r o a d s e f f e c t i v e l y i g n o r e d t h e A c t a n d t h e i r s a l e s a g e n t s c o n t i n u e d t o m e e t a n d s e t p r i c e s , t h e a g r e e m e n t s w e r e n e v e r e f f e c t i v e f o r l o n g . I n 1 8 9 2 , t h e R e a d i n g R a i l r o a d t h o u g h t i t h a d a s o l u t i o n — i n s t e a d o f a t t e m p t i n g t o m a i n t a i n a g r e e m e n t s a m o n g t h e c o a l r a i l r o a d s , i t w o u l d p u r c h a s e o r l e a s e t h e m a j o r l i n e s a n d b r i n g t h e m i n t o a m o n o p o l y . I t l e a s e d t h e C N J a n d t h e L V R R , p u r c h a s e d t h e r a i l r o a d s ' c o a l c o m p a n i e s a n d a r r a n g e d f o r t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g 7 0 % o f t h e t r a d e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t o v e r r e a c h e d a n d i n 1 8 9 3 w a s u n a b l e t o m e e t i t s o b l i g a t i o n s . I t s b a n k r u p t c y r e s u l t e d i n e c o n o m i c c h a o s , b r i n g i n g o n t h e f i n a n c i a l p a n i c o f 1 8 9 3 a n d f o r c i n g t h e L V R R t o b r e a k t h e l e a s e a n d r e s u m e i t s o w n o p e r a t i o n s , l e a v i n g i t u n a b l e t o p a y d i v i d e n d s o n i t s s t o c k u n t i l 1 9 0 4 . T h e e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n f o l l o w i n g 1 8 9 3 w a s h a r s h , a n d b y 1 8 9 7 t h e L V R R w a s i n d i r e n e e d o f s u p p o r t . T h e b a n k i n g g i a n t J . P . M o r g a n s t e p p e d i n t o r e f i n a n c e t h e L V R R d e b t a n d o b t a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e r a i l r o a d i n t h e p r o c e s s . O u s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E l i s h a P . W i l b u r a n d s e v e r a l d i r e c t o r s i n 1 8 9 7 , t h e M o r g a n c o m p a n y i n s t a l l e d W . A l f r e d W a l t e r a s p r e s i d e n t a n d s e a t e d i t s o w n d i r e c t o r s . I n 1 9 0 1 M o r g a n a r r a n g e d t o h a v e t h e P a c k e r E s t a t e ' s h o l d i n g s p u r c h a s e d j o i n t l y b y t h e E r i e , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e L a k e S h o r e a n d M i c h i g a n S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e D L & W a n d t h e C N J , a l l c o m p a n i e s i n w h i c h M o r g a n h a d i n t e r e s t s . N e w l y e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t E b e n B . T h o m a s ( f o r m e r l y o f t h e E r i e ) a n d h i s B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e c o m b i n e d i n t e r e s t s o f t h o s e r a i l r o a d s . A f i n a l a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h a c o a l c a r t e l t o o k p l a c e i n 1 9 0 4 w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y . P r i o r t o t h a t t i m e , t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s a s m a l l c o n c e r n t h a t h a p p e n e d t o h a v e a b r o a d c h a r t e r a l l o w i n g i t t o a c t a s a h o l d i n g c o m p a n y . T h e R e a d i n g , n o w o u t o f r e c e i v e r s h i p , p u r c h a s e d t h e c o m p a n y a n d b r o u g h t t h e o t h e r c o a l r a i l r o a d s i n t o t h e p a r t n e r s h i p , w i t h t h e R e a d i n g o w n i n g 3 0 % , t h e L V R R 2 3 % , t h e D e l a w a r e , L a c k a w a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 2 0 % , C N J 1 7 % , E r i e 6 % , a n d N e w Y o r k , S u s q u e h a n n a a n d W e s t e r n 4 p e r c e n t . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e T e m p l e I r o n C o m p a n y w a s t o l o c k - u p i n d e p e n d e n t c o a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l t h e s u p p l y . C o n g r e s s r e a c t e d w i t h t h e 1 9 0 6 H e p b u r n A c t , w h i c h a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s f o r b a d e r a i l r o a d s f r o m o w n i n g t h e c o m m o d i t i e s t h a t t h e y t r a n s p o r t e d . A l o n g s e r i e s o f a n t i t r u s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d l a w s u i t s r e s u l t e d , c u l m i n a t i n g i n a 1 9 1 1 S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n t h a t f o r c e d t h e L V R R t o d i v e s t i t s e l f o f t h e c o a l c o m p a n i e s i t h a d h e l d s i n c e 1 8 6 8 . T h e L V R R s h a r e h o l d e r s r e c e i v e d s h a r e s o f t h e n o w i n d e p e n d e n t L e h i g h V a l l e y C o a l C o m p a n y , b u t t h e r a i l r o a d n o l o n g e r h a d m a n a g e m e n t c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n , c o n t r a c t s , a n d s a l e s o f i t s l a r g e s t c u s t o m e r . I n 1 8 9 6 t h e v e r y e a r l y f i l m " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s " w a s p r o d u c e d b y T h o m a s A . E d i s o n ' s c o m p a n y K i n e t o s c o p e . T h e t r a i n a r r i v e s f r o m f a r a w a y a n d p a s s e s t h e c a m e r a , w h i l e w o r k e r s a r e w a v i n g t h e i r h a n d k e r c h i e f s . F o r t u n a t e l y , g r a i n t o n n a g e w a s i n c r e a s i n g a n d t h e c o m p a n y t r a n s p o r t e d l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s f r o m B u f f a l o t o P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d o t h e r E a s t e r n m a r k e t s . A l s o , i n 1 9 1 4 t h e P a n a m a C a n a l w a s c o m p l e t e d , a n d t h e L V R R g a i n e d a n i m p o r t a n t n e w m a r k e t w i t h o r e s s h i p p e d f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a t o t h e B e t h l e h e m S t e e l c o m p a n y . I n o r d e r t o h a n d l e t h e a d d i t i o n a l n e w o c e a n t r a f f i c , t h e L V R R c r e a t e d a l a r g e n e w p i e r a t C o n s t a b l e H o o k , w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 1 5 , a n d a n e w t e r m i n a l a t C l a r e m o n t w h i c h o p e n e d i n 1 9 2 3 . I t a l s o b u i l t a p a s s e n g e r t e r m i n a l i n B u f f a l o i n 1 9 1 5 . S i n c e 1 8 9 6 t h e L V R R h a d r u n a n i m p o r t a n t a n d p r e s t i g i o u s e x p r e s s t r a i n n a m e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " w h i c h c a r r i e d p a s s e n g e r s t o t h e F i n g e r L a k e s a n d B u f f a l o . A d d i t i o n a l p a s s e n g e r t r a i n s r a n f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a t o S c r a n t o n a n d w e s t w a r d . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e L V R R ' s N e w Y o r k C i t y p a s s e n g e r s h a d u s e d t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d ' s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y a t J e r s e y C i t y , b u t i n 1 9 1 3 t h e P R R t e r m i n a t e d t h a t a g r e e m e n t , s o t h e L V R R c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e C N J f o r u s e o f i t s t e r m i n a l a n d f e r r y , w h i c h w a s e x p a n d e d t o h a n d l e t h e i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r o f p a s s e n g e r s . T h e r a i l r o a d a l s o p u b l i s h e d a m o n t h l y m a g a z i n e p r o m o t i n g t r a v e l o n t h e t r a i n c a l l e d t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d E x p r e s s M o n t h l y " . I n t h e w a r y e a r s 1 9 1 4 t o 1 9 1 8 , t h e L e h i g h h a n d l e d w a r m a t e r i a l s a n d e x p l o s i v e s a t i t s B l a c k T o m i s l a n d f a c i l i t y , w h i c h h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d a l o n g w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l D o c k s R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 0 0 . I n 1 9 1 6 , a h o r r e n d o u s e x p l o s i o n o c c u r r e d a t t h e f a c i l i t y , d e s t r o y i n g s h i p s a n d b u i l d i n g s , a n d b r e a k i n g w i n d o w s i n M a n h a t t a n . A t f i r s t t h e i n c i d e n t w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a c c i d e n t ; a l o n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n e v e n t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e x p l o s i o n w a s a n a c t o f G e r m a n s a b o t a g e , f o r w h i c h r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e f i n a l l y p a i d i n 1 9 7 9 . A f t e r t h e U . S . e n t e r e d W o r l d W a r I , t h e r a i l r o a d s w e r e n a t i o n a l i z e d i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t s t r i k e s a n d i n t e r r u p t i o n s . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s R a i l r o a d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n t r o l l e d t h e r a i l r o a d f r o m 1 9 1 8 t o 1 9 2 0 , a t w h i c h t i m e c o n t r o l w a s t r a n s f e r r e d b a c k t o t h e p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s . A l t h o u g h t h e h e a v y w a r t i m e t r a f f i c h a d l e f t t h e r a i l r o a d ' s p l a n t a n d e q u i p m e n t i n n e e d o f r e p a i r , t h e d a m a g e w a s p a r t l y o f f s e t b y n e w e q u i p m e n t t h a t h a d b e e n p u r c h a s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t . I n 1 9 2 0 , t h e L V R R s o l d i t s l a k e l i n e c o m p a n y , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y T r a n s p o r t a t i o n L i n e , t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s d u e t o n e w f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h s t o p p e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f r a i l r o a d s o w n i n g l a k e l i n e s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 2 0 s t h e r a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e M o r g a n / D r e x e l b a n k i n g f i r m , b u t i n 1 9 2 8 a n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o w r e s t c o n t r o l f r o m i t . I n 1 9 2 7 , L e o n o r F r e s n e l L o r e e , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e D e l a w a r e a n d H u d s o n R a i l r o a d , h a d a v i s i o n f o r a n e w f i f t h t r u n k l i n e b e t w e e n t h e E a s t a n d W e s t , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e W a b a s h R a i l r o a d , t h e B u f f a l o , R o c h e s t e r a n d P i t t s b u r g h R a i l w a y , a n d t h e L V R R . T h r o u g h b o n d s i s s u e d b y t h e D & H , h e o b t a i n e d 3 0 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k , a n d w o n t h e s u p p o r t o f n e a r l y h a l f t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . I n 1 9 2 8 , h e a t t e m p t e d t o s e a t a n e w p r e s i d e n t a n d b o a r d . A m a s s i v e p r o x y f i g h t e n s u e d , w i t h e x i s t i n g P r e s i d e n t E d w a r d E u g e n e L o o m i s n a r r o w l y r e t a i n i n g h i s p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f E d w a r d T . S t o t e s b u r y o f J . P . M o r g a n . F o l l o w i n g t h e d e f e a t o f i t s p l a n , t h e D & H s o l d i t s s t o c k t o t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a q u i e t l y o b t a i n e d m o r e s t o c k , b o t h d i r e c t l y a n d t h r o u g h r a i l r o a d s i t c o n t r o l l e d , p r i m a r i l y t h e W a b a s h . B y 1 9 3 1 , t h e P R R c o n t r o l l e d 5 1 % o f t h e L V R R s t o c k . F o l l o w i n g L o o m i s ' d e a t h i n 1 9 3 7 , t h e p r e s i d e n c y w e n t t o L o o m i s ' a s s i s t a n t D u n c a n J . K e r r , b u t i n 1 9 4 0 h e w a s r e p l a c e d b y A l b e r t N . W i l l i a m s , a n d t h e r o a d c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e P R R . I n 1 9 4 1 , t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a p l a c e d i t s s h a r e s i n a v o t i n g t r u s t a f t e r r e a c h i n g a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l r e g a r d i n g t h e P R R ' s p u r c h a s e o f t h e W a b a s h . F o l l o w i n g t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n , t h e r a i l r o a d h a d a f e w p e r i o d s o f p r o s p e r i t y , b u t w a s c l e a r l y i n a s l o w d e c l i n e . P a s s e n g e r s p r e f e r r e d t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f a u t o m o b i l e s t o t r a i n s , a n d a i r l i n e s m u c h l a t e r p r o v i d e d f a s t e r l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a v e l t h a n t r a i n s . O i l a n d g a s w e r e s u p p l a n t i n g c o a l a s t h e f u e l o f c h o i c e . T h e D e p r e s s i o n h a d b e e n d i f f i c u l t f o r a l l t h e r a i l r o a d s , a n d C o n g r e s s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t b a n k r u p t c y l a w s n e e d e d r e v i s i o n . T h e C h a n d l e r A c t s o f 1 9 3 8 - 9 p r o v i d e d a n e w f o r m o f r e l i e f f o r r a i l r o a d s , a l l o w i n g t h e m t o r e s t r u c t u r e t h e i r d e b t w h i l e c o n t i n u i n g t o o p e r a t e . T h e L V R R w a s a p p r o v e d f o r s u c h a r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n 1 9 4 0 w h e n s e v e r a l l a r g e m o r t g a g e l o a n s w e r e d u e . T h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g a l l o w e d t h e L V R R t o e x t e n d t h e m a t u r i t y o f i t s m o r t g a g e s , b u t i t n e e d e d t o r e p e a t t h e p r o c e s s i n 1 9 5 0 . T h e t e r m s o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g s p r e c l u d e d d i v i d e n d p a y m e n t s u n t i l 1 9 5 3 , w h e n L V R R c o m m o n s t o c k p a i d t h e f i r s t d i v i d e n d s i n c e 1 9 3 1 . I n 1 9 5 7 , t h e L V R R a g a i n s t o p p e d d i v i d e n d s . I n 1 9 4 4 , t h e L V R R ' s g r o s s r e v e n u e s c a m e c l o s e t o $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 w h i c h w a s a m i l e s t o n e f o r t h e r a i l r o a d . T w o f i n a l b l o w s f e l l i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s : t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e F e d e r a l - A i d H i g h w a y A c t i n 1 9 5 6 , b e t t e r k n o w n a s t h e I n t e r s t a t e H i g h w a y A c t , a n d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e S a i n t L a w r e n c e S e a w a y i n 1 9 5 9 . T h e i n t e r s t a t e h i g h w a y s h e l p e d t h e t r u c k i n g i n d u s t r y o f f e r d o o r - t o - d o o r s e r v i c e , a n d t h e S t . L a w r e n c e S e a w a y a l l o w e d g r a i n s h i p m e n t s t o b y p a s s t h e r a i l w a y s a n d g o d i r e c t l y t o o v e r s e a s m a r k e t s . B y t h e 1 9 6 0 s , r a i l r o a d s i n t h e E a s t w e r e s t r u g g l i n g t o s u r v i v e . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 6 2 r e q u e s t e d I C C a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o a c q u i r e c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e L V R R t h r o u g h a s w a p o f P R R s t o c k f o r L V R R a n d e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e v o t i n g t r u s t t h a t h a d b e e n i n p l a c e s i n c e 1 9 4 1 . I t m a n a g e d t o a c q u i r e m o r e t h a n 8 5 % o f a l l o u t s t a n d i n g s h a r e s , a n d f r o m t h a t t i m e t h e L V R R w a s l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a d i v i s i o n o f t h e P R R . T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a m e r g e d w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k C e n t r a l i n 1 9 6 8 , b u t t h e P e n n C e n t r a l f a i l e d i n 1 9 7 0 , c a u s i n g a c a s c a d e o f r a i l r o a d f a i l u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e E a s t . O n J u n e 2 1 , 1 9 7 0 , t h e P e n n C e n t r a l d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y a n d s o u g h t b a n k r u p t c y p r o t e c t i o n . A s a r e s u l t , t h e P C w a s r e l i e v e d o f i t s o b l i g a t i o n t o p a y f e e s t o v a r i o u s N o r t h e a s t e r n r a i l r o a d s — t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y i n c l u d e d — f o r t h e u s e o f t h e i r r a i l c a r s a n d o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e o t h e r r a i l r o a d s ' o b l i g a t i o n s t o p a y t h o s e f e e s t o t h e P e n n C e n t r a l w e r e n o t w a i v e d . T h i s i m b a l a n c e i n p a y m e n t s w o u l d p r o v e f a t a l t o t h e f i n a n c i a l l y - f r a i l L e h i g h V a l l e y , a n d i t d e c l a r e d b a n k r u p t c y j u s t o v e r o n e m o n t h a f t e r t h e P e n n C e n t r a l , o n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 7 0 . T h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d r e m a i n e d i n o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 b a n k r u p t c y , a s w a s t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e o f t h e t i m e . I n 1 9 7 2 , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a s s u m e d t h e r e m a i n i n g P e n n s y l v a n i a t r a c k a g e o f t h e C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d o f N e w J e r s e y , a c o m p e t i n g a n t h r a c i t e r a i l r o a d w h i c h h a d e n t e r e d b a n k r u p t c y a s w e l l . T h e t w o r o a d s h a d e n t e r e d a s h a r e d t r a c k a g e a g r e e m e n t i n t h i s a r e a i n 1 9 6 5 t o r e d u c e c o s t s , a s b o t h h a d p a r a l l e l r o u t e s f r o m W i l k e s - B a r r e v i r t u a l l y a l l t h e w a y t o m e t r o p o l i t a n N e w Y o r k , o f t e n o n a d j o i n i n g g r a d e s t h r o u g h P e n n s y l v a n i a . I n t h e y e a r s l e a d i n g t o 1 9 7 3 , t h e f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d s y s t e m i n t h e n o r t h e a s t o f t h e U . S . w a s c o l l a p s i n g . A l t h o u g h g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d A m t r a k t o o k o v e r i n t e r c i t y p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e o n M a y 1 , 1 9 7 1 , r a i l r o a d c o m p a n i e s c o n t i n u e d t o l o s e m o n e y d u e t o e x t e n s i v e g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s , e x p e n s i v e a n d e x c e s s i v e l a b o r c o s t , c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m o t h e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m o d e s , d e c l i n i n g i n d u s t r i a l b u s i n e s s a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s ; t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s o n e o f t h e m . H u r r i c a n e A g n e s i n 1 9 7 2 d a m a g e d t h e r u n d o w n N o r t h e a s t r a i l w a y n e t w o r k , w h i c h p u t t h e s o l v e n c y o f o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n c l u d i n g t h e L V R R i n d a n g e r ; t h e s o m e w h a t m o r e s o l v e n t E r i e L a c k a w a n n a R a i l w a y ( E L ) w a s a l s o d a m a g e d b y H u r r i c a n e A g n e s . I n 1 9 7 3 , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n g r e s s a c t e d t o c r e a t e a b i l l t o n a t i o n a l i z e a l l b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e L V . T h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n R a i l r o a d s , w h i c h o p p o s e d n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , s u b m i t t e d a n a l t e r n a t e p r o p o s a l f o r a g o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d p r i v a t e c o m p a n y . P r e s i d e n t R i c h a r d N i x o n s i g n e d t h e R e g i o n a l R a i l R e o r g a n i z a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 7 3 i n t o l a w . T h e " 3 R A c t , " a s i t w a s c a l l e d , p r o v i d e d i n t e r i m f u n d i n g t o t h e b a n k r u p t r a i l r o a d s a n d d e f i n e d a n e w " C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n " u n d e r t h e A A R ' s p l a n . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , t h e L V R R , i n c l u d i n g i t s m a i n l i n e , w a s m e r g e d i n t o t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t ' s C o n s o l i d a t e d R a i l C o r p o r a t i o n ( C o n r a i l ) e n d i n g 1 3 0 y e a r s o f e x i s t e n c e a n d 1 2 1 y e a r s o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e L V R R . O n A p r i l 1 , 1 9 7 6 , m a j o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e a s s e t s o f t h e b a n k r u p t L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w e r e a c q u i r e d b y C o n r a i l . T h i s p r i m a r i l y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e m a i n l i n e a n d r e l a t e d b r a n c h e s f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n ( n o r t h / R R w e s t o f S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) t o O a k I s l a n d Y a r d , t h e I t h a c a b r a n c h f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o I t h a c a , N e w Y o r k , c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e C a y u g a L a k e l i n e a n d o n t o t h e M i l l i k e n p o w e r s t a t i o n i n L a k e R i d g e , N e w Y o r k ( c l o s e d o n A u g u s t 2 9 , 2 0 1 9 ) a n d t h e C a r g i l l s a l t m i n e j u s t s o u t h o f A u b u r n , N Y ; a n d s m a l l s e g m e n t s i n G e n e v a , N e w Y o r k ( f r o m G e n e v a t o t h e S e n e c a A r m y D e p o t i n K e n d a i a ) ; B a t a v i a , N e w Y o r k ; A u b u r n , N e w Y o r k a n d C o r t l a n d , N e w Y o r k . A l o n g s e g m e n t w e s t f r o m V a n E t t e n J u n c t i o n t o B u f f a l o w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o n r a i l t a k e o v e r , b u t w a s m o s t l y t o r n - u p n o t l o n g a f t e r w a r d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a s e g m e n t f r o m G e n e v a t o V i c t o r , N e w Y o r k , l a t e r c u t b a c k t o S h o r t s v i l l e , N e w Y o r k , t o V i c t o r , r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y E s t a t e u n d e r s u b s i d i z e d C o n r a i l o p e r a t i o n . T h e S h o r t s v i l l e t o V i c t o r s e g m e n t b e c a m e t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d i n 1 9 7 9 ( t h e O n t a r i o C e n t r a l b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e F i n g e r L a k e s R a i l w a y i n O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 ) . M o s t o f t h e r a i l e q u i p m e n t w e n t t o C o n r a i l a s w e l l , b u t 2 4 l o c o m o t i v e s ( u n i t s G P 3 8 - 2 3 1 4 - 3 2 5 a n d C 4 2 0 4 0 4 – 4 1 5 ) w e n t t o t h e D e l a w a r e & H u d s o n i n s t e a d . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e a s s e t s w e r e d i s p o s e d o f b y t h e e s t a t e u n t i l i t w a s f o l d e d i n t o t h e n o n - r a i l r o a d P e n n C e n t r a l C o r p o r a t i o n i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s . T h e r o u t e a c r o s s P e n n s y l v a n i a , N e w J e r s e y a n d O a k I s l a n d Y a r d r e m a i n s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o d a y , t h e o n l y t w o C l a s s 1 r a i l r o a d s t h a t a r e b a s e d i n t h e E a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s r o u t e b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t t o C o n r a i l a s a n a l t e r n a t e r o u t e t o a v o i d A m t r a k ' s f o r m e r P R R / P C N o r t h e a s t C o r r i d o r e l e c t r i f i e d r o u t e . T o d a y , t h i s r o u t e c o n t i n u e s a s t w o l i n e s , o n e t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d a n d t h e o t h e r t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w l i n e t h a t w a s o n c e p a r t o f t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e t h a t s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e f o r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d . T h e o r i g i n a l l i n e r e t a i n s i t s o r i g i n a l r o u t e w h e n i t w a s f i r s t c o n s t r u c t e d a n d i s s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y . T h e n e w l i n e i s a l s o s e r v e d b y N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , b u t i t i s s e r v e d t o g e t h e r w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n a j o i n t o w n e r s h i p c o m p a n y c a l l e d C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s . M o s t o f t h e o t h e r r e m a i n i n g L e h i g h V a l l e y t r a c k s e r v e s a s b r a n c h l i n e s , o r h a s b e e n s o l d t o s h o r t l i n e a n d r e g i o n a l o p e r a t o r s . T h e s e o p e r a t o r s i n c l u d e , i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r : T h e L e h i g h L i n e w a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d ' s f i r s t r a i l l i n e a n d s e r v e d a s t h e m a i n l i n e . I t w a s o p e n e d o n J u n e 1 1 , 1 8 5 5 b e t w e e n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h r e e m o n t h s l a t e r t h e l i n e b r a n c h e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t A l l e n t o w n t o J i m T h o r p e , P e n n s y l v a n i a o n S e p t e m b e r 1 2 , 1 8 5 5 . T h e l i n e w a s l a t e r e x t e n d e d o u t t o t h e n o r t h w e s t p a s t J i m T h o r p e t o t h e W i l k e s - B a r r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a a r e a a n d l a t e r i t r e a c h e d t h e B u f f a l o , N e w Y o r k a r e a a n d p a s t E a s t o n a l l t h e w a y t o P e r t h A m b o y , N e w J e r s e y a n d t h e n s w i t c h e d d i r e c t i o n t o t h e n o r t h e a s t t o J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y l a t e r c u t b a c k t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y . D u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s , t h e l i n e s e r v e d a s t h e b o d y o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d u n t i l t h e r a i l r o a d e i t h e r b u i l t , a c q u i r e d , o r m e r g e d o t h e r r a i l r o a d s i n t o i t s s y s t e m . D u r i n g t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t s o w n e r s h i p u n d e r t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d , t h e l i n e w a s k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y M a i n l i n e , s t a r t i n g i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s . T h e l i n e a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y R a i l r o a d w a s a b s o r b e d i n t o C o n r a i l i n 1 9 7 6 a n d w a s m a i n t a i n e d a s a m a i n l i n e i n t o t h e N e w Y o r k C i t y a r e a . T h e l i n e b e c a m e k n o w n a s t h e L e h i g h L i n e d u r i n g C o n r a i l o w n e r s h i p . C o n r a i l i n t e g r a t e d f o r m e r C N J m a i n l i n e l e a s e d t r a c k a g e i n t o t h e l i n e a n d k e p t t h e l i n e i n c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n ( s i n c e 1 8 5 5 ) ; h o w e v e r , i t d o w n s i z e d t h e l i n e i n t h e n o r t h w e s t f r o m t h e B u f f a l o a r e a o f N e w Y o r k S t a t e : f i r s t t o S a y r e Y a r d i n S a y r e , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; t h e n t o M e h o o p a n y , P e n n s y l v a n i a ; a n d f i n a l l y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e ' s b e i n g d o w n s i z e d t h r e e t i m e s c r e a t e d t w o n e w r a i l l i n e s : t h e L e h i g h S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n , w h i c h w a s l a t e r s o l d t o t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ( R B M N ) i n 1 9 9 6 ; t h e R B M N w o u l d l a t e r c u t b a c k t h e L e h i g h D i v i s i o n f r o m M e h o o p a n y t o D u p o n t , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e t r a c k s f r o m D u p o n t t o M e h o o p a n y b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e c a l l e d t h e S u s q u e h a n n a B r a n c h . I n 1 9 9 9 , t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y w h i c h i s o w n e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n C o r p o r a t i o n a c q u i r e d t h e L e h i g h L i n e i n t h e C o n r a i l s p l i t w i t h C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n b u t t h e t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y w e r e k e p t w i t h C o n r a i l i n o r d e r f o r b o t h N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a n d C S X t o h a v e e q u a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e N o r t h e a s t . T h e e x i s t i n g t r a c k s f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k b e c a m e a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n a l o n g w i t h C S X o w n i t u n d e r a j o i n t v e n t u r e . H o w e v e r , f o r h i s t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e p a r t f r o m M a n v i l l e t o N e w a r k i s c o n s i d e r e d a n e w r a i l l i n e a n d t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n p a r t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e o r i g i n a l l i n e . N o w u n d e r o w n e r s h i p o f t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y , t h e L e h i g h L i n e ' s r o u t e i s n o w f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h i s i s c u r r e n t l y t h e l a s t t i m e t h e l i n e h a s b e e n d o w n s i z e d . T h e L e h i g h L i n e s t i l l e x i s t s a n d s t i l l s e r v e s a s a m a j o r f r e i g h t r a i l r o a d l i n e t h a t o p e r a t e s i n N e w J e r s e y a n d P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e i s s t i l l o w n e d a n d o p e r a t e d b y t h e N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n R a i l w a y a n d t h e l i n e s t i l l r u n s f r o m P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y t o P e n n H a v e n J u n c t i o n i n L e h i g h T o w n s h i p , C a r b o n C o u n t y , P e n n s y l v a n i a . T h e l i n e c o n n e c t s w i t h C o n r a i l S h a r e d A s s e t s O p e r a t i o n s ' s L e h i g h L i n e ( t h e n e w r a i l l i n e ) a n d C S X T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ' s T r e n t o n S u b d i v i s i o n a t P o r t R e a d i n g J u n c t i o n i n M a n v i l l e , N e w J e r s e y a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s R e a d i n g D i v i s i o n a t P a c k e r t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d R e a d i n g B l u e M o u n t a i n a n d N o r t h e r n R a i l r o a d ' s L e h i g h D i v i s i o n a t L e h i g h t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ( o r i g i n a l l y M & H J u n c t i o n n e a r O l d P e n n H a v e n , P e n n s y l v a n i a ) . T h e l i n e m a k e s n o t a b l e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n l i n e s s u c h a s t h e R e a d i n g L i n e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s h o r t l i n e r a i l r o a d s . A t T h r e e B r i d g e s , N e w J e r s e y i n R e a d i n g t o n T o w n s h i p , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h B l a c k R i v e r a n d W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d . A t P h i l l i p s b u r g , N e w J e r s e y , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s N e w J e r s e y s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e W a s h i n g t o n S e c o n d a r y a n d t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r R a i l w a y w h i c h a l s o p a s s e s o v e r t h e B e l v i d e r e a n d D e l a w a r e R i v e r a f t e r t h a t . A c r o s s t h e r i v e r i n E a s t o n , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e i n t e r c h a n g e s w i t h i t s P e n n s y l v a n i a s i d e b r a n c h l i n e , t h e P o r t l a n d S e c o n d a r y w h i c h e x t e n d s f r o m E a s t o n t o P o r t l a n d , P e n n s y l v a n i a c o n n e c t i n g t o t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y p a r t o f t h e L a c k a w a n n a O l d R o a d ( o r s i m p l y O l d R o a d ) ; t h e S t r o u d s b u r g S e c o n d a r y g o e s u n d e r t h e L a c k a w a n n a C u t - O f f a n d c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e D e l a w a r e - L a c k a w a n n a R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e h o s t s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y - f i v e t r a i n s p e r d a y , w i t h t r a f f i c p e a k i n g a t t h e e n d o f t h e w e e k . E a s t o f t h e j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e R e a d i n g L i n e i n A l l e n t o w n , P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d i n B e t h l e h e m , P e n n s y l v a n i a , t h e l i n e s e r v e s a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s m a i n c o r r i d o r i n a n d o u t o f t h e P o r t o f N e w Y o r k a n d N e w J e r s e y , a n d t h e N e w Y o r k M e t r o A r e a a t l a r g e , a s N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n d o e s n ' t c u r r e n t l y u s e t h e e a s t e r n h a l f o f i t s S o u t h e r n T i e r L i n e , w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r f r o m P o r t J e r v i s n o r t h t o B i n g h a m t o n , N e w Y o r k a n d w h i c h i s n o w ( 2 0 2 2 ) o p e r a t e d b y t h e C e n t r a l N e w Y o r k R a i l r o a d . T h e l i n e i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s H a r r i s b u r g D i v i s i o n a n d i t i s p a r t o f N o r f o l k S o u t h e r n ' s C r e s c e n t C o r r i d o r , a r a i l r o a d c o r r i d o r . I t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 , 0 0 0 - f o o t P a t t e n b u r g T u n n e l i n W e s t P o r t a l , N e w J e r s e y a l o n g i t s r o u t e . M o s t o f t h e t r a f f i c a l o n g t h e l i n e c o n s i s t s o f i n t e r m o d a l a n d g e n e r a l m e r c h a n d i s e t r a i n s g o i n g t o y a r d s s u c h a s O a k I s l a n d Y a r d i n N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y a n d C r o x t o n Y a r d i n J e r s e y C i t y , N e w J e r s e y . T h e f i r s t l o c o m o t i v e p u r c h a s e d b y t h e L V R R w a s t h e " D e l a w a r e " , a w o o d - b u r n i n g 4 - 4 - 0 b u i l t b y R i c h a r d N o r r i s & S o n s o f P h i l a d e l p h i a i n 1 8 5 5 . I t w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e " C a t a s a u q u a " 4 - 4 - 0 a n d " L e h i g h " 4 - 6 - 0 , w h i c h w e r e a l s o N o r r i s & S o n s e n g i n e s . I n 1 8 5 6 , t h e " E . A . P a c k e r " 4 - 4 - 0 w a s p u r c h a s e d f r o m W i l l i a m M a s o n o f T a u n t o n , M a s s a c h u s e t t s . S u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e L V R R f a v o r e d e n g i n e s f r o m B a l d w i n L o c o m o t i v e W o r k s a n d W i l l i a m M a s o n , b u t t r i e d m a n y o t h e r d e s i g n s a s i t e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h m o t i v e p o w e r t h a t c o u l d h a n d l e t h e l i n e ' s h e a v y g r a d e s . T h e L V R R o p e r a t e d s e v e r a l n a m e d t r a i n s i n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I e r a . A m o n g t h e m : T h e p r i m a r y p a s s e n g e r m o t i v e p o w e r f o r t h e L V R R i n t h e d i e s e l e r a w a s t h e A L C O P A - 1 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e , o f w h i c h t h e L V R R h a d f o u r t e e n . T h e s e l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o u s e d i n f r e i g h t s e r v i c e d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e e r a o f L V R R p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . A p a i r o f A L C O F A - 2 F B - 2 c a r b o d y d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c l o c o m o t i v e s w e r e a l s o p u r c h a s e d t o a u g m e n t t h e P A s w h e n n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e w e r e F A s w i t h s t e a m g e n e r a t o r s , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t d e s i g n a t e d a s F P A - 2 u n i t s . D u e t o d e c l i n i n g p a s s e n g e r p a t r o n a g e , t h e L e h i g h V a l l e y s u c c e s s f u l l y p e t i t i o n e d t h e I n t e r s t a t e C o m m e r c e C o m m i s s i o n t o t e r m i n a t e a l l p a s s e n g e r s e r v i c e . T h i s t o o k e f f e c t o n F e b r u a r y 4 , 1 9 6 1 . T h e " M a p l e L e a f " a n d t h e " J o h n W i l k e s " w e r e t h e l a s t o p e r a t i n g l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a i n s , t e r m i n a t e d t h a t d a y . T h e o n l y d a y l i g h t N e w Y o r k - B u f f a l o t r a i n , t h e " B l a c k D i a m o n d " , w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n 1 9 5 9 . B u d d R a i l D i e s e l C a r s e r v i c e w o u l d c o n t i n u e o n a b r a n c h l i n e ( L e h i g h t o n - H a z l e t o n ) f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l f o u r d a y s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f p a s s e n g e r e q u i p m e n t i s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n s c r a p p e d s o m e t i m e a f t e r F e b r u a r y 1 9 6 1 . M o s t s e r v i c e a b l e e q u i p m e n t n o t r e t a i n e d f o r c o m p a n y s e r v i c e w a s s o l d t o o t h e r r o a d s .

Surviving segments ; The Lehigh Line, the first rail line and main line of the Lehigh Valley Railroad ; Current operations

The Lehigh Valley Railroad was established in 1846, initially operating as a canal company before transitioning to rail in 1853. Its main line, the Lehigh Line, connected Easton to Allentown, PA, and eventually expanded to Buffalo, NY, and Perth Amboy, NJ. Over time, the railroad grew through acquisitions and mergers, becoming a significant player in the Northeast US freight market. Despite facing financial struggles, the Lehigh Valley Railroad remained operational until its merger into Conrail in 1976. Today, parts of the original line are still in use, operated by Norfolk Southern Railway and CSX Transportation.

instead of canal, and within two years of its construction the LVRR was carrying over 400,000 tons of coal annually. By 1859 it had 600 coal cars and 19 engines. The LVRR immediately became the trunk line down the Lehigh Valley, with numerous feeder railroads connecting and contributing to its traffic. The production of the entire Middle Coal Field came to the LVRR over feeders to the Beaver Meadow: the Quakake Railroad, the Catawissa, Williamsport and Erie Railroad, the Hazleton Railroad, the Lehigh Luzerne Railroad and other smaller lines. At Catasauqua, the Catasauqua and Fogelsville Railroad transported coal, ore, limestone and iron for furnaces of the Thomas Iron Company, the Lehigh Crane Iron Company, the Lehigh Valley Iron Works, the Carbon Iron Company, and others. At Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, obtained a New York charter for the Lehigh Valley Railway (a similar name to the LVRR, but with "railway" instead). LVRR subsidiary, Lehigh Valley Railway began constructing the main line's northern part from Buffalo to Lancaster, New York in 1883, a total distance of ten miles. This was the second step toward establishment of a direct route from Waverly to Buffalo, the first being the acquisition of the Geneva, Ithaca & Athens Railroad. Then in 1887 the Lehigh Valley Railroad obtained a lease on the Southern Central Railroad (the LVRR previously had trackage rights on the railroad starting in 1870), which had a route from Waverly northward into the Finger Lakes region. At the same time, the LVRR organized the Buffalo and Geneva Railroad to build the rest on July 24, 1970. The Lehigh Valley Railroad remained in operation during the 1970 bankruptcy, as was the common practice of the time. In 1972, the Lehigh Valley Railroad assumed the remaining Pennsylvania trackage of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, a competing anthracite railroad which had entered bankruptcy as well. The two roads had entered a shared trackage agreement in this area in 1965 to reduce costs, as both had parallel routes from Wilkes-Barre virtually all the way to metropolitan New York, often on adjoining grades through Pennsylvania. In the years leading to 1973, the freight railroad system in the northeast of the U.S. was collapsing. Although government-funded Amtrak took over intercity passenger service on May 1, 1971, railroad companies continued to lose money due to extensive a new "Consolidated Rail Corporation" under the AAR's plan. On April 1, 1976, the LVRR, including its main line, was merged into the U.S. government's Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail) ending 130 years of existence and 121 years of operation of the LVRR. On April 1, 1976, major portions of the assets of the bankrupt Lehigh Valley Railroad were acquired by Conrail. This primarily consisted of the main line and related branches from Van Etten Junction (north/RR west of Sayre, Pennsylvania) to Oak Island Yard, the Ithaca branch from Van Etten Junction to Ithaca, New York, connecting to the Cayuga Lake line and on to the Milliken power station in Lake Ridge, New York (closed on August 29, 2019) and the Cargill salt mine just south of Auburn, NY; the Lehigh Valley Railroad. The original line retains its original route when it was first constructed and is served by Norfolk Southern Railway. The new line is also served by Norfolk Southern Railway, but it is served together with CSX Transportation in a joint ownership company called Conrail Shared Assets Operations. Most of the other remaining Lehigh Valley track serves as branch lines, or has been sold to shortline and regional operators. These operators include, in alphabetical order: The Lehigh Line was the Lehigh Valley Railroad's first rail line and served as the main line. It was opened on June 11, 1855 between Easton, Pennsylvania and Allentown, Pennsylvania, passing through Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Three months later the line branched out to the northwest past Allentown to Jim Thorpe, Pennsylvania on September 12, 1855. The line was later extended out to the northwest past Jim Thorpe to the Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania area and later it reached the Buffalo, New York area and past Easton all the way to Perth Amboy, New Jersey and then switched direction to the northeast to Jersey City, New Jersey later cut back to Newark, New Jersey. During the early years, the line served as the body of the Lehigh Valley Railroad until the railroad either built, acquired, or merged other railroads into its system. During the majority of its ownership under the Lehigh Valley Railroad, the line was known as the Lehigh Valley Mainline, starting in the 1930s. The line and the rest of the Lehigh Valley Railroad was absorbed into Conrail in 1976 and was maintained as a main line into the New York City area. The line became known as the Lehigh Line during Conrail ownership. Conrail integrated former CNJ main line leased trackage into the line and kept the line in continuous operation (since 1855); however, it downsized the line in the northwest from the Buffalo area of New York State: first to Sayre Yard in Sayre, Pennsylvania; then to Mehoopany, Pennsylvania; and finally to Penn Haven Junction in Lehigh Township, Carbon County, Pennsylvania. The line's being downsized three times created two new rail lines: the Lehigh Secondary and the Lehigh Division, which was later sold to the Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad (RBMN) in 1996; the RBMN would later cut back the Lehigh Division from Mehoopany to Southern Railway, the Lehigh Line's route is now from Port Reading Junction in Manville, New Jersey to Penn Haven Junction in Lehigh Township, Carbon County, Pennsylvania. This is currently the last time the line has been downsized. The Lehigh Line still exists and still serves as a major freight railroad line that operates in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The line is still owned and operated by the Norfolk Southern Railway and the line still runs from Port Reading Junction in Manville, New Jersey to Penn Haven Junction in Lehigh Township, Carbon County, Pennsylvania. The line connects with Conrail Shared Assets Operations's Lehigh Line (the new rail line) and CSX Transportation's Trenton Subdivision at Port Reading Junction in Manville, New Jersey and connects with the Reading Blue Mountain and

Cylinder

T h e d e f i n i t i o n s a n d r e s u l t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e t a k e n f r o m t h e 1 9 1 3 t e x t " P l a n e a n d S o l i d G e o m e t r y " b y G e o r g e W e n t w o r t h a n d D a v i d E u g e n e S m i t h . A " " i s a s u r f a c e c o n s i s t i n g o f a l l t h e p o i n t s o n a l l t h e l i n e s w h i c h a r e p a r a l l e l t o a g i v e n l i n e a n d w h i c h p a s s t h r o u g h a f i x e d p l a n e c u r v e i n a p l a n e n o t p a r a l l e l t o t h e g i v e n l i n e . A n y l i n e i n t h i s f a m i l y o f p a r a l l e l l i n e s i s c a l l e d a n " e l e m e n t " o f t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e . F r o m a k i n e m a t i c s p o i n t o f v i e w , g i v e n a p l a n e c u r v e , c a l l e d t h e " d i r e c t r i x " , a c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e i s t h a t s u r f a c e t r a c e d o u t b y a l i n e , c a l l e d t h e " g e n e r a t r i x " , n o t i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e d i r e c t r i x , m o v i n g p a r a l l e l t o i t s e l f a n d a l w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e d i r e c t r i x . A n y p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a t r i x i s a n e l e m e n t o f t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e . A s o l i d b o u n d e d b y a c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e a n d t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s i s c a l l e d a ( s o l i d ) ' . T h e l i n e s e g m e n t s d e t e r m i n e d b y a n e l e m e n t o f t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s i s c a l l e d a n " e l e m e n t o f t h e c y l i n d e r " . A l l t h e e l e m e n t s o f a c y l i n d e r h a v e e q u a l l e n g t h s . T h e r e g i o n b o u n d e d b y t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e i n e i t h e r o f t h e p a r a l l e l p l a n e s i s c a l l e d a ' o f t h e c y l i n d e r . T h e t w o b a s e s o f a c y l i n d e r a r e c o n g r u e n t f i g u r e s . I f t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e c y l i n d e r a r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e s c o n t a i n i n g t h e b a s e s , t h e c y l i n d e r i s a ' , o t h e r w i s e i t i s c a l l e d a n ' . I f t h e b a s e s a r e d i s k s ( r e g i o n s w h o s e b o u n d a r y i s a c i r c l e ) t h e c y l i n d e r i s c a l l e d a " . I n s o m e e l e m e n t a r y t r e a t m e n t s , a c y l i n d e r a l w a y s m e a n s a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r . T h e " ( o r a l t i t u d e ) o f a c y l i n d e r i s t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n i t s b a s e s . T h e c y l i n d e r o b t a i n e d b y r o t a t i n g a l i n e s e g m e n t a b o u t a f i x e d l i n e t h a t i t i s p a r a l l e l t o i s a ' . A c y l i n d e r o f r e v o l u t i o n i s a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r . T h e h e i g h t o f a c y l i n d e r o f r e v o l u t i o n i s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e g e n e r a t i n g l i n e s e g m e n t . T h e l i n e t h a t t h e s e g m e n t i s r e v o l v e d a b o u t i s c a l l e d t h e ' o f t h e c y l i n d e r a n d i t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r s o f t h e t w o b a s e s . T h e b a r e t e r m " c y l i n d e r " o f t e n r e f e r s t o a s o l i d c y l i n d e r w i t h c i r c u l a r e n d s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a x i s , t h a t i s , a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r , a s s h o w n i n t h e f i g u r e . T h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e w i t h o u t t h e e n d s i s c a l l e d a n " " . T h e f o r m u l a e f o r t h e s u r f a c e a r e a a n d t h e v o l u m e o f a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r h a v e b e e n k n o w n f r o m e a r l y a n t i q u i t y . A r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r c a n a l s o b e t h o u g h t o f a s t h e s o l i d o f r e v o l u t i o n g e n e r a t e d b y r o t a t i n g a r e c t a n g l e a b o u t o n e o f i t s s i d e s . T h e s e c y l i n d e r s a r e u s e d i n a n i n t e g r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e ( t h e " d i s k m e t h o d " ) f o r o b t a i n i n g v o l u m e s o f s o l i d s o f r e v o l u t i o n . A c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n i s t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f a c y l i n d e r ' s s u r f a c e w i t h a p l a n e . T h e y a r e , i n g e n e r a l , c u r v e s a n d a r e s p e c i a l t y p e s o f " p l a n e s e c t i o n s " . T h e c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n b y a p l a n e t h a t c o n t a i n s t w o e l e m e n t s o f a c y l i n d e r i s a p a r a l l e l o g r a m . S u c h a c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n o f a r i g h t c y l i n d e r i s a r e c t a n g l e . A c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g p l a n e i n t e r s e c t s a n d i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a l l t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e c y l i n d e r i s c a l l e d a " " . I f a r i g h t s e c t i o n o f a c y l i n d e r i s a c i r c l e t h e n t h e c y l i n d e r i s a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r . I n m o r e g e n e r a l i t y , i f a r i g h t s e c t i o n o f a c y l i n d e r i s a c o n i c s e c t i o n ( p a r a b o l a , e l l i p s e , h y p e r b o l a ) t h e n t h e s o l i d c y l i n d e r i s s a i d t o b e p a r a b o l i c , e l l i p t i c a n d h y p e r b o l i c , r e s p e c t i v e l y . F o r a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l w a y s i n w h i c h p l a n e s c a n m e e t a c y l i n d e r . F i r s t , p l a n e s t h a t i n t e r s e c t a b a s e i n a t m o s t o n e p o i n t . A p l a n e i s t a n g e n t t o t h e c y l i n d e r i f i t m e e t s t h e c y l i n d e r i n a s i n g l e e l e m e n t . T h e r i g h t s e c t i o n s a r e c i r c l e s a n d a l l o t h e r p l a n e s i n t e r s e c t t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e i n a n e l l i p s e . I f a p l a n e i n t e r s e c t s a b a s e o f t h e c y l i n d e r i n e x a c t l y t w o p o i n t s t h e n t h e l i n e s e g m e n t j o i n i n g t h e s e p o i n t s i s p a r t o f t h e c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n . I f s u c h a p l a n e c o n t a i n s t w o e l e m e n t s , i t h a s a r e c t a n g l e a s a c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n , o t h e r w i s e t h e s i d e s o f t h e c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n a r e p o r t i o n s o f a n e l l i p s e . F i n a l l y , i f a p l a n e c o n t a i n s m o r e t h a n t w o p o i n t s o f a b a s e , i t c o n t a i n s t h e e n t i r e b a s e a n d t h e c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n i s a c i r c l e . I n t h e c a s e o f a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r w i t h a c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n t h a t i s a n e l l i p s e , t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y o f t h e c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n a n d s e m i - m a j o r a x i s o f t h e c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n d e p e n d o n t h e r a d i u s o f t h e c y l i n d e r a n d t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e s e c a n t p l a n e a n d c y l i n d e r a x i s , i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y : f o r m u l a _ 1 f o r m u l a _ 2 I f t h e b a s e o f a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r h a s a r a d i u s a n d t h e c y l i n d e r h a s h e i g h t , t h e n i t s v o l u m e i s g i v e n b y T h i s f o r m u l a h o l d s w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e c y l i n d e r i s a r i g h t c y l i n d e r . T h i s f o r m u l a m a y b e e s t a b l i s h e d b y u s i n g C a v a l i e r i ' s p r i n c i p l e . I n m o r e g e n e r a l i t y , b y t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e , t h e v o l u m e o f a n y c y l i n d e r i s t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e a r e a o f a b a s e a n d t h e h e i g h t . F o r e x a m p l e , a n e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r w i t h a b a s e h a v i n g s e m i - m a j o r a x i s , s e m i - m i n o r a x i s a n d h e i g h t h a s a v o l u m e , w h e r e i s t h e a r e a o f t h e b a s e e l l i p s e ( = ) . T h i s r e s u l t f o r r i g h t e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r s c a n a l s o b e o b t a i n e d b y i n t e g r a t i o n , w h e r e t h e a x i s o f t h e c y l i n d e r i s t a k e n a s t h e p o s i t i v e - a x i s a n d t h e a r e a o f e a c h e l l i p t i c c r o s s - s e c t i o n , t h u s : f o r m u l a _ 3 U s i n g c y l i n d r i c a l c o o r d i n a t e s , t h e v o l u m e o f a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d b y i n t e g r a t i o n o v e r f o r m u l a _ 4 f o r m u l a _ 5 H a v i n g r a d i u s a n d a l t i t u d e ( h e i g h t ) , t h e s u r f a c e a r e a o f a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r , o r i e n t e d s o t h a t i t s a x i s i s v e r t i c a l , c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e p a r t s : T h e a r e a o f t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m b a s e s i s t h e s a m e , a n d i s c a l l e d t h e " b a s e a r e a " , . T h e a r e a o f t h e s i d e i s k n o w n a s t h e " " , . A n " o p e n c y l i n d e r " d o e s n o t i n c l u d e e i t h e r t o p o r b o t t o m e l e m e n t s , a n d t h e r e f o r e h a s s u r f a c e a r e a ( l a t e r a l a r e a ) T h e s u r f a c e a r e a o f t h e s o l i d r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r i s m a d e u p t h e s u m o f a l l t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s : t o p , b o t t o m a n d s i d e . I t s s u r f a c e a r e a i s t h e r e f o r e , w h e r e i s t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e c i r c u l a r t o p o r b o t t o m . F o r a g i v e n v o l u m e , t h e r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r w i t h t h e s m a l l e s t s u r f a c e a r e a h a s . E q u i v a l e n t l y , f o r a g i v e n s u r f a c e a r e a , t h e r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r w i t h t h e l a r g e s t v o l u m e h a s , t h a t i s , t h e c y l i n d e r f i t s s n u g l y i n a c u b e o f s i d e l e n g t h = a l t i t u d e ( = d i a m e t e r o f b a s e c i r c l e ) . T h e l a t e r a l a r e a , , o f a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r , w h i c h n e e d n o t b e a r i g h t c y l i n d e r , i s m o r e g e n e r a l l y g i v e n b y : w h e r e i s t h e l e n g t h o f a n e l e m e n t a n d i s t h e p e r i m e t e r o f a r i g h t s e c t i o n o f t h e c y l i n d e r . T h i s p r o d u c e s t h e p r e v i o u s f o r m u l a f o r l a t e r a l a r e a w h e n t h e c y l i n d e r i s a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r . A " r i g h t c i r c u l a r h o l l o w c y l i n d e r " ( o r " " ) i s a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l r e g i o n b o u n d e d b y t w o r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r s h a v i n g t h e s a m e a x i s a n d t w o p a r a l l e l a n n u l a r b a s e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e c y l i n d e r s ' c o m m o n a x i s , a s i n t h e d i a g r a m . L e t t h e h e i g h t b e , i n t e r n a l r a d i u s , a n d e x t e r n a l r a d i u s . T h e v o l u m e i s g i v e n b y f o r m u l a _ 6 . T h u s , t h e v o l u m e o f a c y l i n d r i c a l s h e l l e q u a l s 2 ( a v e r a g e r a d i u s ) ( a l t i t u d e ) ( t h i c k n e s s ) . T h e s u r f a c e a r e a , i n c l u d i n g t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m , i s g i v e n b y f o r m u l a _ 7 . C y l i n d r i c a l s h e l l s a r e u s e d i n a c o m m o n i n t e g r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e f o r f i n d i n g v o l u m e s o f s o l i d s o f r e v o l u t i o n . I n t h e t r e a t i s e b y t h i s n a m e , w r i t t e n c . 2 2 5 B C E , A r c h i m e d e s o b t a i n e d t h e r e s u l t o f w h i c h h e w a s m o s t p r o u d , n a m e l y o b t a i n i n g t h e f o r m u l a s f o r t h e v o l u m e a n d s u r f a c e a r e a o f a s p h e r e b y e x p l o i t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a s p h e r e a n d i t s c i r c u m s c r i b e d r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r o f t h e s a m e h e i g h t a n d d i a m e t e r . T h e s p h e r e h a s a v o l u m e t h a t o f t h e c i r c u m s c r i b e d c y l i n d e r a n d a s u r f a c e a r e a t h a t o f t h e c y l i n d e r ( i n c l u d i n g t h e b a s e s ) . S i n c e t h e v a l u e s f o r t h e c y l i n d e r w e r e a l r e a d y k n o w n , h e o b t a i n e d , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e s f o r t h e s p h e r e . T h e v o l u m e o f a s p h e r e o f r a d i u s i s . T h e s u r f a c e a r e a o f t h i s s p h e r e i s . A s c u l p t e d s p h e r e a n d c y l i n d e r w e r e p l a c e d o n t h e t o m b o f A r c h i m e d e s a t h i s r e q u e s t . I n s o m e a r e a s o f g e o m e t r y a n d t o p o l o g y t h e t e r m " c y l i n d e r " r e f e r s t o w h a t h a s b e e n c a l l e d a c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e . A c y l i n d e r i s d e f i n e d a s a s u r f a c e c o n s i s t i n g o f a l l t h e p o i n t s o n a l l t h e l i n e s w h i c h a r e p a r a l l e l t o a g i v e n l i n e a n d w h i c h p a s s t h r o u g h a f i x e d p l a n e c u r v e i n a p l a n e n o t p a r a l l e l t o t h e g i v e n l i n e . S u c h c y l i n d e r s h a v e , a t t i m e s , b e e n r e f e r r e d t o a s " " . T h r o u g h e a c h p o i n t o f a g e n e r a l i z e d c y l i n d e r t h e r e p a s s e s a u n i q u e l i n e t h a t i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e c y l i n d e r . T h u s , t h i s d e f i n i t i o n m a y b e r e p h r a s e d t o s a y t h a t a c y l i n d e r i s a n y r u l e d s u r f a c e s p a n n e d b y a o n e - p a r a m e t e r f a m i l y o f p a r a l l e l l i n e s . A c y l i n d e r h a v i n g a r i g h t s e c t i o n t h a t i s a n e l l i p s e , p a r a b o l a , o r h y p e r b o l a i s c a l l e d a n e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r , p a r a b o l i c c y l i n d e r a n d h y p e r b o l i c c y l i n d e r , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e s e a r e d e g e n e r a t e q u a d r i c s u r f a c e s . W h e n t h e p r i n c i p a l a x e s o f a q u a d r i c a r e a l i g n e d w i t h t h e r e f e r e n c e f r a m e ( a l w a y s p o s s i b l e f o r a q u a d r i c ) , a g e n e r a l e q u a t i o n o f t h e q u a d r i c i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s i s g i v e n b y f o r m u l a _ 8 w i t h t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s b e i n g r e a l n u m b e r s a n d n o t a l l o f , a n d b e i n g 0 . I f a t l e a s t o n e v a r i a b l e d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n t h e e q u a t i o n , t h e n t h e q u a d r i c i s d e g e n e r a t e . I f o n e v a r i a b l e i s m i s s i n g , w e m a y a s s u m e b y a n a p p r o p r i a t e r o t a t i o n o f a x e s t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e d o e s n o t a p p e a r a n d t h e g e n e r a l e q u a t i o n o f t h i s t y p e o f d e g e n e r a t e q u a d r i c c a n b e w r i t t e n a s f o r m u l a _ 9 w h e r e f o r m u l a _ 1 0 I f t h i s i s t h e e q u a t i o n o f a n " e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r " . F u r t h e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y t r a n s l a t i o n o f a x e s a n d s c a l a r m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . I f f o r m u l a _ 1 1 h a s t h e s a m e s i g n a s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a n d , t h e n t h e e q u a t i o n o f a n e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r m a y b e r e w r i t t e n i n C a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e s a s : f o r m u l a _ 1 2 T h i s e q u a t i o n o f a n e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r i s a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e e q u a t i o n o f t h e o r d i n a r y , " c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r " ( ) . E l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r s a r e a l s o k n o w n a s " c y l i n d r o i d s " , b u t t h a t n a m e i s a m b i g u o u s , a s i t c a n a l s o r e f e r t o t h e P l ü c k e r c o n o i d . I f f o r m u l a _ 1 1 h a s a d i f f e r e n t s i g n t h a n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s , w e o b t a i n t h e " i m a g i n a r y e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r s " : f o r m u l a _ 1 4 w h i c h h a v e n o r e a l p o i n t s o n t h e m . ( f o r m u l a _ 1 5 g i v e s a s i n g l e r e a l p o i n t . ) I f a n d h a v e d i f f e r e n t s i g n s a n d f o r m u l a _ 1 6 , w e o b t a i n t h e " h y p e r b o l i c c y l i n d e r s " , w h o s e e q u a t i o n s m a y b e r e w r i t t e n a s : f o r m u l a _ 1 7 F i n a l l y , i f a s s u m e , w i t h o u t l o s s o f g e n e r a l i t y , t h a t a n d t o o b t a i n t h e " p a r a b o l i c c y l i n d e r s " w i t h e q u a t i o n s t h a t c a n b e w r i t t e n a s : f o r m u l a _ 1 8 I n p r o j e c t i v e g e o m e t r y , a c y l i n d e r i s s i m p l y a c o n e w h o s e a p e x ( v e r t e x ) l i e s o n t h e p l a n e a t i n f i n i t y . I f t h e c o n e i s a q u a d r a t i c c o n e , t h e p l a n e a t i n f i n i t y ( w h i c h p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e v e r t e x ) c a n i n t e r s e c t t h e c o n e a t t w o r e a l l i n e s , a s i n g l e r e a l l i n e ( a c t u a l l y a c o i n c i d e n t p a i r o f l i n e s ) , o r o n l y a t t h e v e r t e x . T h e s e c a s e s g i v e r i s e t o t h e h y p e r b o l i c , p a r a b o l i c o r e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r s r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h i s c o n c e p t i s u s e f u l w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g d e g e n e r a t e c o n i c s , w h i c h m a y i n c l u d e t h e c y l i n d r i c a l c o n i c s . A " s o l i d c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r " c a n b e s e e n a s t h e l i m i t i n g c a s e o f a - g o n a l p r i s m w h e r e a p p r o a c h e s i n f i n i t y . T h e c o n n e c t i o n i s v e r y s t r o n g a n d m a n y o l d e r t e x t s t r e a t p r i s m s a n d c y l i n d e r s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . F o r m u l a s f o r s u r f a c e a r e a a n d v o l u m e a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m u l a s f o r p r i s m s b y u s i n g i n s c r i b e d a n d c i r c u m s c r i b e d p r i s m s a n d t h e n l e t t i n g t h e n u m b e r o f s i d e s o f t h e p r i s m i n c r e a s e w i t h o u t b o u n d . O n e r e a s o n f o r t h e e a r l y e m p h a s i s ( a n d s o m e t i m e s e x c l u s i v e t r e a t m e n t ) o n c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r s i s t h a t a c i r c u l a r b a s e i s t h e o n l y t y p e o f g e o m e t r i c f i g u r e f o r w h i c h t h i s t e c h n i q u e w o r k s w i t h t h e u s e o f o n l y e l e m e n t a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ( n o a p p e a l t o c a l c u l u s o r m o r e a d v a n c e d m a t h e m a t i c s ) . T e r m i n o l o g y a b o u t p r i s m s a n d c y l i n d e r s i s i d e n t i c a l . T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , s i n c e a " t r u n c a t e d p r i s m " i s a p r i s m w h o s e b a s e s d o n o t l i e i n p a r a l l e l p l a n e s , a s o l i d c y l i n d e r w h o s e b a s e s d o n o t l i e i n p a r a l l e l p l a n e s w o u l d b e c a l l e d a " t r u n c a t e d c y l i n d e r " . F r o m a p o l y h e d r a l v i e w p o i n t , a c y l i n d e r c a n a l s o b e s e e n a s a d u a l o f a b i c o n e a s a n i n f i n i t e - s i d e d b i p y r a m i d .

Types

A cylinder is a solid bounded by a cylindrical surface and two parallel planes. It has two bases that are congruent figures. Elements of the cylinder are line segments determined by the cylindrical surface between the two parallel planes. All elements of a cylinder have equal lengths. The region bounded by the cylindrical surface in either of the parallel planes is called a base of the cylinder. If the elements of the cylinder are perpendicular to the planes containing the bases, the cylinder is a right cylinder; otherwise, it is an oblique cylinder. If the bases are disks, the cylinder is a circular cylinder. A right circular cylinder has several types of sections depending on how a plane intersects the cylinder. The sections can be circles, ellipses, or rectangles. The eccentricity and semi-major axis of the elliptical section depend on the radius of the cylinder and the angle between the secant plane and cylinder axis. Cylinders can be classified into different types based on their cross-sections, including elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic cylinders. They can also be viewed as degenerate quadrics or cones in projective geometry.

generatrix is an element of the cylindrical surface. A solid bounded by a cylindrical surface and two parallel planes is called a (solid) '. The line segments determined by an element of the cylindrical surface between the two parallel planes is called an "element of the cylinder". All the elements of a cylinder have equal lengths. The region bounded by the cylindrical surface in either of the parallel planes is called a ' of the cylinder. The two bases of a cylinder are congruent figures. If the elements of the cylinder are perpendicular to the planes containing the bases, the cylinder is a ', otherwise it is called an '. If the bases are disks (regions whose boundary is a circle) the cylinder is called a ". In perpendicular to all the elements of the cylinder is called a "". If a right section of a cylinder is a circle then the cylinder is a circular cylinder. In more generality, if a right section of a cylinder is a conic section (parabola, ellipse, hyperbola) then the solid cylinder is said to be parabolic, elliptic and hyperbolic, respectively. For a right circular cylinder, there are several ways in which planes can meet a cylinder. First, planes that intersect a base in at most one point. A plane is tangent to the cylinder if it meets the cylinder in a single element. The right sections are circles and all other planes intersect the cylindrical surface in an ellipse. If a plane intersects a base of the cylinder in exactly two points then the line segment joining these points is part of the cylindric section. If such a plane contains two elements, it has a rectangle as a cylindric section, otherwise the sides of the cylindric section are portions of an ellipse. Finally, if a plane contains more than two points of a base, it contains the entire base and the cylindric section is a circle. In the case of a right circular cylinder with a cylindric section that is an ellipse, the eccentricity of the cylindric section and semi-major axis of the cylindric section depend on the radius of the cylinder and the angle between the secant plane and cylinder axis, in the following way: formula_1 formula_2 If the base of a circular cylinder has a Through each point of a generalized cylinder there passes a unique line that is contained in the cylinder. Thus, this definition may be rephrased to say that a cylinder is any ruled surface spanned by a one-parameter family of parallel lines. A cylinder having a right section that is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder and hyperbolic cylinder, respectively. These are degenerate quadric surfaces. When the principal axes of a quadric are aligned with the reference frame (always possible for a quadric), a general equation of the quadric in three dimensions is given by formula_8 with the coefficients being real numbers and not all of , and being 0. If at least one variable does not appear in the equation, then the quadric is degenerate. If one variable is missing, we may assume by an appropriate rotation of axes that the variable does not appear and the general equation of this type of degenerate quadric can be written as formula_9 where formula_10 If this is the equation of an "elliptic cylinder". Further simplification can be obtained by translation of axes and scalar multiplication. If formula_11 has the same sign as the coefficients and , then the equation of an elliptic cylinder may be rewritten in Cartesian coordinates as: formula_12 This equation of an elliptic cylinder is a generalization of the equation of the ordinary, "circular cylinder" (). Elliptic cylinders are also known as "cylindroids", but that name is ambiguous, as it can also refer to the Plücker conoid. If formula_11 has a different sign than the coefficients, we obtain the "imaginary elliptic cylinders": formula_14 which have no real points on them. (formula_15 gives a single real point.) If and have different signs and formula_16, we obtain the "hyperbolic cylinders", whose equations may be rewritten as: formula_17 Finally, if assume, without loss of generality, that and to obtain the "parabolic cylinders" with equations that can be written as: formula_18 In projective geometry, a cylinder is simply a cone whose apex (vertex) lies on the plane at infinity. If the cone is a quadratic cone, the plane at infinity (which passes through the vertex) can intersect the cone at two real lines, a single real line (actually a coincident pair of lines), or only at the vertex. These cases give rise to the hyperbolic, parabolic or elliptic cylinders respectively. This concept is useful when considering degenerate conics, which may include the cylindrical conics. A "solid circular cylinder" can be seen as the limiting case of a -gonal prism where approaches infinity. The connection is very strong and many older texts treat prisms and cylinders simultaneously. Formulas for surface area and volume are derived from the corresponding formulas for prisms by using inscribed and circumscribed prisms and then letting the number of sides of the prism increase without bound. One reason for the early emphasis (and sometimes exclusive treatment) on circular cylinders is that a circular base is the only type of geometric figure for which this technique works with the use of only elementary considerations (no appeal to calculus or more advanced mathematics). Terminology about prisms and cylinders is identical. Thus, for example, since a "truncated prism" is a prism whose bases do not lie in parallel planes, a solid cylinder whose bases do not lie in parallel planes would be called a "truncated cylinder". From a polyhedral viewpoint, a cylinder can also be seen as a dual of a bicone as an infinite-sided bipyramid.

Cylinder

T h e d e f i n i t i o n s a n d r e s u l t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e t a k e n f r o m t h e 1 9 1 3 t e x t " P l a n e a n d S o l i d G e o m e t r y " b y G e o r g e W e n t w o r t h a n d D a v i d E u g e n e S m i t h . A " " i s a s u r f a c e c o n s i s t i n g o f a l l t h e p o i n t s o n a l l t h e l i n e s w h i c h a r e p a r a l l e l t o a g i v e n l i n e a n d w h i c h p a s s t h r o u g h a f i x e d p l a n e c u r v e i n a p l a n e n o t p a r a l l e l t o t h e g i v e n l i n e . A n y l i n e i n t h i s f a m i l y o f p a r a l l e l l i n e s i s c a l l e d a n " e l e m e n t " o f t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e . F r o m a k i n e m a t i c s p o i n t o f v i e w , g i v e n a p l a n e c u r v e , c a l l e d t h e " d i r e c t r i x " , a c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e i s t h a t s u r f a c e t r a c e d o u t b y a l i n e , c a l l e d t h e " g e n e r a t r i x " , n o t i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e d i r e c t r i x , m o v i n g p a r a l l e l t o i t s e l f a n d a l w a y s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e d i r e c t r i x . A n y p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a t r i x i s a n e l e m e n t o f t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e . A s o l i d b o u n d e d b y a c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e a n d t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s i s c a l l e d a ( s o l i d ) ' . T h e l i n e s e g m e n t s d e t e r m i n e d b y a n e l e m e n t o f t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o p a r a l l e l p l a n e s i s c a l l e d a n " e l e m e n t o f t h e c y l i n d e r " . A l l t h e e l e m e n t s o f a c y l i n d e r h a v e e q u a l l e n g t h s . T h e r e g i o n b o u n d e d b y t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e i n e i t h e r o f t h e p a r a l l e l p l a n e s i s c a l l e d a ' o f t h e c y l i n d e r . T h e t w o b a s e s o f a c y l i n d e r a r e c o n g r u e n t f i g u r e s . I f t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e c y l i n d e r a r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e s c o n t a i n i n g t h e b a s e s , t h e c y l i n d e r i s a ' , o t h e r w i s e i t i s c a l l e d a n ' . I f t h e b a s e s a r e d i s k s ( r e g i o n s w h o s e b o u n d a r y i s a c i r c l e ) t h e c y l i n d e r i s c a l l e d a " . I n s o m e e l e m e n t a r y t r e a t m e n t s , a c y l i n d e r a l w a y s m e a n s a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r . T h e " ( o r a l t i t u d e ) o f a c y l i n d e r i s t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n i t s b a s e s . T h e c y l i n d e r o b t a i n e d b y r o t a t i n g a l i n e s e g m e n t a b o u t a f i x e d l i n e t h a t i t i s p a r a l l e l t o i s a ' . A c y l i n d e r o f r e v o l u t i o n i s a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r . T h e h e i g h t o f a c y l i n d e r o f r e v o l u t i o n i s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e g e n e r a t i n g l i n e s e g m e n t . T h e l i n e t h a t t h e s e g m e n t i s r e v o l v e d a b o u t i s c a l l e d t h e ' o f t h e c y l i n d e r a n d i t p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r s o f t h e t w o b a s e s . T h e b a r e t e r m " c y l i n d e r " o f t e n r e f e r s t o a s o l i d c y l i n d e r w i t h c i r c u l a r e n d s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a x i s , t h a t i s , a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r , a s s h o w n i n t h e f i g u r e . T h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e w i t h o u t t h e e n d s i s c a l l e d a n " " . T h e f o r m u l a e f o r t h e s u r f a c e a r e a a n d t h e v o l u m e o f a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r h a v e b e e n k n o w n f r o m e a r l y a n t i q u i t y . A r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r c a n a l s o b e t h o u g h t o f a s t h e s o l i d o f r e v o l u t i o n g e n e r a t e d b y r o t a t i n g a r e c t a n g l e a b o u t o n e o f i t s s i d e s . T h e s e c y l i n d e r s a r e u s e d i n a n i n t e g r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e ( t h e " d i s k m e t h o d " ) f o r o b t a i n i n g v o l u m e s o f s o l i d s o f r e v o l u t i o n . A c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n i s t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f a c y l i n d e r ' s s u r f a c e w i t h a p l a n e . T h e y a r e , i n g e n e r a l , c u r v e s a n d a r e s p e c i a l t y p e s o f " p l a n e s e c t i o n s " . T h e c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n b y a p l a n e t h a t c o n t a i n s t w o e l e m e n t s o f a c y l i n d e r i s a p a r a l l e l o g r a m . S u c h a c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n o f a r i g h t c y l i n d e r i s a r e c t a n g l e . A c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g p l a n e i n t e r s e c t s a n d i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a l l t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e c y l i n d e r i s c a l l e d a " " . I f a r i g h t s e c t i o n o f a c y l i n d e r i s a c i r c l e t h e n t h e c y l i n d e r i s a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r . I n m o r e g e n e r a l i t y , i f a r i g h t s e c t i o n o f a c y l i n d e r i s a c o n i c s e c t i o n ( p a r a b o l a , e l l i p s e , h y p e r b o l a ) t h e n t h e s o l i d c y l i n d e r i s s a i d t o b e p a r a b o l i c , e l l i p t i c a n d h y p e r b o l i c , r e s p e c t i v e l y . F o r a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l w a y s i n w h i c h p l a n e s c a n m e e t a c y l i n d e r . F i r s t , p l a n e s t h a t i n t e r s e c t a b a s e i n a t m o s t o n e p o i n t . A p l a n e i s t a n g e n t t o t h e c y l i n d e r i f i t m e e t s t h e c y l i n d e r i n a s i n g l e e l e m e n t . T h e r i g h t s e c t i o n s a r e c i r c l e s a n d a l l o t h e r p l a n e s i n t e r s e c t t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e i n a n e l l i p s e . I f a p l a n e i n t e r s e c t s a b a s e o f t h e c y l i n d e r i n e x a c t l y t w o p o i n t s t h e n t h e l i n e s e g m e n t j o i n i n g t h e s e p o i n t s i s p a r t o f t h e c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n . I f s u c h a p l a n e c o n t a i n s t w o e l e m e n t s , i t h a s a r e c t a n g l e a s a c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n , o t h e r w i s e t h e s i d e s o f t h e c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n a r e p o r t i o n s o f a n e l l i p s e . F i n a l l y , i f a p l a n e c o n t a i n s m o r e t h a n t w o p o i n t s o f a b a s e , i t c o n t a i n s t h e e n t i r e b a s e a n d t h e c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n i s a c i r c l e . I n t h e c a s e o f a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r w i t h a c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n t h a t i s a n e l l i p s e , t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y o f t h e c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n a n d s e m i - m a j o r a x i s o f t h e c y l i n d r i c s e c t i o n d e p e n d o n t h e r a d i u s o f t h e c y l i n d e r a n d t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n t h e s e c a n t p l a n e a n d c y l i n d e r a x i s , i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y : f o r m u l a _ 1 f o r m u l a _ 2 I f t h e b a s e o f a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r h a s a r a d i u s a n d t h e c y l i n d e r h a s h e i g h t , t h e n i t s v o l u m e i s g i v e n b y T h i s f o r m u l a h o l d s w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e c y l i n d e r i s a r i g h t c y l i n d e r . T h i s f o r m u l a m a y b e e s t a b l i s h e d b y u s i n g C a v a l i e r i ' s p r i n c i p l e . I n m o r e g e n e r a l i t y , b y t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e , t h e v o l u m e o f a n y c y l i n d e r i s t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e a r e a o f a b a s e a n d t h e h e i g h t . F o r e x a m p l e , a n e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r w i t h a b a s e h a v i n g s e m i - m a j o r a x i s , s e m i - m i n o r a x i s a n d h e i g h t h a s a v o l u m e , w h e r e i s t h e a r e a o f t h e b a s e e l l i p s e ( = ) . T h i s r e s u l t f o r r i g h t e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r s c a n a l s o b e o b t a i n e d b y i n t e g r a t i o n , w h e r e t h e a x i s o f t h e c y l i n d e r i s t a k e n a s t h e p o s i t i v e - a x i s a n d t h e a r e a o f e a c h e l l i p t i c c r o s s - s e c t i o n , t h u s : f o r m u l a _ 3 U s i n g c y l i n d r i c a l c o o r d i n a t e s , t h e v o l u m e o f a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d b y i n t e g r a t i o n o v e r f o r m u l a _ 4 f o r m u l a _ 5 H a v i n g r a d i u s a n d a l t i t u d e ( h e i g h t ) , t h e s u r f a c e a r e a o f a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r , o r i e n t e d s o t h a t i t s a x i s i s v e r t i c a l , c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e p a r t s : T h e a r e a o f t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m b a s e s i s t h e s a m e , a n d i s c a l l e d t h e " b a s e a r e a " , . T h e a r e a o f t h e s i d e i s k n o w n a s t h e " " , . A n " o p e n c y l i n d e r " d o e s n o t i n c l u d e e i t h e r t o p o r b o t t o m e l e m e n t s , a n d t h e r e f o r e h a s s u r f a c e a r e a ( l a t e r a l a r e a ) T h e s u r f a c e a r e a o f t h e s o l i d r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r i s m a d e u p t h e s u m o f a l l t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s : t o p , b o t t o m a n d s i d e . I t s s u r f a c e a r e a i s t h e r e f o r e , w h e r e i s t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e c i r c u l a r t o p o r b o t t o m . F o r a g i v e n v o l u m e , t h e r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r w i t h t h e s m a l l e s t s u r f a c e a r e a h a s . E q u i v a l e n t l y , f o r a g i v e n s u r f a c e a r e a , t h e r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r w i t h t h e l a r g e s t v o l u m e h a s , t h a t i s , t h e c y l i n d e r f i t s s n u g l y i n a c u b e o f s i d e l e n g t h = a l t i t u d e ( = d i a m e t e r o f b a s e c i r c l e ) . T h e l a t e r a l a r e a , , o f a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r , w h i c h n e e d n o t b e a r i g h t c y l i n d e r , i s m o r e g e n e r a l l y g i v e n b y : w h e r e i s t h e l e n g t h o f a n e l e m e n t a n d i s t h e p e r i m e t e r o f a r i g h t s e c t i o n o f t h e c y l i n d e r . T h i s p r o d u c e s t h e p r e v i o u s f o r m u l a f o r l a t e r a l a r e a w h e n t h e c y l i n d e r i s a r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r . A " r i g h t c i r c u l a r h o l l o w c y l i n d e r " ( o r " " ) i s a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l r e g i o n b o u n d e d b y t w o r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r s h a v i n g t h e s a m e a x i s a n d t w o p a r a l l e l a n n u l a r b a s e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e c y l i n d e r s ' c o m m o n a x i s , a s i n t h e d i a g r a m . L e t t h e h e i g h t b e , i n t e r n a l r a d i u s , a n d e x t e r n a l r a d i u s . T h e v o l u m e i s g i v e n b y f o r m u l a _ 6 . T h u s , t h e v o l u m e o f a c y l i n d r i c a l s h e l l e q u a l s 2 ( a v e r a g e r a d i u s ) ( a l t i t u d e ) ( t h i c k n e s s ) . T h e s u r f a c e a r e a , i n c l u d i n g t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m , i s g i v e n b y f o r m u l a _ 7 . C y l i n d r i c a l s h e l l s a r e u s e d i n a c o m m o n i n t e g r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e f o r f i n d i n g v o l u m e s o f s o l i d s o f r e v o l u t i o n . I n t h e t r e a t i s e b y t h i s n a m e , w r i t t e n c . 2 2 5 B C E , A r c h i m e d e s o b t a i n e d t h e r e s u l t o f w h i c h h e w a s m o s t p r o u d , n a m e l y o b t a i n i n g t h e f o r m u l a s f o r t h e v o l u m e a n d s u r f a c e a r e a o f a s p h e r e b y e x p l o i t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a s p h e r e a n d i t s c i r c u m s c r i b e d r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r o f t h e s a m e h e i g h t a n d d i a m e t e r . T h e s p h e r e h a s a v o l u m e t h a t o f t h e c i r c u m s c r i b e d c y l i n d e r a n d a s u r f a c e a r e a t h a t o f t h e c y l i n d e r ( i n c l u d i n g t h e b a s e s ) . S i n c e t h e v a l u e s f o r t h e c y l i n d e r w e r e a l r e a d y k n o w n , h e o b t a i n e d , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e s f o r t h e s p h e r e . T h e v o l u m e o f a s p h e r e o f r a d i u s i s . T h e s u r f a c e a r e a o f t h i s s p h e r e i s . A s c u l p t e d s p h e r e a n d c y l i n d e r w e r e p l a c e d o n t h e t o m b o f A r c h i m e d e s a t h i s r e q u e s t . I n s o m e a r e a s o f g e o m e t r y a n d t o p o l o g y t h e t e r m " c y l i n d e r " r e f e r s t o w h a t h a s b e e n c a l l e d a c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e . A c y l i n d e r i s d e f i n e d a s a s u r f a c e c o n s i s t i n g o f a l l t h e p o i n t s o n a l l t h e l i n e s w h i c h a r e p a r a l l e l t o a g i v e n l i n e a n d w h i c h p a s s t h r o u g h a f i x e d p l a n e c u r v e i n a p l a n e n o t p a r a l l e l t o t h e g i v e n l i n e . S u c h c y l i n d e r s h a v e , a t t i m e s , b e e n r e f e r r e d t o a s " " . T h r o u g h e a c h p o i n t o f a g e n e r a l i z e d c y l i n d e r t h e r e p a s s e s a u n i q u e l i n e t h a t i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e c y l i n d e r . T h u s , t h i s d e f i n i t i o n m a y b e r e p h r a s e d t o s a y t h a t a c y l i n d e r i s a n y r u l e d s u r f a c e s p a n n e d b y a o n e - p a r a m e t e r f a m i l y o f p a r a l l e l l i n e s . A c y l i n d e r h a v i n g a r i g h t s e c t i o n t h a t i s a n e l l i p s e , p a r a b o l a , o r h y p e r b o l a i s c a l l e d a n e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r , p a r a b o l i c c y l i n d e r a n d h y p e r b o l i c c y l i n d e r , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e s e a r e d e g e n e r a t e q u a d r i c s u r f a c e s . W h e n t h e p r i n c i p a l a x e s o f a q u a d r i c a r e a l i g n e d w i t h t h e r e f e r e n c e f r a m e ( a l w a y s p o s s i b l e f o r a q u a d r i c ) , a g e n e r a l e q u a t i o n o f t h e q u a d r i c i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s i s g i v e n b y f o r m u l a _ 8 w i t h t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s b e i n g r e a l n u m b e r s a n d n o t a l l o f , a n d b e i n g 0 . I f a t l e a s t o n e v a r i a b l e d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n t h e e q u a t i o n , t h e n t h e q u a d r i c i s d e g e n e r a t e . I f o n e v a r i a b l e i s m i s s i n g , w e m a y a s s u m e b y a n a p p r o p r i a t e r o t a t i o n o f a x e s t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e d o e s n o t a p p e a r a n d t h e g e n e r a l e q u a t i o n o f t h i s t y p e o f d e g e n e r a t e q u a d r i c c a n b e w r i t t e n a s f o r m u l a _ 9 w h e r e f o r m u l a _ 1 0 I f t h i s i s t h e e q u a t i o n o f a n " e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r " . F u r t h e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y t r a n s l a t i o n o f a x e s a n d s c a l a r m u l t i p l i c a t i o n . I f f o r m u l a _ 1 1 h a s t h e s a m e s i g n a s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a n d , t h e n t h e e q u a t i o n o f a n e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r m a y b e r e w r i t t e n i n C a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e s a s : f o r m u l a _ 1 2 T h i s e q u a t i o n o f a n e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r i s a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e e q u a t i o n o f t h e o r d i n a r y , " c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r " ( ) . E l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r s a r e a l s o k n o w n a s " c y l i n d r o i d s " , b u t t h a t n a m e i s a m b i g u o u s , a s i t c a n a l s o r e f e r t o t h e P l ü c k e r c o n o i d . I f f o r m u l a _ 1 1 h a s a d i f f e r e n t s i g n t h a n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s , w e o b t a i n t h e " i m a g i n a r y e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r s " : f o r m u l a _ 1 4 w h i c h h a v e n o r e a l p o i n t s o n t h e m . ( f o r m u l a _ 1 5 g i v e s a s i n g l e r e a l p o i n t . ) I f a n d h a v e d i f f e r e n t s i g n s a n d f o r m u l a _ 1 6 , w e o b t a i n t h e " h y p e r b o l i c c y l i n d e r s " , w h o s e e q u a t i o n s m a y b e r e w r i t t e n a s : f o r m u l a _ 1 7 F i n a l l y , i f a s s u m e , w i t h o u t l o s s o f g e n e r a l i t y , t h a t a n d t o o b t a i n t h e " p a r a b o l i c c y l i n d e r s " w i t h e q u a t i o n s t h a t c a n b e w r i t t e n a s : f o r m u l a _ 1 8 I n p r o j e c t i v e g e o m e t r y , a c y l i n d e r i s s i m p l y a c o n e w h o s e a p e x ( v e r t e x ) l i e s o n t h e p l a n e a t i n f i n i t y . I f t h e c o n e i s a q u a d r a t i c c o n e , t h e p l a n e a t i n f i n i t y ( w h i c h p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e v e r t e x ) c a n i n t e r s e c t t h e c o n e a t t w o r e a l l i n e s , a s i n g l e r e a l l i n e ( a c t u a l l y a c o i n c i d e n t p a i r o f l i n e s ) , o r o n l y a t t h e v e r t e x . T h e s e c a s e s g i v e r i s e t o t h e h y p e r b o l i c , p a r a b o l i c o r e l l i p t i c c y l i n d e r s r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h i s c o n c e p t i s u s e f u l w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g d e g e n e r a t e c o n i c s , w h i c h m a y i n c l u d e t h e c y l i n d r i c a l c o n i c s . A " s o l i d c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r " c a n b e s e e n a s t h e l i m i t i n g c a s e o f a - g o n a l p r i s m w h e r e a p p r o a c h e s i n f i n i t y . T h e c o n n e c t i o n i s v e r y s t r o n g a n d m a n y o l d e r t e x t s t r e a t p r i s m s a n d c y l i n d e r s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . F o r m u l a s f o r s u r f a c e a r e a a n d v o l u m e a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m u l a s f o r p r i s m s b y u s i n g i n s c r i b e d a n d c i r c u m s c r i b e d p r i s m s a n d t h e n l e t t i n g t h e n u m b e r o f s i d e s o f t h e p r i s m i n c r e a s e w i t h o u t b o u n d . O n e r e a s o n f o r t h e e a r l y e m p h a s i s ( a n d s o m e t i m e s e x c l u s i v e t r e a t m e n t ) o n c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r s i s t h a t a c i r c u l a r b a s e i s t h e o n l y t y p e o f g e o m e t r i c f i g u r e f o r w h i c h t h i s t e c h n i q u e w o r k s w i t h t h e u s e o f o n l y e l e m e n t a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ( n o a p p e a l t o c a l c u l u s o r m o r e a d v a n c e d m a t h e m a t i c s ) . T e r m i n o l o g y a b o u t p r i s m s a n d c y l i n d e r s i s i d e n t i c a l . T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , s i n c e a " t r u n c a t e d p r i s m " i s a p r i s m w h o s e b a s e s d o n o t l i e i n p a r a l l e l p l a n e s , a s o l i d c y l i n d e r w h o s e b a s e s d o n o t l i e i n p a r a l l e l p l a n e s w o u l d b e c a l l e d a " t r u n c a t e d c y l i n d e r " . F r o m a p o l y h e d r a l v i e w p o i n t , a c y l i n d e r c a n a l s o b e s e e n a s a d u a l o f a b i c o n e a s a n i n f i n i t e - s i d e d b i p y r a m i d .

Prisms

A cylinder is a solid bounded by a cylindrical surface and two parallel planes. It has two bases that are congruent figures. Elements of the cylinder are line segments determined by an element of the cylindrical surface between the two parallel planes. All elements of a cylinder have equal lengths. The region bounded by the cylindrical surface in either of the parallel planes is called a base of the cylinder. If the elements of the cylinder are perpendicular to the planes containing the bases, the cylinder is a right cylinder; otherwise, it is an oblique cylinder. If the bases are disks, the cylinder is a circular cylinder. Right circular cylinders have several types of sections, including circular, elliptical, rectangular, and tangential sections. Cylinders can be classified into different types based on their cross-sections, including elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic cylinders. They can also be viewed as a limiting case of a polygonal prism where the number of sides approaches infinity.

generatrix is an element of the cylindrical surface. A solid bounded by a cylindrical surface and two parallel planes is called a (solid) '. The line segments determined by an element of the cylindrical surface between the two parallel planes is called an "element of the cylinder". All the elements of a cylinder have equal lengths. The region bounded by the cylindrical surface in either of the parallel planes is called a ' of the cylinder. The two bases of a cylinder are congruent figures. If the elements of the cylinder are perpendicular to the planes containing the bases, the cylinder is a ', otherwise it is called an '. If the bases are disks (regions whose boundary is a circle) the cylinder is called a ". In perpendicular to all the elements of the cylinder is called a "". If a right section of a cylinder is a circle then the cylinder is a circular cylinder. In more generality, if a right section of a cylinder is a conic section (parabola, ellipse, hyperbola) then the solid cylinder is said to be parabolic, elliptic and hyperbolic, respectively. For a right circular cylinder, there are several ways in which planes can meet a cylinder. First, planes that intersect a base in at most one point. A plane is tangent to the cylinder if it meets the cylinder in a single element. The right sections are circles and all other planes intersect the cylindrical surface in an ellipse. If a plane intersects a base of the cylinder in exactly two points then the line segment joining these points is part of the cylindric section. If such a plane contains two elements, it has a rectangle as a cylindric section, otherwise the sides of the cylindric section are portions of an ellipse. Finally, if a plane contains more than two points of a base, it contains the entire base and the cylindric section is a circle. In the case of a right circular cylinder with a cylindric section that is an ellipse, the eccentricity of the cylindric section and semi-major axis of the cylindric section depend on the radius of the cylinder and the angle between the secant plane and cylinder axis, in the following way: formula_1 formula_2 If the base of a circular cylinder has a Through each point of a generalized cylinder there passes a unique line that is contained in the cylinder. Thus, this definition may be rephrased to say that a cylinder is any ruled surface spanned by a one-parameter family of parallel lines. A cylinder having a right section that is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder and hyperbolic cylinder, respectively. These are degenerate quadric surfaces. When the principal axes of a quadric are aligned with the reference frame (always possible for a quadric), a general equation of the quadric in three dimensions is given by formula_8 with the coefficients being real numbers and not all of , and being 0. If at least one variable does not appear in the equation, then the quadric is degenerate. If one variable is missing, we may assume by an appropriate rotation of axes that the variable does not appear and the general equation of this type of degenerate quadric can be written as formula_9 where formula_10 If this is the equation of an "elliptic cylinder". Further simplification can be obtained by translation of axes and scalar multiplication. If formula_11 has the same sign as the coefficients and , then the equation of an elliptic cylinder may be rewritten in Cartesian coordinates as: formula_12 This equation of an elliptic cylinder is a generalization of the equation of the ordinary, "circular cylinder" (). Elliptic cylinders are also known as "cylindroids", but that name is ambiguous, as it can also refer to the Plücker conoid. If formula_11 has a different sign than the coefficients, we obtain the "imaginary elliptic cylinders": formula_14 which have no real points on them. (formula_15 gives a single real point.) If and have different signs and formula_16, we obtain the "hyperbolic cylinders", whose equations may be rewritten as: formula_17 Finally, if assume, without loss of generality, that and to obtain the "parabolic cylinders" with equations that can be written as: formula_18 In projective geometry, a cylinder is simply a cone whose apex (vertex) lies on the plane at infinity. If the cone is a quadratic cone, the plane at infinity (which passes through the vertex) can intersect the cone at two real lines, a single real line (actually a coincident pair of lines), or only at the vertex. These cases give rise to the hyperbolic, parabolic or elliptic cylinders respectively. This concept is useful when considering degenerate conics, which may include the cylindrical conics. A "solid circular cylinder" can be seen as the limiting case of a -gonal prism where approaches infinity. The connection is very strong and many older texts treat prisms and cylinders simultaneously. Formulas for surface area and volume are derived from the corresponding formulas for prisms by using inscribed and circumscribed prisms and then letting the number of sides of the prism increase without bound. One reason for the early emphasis (and sometimes exclusive treatment) on circular cylinders is that a circular base is the only type of geometric figure for which this technique works with the use of only elementary considerations (no appeal to calculus or more advanced mathematics). Terminology about prisms and cylinders is identical. Thus, for example, since a "truncated prism" is a prism whose bases do not lie in parallel planes, a solid cylinder whose bases do not lie in parallel planes would be called a "truncated cylinder". From a polyhedral viewpoint, a cylinder can also be seen as a dual of a bicone as an infinite-sided bipyramid.

Ford Futura

F o r d F u t u r a w a s s c h e d u l e d t o d e n o t e a n e w s e d a n e n t r y f o r t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n m a r k e t i n 2 0 0 5 ( t h e 2 0 0 6 m o d e l y e a r ) , t h e c a r i t w a s d e s t i n e d f o r w a s r e n a m e d F o r d F u s i o n w h i l e s t i l l u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t , d u e t o a t r a d e m a r k d i s p u t e . " F u t u r a " p r o v e d t o b e o w n e d b y t h e P e p B o y s a u t o p a r t s c h a i n , d u e t o a t i r e l i n e m a r k e t e d b y t h e m u n d e r t h a t b r a n d . F o r d ' s c l a i m f a i l e d b e c a u s e t h e c o m p a n y h a d n o t u s e d t h e n a m e f o r m o r e t h a n t h r e e y e a r s . T h e c o m p a n y d i d u s e t h e n a m e s p o r a d i c a l l y f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s . I n t h e 1 9 5 0 s , t h e L i n c o l n F u t u r a s h o w c a r p r o v i d e d t h e b a s i s f o r t h e B a t m o b i l e l a t e r u s e d i n t h e B a t m a n t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s , t h e F o r d F a l c o n h a d a s p e c i a l t y c o u p e s u b m o d e l c a l l e d F u t u r a , a n d t h e s a m e w a s t r u e o f t h e F o r d F a i r m o n t i n t h e l a t e 1 9 7 0 s . I n t h e 2 0 0 0 s , F o r d i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s h a s F u t u r a s p e c i a l e d i t i o n s o f m a n y o f i t s m a i n s t r e a m m o d e l s .

US market

Ford planned to introduce the Futura as a new sedan in the US market in 2005 but was forced to rename it to Fusion due to a trademark dispute with Pep Boys, who owned the Futura brand for their tire line.

Ford Futura was scheduled to denote a new sedan entry for the North American market in 2005 (the 2006 model year), the car it was destined for was renamed Ford Fusion while still under development, due to a trademark dispute. "Futura" proved to be owned by the Pep Boys auto parts chain, due to a tire line marketed by them under that brand. Ford's claim failed because the company had not used the name for more than three years. The company did use the name sporadically for several decades. In the 1950s, the Lincoln Futura show car provided the basis for the Batmobile later used in the Batman television series. In the early 1960s, the Ford Falcon had a specialty coupe submodel called Futura, and the same was true of the Ford Fairmont in the late 1970s. In the 2000s, Ford in the Netherlands has Futura special editions of many of its mainstream models.

Do You Like Horny Bunnies?

Y u k a r i F u j i s a w a i s a b o y w h o w o r k s a t t h e P l a t i n u m r e s t a u r a n t , a n e x c l u s i v e I t a l i a n e a t e r y . H e w a s e m p l o y e d f o r a s t r a n g e a n d e m b a r r a s s i n g r e a s o n : h e w a s m i s t a k e n a s a g i r l . T h e g i r l s a r e g o o d a t f i g u r i n g i t o u t , b u t e i t h e r t h e y w i l l e i t h e r r u i n h i s j o b o r t h e d i s c o v e r y c a n m a k e h i s a n d t h e i r j o b s a n d l i v e s m u c h e a s i e r a n d m o r e f u n , e x c i t i n g , i n t e r e s t i n g , a n d e s p e c i a l l y e n j o y a b l e . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e g a m e , t h e p l a y e r l e a r n s a b o u t Y u k a r i F u j i s a w a ' s l i f e . I f t h e p l a y e r s e l e c t s o p t i o n s t h a t d o n o t l e a d t h e p r o t a g o n i s t t o a s p e c i f i c p o s s i b i l i t y t o o m a n y t i m e s , Y u k a r i w i l l g e t f i r e d , a n d t h e p l a y e r w i l l b e f o r c e d b a c k t o t h e t i t l e s c r e e n . Y u k a r i F u j i s a w a : H e i s a n 1 8 - y e a r - o l d b o y , d e s p i t e h i s f e m i n i n e a p p e a r a n c e . H e h a s p l e n t y o f f r i e n d s a t h i s s c h o o l . I n t h e g a m e , h e i s s h o w n t o b e a d e c e n t j u d o s t u d e n t a n d t a k e s c a r e o f e x o t i c f i s h i n h i s f r e e t i m e . S a e I s h i g a m i : Y u k a r i ' s c o u s i n . I n t h e i r c h i l d h o o d , t h e y w e r e i n s e p a r a b l e , b u t t h e y g r e w d i s t a n t a s t h e y e a r s w e n t o n . T h e y a r e l a t e r r e u n i t e d a t P l a t i n u m . S a e i s a n e x h i b i t i o n i s t a n d t h e r e f o r e e n j o y s b e i n g w a t c h e d w h i l e p e r f o r m i n g s e x u a l a c t s . H i r o m i Y a n a g i : S a e ' s b e s t p a l a p p e a r s t o b e p r o b a b l e t o w o r k i n a b u n n y s u i t . S h e d r e s s e s c o m p l e t e w i t h a p a i r o f g l a s s e s a n d a s t y l i s h a p p e a r a n c e . L u c k i l y f o r h e r , s h e e a s i l y o p e n s u p t o Y u k a r i . R y o K u g e n u m a : D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t s h e i s t h e y o u n g e s t o f t h e t e a m , s h e i s b y f a r t h e m o s t m a t u r e . H e r s e r i o u s a t t i t u d e c o m e s f r o m h e r p a r e n t s . A l t h o u g h s h e w o u l d s e e m m o r e f i t t i n g a s a n e x e c u t i v e o f a m a j o r c o m p a n y a n d n o t a w a i t r e s s i n a b u n n y s u i t , s h e i s s t i l l p r o u d o f h e r w o r k a t P l a t i n u m . R y o e n j o y s c o n s u m i n g t h e s p e r m o f h e r p a r t n e r . C h i m a k i H a s e : T h e e l d e s t o f t h e b u n n i e s a t P l a t i n u m , d e s p i t e l o o k i n g y o u n g a n d i m m a t u r e . S h e h a s n o s h a m e i n m e e t i n g Y u k a r i . I t i s s h o w n t h a t C h i m a k i i s a d d i c t e d t o Y u k a r i . A k i n a I n a m u r a : S h e i s c a l l e d " T h e b i g b o s s o f P l a t i n u m " b y h e r c o - w o r k e r s . S h e s e e m s t o b e a s t r a n g e c a s e a t f i r s t a n d g r e e t s p e o p l e i n a w a y t h a t s h e t h i n k s i s c u t e . A s e q u e l t i t l e d " D o Y o u L i k e H o r n y B u n n i e s ? 2 " w a s r e l e a s e d i n 2 0 0 2 . T h e g a m e f o c u s e s o n a n e w c h a r a c t e r , K a z u m a T a k a t s u k i , a n d t h e s t o r y t a k e s p l a c e i n a n o t h e r b r a n c h o f t h e P l a t i n u m . T h e g a m e a l s o f e a t u r e s c a m e o s o f c h a r a c t e r s f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l g a m e .

Characters

The main character, Yukari Fujisawa, is mistakenly hired as a waitress at an exclusive Italian restaurant due to his feminine appearance. The game follows his interactions with his female coworkers, including his cousin Sae, and explores themes of relationships, identity, and sexuality.

Yukari Fujisawa is a boy who works at the Platinum restaurant, an exclusive Italian eatery. He was employed for a strange and embarrassing reason: he was mistaken as a girl. The girls are good at figuring it out, but either they will either ruin his job or the discovery can make his and their jobs and lives much easier and more fun, exciting, interesting, and especially enjoyable. At the beginning of the game, the player learns about Yukari Fujisawa's life. If the player selects options that do not lead the protagonist to a specific possibility too many times, Yukari will get fired, and the player will be forced back to the title screen. Yukari Fujisawa: He is an 18-year-old boy, despite his feminine appearance. He has plenty of friends at his school. In the game, he is shown to be a decent judo student and takes care of exotic fish in his free time. Sae Ishigami: Yukari's cousin. In their childhood, they were inseparable, but they grew distant as the years went on. They are later reunited at Platinum. Sae is an exhibitionist and therefore enjoys being watched while performing sexual acts. Hiromi Yanagi: Sae's best pal appears to be probable to work in a bunny suit. She dresses complete with a pair of glasses and a stylish appearance. Luckily for her, she easily opens up to Yukari. Ryo Kugenuma: Despite the fact that she is the youngest of the team, she is by far the most mature. Her serious attitude comes from her parents. Although she would seem more fitting as an executive of a major company and not a waitress in a bunny suit, she is still proud of her work at Platinum. Ryo enjoys consuming the sperm of her partner. Chimaki Hase: The eldest of the bunnies at Platinum, despite looking young and immature. She has no shame in meeting Yukari. It is shown that Chimaki is addicted to Yukari. Akina Inamura: She is called "The big boss of Platinum" by her co-workers. She seems to be a strange case at first and greets people in a way that she thinks is cute. A sequel titled "Do You Like Horny Bunnies? 2" was released in 2002. The game focuses on a new character, Kazuma Takatsuki, and the story takes place in another branch of the Platinum. The game also features cameos of characters from the original game.

Do You Like Horny Bunnies?

Y u k a r i F u j i s a w a i s a b o y w h o w o r k s a t t h e P l a t i n u m r e s t a u r a n t , a n e x c l u s i v e I t a l i a n e a t e r y . H e w a s e m p l o y e d f o r a s t r a n g e a n d e m b a r r a s s i n g r e a s o n : h e w a s m i s t a k e n a s a g i r l . T h e g i r l s a r e g o o d a t f i g u r i n g i t o u t , b u t e i t h e r t h e y w i l l e i t h e r r u i n h i s j o b o r t h e d i s c o v e r y c a n m a k e h i s a n d t h e i r j o b s a n d l i v e s m u c h e a s i e r a n d m o r e f u n , e x c i t i n g , i n t e r e s t i n g , a n d e s p e c i a l l y e n j o y a b l e . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e g a m e , t h e p l a y e r l e a r n s a b o u t Y u k a r i F u j i s a w a ' s l i f e . I f t h e p l a y e r s e l e c t s o p t i o n s t h a t d o n o t l e a d t h e p r o t a g o n i s t t o a s p e c i f i c p o s s i b i l i t y t o o m a n y t i m e s , Y u k a r i w i l l g e t f i r e d , a n d t h e p l a y e r w i l l b e f o r c e d b a c k t o t h e t i t l e s c r e e n . Y u k a r i F u j i s a w a : H e i s a n 1 8 - y e a r - o l d b o y , d e s p i t e h i s f e m i n i n e a p p e a r a n c e . H e h a s p l e n t y o f f r i e n d s a t h i s s c h o o l . I n t h e g a m e , h e i s s h o w n t o b e a d e c e n t j u d o s t u d e n t a n d t a k e s c a r e o f e x o t i c f i s h i n h i s f r e e t i m e . S a e I s h i g a m i : Y u k a r i ' s c o u s i n . I n t h e i r c h i l d h o o d , t h e y w e r e i n s e p a r a b l e , b u t t h e y g r e w d i s t a n t a s t h e y e a r s w e n t o n . T h e y a r e l a t e r r e u n i t e d a t P l a t i n u m . S a e i s a n e x h i b i t i o n i s t a n d t h e r e f o r e e n j o y s b e i n g w a t c h e d w h i l e p e r f o r m i n g s e x u a l a c t s . H i r o m i Y a n a g i : S a e ' s b e s t p a l a p p e a r s t o b e p r o b a b l e t o w o r k i n a b u n n y s u i t . S h e d r e s s e s c o m p l e t e w i t h a p a i r o f g l a s s e s a n d a s t y l i s h a p p e a r a n c e . L u c k i l y f o r h e r , s h e e a s i l y o p e n s u p t o Y u k a r i . R y o K u g e n u m a : D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t s h e i s t h e y o u n g e s t o f t h e t e a m , s h e i s b y f a r t h e m o s t m a t u r e . H e r s e r i o u s a t t i t u d e c o m e s f r o m h e r p a r e n t s . A l t h o u g h s h e w o u l d s e e m m o r e f i t t i n g a s a n e x e c u t i v e o f a m a j o r c o m p a n y a n d n o t a w a i t r e s s i n a b u n n y s u i t , s h e i s s t i l l p r o u d o f h e r w o r k a t P l a t i n u m . R y o e n j o y s c o n s u m i n g t h e s p e r m o f h e r p a r t n e r . C h i m a k i H a s e : T h e e l d e s t o f t h e b u n n i e s a t P l a t i n u m , d e s p i t e l o o k i n g y o u n g a n d i m m a t u r e . S h e h a s n o s h a m e i n m e e t i n g Y u k a r i . I t i s s h o w n t h a t C h i m a k i i s a d d i c t e d t o Y u k a r i . A k i n a I n a m u r a : S h e i s c a l l e d " T h e b i g b o s s o f P l a t i n u m " b y h e r c o - w o r k e r s . S h e s e e m s t o b e a s t r a n g e c a s e a t f i r s t a n d g r e e t s p e o p l e i n a w a y t h a t s h e t h i n k s i s c u t e . A s e q u e l t i t l e d " D o Y o u L i k e H o r n y B u n n i e s ? 2 " w a s r e l e a s e d i n 2 0 0 2 . T h e g a m e f o c u s e s o n a n e w c h a r a c t e r , K a z u m a T a k a t s u k i , a n d t h e s t o r y t a k e s p l a c e i n a n o t h e r b r a n c h o f t h e P l a t i n u m . T h e g a m e a l s o f e a t u r e s c a m e o s o f c h a r a c t e r s f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l g a m e .

Sequel

The game follows Yukari Fujisawa, an 18-year-old boy mistakenly hired as a waitress at the exclusive Italian restaurant Platinum due to his feminine appearance. As the player navigates through the game, they must make choices that avoid getting Yukari fired. The game features various female characters, including Yukari's cousin Sae, coworkers Hiromi, Ryo, Chimaki, and Akina, each with their own unique personalities and traits. A sequel, "Do You Like Horny Bunnies? 2," was released in 2002, featuring a new protagonist, Kazuma Takatsuki, and taking place in another Platinum branch.

Yukari Fujisawa is a boy who works at the Platinum restaurant, an exclusive Italian eatery. He was employed for a strange and embarrassing reason: he was mistaken as a girl. The girls are good at figuring it out, but either they will either ruin his job or the discovery can make his and their jobs and lives much easier and more fun, exciting, interesting, and especially enjoyable. At the beginning of the game, the player learns about Yukari Fujisawa's life. If the player selects options that do not lead the protagonist to a specific possibility too many times, Yukari will get fired, and the player will be forced back to the title screen. Yukari Fujisawa: He is an 18-year-old boy, despite his feminine appearance. He has plenty of friends at his school. In the game, he is shown to be a decent judo student and takes care of exotic fish in his free time. Sae Ishigami: Yukari's cousin. In their childhood, they were inseparable, but they grew distant as the years went on. They are later reunited at Platinum. Sae is an exhibitionist and therefore enjoys being watched while performing sexual acts. Hiromi Yanagi: Sae's best pal appears to be probable to work in a bunny suit. She dresses complete with a pair of glasses and a stylish appearance. Luckily for her, she easily opens up to Yukari. Ryo Kugenuma: Despite the fact that she is the youngest of the team, she is by far the most mature. Her serious attitude comes from her parents. Although she would seem more fitting as an executive of a major company and not a waitress in a bunny suit, she is still proud of her work at Platinum. Ryo enjoys consuming the sperm of her partner. Chimaki Hase: The eldest of the bunnies at Platinum, despite looking young and immature. She has no shame in meeting Yukari. It is shown that Chimaki is addicted to Yukari. Akina Inamura: She is called "The big boss of Platinum" by her co-workers. She seems to be a strange case at first and greets people in a way that she thinks is cute. A sequel titled "Do You Like Horny Bunnies? 2" was released in 2002. The game focuses on a new character, Kazuma Takatsuki, and the story takes place in another branch of the Platinum. The game also features cameos of characters from the original game.

Lincoln Futura

T h e c a r ' s o f f i c i a l p u b l i c d e b u t w a s o n J a n u a r y 8 , 1 9 5 5 a t t h e C h i c a g o A u t o S h o w ; i t h a d b e e n s h o w n t o t h e p r e s s a t t h e c i t y ' s C o n g r e s s H o t e l o n J a n u a r y 5 . W h i l e b e i n g d i s p l a y e d e l s e w h e r e i n t h e U . S . t h a t s p r i n g , t h e F u t u r a w a s s e e n b y t h e c o u n t r y ' s t e l e v i s i o n a u d i e n c e o n T o d a y ( " T h e T o d a y S h o w " ) o n M a r c h 3 , 1 9 5 5 . T h e F u t u r a ' s s t y l i n g w a s o r i g i n a l b y 1 9 5 0 s s t a n d a r d s — w i t h a d o u b l e , c l e a r - p l a s t i c c a n o p y t o p , e x a g g e r a t e d h o o d e d h e a d l i g h t p o d s , a n d v e r y l a r g e , o u t w a r d - c a n t e d t a i l f i n s . T h e F u t u r a h a d a c o m p l e t e p o w e r t r a i n a n d w a s f u l l y o p e r a b l e , i n c o n t r a s t t o m a n y s h o w c a r s . I t s o r i g i n a l c o l o r w a s p e a r l e s c e n t w h i t e , o n e o f t h e f i r s t p e a r l e s c e n t c o l o r t r e a t m e n t s , u s i n g g r o u n d p e a r l t o a c h i e v e t h e e f f e c t . T h e F u t u r a w a s p o w e r e d b y a 3 6 8 c u b i c i n c h L i n c o l n e n g i n e a n d p o w e r t r a i n ; t h e c h a s s i s d e r i v e d f r o m a C o n t i n e n t a l M a r k I I . T h e F u t u r a w a s a s u c c e s s a s a s h o w c a r , g a r n e r i n g f a v o r a b l e p u b l i c i t y f o r F o r d . I t w a s r e l e a s e d a s a m o d e l k i t a n d a t o y , a n d , i n a m u c h m o r e s u b d u e d f o r m , i t s h e a d l i g h t a n d t a i l f i n m o t i f s w o u l d a p p e a r o n p r o d u c t i o n L i n c o l n s f o r 1 9 5 6 a n d 1 9 5 7 , s u c h a s t h e L i n c o l n P r e m i e r e a n d L i n c o l n C a p r i . T h e c o n c a v e f r o n t g r i l l e i n s p i r e d t h e g r i l l e o n t h e 1 9 6 0 M e r c u r y M o n t e r e y a n d t h e 1 9 6 0 F o r d G a l a x i e . T h e s t y l i n g s h o w e d a p r o g r e s s i o n f r o m t h e M e r c u r y X M - 8 0 0 i n t r o d u c e d i n 1 9 5 4 . T h e F u t u r a p l a y e d a p r o m i n e n t p a r t i n t h e 1 9 5 9 m o v i e " I t S t a r t e d w i t h a K i s s , " s t a r r i n g D e b b i e R e y n o l d s a n d G l e n n F o r d . F o r t h e m o v i e , i t w a s p a i n t e d r e d , a s t h e w h i t e p e a r l e s c e n t f i n i s h d i d n o t p h o t o g r a p h w e l l . T h e r e d - p a i n t e d c a r i s a l s o s e e n i n F o r d ' s 1 9 6 1 p r o m o t i o n a l f i l m " T h e S e c r e t D o o r " . T h e f i l m ' s l o o k i n s i d e F o r d ' s S t y l i n g C e n t e r i n c l u d e s f o o t a g e o f t h e F u t u r a o n t h e t e s t t r a c k a n d i n t h e w i n d t u n n e l . T h e c o n c e p t c a r w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y s o l d t o a u t o c u s t o m i z e r G e o r g e B a r r i s . H a v i n g o r i g i n a l l y c o s t $ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 , t h e F u t u r a w a s s o l d t o B a r r i s f o r $ 1 a n d " o t h e r v a l u a b l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n " b y F o r d M o t o r C o m p a n y . A s t h e c a r w a s n e v e r t i t l e d a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e u n i n s u r a b l e , i t w a s p a r k e d b e h i n d B a r r i s ' s h o p , s i t t i n g i d l e a n d d e t e r i o r a t i n g f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s . T h e L i n c o l n F u t u r a w a s a l s o i n c l u d e d i n t h e V e g a s P a c k D L C o f " M a f i a I I " a s t h e " J e f f e r s o n F u t u r a " . T h e 1 9 9 4 N B C T V s e r i e s " V i p e r " f e a t u r e d a r e d 1 9 5 5 L i n c o l n F u t u r a c a l l e d " T h e B a x l e y " . I n t h e e p i s o d e " W h e e l s o f F i r e " ( S 0 1 E 0 8 ) , t h e c a r ' s c r e a t o r s t o l e i t a f t e r i t w a s r e c o v e r e d b y c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k e r s . T h e r e w a s q u i t e a b i t o f f i l m f e a t u r i n g t h e v e h i c l e , e v e n a c h a s e b e t w e e n t h e V i p e r D e f e n d e r a n d t h e F u t u r a . T h e r e i s a Y o u T u b e v i d e o a v a i l a b l e o f t h e c h a s e . I n 1 9 6 6 , B a r r i s w a s a s k e d t o d e s i g n a t h e m e c a r f o r t h e " B a t m a n " t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s . O r i g i n a l l y t h e a u t o s t y l i s t D e a n J e f f r i e s w a s c o n t r a c t e d t o b u i l d t h e c a r f o r t h e s h o w i n l a t e 1 9 6 5 , b u t w h e n t h e s t u d i o w a n t e d t h e c a r s o o n e r t h a n h e c o u l d d e l i v e r , t h e p r o j e c t w a s g i v e n t o B a r r i s . W i t h t h e s h o r t n o t i c e , B a r r i s t h o u g h t t h e F u t u r a m i g h t w o r k w e l l , a n d u s i n g J e f f r i e s ' s i n i t i a l c a r , d e c i d e d t h a t i t s u n u s u a l w i n g e d s h a p e w o u l d b e a n i d e a l s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e B a t m o b i l e . B a r r i s h i r e d B i l l C u s h e n b e r y t o m o d i f y t h e c a r ' s m e t a l w o r k . B a r r i s w e n t o n t o b u i l d t h r e e f i b e r g l a s s r e p l i c a s u s i n g t h e f r a m e s a n d r u n n i n g g e a r f r o m 1 9 6 6 F o r d G a l a x i e c a r s f o r t h e s h o w c i r c u i t . B a r r i s l a t e r a c q u i r e d a f o u r t h r e p l i c a , a m e t a l c a r b u i l t o n a 1 9 5 8 F o r d T h u n d e r b i r d . B a r r i s r e t a i n e d o w n e r s h i p o f t h e c a r a f t e r i t s c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e B a t m o b i l e , l e a s i n g i t t o t h e T V s t u d i o f o r f i l m i n g . A f t e r p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e T V s e r i e s e n d e d , i t w a s d i s p l a y e d i n B a r r i s ' o w n m u s e u m i n C a l i f o r n i a . I t h a s a l s o b e e n d i s p l a y e d i n t h e C a y m a n M o t o r M u s e u m o n G r a n d C a y m a n I s l a n d . B a r r i s s o l d t h e B a t m o b i l e t o R i c k C h a m p a g n e a t t h e B a r r e t t - J a c k s o n c o l l e c t o r c a r a u c t i o n o n S a t u r d a y , J a n u a r y 1 9 , 2 0 1 3 i n S c o t t s d a l e , A r i z o n a f o r U S $ 4 . 6 2 m i l l i o n . I n t h e 1 9 9 0 s , B o b B u t t s ( w i t h G e o r g e B a r r i s ' c o n s e n t ) m a d e r e p l i c a s o f t h e B a t m o b i l e , u s i n g a m o l d o f o n e o f t h e B a r r i s - b u i l t r e p l i c a s . B a s e d o n p i c t u r e s f r o m w h e n t h e F u t u r a w a s s h o w n i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s , h e r e s k i n n e d a n e x i s t i n g B a t m o b i l e r e p l i c a b a c k i n t o a L i n c o l n F u t u r a r e p l i c a . H e o n l y c r e a t e d o n e c o p y . T h e o r i g i n a l f i b e r g l a s s c o p y s h e l l o f t h e F u t u r a m a d e b y B o b B u t t s w a s l a t e r f o u n d b y G o t h a m g a r a g e o w n e r M a r k T o w l e a n d h i s f r i e n d a n d a c t o r S h a w n P i l o t a n d r e b u i l t a s a n o r i g i n a l c o p y o f t h e L i n c o l n F u t u r a t o g e t h e r w i t h h i s t e a m ( C o n s t a n c e N u n e s , T o n y Q u i n o n e s , M i c h a e l " C a v e m a n " P y l e ) i n t h e i r s h o p i n T e m e c u l a , C a l i f o r n i a , a s s e e n i n t h e N e t f l i x s e r i e s " C a r M a s t e r s : R u s t t o R i c h e s " . A f t e r f i n i s h i n g t h e c a r t h e F u t u r a w a s e v e n t u a l l y s o l d a t “ T h e G r a n d N a t i o n a l R o a d s t e r S h o w ” a t P o m o n a f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ 9 0 , 0 0 0 .

Media appearances

The Lincoln Futura made its media debut on January 5, 1955, at the Congress Hotel in Chicago, followed by its public debut at the Chicago Auto Show on January 8, 1955. It appeared on "Today" ("The Today Show") on March 3, 1955, and was featured in the 1959 movie "It Started with a Kiss." The car was also showcased in Ford's 1961 promotional film "The Secret Door" and was included in the Vegas Pack DLC of the video game "Mafia II" as the "Jefferson Futura." Additionally, it appeared in the 1994 NBC TV series "Viper" and was used as the basis for the iconic Batmobile in the 1960s "Batman" TV series.

The car's official public debut was on January 8, 1955 at the Chicago Auto Show; it had been shown to the press at the city's Congress Hotel on January 5. While being displayed elsewhere in the U.S. that spring, the Futura was seen by the country's television audience on Today ("The Today Show") on March 3, 1955. The Futura's styling was original by 1950s standards — with a double, clear-plastic canopy top, exaggerated hooded headlight pods, and very large, outward-canted tailfins. The Futura had a complete powertrain and was fully operable, in contrast to many show cars. Its original color was pearlescent white, one of the first pearlescent color treatments, using ground pearl to achieve the effect. The Futura was powered by a 368 cubic inch Lincoln engine and powertrain; the chassis derived from a Continental Mark II. The Futura was a success as a show car, garnering favorable publicity for Ford. It was released as a model kit and a toy, and, in a much more subdued form, its headlight and tailfin motifs would appear on production Lincolns for 1956 and 1957, such as the Lincoln Premiere and Lincoln Capri. The concave front grille inspired the grille on the 1960 Mercury Monterey and the 1960 Ford Galaxie. The styling showed a progression from the Mercury XM-800 introduced in 1954. The Futura played a prominent part in the 1959 movie "It Started with a Kiss," starring Debbie Reynolds and Glenn Ford. For the movie, it was painted red, as the white pearlescent finish did not photograph well. The red-painted car is also seen in Ford's 1961 promotional film "The Secret Door". The film's look inside Ford's Styling Center includes footage of the Futura on the test track and in the wind tunnel. The concept car was subsequently sold to auto customizer George Barris. Having originally cost $250,000, the Futura was sold to Barris for $1 and "other valuable consideration" by Ford Motor Company. As the car was never titled and was therefore uninsurable, it was parked behind Barris' shop, sitting idle and deteriorating for several years. The Lincoln Futura was also included in the Vegas Pack DLC of "Mafia II" as the "Jefferson Futura". The 1994 NBC TV series "Viper" featured a red 1955 Lincoln Futura called "The Baxley". In the episode "Wheels of Fire" (S01E08), the car's creator stole it after it was recovered by construction workers. There was quite a bit of film featuring the vehicle, even a chase between the Viper Defender and the Futura. There is a YouTube video available of the chase. In 1966, Barris was asked to design a theme car for the "Batman" television series. Originally the auto stylist Dean Jeffries was contracted to build the car for the show in late 1965, but when the studio wanted the car sooner than he could deliver, the project was given to Barris. With the short notice, Barris thought the Futura might work well, and using Jeffries's initial car, decided that its unusual winged shape would be an ideal starting point for the Batmobile. Barris hired Bill Cushenbery to modify the car's metalwork. Barris went on to build three fiberglass replicas using the frames and running gear from 1966 Ford Galaxie cars for the show circuit. Barris later acquired a fourth replica, a metal car built on a 1958 Ford Thunderbird. Barris retained ownership of the car after its conversion to the Batmobile, leasing it to the TV studio for filming. After production of the TV series ended, it was displayed in Barris' own museum in California. It has also been displayed in the Cayman Motor Museum on Grand Cayman Island. Barris sold the Batmobile to Rick Champagne at the Barrett-Jackson collector car auction on Saturday, January 19, 2013 in Scottsdale, Arizona for US $4.62 million. In the 1990s, Bob Butts (with George Barris' consent) made replicas of the Batmobile, using a mold of one of the Barris-built replicas. Based on pictures from when the Futura was shown in the 1950s, he reskinned an existing Batmobile replica back into a Lincoln Futura replica. He only created one copy. The original fiberglass copy shell of the Futura made by Bob Butts was later found by Gotham garage owner Mark Towle and his friend and actor Shawn Pilot and rebuilt as an original copy of the Lincoln Futura together with his team (Constance Nunes, Tony Quinones, Michael "Caveman" Pyle) in their shop in Temecula, California, as seen in the Netflix series "Car Masters: Rust to Riches". After finishing the car the Futura was eventually sold at “The Grand National Roadster Show” at Pomona for approximately $90,000.

Lincoln Futura

T h e c a r ' s o f f i c i a l p u b l i c d e b u t w a s o n J a n u a r y 8 , 1 9 5 5 a t t h e C h i c a g o A u t o S h o w ; i t h a d b e e n s h o w n t o t h e p r e s s a t t h e c i t y ' s C o n g r e s s H o t e l o n J a n u a r y 5 . W h i l e b e i n g d i s p l a y e d e l s e w h e r e i n t h e U . S . t h a t s p r i n g , t h e F u t u r a w a s s e e n b y t h e c o u n t r y ' s t e l e v i s i o n a u d i e n c e o n T o d a y ( " T h e T o d a y S h o w " ) o n M a r c h 3 , 1 9 5 5 . T h e F u t u r a ' s s t y l i n g w a s o r i g i n a l b y 1 9 5 0 s s t a n d a r d s — w i t h a d o u b l e , c l e a r - p l a s t i c c a n o p y t o p , e x a g g e r a t e d h o o d e d h e a d l i g h t p o d s , a n d v e r y l a r g e , o u t w a r d - c a n t e d t a i l f i n s . T h e F u t u r a h a d a c o m p l e t e p o w e r t r a i n a n d w a s f u l l y o p e r a b l e , i n c o n t r a s t t o m a n y s h o w c a r s . I t s o r i g i n a l c o l o r w a s p e a r l e s c e n t w h i t e , o n e o f t h e f i r s t p e a r l e s c e n t c o l o r t r e a t m e n t s , u s i n g g r o u n d p e a r l t o a c h i e v e t h e e f f e c t . T h e F u t u r a w a s p o w e r e d b y a 3 6 8 c u b i c i n c h L i n c o l n e n g i n e a n d p o w e r t r a i n ; t h e c h a s s i s d e r i v e d f r o m a C o n t i n e n t a l M a r k I I . T h e F u t u r a w a s a s u c c e s s a s a s h o w c a r , g a r n e r i n g f a v o r a b l e p u b l i c i t y f o r F o r d . I t w a s r e l e a s e d a s a m o d e l k i t a n d a t o y , a n d , i n a m u c h m o r e s u b d u e d f o r m , i t s h e a d l i g h t a n d t a i l f i n m o t i f s w o u l d a p p e a r o n p r o d u c t i o n L i n c o l n s f o r 1 9 5 6 a n d 1 9 5 7 , s u c h a s t h e L i n c o l n P r e m i e r e a n d L i n c o l n C a p r i . T h e c o n c a v e f r o n t g r i l l e i n s p i r e d t h e g r i l l e o n t h e 1 9 6 0 M e r c u r y M o n t e r e y a n d t h e 1 9 6 0 F o r d G a l a x i e . T h e s t y l i n g s h o w e d a p r o g r e s s i o n f r o m t h e M e r c u r y X M - 8 0 0 i n t r o d u c e d i n 1 9 5 4 . T h e F u t u r a p l a y e d a p r o m i n e n t p a r t i n t h e 1 9 5 9 m o v i e " I t S t a r t e d w i t h a K i s s , " s t a r r i n g D e b b i e R e y n o l d s a n d G l e n n F o r d . F o r t h e m o v i e , i t w a s p a i n t e d r e d , a s t h e w h i t e p e a r l e s c e n t f i n i s h d i d n o t p h o t o g r a p h w e l l . T h e r e d - p a i n t e d c a r i s a l s o s e e n i n F o r d ' s 1 9 6 1 p r o m o t i o n a l f i l m " T h e S e c r e t D o o r " . T h e f i l m ' s l o o k i n s i d e F o r d ' s S t y l i n g C e n t e r i n c l u d e s f o o t a g e o f t h e F u t u r a o n t h e t e s t t r a c k a n d i n t h e w i n d t u n n e l . T h e c o n c e p t c a r w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y s o l d t o a u t o c u s t o m i z e r G e o r g e B a r r i s . H a v i n g o r i g i n a l l y c o s t $ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 , t h e F u t u r a w a s s o l d t o B a r r i s f o r $ 1 a n d " o t h e r v a l u a b l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n " b y F o r d M o t o r C o m p a n y . A s t h e c a r w a s n e v e r t i t l e d a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e u n i n s u r a b l e , i t w a s p a r k e d b e h i n d B a r r i s ' s h o p , s i t t i n g i d l e a n d d e t e r i o r a t i n g f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s . T h e L i n c o l n F u t u r a w a s a l s o i n c l u d e d i n t h e V e g a s P a c k D L C o f " M a f i a I I " a s t h e " J e f f e r s o n F u t u r a " . T h e 1 9 9 4 N B C T V s e r i e s " V i p e r " f e a t u r e d a r e d 1 9 5 5 L i n c o l n F u t u r a c a l l e d " T h e B a x l e y " . I n t h e e p i s o d e " W h e e l s o f F i r e " ( S 0 1 E 0 8 ) , t h e c a r ' s c r e a t o r s t o l e i t a f t e r i t w a s r e c o v e r e d b y c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k e r s . T h e r e w a s q u i t e a b i t o f f i l m f e a t u r i n g t h e v e h i c l e , e v e n a c h a s e b e t w e e n t h e V i p e r D e f e n d e r a n d t h e F u t u r a . T h e r e i s a Y o u T u b e v i d e o a v a i l a b l e o f t h e c h a s e . I n 1 9 6 6 , B a r r i s w a s a s k e d t o d e s i g n a t h e m e c a r f o r t h e " B a t m a n " t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s . O r i g i n a l l y t h e a u t o s t y l i s t D e a n J e f f r i e s w a s c o n t r a c t e d t o b u i l d t h e c a r f o r t h e s h o w i n l a t e 1 9 6 5 , b u t w h e n t h e s t u d i o w a n t e d t h e c a r s o o n e r t h a n h e c o u l d d e l i v e r , t h e p r o j e c t w a s g i v e n t o B a r r i s . W i t h t h e s h o r t n o t i c e , B a r r i s t h o u g h t t h e F u t u r a m i g h t w o r k w e l l , a n d u s i n g J e f f r i e s ' s i n i t i a l c a r , d e c i d e d t h a t i t s u n u s u a l w i n g e d s h a p e w o u l d b e a n i d e a l s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e B a t m o b i l e . B a r r i s h i r e d B i l l C u s h e n b e r y t o m o d i f y t h e c a r ' s m e t a l w o r k . B a r r i s w e n t o n t o b u i l d t h r e e f i b e r g l a s s r e p l i c a s u s i n g t h e f r a m e s a n d r u n n i n g g e a r f r o m 1 9 6 6 F o r d G a l a x i e c a r s f o r t h e s h o w c i r c u i t . B a r r i s l a t e r a c q u i r e d a f o u r t h r e p l i c a , a m e t a l c a r b u i l t o n a 1 9 5 8 F o r d T h u n d e r b i r d . B a r r i s r e t a i n e d o w n e r s h i p o f t h e c a r a f t e r i t s c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e B a t m o b i l e , l e a s i n g i t t o t h e T V s t u d i o f o r f i l m i n g . A f t e r p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e T V s e r i e s e n d e d , i t w a s d i s p l a y e d i n B a r r i s ' o w n m u s e u m i n C a l i f o r n i a . I t h a s a l s o b e e n d i s p l a y e d i n t h e C a y m a n M o t o r M u s e u m o n G r a n d C a y m a n I s l a n d . B a r r i s s o l d t h e B a t m o b i l e t o R i c k C h a m p a g n e a t t h e B a r r e t t - J a c k s o n c o l l e c t o r c a r a u c t i o n o n S a t u r d a y , J a n u a r y 1 9 , 2 0 1 3 i n S c o t t s d a l e , A r i z o n a f o r U S $ 4 . 6 2 m i l l i o n . I n t h e 1 9 9 0 s , B o b B u t t s ( w i t h G e o r g e B a r r i s ' c o n s e n t ) m a d e r e p l i c a s o f t h e B a t m o b i l e , u s i n g a m o l d o f o n e o f t h e B a r r i s - b u i l t r e p l i c a s . B a s e d o n p i c t u r e s f r o m w h e n t h e F u t u r a w a s s h o w n i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s , h e r e s k i n n e d a n e x i s t i n g B a t m o b i l e r e p l i c a b a c k i n t o a L i n c o l n F u t u r a r e p l i c a . H e o n l y c r e a t e d o n e c o p y . T h e o r i g i n a l f i b e r g l a s s c o p y s h e l l o f t h e F u t u r a m a d e b y B o b B u t t s w a s l a t e r f o u n d b y G o t h a m g a r a g e o w n e r M a r k T o w l e a n d h i s f r i e n d a n d a c t o r S h a w n P i l o t a n d r e b u i l t a s a n o r i g i n a l c o p y o f t h e L i n c o l n F u t u r a t o g e t h e r w i t h h i s t e a m ( C o n s t a n c e N u n e s , T o n y Q u i n o n e s , M i c h a e l " C a v e m a n " P y l e ) i n t h e i r s h o p i n T e m e c u l a , C a l i f o r n i a , a s s e e n i n t h e N e t f l i x s e r i e s " C a r M a s t e r s : R u s t t o R i c h e s " . A f t e r f i n i s h i n g t h e c a r t h e F u t u r a w a s e v e n t u a l l y s o l d a t “ T h e G r a n d N a t i o n a l R o a d s t e r S h o w ” a t P o m o n a f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ 9 0 , 0 0 0 .

Media appearances ; Batmobile

The Lincoln Futura made its public debut on January 8, 1955, at the Chicago Auto Show. It appeared on "Today" on March 3, 1955, and was showcased across the US that spring. The car's original color was pearlescent white and it was powered by a 368 cubic inch Lincoln engine. The Futura influenced the design of production Lincolns and other Fords, including the 1960 Mercury Monterey and the 1960 Ford Galaxie. It appeared in the 1959 movie "It Started with a Kiss" and was later sold to George Barris, who converted it into the iconic Batmobile for the 1966 "Batman" TV series.

The car's official public debut was on January 8, 1955 at the Chicago Auto Show; it had been shown to the press at the city's Congress Hotel on January 5. While being displayed elsewhere in the U.S. that spring, the Futura was seen by the country's television audience on Today ("The Today Show") on March 3, 1955. The Futura's styling was original by 1950s standards — with a double, clear-plastic canopy top, exaggerated hooded headlight pods, and very large, outward-canted tailfins. The Futura had a complete powertrain and was fully operable, in contrast to many show cars. Its original color was pearlescent white, one of the first pearlescent color treatments, using ground pearl to achieve the effect. The Futura was powered by a 368 cubic inch Lincoln engine and powertrain; the chassis derived from a Continental Mark II. The Futura was a success as a show car, garnering favorable publicity for Ford. It was released as a model kit and a toy, and, in a much more subdued form, its headlight and tailfin motifs would appear on production Lincolns for 1956 and 1957, such as the Lincoln Premiere and Lincoln Capri. The concave front grille inspired the grille on the 1960 Mercury Monterey and the 1960 Ford Galaxie. The styling showed a progression from the Mercury XM-800 introduced in 1954. The Futura played a prominent part in the 1959 movie "It Started with a Kiss," starring Debbie Reynolds and Glenn Ford. For the movie, it was painted red, as the white pearlescent finish did not photograph well. The red-painted car is also seen in Ford's 1961 promotional film "The Secret Door". The film's look inside Ford's Styling Center includes footage of the Futura on the test track and in the wind tunnel. The concept car was subsequently sold to auto customizer George Barris. Having originally cost $250,000, the Futura was sold to Barris for $1 and "other valuable consideration" by Ford Motor Company. As the car was never titled and was therefore uninsurable, it was parked behind Barris' shop, sitting idle and deteriorating for several years. The Lincoln Futura was also included in the Vegas Pack DLC of "Mafia II" as the "Jefferson Futura". The 1994 NBC TV series "Viper" featured a red 1955 Lincoln Futura called "The Baxley". In the episode "Wheels of Fire" (S01E08), the car's creator stole it after it was recovered by construction workers. There was quite a bit of film featuring the vehicle, even a chase between the Viper Defender and the Futura. There is a YouTube video available of the chase. In 1966, Barris was asked to design a theme car for the "Batman" television series. Originally the auto stylist Dean Jeffries was contracted to build the car for the show in late 1965, but when the studio wanted the car sooner than he could deliver, the project was given to Barris. With the short notice, Barris thought the Futura might work well, and using Jeffries's initial car, decided that its unusual winged shape would be an ideal starting point for the Batmobile. Barris hired Bill Cushenbery to modify the car's metalwork. Barris went on to build three fiberglass replicas using the frames and running gear from 1966 Ford Galaxie cars for the show circuit. Barris later acquired a fourth replica, a metal car built on a 1958 Ford Thunderbird. Barris retained ownership of the car after its conversion to the Batmobile, leasing it to the TV studio for filming. After production of the TV series ended, it was displayed in Barris' own museum in California. It has also been displayed in the Cayman Motor Museum on Grand Cayman Island. Barris sold the Batmobile to Rick Champagne at the Barrett-Jackson collector car auction on Saturday, January 19, 2013 in Scottsdale, Arizona for US $4.62 million. In the 1990s, Bob Butts (with George Barris' consent) made replicas of the Batmobile, using a mold of one of the Barris-built replicas. Based on pictures from when the Futura was shown in the 1950s, he reskinned an existing Batmobile replica back into a Lincoln Futura replica. He only created one copy. The original fiberglass copy shell of the Futura made by Bob Butts was later found by Gotham garage owner Mark Towle and his friend and actor Shawn Pilot and rebuilt as an original copy of the Lincoln Futura together with his team (Constance Nunes, Tony Quinones, Michael "Caveman" Pyle) in their shop in Temecula, California, as seen in the Netflix series "Car Masters: Rust to Riches". After finishing the car the Futura was eventually sold at “The Grand National Roadster Show” at Pomona for approximately $90,000.

Andrew Mehrtens

M e h r t e n s w a s b o r n i n D u r b a n , S o u t h A f r i c a , a s h i s p a r e n t s l i v e d i n S o u t h A f r i c a f o r f o u r y e a r s f r o m 1 9 7 0 a n d r e t u r n e d t o N e w Z e a l a n d w h e n h e w a s s t i l l a y o u n g c h i l d . M e h r t e n s g r e w u p i n C h r i s t c h u r c h , a t t e n d e d C h r i s t c h u r c h B o y s ' H i g h S c h o o l w h e r e h e p l a y e d i n t h e 1 s t X V , a n d p l a y e d J u n i o r G r a d e R u g b y f o r K a i a p o i . H e r e c a l l e d , w h e n h e w a s a g e d 1 0 , h i s K a i a p o i t e a m p l a y i n g a m a t c h a t L a n c a s t e r P a r k a s a c u r t a i n r a i s e r t o t h e R a n f u r l y S h i e l d m a t c h b e t w e e n C a n t e r b u r y a n d M i d C a n t e r b u r y . H e a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d N e w Z e a l a n d a t u n d e r - 1 9 a n d u n d e r - 2 1 l e v e l s . L i k e m a n y p l a y e r s i n N e w Z e a l a n d , M e h r t e n s c o m e s f r o m a f a m i l y w i t h a l o n g i n v o l v e m e n t i n r u g b y . H i s g r a n d f a t h e r , G e o r g e M e h r t e n s , p l a y e d f o r C a n t e r b u r y i n t h e 1 9 2 0 s a s a f u l l b a c k a n d w a s a n A l l B l a c k i n u n o f f i c i a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l s a g a i n s t N e w S o u t h W a l e s i n 1 9 2 8 . H i s f a t h e r , T e r r y , a l s o a f i r s t f i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d C a n t e r b u r y b e t w e e n 1 9 6 4 a n d 1 9 7 6 . H e w a s a N e w Z e a l a n d u n d e r - 2 3 p l a y e r i n 1 9 6 5 a g a i n s t t h e S p r i n g b o k s a n d a g a i n i n 1 9 6 7 , a n d w h i l e i n S o u t h A f r i c a p l a y e d a s a f u l l b a c k f o r a g a i n s t t h e 1 9 7 0 A l l B l a c k s . N e w Z e a l a n d r u g b y h a s h a d f e w p l a y e r s w h o h a v e w o n s u c h w i d e p o p u l a r i t y a n d a f f e c t i o n a s A n d r e w M e h r t e n s , w h o i n a 1 2 - y e a r c a r e e r a t f i r s t c l a s s l e v e l b e c a m e a n a t i o n a l f i g u r e r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l y a n i c o n o f h i s C a n t e r b u r y p r o v i n c e . H o w e v e r , t h e r e w a s n e v e r t o t a l a g r e e m e n t o n h i s r a n k i n g i n t h e p e c k i n g o r d e r o f A l l B l a c k f i r s t f i v e - e i g h t h s . S o m e h e a d e d b y C o l i n M e a d s b e l i e v e d t h a t M e h r t e n s w a s t h e b e s t i n h i s p o s i t i o n e v e r p r o d u c e d b y N e w Z e a l a n d . O t h e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t d e s p i t e h i s i m m e n s e s k i l l s , v i s i o n , k i c k i n g a n d a b i l i t y t o t h r o w l o n g c u t o u t p a s s e s t o h i s o u t s i d e s h e h a d l i m i t a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e w a y r u g b y d e v e l o p e d i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l e r a . H e w a s s e e n a s l a c k i n g t h e p h y s i q u e o r i n c l i n a t i o n t o m i x i t p h y s i c a l l y , e i t h e r t a k i n g t h e b a l l u p o r c o m m i t t i n g h i m s e l f t o t h e t a c k l e . O u t s i d e t h e p l a y i n g f i e l d , M e h r t e n s p r o v e d t o b e a f a v o u r i t e w i t h f a n s a n d a l a r g e s e c t i o n o f t h e m e d i a b e c a u s e o f h i s p l e a s a n t m a n n e r , h i s i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d h i s w i t a n d s e n s e o f h u m o u r . D e s p i t e h i s f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d M e h r t e n s o n l y e m e r g e d a s a r a r e p r o s p e c t i n h i s l a t e t e e n s , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e h e w a s a s l o w e r d e v e l o p e r p h y s i c a l l y . I n h i s t e e n s M e h r t e n s s h o w e d a l m o s t a s m u c h p r o m i s e i n t e n n i s , w h e r e i n v a r i o u s a g e g r o u p s h e w a s n a t i o n a l l y r a n k e d . H i s f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t r u g b y s e l e c t i o n w a s i n 1 9 9 2 w h e n h e p l a y e d i n t h e n a t i o n a l u n d e r 1 9 s a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a i n a s i d e w h i c h a l s o i n c l u d e d l a t e r C r u s a d e r s o r A l l B l a c k s t e a m m a t e s A d r i a n C a s h m o r e , N o r m a n B e r r y m a n , M i l t o n G o i n g , T a b a i M a t s o n , J u s t i n M a r s h a l l a n d T a i n e R a n d e l l . H e w a s f i r s t c h o s e n f o r C a n t e r b u r y i n 1 9 9 3 – 9 4 a n d i n e a c h o f t h o s e s e a s o n s h e w a s i n t h e N e w Z e a l a n d C o l t s , m a k i n g h i s f i r s t m a j o r i m p a c t n a t i o n a l l y i n t h e C a n t e r b u r y s i d e w h i c h i n 1 9 9 4 t o o k t h e R a n f u r l y S h i e l d f r o m W a i k a t o . H i s p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t d a y a n d i n S h i e l d d e f e n c e s l a t e r t h a t s e a s o n a g a i n s t C o u n t i e s a n d O t a g o m a r k e d h i m a s a c l e a r A l l B l a c k p r o s p e c t . T h o u g h l e f t o u t o f t h e i n i t i a l t r a i n i n g s q u a d s , M e h r t e n s d e v e l o p e d s o m u c h t h a t h e f o r c e d h i s w a y i n t o t h e 1 9 9 5 W o r l d C u p s q u a d , h a v i n g m a d e h i s A l l B l a c k d e b u t i n t h e e a r l y s e a s o n t e s t a g a i n s t C a n a d a w h e n h e s c o r e d 2 8 p o i n t s . I n t h e W o r l d C u p t o u r n a m e n t h e w a s a s u c c e s s , o n e o f t h r e e y o u n g s t e r s w i t h J o n a h L o m u a n d J o s h K r o n f e l d w h o g a v e t h e A l l B l a c k s a d i m e n s i o n w h i c h h a d b e e n l a c k i n g f o r m u c h o f t h e 1 9 9 4 s e a s o n . T h e o n l y q u i b b l e a b o u t M e h r t e n s a t t h e W o r l d C u p w a s m i s s i n g a d r o p p e d g o a l a t t e m p t i n t h e e x t r a t i m e o f t h e f i n a l . O v e r t h e n e x t s i x o r s e v e n s e a s o n s M e h r t e n s w a s a v i r t u a l a u t o m a t i c s e l e c t i o n f o r t h e A l l B l a c k s q u a d , t h o u g h h e w a s n o t a l w a y s a s s u r e d o f a s t a r t i n g p o s i t i o n . A k n e e i n j u r y c u r t a i l e d h i s 1 9 9 5 t o u r o f F r a n c e a n d i n t h e n e x t f e w s e a s o n s i n j u r y a n d c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m t h e l i k e s o f C a r l o s S p e n c e r a n d T o n y B r o w n s a w h i m m i s s a n u m b e r o f t e s t s . B u t h e r e a s s e r t e d h i m s e l f d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 9 s e a s o n , b o t h i n k i c k i n g a r e c o r d n i n e p e n a l t i e s i n a t r a n s - T a s m a n t e s t a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a a t E d e n P a r k a n d t h e n a t t h e W o r l d C u p . H o w e v e r , a n i n j u r y i n t h e q u a r t e r - f i n a l a g a i n s t S c o t l a n d c l e a r l y a f f e c t e d h i m i n t h e l a t t e r r o u n d s . B e s i d e s h i s i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e A l l B l a c k s , M e h r t e n s f r o m t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s t o t h e m i d - 2 0 0 0 s f a s h i o n e d a n o u t s t a n d i n g r e c o r d f o r t h e C r u s a d e r s a t S u p e r 1 2 l e v e l . H e h a d k e y r o l e s i n t h e i r t h r e e t i t l e w i n s i n 1 9 9 8 – 2 0 0 0 , e i t h e r t h r o u g h h i s t a c t i c a l c o m m a n d o f g a m e s o r , a s i n t h e 2 0 0 0 f i n a l a g a i n s t t h e B r u m b i e s , w i t h a p e n a l t y g o a l u n d e r s e v e r e p r e s s u r e . H e a l s o p l a y e d i n t h e C r u s a d e r s s i d e s w h i c h w o n t h e S u p e r 1 2 t i t l e s o f 2 0 0 2 a n d 2 0 0 5 , e v e n t h o u g h i n t h e f i n a l s e a s o n h e w a s n o w p l a y i n g s e c o n d f i d d l e t o h i s p r o t e g e D a n i e l C a r t e r . M e h r t e n s w a s a l s o a h u g e c o n t r i b u t o r t o C a n t e r b u r y a t N a t i o n a l P r o v i n c i a l C h a m p i o n s h i p ( N P C ) l e v e l s , w i t h h i s i n s i d e b a c k p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h h a l f - b a c k J u s t i n M a r s h a l l b e c o m i n g c e l e b r a t e d . A s w e l l a s 1 9 9 4 a g a i n s t W a i k a t o h e p l a y e d i n S h i e l d w i n n i n g s i d e s i n 2 0 0 0 ( a g a i n s t W a i k a t o a g a i n ) a n d i n 2 0 0 4 a g a i n s t B a y o f P l e n t y . H e p l a y e d i n t h r e e N P C w i n n i n g s i d e s i n 1 9 9 7 , 2 0 0 1 a n d 2 0 0 4 . O v e r t h e l a t t e r s t a g e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n 2 0 0 3 , M e h r t e n s w a s b e s e t b y p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s w h i c h i n t u r n a f f e c t e d h i s f i t n e s s a n d f o r m . H e b a t t l e d t o m a k e t h e C r u s a d e r s t h e n a n d i n 2 0 0 4 a n d w a s l e f t o u t o f t h e A l l B l a c k s f o r t h e 2 0 0 3 s e a s o n , t h o u g h m a n y b e l i e v e d h e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n r e c a l l e d f o r t h e W o r l d C u p . H e e v e n t u a l l y d i d w i n h i s A l l B l a c k p l a c e b a c k f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d i n 2 0 0 4 , b u t b y t h e n i t h a d b e c o m e c l e a r t h a t t h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e b e l o n g e d t o C a r t e r . A t t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0 0 5 S u p e r 1 2 , M e h r t e n s l e f t N e w Z e a l a n d r u g b y t o p l a y f o r t h e H a r l e q u i n s i n B r i t a i n . H e l e f t b e h i n d a f o r m i d a b l e r e c o r d : 2 8 1 f i r s t c l a s s g a m e s f o r 3 , 1 7 8 p o i n t s , 1 0 8 g a m e s f o r C a n t e r b u r y f o r 1 , 0 5 6 p o i n t s , 8 7 f o r t h e C r u s a d e r s a n d 9 8 1 p o i n t s , 7 2 g a m e s f o r t h e A l l B l a c k s a n d 9 6 7 p o i n t s i n 7 0 t e s t s . H i s t e s t a g g r e g a t e , a r e c o r d f o r a N e w Z e a l a n d e r u n t i l D a n C a r t e r s u r p a s s e d i t i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 9 , w o u l d h a v e b e e n g r e a t e r , a n d w e l l i n t o f o u r f i g u r e s , h a d h e n o t m i s s e d m a n y o f t h e " s o f t e r " t e s t s p l a y e d d u r i n g h i s t i m e i n t h e A l l B l a c k s . H i s u n d e r s t u d i e s – S i m o n C u l h a n e , S p e n c e r a n d B r o w n – a l l s c o r e d h e a v i l y i n h i s a b s e n c e f r o m t h e s e m a t c h e s . M e h r t e n s d e b u t e d f o r t h e A l l B l a c k s i n 1 9 9 5 a n d m a d e a n i m m e d i a t e i m p a c t , s c o r i n g 2 8 p o i n t s a g a i n s t C a n a d a i n h i s T e s t d e b u t ; a t t h a t t i m e , t h a t w a s t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t t o t a l e v e r b y a p l a y e r m a k i n g h i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e b u t . H e a l s o f e a t u r e d i n t h e t e a m t h a t p l a y e d i n t h e 1 9 9 5 R u g b y W o r l d C u p f i n a l a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a a n d c a m e w i t h i n i n c h e s o f c l a i m i n g v i c t o r y f o r N e w Z e a l a n d , w i t h a d r o p g o a l a t t e m p t v e e r i n g j u s t w i d e o f t h e p o s t s a t t h e e n d o f r e g u l a t i o n t i m e . M e h r t e n s i s c u r r e n t l y t h e s e c o n d a l l - t i m e p o i n t s s c o r e r f o r t h e A l l B l a c k s , w i t h 9 6 7 p o i n t s ( 7 t , 1 6 9 c , 1 8 8 p , 1 0 d g ) , h a v i n g b e e n o v e r t a k e n b y D a n C a r t e r o n 2 1 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 9 . H e h a s s c o r e d 2 0 o r m o r e p o i n t s i n 1 3 s e p a r a t e T e s t s , h a s s c o r e d n i n e p e n a l t i e s i n t w o s e p a r a t e T e s t s , a n d i s c u r r e n t l y t h e o n l y p l a y e r t o h a v e s c o r e d o v e r 3 0 0 p o i n t s i n t h e T r i N a t i o n s S e r i e s . H i s 2 0 9 p o i n t s a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a i s t h e m o s t e v e r b y o n e p l a y e r a g a i n s t o n e c o u n t r y ; h e a l s o o c c u p i e s t h i r d p l a c e o n t h a t l i s t , w i t h 2 0 2 a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a . ( C a r t e r i s c u r r e n t l y s e c o n d w i t h 2 0 7 p o i n t s a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a . ) M e h r t e n s i s a l s o a t o p t h e a l l - t i m e l i s t f o r T e s t c o n v e r s i o n s , w i t h 1 6 7 . A s u p p o s e d d r o p i n f o r m , c o m b i n e d w i t h i n j u r i e s , s a w h i m m i s s o u t o n t h e A l l B l a c k s W o r l d C u p s q u a d i n 2 0 0 3 . C r i t i c s o f c o a c h J o h n M i t c h e l l f e l t N e w Z e a l a n d ' s c h a n c e s w e r e d e a l t a b l o w w i t h o u t t h e c h o i c e o f a n e x p e r i e n c e d g o a l - k i c k e r , a n a r e a i n w h i c h N e w Z e a l a n d c o u l d n o t c o m p e t e i n t h e s e m i - f i n a l a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a . N o n e t h e l e s s , a s t r o n g 2 0 0 4 S u p e r 1 2 c a m p a i g n s a w h i m c a l l e d b a c k t o t h e A l l B l a c k s . H e w a s a l s o n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e 2 0 0 5 A l l B l a c k s q u a d t o f a c e t h e B r i t i s h a n d I r i s h L i o n s . I n S u p e r 1 2 , M e h r t e n s w a s a k e y m e m b e r o f t h e d o m i n a n t C r u s a d e r s s i d e t h a t w o n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n f o u r t i m e s i n f i v e y e a r s ( 1 9 9 8 , 1 9 9 9 , 2 0 0 0 , 2 0 0 2 ) , a n d i n 2 0 0 5 , a n o t h e r s u c c e s s f u l y e a r f o r t h e C r u s a d e r s , h e a l s o p l a y e d w e l l , m a k i n g r e g u l a r a p p e a r a n c e s o f f t h e b e n c h a n d s t a r t i n g i n a f e w g a m e s . D u r i n g 2 0 0 5 h e b e c a m e t h e c o m p e t i t i o n ' s l e a d i n g a l l - t i m e s c o r e r , a c r o w n h e h e l d u n t i l 9 M a y 2 0 0 9 , w h e n t h e B r u m b i e s ' S t i r l i n g M o r t l o c k p a s s e d h i s r e c o r d o f 9 9 0 p o i n t s . H e w a s a l s o o n t h r e e N P C - w i n n i n g C a n t e r b u r y s i d e s , i n 1 9 9 7 , 2 0 0 1 a n d 2 0 0 4 . M e h r t e n s i s c r e d i t e d w i t h r e e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e C a n t e r b u r y r e g i o n a s a f o r c e i n N e w Z e a l a n d r u g b y a g a i n a f t e r n i n e y e a r s i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s w h e n i n 1 9 9 4 h e g e n e r a l e d a y o u n g t e a m w h o w o n t h e R a n f u r l y S h i e l d o f f W a i k a t o . S i n c e t h a t t i m e C a n t e r b u r y a n d u n d e r h i s s t e w a r d s h i p w o n n u m e r o u s N P C c h a m p i o n s h i p s l i s t e d a b o v e t o g e t h e r w i t h r e w i n n i n g t h e R a n f u r l y S h i e l d i n 2 0 0 0 . H e w o n h i s w a y i n t o t h e t e a m h a v i n g d i s p l a c e d G r e g C o f f e y i n t h e C a n t e r b u r y A t e a m . M e h r t e n s p l a y e d h i s f i n a l m a t c h f o r H a r l e q u i n s o n t h e f i n a l d a y o f t h e 2 0 0 6 – 0 7 s e a s o n w h i c h f e l l o n h i s b i r t h d a y , s c o r i n g 2 4 p o i n t s i n a v i c t o r y o v e r t h e S a l e S h a r k s , a f t e r w h i c h s u p p o r t e r s a n d t e a m m a t e s c e l e b r a t e d h i s b i r t h d a y a n d b i d f a r e w e l l t o h i m a f t e r t h e g a m e e n d e d . O n 2 3 M a y 2 0 0 7 , M e h r t e n s j o i n e d F r e n c h P r o D 2 t e a m T o u l o n , w h o w e n t o n t o w i n t h e l e a g u e t i t l e t h a t s e a s o n a n d g a i n p r o m o t i o n t o t h e T o p 1 4 . F o r t h e 2 0 0 8 – 2 0 0 9 s e a s o n , M e h r t e n s s i g n e d t o p l a y w i t h F r e n c h P r o D 2 t e a m R a c i n g M é t r o 9 2 . A f t e r t w o y e a r s i n P a r i s , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e 2 0 0 9 P r o D 2 c h a m p i o n s h i p a n d a T o p 1 4 p l a y o f f a p p e a r a n c e i n 2 0 1 0 ( w h i c h a l s o s e c u r e d R a c i n g a p l a c e i n t h e 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 H e i n e k e n C u p ) , h i s c o n t r a c t w a s n o t r e n e w e d . H e m o v e d t o t h e F é d é r a l e 1 ( t h i r d - d i v i s i o n ) s i d e B é z i e r s , s i g n i n g a t h r e e - y e a r d e a l w i t h t h e c l u b . U n d e r h i s c o n t r a c t , M e h r t e n s h a s t h e o p t i o n t o m o v e i n t o t h e c l u b ' s c o a c h i n g s t a f f o n c e h e d e c i d e s t o e n d h i s p l a y i n g c a r e e r . I n 2 0 1 4 h e j o i n e d t h e W a r a t a h s a s a k i c k i n g c o a c h . I n t h e 2 0 0 6 N e w Y e a r H o n o u r s , M e h r t e n s w a s a p p o i n t e d a M e m b e r o f t h e N e w Z e a l a n d O r d e r o f M e r i t , f o r s e r v i c e s t o r u g b y .

Career

Andrew Mehrtens is a former New Zealand rugby union player who played for the All Blacks, Crusaders, and Canterbury. He is known for his exceptional kicking ability, vision, and passing skills. Mehrtens had a successful career, winning multiple titles with the Crusaders and Canterbury, and representing the All Blacks in 70 tests. He holds several records, including being the second-highest points scorer for the All Blacks and holding the record for most points scored against South Africa. Mehrtens played professionally in France and England before retiring and moving into coaching, where he currently serves as a kicking coach for the Waratahs.

produced by New Zealand. Others believed that despite his immense skills, vision, kicking and ability to throw long cut out passes to his outsides he had limitations, especially in the way rugby developed in the professional era. He was seen as lacking the physique or inclination to mix it physically, either taking the ball up or committing himself to the tackle. Outside the playing field, Mehrtens proved to be a favourite with fans and a large section of the media because of his pleasant manner, his intelligence, and his wit and sense of humour. Despite his family background Mehrtens only emerged as a rare prospect in his late teens, perhaps because he was a slower developer physically. In his teens Mehrtens showed almost as much promise in tennis, seasons injury and competition from the likes of Carlos Spencer and Tony Brown saw him miss a number of tests. But he reasserted himself during the 1999 season, both in kicking a record nine penalties in a trans-Tasman test against Australia at Eden Park and then at the World Cup. However, an injury in the quarter-final against Scotland clearly affected him in the latter rounds. Besides his importance to the All Blacks, Mehrtens from the late 1990s to the mid-2000s fashioned an outstanding record for the Crusaders at Super 12 level. He had key roles in their three title wins in 1998–2000, either through his tactical command of games or, as in the 2000 final against the Brumbies, with a penalty goal under severe pressure. He also played in the Crusaders sides which won the Super 12 titles of 2002 and 2005, even though in the final season he was now playing second fiddle to his protege Daniel Carter. Mehrtens was also a huge contributor to Canterbury at National Provincial Championship (NPC) levels, with his inside back partnership with half-back Justin Marshall becoming celebrated. As well as 1994 against Waikato he played in Shield winning sides in 2000 (against Waikato again) and in 2004 against Bay of Plenty. He played in three NPC winning sides in 1997, 2001 and 2004. Over the latter stages, especially in 2003, Mehrtens was beset by personal problems which in turn affected his fitness and form. He battled to make the Crusaders then and in 2004 and was left out of the All Blacks for the 2003 season, though many believed he should have been recalled for the World Cup. He eventually did win his All Black place back for a brief period in 2004, but by then it had become clear that the immediate future belonged to Carter. At the end of the 2005 Super 12, Mehrtens left New Zealand rugby to play for the Harlequins in Britain. He left behind a formidable record: 281 first class games for 3,178 points, 108 games for Canterbury for 1,056 points, 87 for the Crusaders and 981 points, 72 games for the All Blacks and 967 points in 70 tests. His test aggregate, a record for a New Zealander until Dan Carter surpassed it in November 2009, would have been greater, second all-time points scorer for the All Blacks, with 967 points (7t, 169c, 188p, 10dg), having been overtaken by Dan Carter on 21 November 2009. He has scored 20 or more points in 13 separate Tests, has scored nine penalties in two separate Tests, and is currently the only player to have scored over 300 points in the Tri Nations Series. His 209 points against South Africa is the most ever by one player against one country; he also occupies third place on that list, with 202 against Australia. (Carter is currently second with 207 points against Australia.) Mehrtens is also atop the all-time list for Test conversions, with 167. A supposed drop in form, combined with injuries, saw him miss out on the All Blacks World Cup all-time scorer, a crown he held until 9 May 2009, when the Brumbies' Stirling Mortlock passed his record of 990 points. He was also on three NPC-winning Canterbury sides, in 1997, 2001 and 2004. Mehrtens is credited with reestablishing the Canterbury region as a force in New Zealand rugby again after nine years in the wilderness when in 1994 he generaled a young team who won the Ranfurly Shield off Waikato. Since that time Canterbury and under his stewardship won numerous NPC championships listed above together with rewinning the Ranfurly Shield in 2000. He won his way into the team having displaced Greg Coffey in the Canterbury A team. Mehrtens played his final match for Harlequins on the final day of the 2006–07 season which fell on his birthday, scoring 24 points in a victory over the Sale Sharks, after which supporters and teammates celebrated his birthday and bid farewell to him after the game ended. On 23 May 2007, Mehrtens joined French Pro D2 team Toulon, who went on to win the league title that season and gain promotion to the Top 14. For the 2008–2009 season, Mehrtens signed to play with French Pro D2 team Racing Métro 92. After two years in Paris, which included the 2009 Pro D2 championship and a Top 14 playoff appearance in 2010 (which also secured Racing a place in the 2010–11 Heineken Cup), his contract was not renewed. He moved to the Fédérale 1 (third-division) side Béziers, signing a three-year deal with the club. Under his contract, Mehrtens has the option to move into the club's coaching staff once he decides to end his playing career. In 2014 he joined the Waratahs as a kicking coach. In the 2006 New Year Honours, Mehrtens was appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to rugby.

Andrew Mehrtens

M e h r t e n s w a s b o r n i n D u r b a n , S o u t h A f r i c a , a s h i s p a r e n t s l i v e d i n S o u t h A f r i c a f o r f o u r y e a r s f r o m 1 9 7 0 a n d r e t u r n e d t o N e w Z e a l a n d w h e n h e w a s s t i l l a y o u n g c h i l d . M e h r t e n s g r e w u p i n C h r i s t c h u r c h , a t t e n d e d C h r i s t c h u r c h B o y s ' H i g h S c h o o l w h e r e h e p l a y e d i n t h e 1 s t X V , a n d p l a y e d J u n i o r G r a d e R u g b y f o r K a i a p o i . H e r e c a l l e d , w h e n h e w a s a g e d 1 0 , h i s K a i a p o i t e a m p l a y i n g a m a t c h a t L a n c a s t e r P a r k a s a c u r t a i n r a i s e r t o t h e R a n f u r l y S h i e l d m a t c h b e t w e e n C a n t e r b u r y a n d M i d C a n t e r b u r y . H e a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d N e w Z e a l a n d a t u n d e r - 1 9 a n d u n d e r - 2 1 l e v e l s . L i k e m a n y p l a y e r s i n N e w Z e a l a n d , M e h r t e n s c o m e s f r o m a f a m i l y w i t h a l o n g i n v o l v e m e n t i n r u g b y . H i s g r a n d f a t h e r , G e o r g e M e h r t e n s , p l a y e d f o r C a n t e r b u r y i n t h e 1 9 2 0 s a s a f u l l b a c k a n d w a s a n A l l B l a c k i n u n o f f i c i a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l s a g a i n s t N e w S o u t h W a l e s i n 1 9 2 8 . H i s f a t h e r , T e r r y , a l s o a f i r s t f i v e , r e p r e s e n t e d C a n t e r b u r y b e t w e e n 1 9 6 4 a n d 1 9 7 6 . H e w a s a N e w Z e a l a n d u n d e r - 2 3 p l a y e r i n 1 9 6 5 a g a i n s t t h e S p r i n g b o k s a n d a g a i n i n 1 9 6 7 , a n d w h i l e i n S o u t h A f r i c a p l a y e d a s a f u l l b a c k f o r a g a i n s t t h e 1 9 7 0 A l l B l a c k s . N e w Z e a l a n d r u g b y h a s h a d f e w p l a y e r s w h o h a v e w o n s u c h w i d e p o p u l a r i t y a n d a f f e c t i o n a s A n d r e w M e h r t e n s , w h o i n a 1 2 - y e a r c a r e e r a t f i r s t c l a s s l e v e l b e c a m e a n a t i o n a l f i g u r e r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l y a n i c o n o f h i s C a n t e r b u r y p r o v i n c e . H o w e v e r , t h e r e w a s n e v e r t o t a l a g r e e m e n t o n h i s r a n k i n g i n t h e p e c k i n g o r d e r o f A l l B l a c k f i r s t f i v e - e i g h t h s . S o m e h e a d e d b y C o l i n M e a d s b e l i e v e d t h a t M e h r t e n s w a s t h e b e s t i n h i s p o s i t i o n e v e r p r o d u c e d b y N e w Z e a l a n d . O t h e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t d e s p i t e h i s i m m e n s e s k i l l s , v i s i o n , k i c k i n g a n d a b i l i t y t o t h r o w l o n g c u t o u t p a s s e s t o h i s o u t s i d e s h e h a d l i m i t a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e w a y r u g b y d e v e l o p e d i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l e r a . H e w a s s e e n a s l a c k i n g t h e p h y s i q u e o r i n c l i n a t i o n t o m i x i t p h y s i c a l l y , e i t h e r t a k i n g t h e b a l l u p o r c o m m i t t i n g h i m s e l f t o t h e t a c k l e . O u t s i d e t h e p l a y i n g f i e l d , M e h r t e n s p r o v e d t o b e a f a v o u r i t e w i t h f a n s a n d a l a r g e s e c t i o n o f t h e m e d i a b e c a u s e o f h i s p l e a s a n t m a n n e r , h i s i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d h i s w i t a n d s e n s e o f h u m o u r . D e s p i t e h i s f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d M e h r t e n s o n l y e m e r g e d a s a r a r e p r o s p e c t i n h i s l a t e t e e n s , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e h e w a s a s l o w e r d e v e l o p e r p h y s i c a l l y . I n h i s t e e n s M e h r t e n s s h o w e d a l m o s t a s m u c h p r o m i s e i n t e n n i s , w h e r e i n v a r i o u s a g e g r o u p s h e w a s n a t i o n a l l y r a n k e d . H i s f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t r u g b y s e l e c t i o n w a s i n 1 9 9 2 w h e n h e p l a y e d i n t h e n a t i o n a l u n d e r 1 9 s a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a i n a s i d e w h i c h a l s o i n c l u d e d l a t e r C r u s a d e r s o r A l l B l a c k s t e a m m a t e s A d r i a n C a s h m o r e , N o r m a n B e r r y m a n , M i l t o n G o i n g , T a b a i M a t s o n , J u s t i n M a r s h a l l a n d T a i n e R a n d e l l . H e w a s f i r s t c h o s e n f o r C a n t e r b u r y i n 1 9 9 3 – 9 4 a n d i n e a c h o f t h o s e s e a s o n s h e w a s i n t h e N e w Z e a l a n d C o l t s , m a k i n g h i s f i r s t m a j o r i m p a c t n a t i o n a l l y i n t h e C a n t e r b u r y s i d e w h i c h i n 1 9 9 4 t o o k t h e R a n f u r l y S h i e l d f r o m W a i k a t o . H i s p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t d a y a n d i n S h i e l d d e f e n c e s l a t e r t h a t s e a s o n a g a i n s t C o u n t i e s a n d O t a g o m a r k e d h i m a s a c l e a r A l l B l a c k p r o s p e c t . T h o u g h l e f t o u t o f t h e i n i t i a l t r a i n i n g s q u a d s , M e h r t e n s d e v e l o p e d s o m u c h t h a t h e f o r c e d h i s w a y i n t o t h e 1 9 9 5 W o r l d C u p s q u a d , h a v i n g m a d e h i s A l l B l a c k d e b u t i n t h e e a r l y s e a s o n t e s t a g a i n s t C a n a d a w h e n h e s c o r e d 2 8 p o i n t s . I n t h e W o r l d C u p t o u r n a m e n t h e w a s a s u c c e s s , o n e o f t h r e e y o u n g s t e r s w i t h J o n a h L o m u a n d J o s h K r o n f e l d w h o g a v e t h e A l l B l a c k s a d i m e n s i o n w h i c h h a d b e e n l a c k i n g f o r m u c h o f t h e 1 9 9 4 s e a s o n . T h e o n l y q u i b b l e a b o u t M e h r t e n s a t t h e W o r l d C u p w a s m i s s i n g a d r o p p e d g o a l a t t e m p t i n t h e e x t r a t i m e o f t h e f i n a l . O v e r t h e n e x t s i x o r s e v e n s e a s o n s M e h r t e n s w a s a v i r t u a l a u t o m a t i c s e l e c t i o n f o r t h e A l l B l a c k s q u a d , t h o u g h h e w a s n o t a l w a y s a s s u r e d o f a s t a r t i n g p o s i t i o n . A k n e e i n j u r y c u r t a i l e d h i s 1 9 9 5 t o u r o f F r a n c e a n d i n t h e n e x t f e w s e a s o n s i n j u r y a n d c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m t h e l i k e s o f C a r l o s S p e n c e r a n d T o n y B r o w n s a w h i m m i s s a n u m b e r o f t e s t s . B u t h e r e a s s e r t e d h i m s e l f d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 9 s e a s o n , b o t h i n k i c k i n g a r e c o r d n i n e p e n a l t i e s i n a t r a n s - T a s m a n t e s t a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a a t E d e n P a r k a n d t h e n a t t h e W o r l d C u p . H o w e v e r , a n i n j u r y i n t h e q u a r t e r - f i n a l a g a i n s t S c o t l a n d c l e a r l y a f f e c t e d h i m i n t h e l a t t e r r o u n d s . B e s i d e s h i s i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e A l l B l a c k s , M e h r t e n s f r o m t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s t o t h e m i d - 2 0 0 0 s f a s h i o n e d a n o u t s t a n d i n g r e c o r d f o r t h e C r u s a d e r s a t S u p e r 1 2 l e v e l . H e h a d k e y r o l e s i n t h e i r t h r e e t i t l e w i n s i n 1 9 9 8 – 2 0 0 0 , e i t h e r t h r o u g h h i s t a c t i c a l c o m m a n d o f g a m e s o r , a s i n t h e 2 0 0 0 f i n a l a g a i n s t t h e B r u m b i e s , w i t h a p e n a l t y g o a l u n d e r s e v e r e p r e s s u r e . H e a l s o p l a y e d i n t h e C r u s a d e r s s i d e s w h i c h w o n t h e S u p e r 1 2 t i t l e s o f 2 0 0 2 a n d 2 0 0 5 , e v e n t h o u g h i n t h e f i n a l s e a s o n h e w a s n o w p l a y i n g s e c o n d f i d d l e t o h i s p r o t e g e D a n i e l C a r t e r . M e h r t e n s w a s a l s o a h u g e c o n t r i b u t o r t o C a n t e r b u r y a t N a t i o n a l P r o v i n c i a l C h a m p i o n s h i p ( N P C ) l e v e l s , w i t h h i s i n s i d e b a c k p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h h a l f - b a c k J u s t i n M a r s h a l l b e c o m i n g c e l e b r a t e d . A s w e l l a s 1 9 9 4 a g a i n s t W a i k a t o h e p l a y e d i n S h i e l d w i n n i n g s i d e s i n 2 0 0 0 ( a g a i n s t W a i k a t o a g a i n ) a n d i n 2 0 0 4 a g a i n s t B a y o f P l e n t y . H e p l a y e d i n t h r e e N P C w i n n i n g s i d e s i n 1 9 9 7 , 2 0 0 1 a n d 2 0 0 4 . O v e r t h e l a t t e r s t a g e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n 2 0 0 3 , M e h r t e n s w a s b e s e t b y p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s w h i c h i n t u r n a f f e c t e d h i s f i t n e s s a n d f o r m . H e b a t t l e d t o m a k e t h e C r u s a d e r s t h e n a n d i n 2 0 0 4 a n d w a s l e f t o u t o f t h e A l l B l a c k s f o r t h e 2 0 0 3 s e a s o n , t h o u g h m a n y b e l i e v e d h e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n r e c a l l e d f o r t h e W o r l d C u p . H e e v e n t u a l l y d i d w i n h i s A l l B l a c k p l a c e b a c k f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d i n 2 0 0 4 , b u t b y t h e n i t h a d b e c o m e c l e a r t h a t t h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e b e l o n g e d t o C a r t e r . A t t h e e n d o f t h e 2 0 0 5 S u p e r 1 2 , M e h r t e n s l e f t N e w Z e a l a n d r u g b y t o p l a y f o r t h e H a r l e q u i n s i n B r i t a i n . H e l e f t b e h i n d a f o r m i d a b l e r e c o r d : 2 8 1 f i r s t c l a s s g a m e s f o r 3 , 1 7 8 p o i n t s , 1 0 8 g a m e s f o r C a n t e r b u r y f o r 1 , 0 5 6 p o i n t s , 8 7 f o r t h e C r u s a d e r s a n d 9 8 1 p o i n t s , 7 2 g a m e s f o r t h e A l l B l a c k s a n d 9 6 7 p o i n t s i n 7 0 t e s t s . H i s t e s t a g g r e g a t e , a r e c o r d f o r a N e w Z e a l a n d e r u n t i l D a n C a r t e r s u r p a s s e d i t i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 9 , w o u l d h a v e b e e n g r e a t e r , a n d w e l l i n t o f o u r f i g u r e s , h a d h e n o t m i s s e d m a n y o f t h e " s o f t e r " t e s t s p l a y e d d u r i n g h i s t i m e i n t h e A l l B l a c k s . H i s u n d e r s t u d i e s – S i m o n C u l h a n e , S p e n c e r a n d B r o w n – a l l s c o r e d h e a v i l y i n h i s a b s e n c e f r o m t h e s e m a t c h e s . M e h r t e n s d e b u t e d f o r t h e A l l B l a c k s i n 1 9 9 5 a n d m a d e a n i m m e d i a t e i m p a c t , s c o r i n g 2 8 p o i n t s a g a i n s t C a n a d a i n h i s T e s t d e b u t ; a t t h a t t i m e , t h a t w a s t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t t o t a l e v e r b y a p l a y e r m a k i n g h i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e b u t . H e a l s o f e a t u r e d i n t h e t e a m t h a t p l a y e d i n t h e 1 9 9 5 R u g b y W o r l d C u p f i n a l a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a a n d c a m e w i t h i n i n c h e s o f c l a i m i n g v i c t o r y f o r N e w Z e a l a n d , w i t h a d r o p g o a l a t t e m p t v e e r i n g j u s t w i d e o f t h e p o s t s a t t h e e n d o f r e g u l a t i o n t i m e . M e h r t e n s i s c u r r e n t l y t h e s e c o n d a l l - t i m e p o i n t s s c o r e r f o r t h e A l l B l a c k s , w i t h 9 6 7 p o i n t s ( 7 t , 1 6 9 c , 1 8 8 p , 1 0 d g ) , h a v i n g b e e n o v e r t a k e n b y D a n C a r t e r o n 2 1 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 9 . H e h a s s c o r e d 2 0 o r m o r e p o i n t s i n 1 3 s e p a r a t e T e s t s , h a s s c o r e d n i n e p e n a l t i e s i n t w o s e p a r a t e T e s t s , a n d i s c u r r e n t l y t h e o n l y p l a y e r t o h a v e s c o r e d o v e r 3 0 0 p o i n t s i n t h e T r i N a t i o n s S e r i e s . H i s 2 0 9 p o i n t s a g a i n s t S o u t h A f r i c a i s t h e m o s t e v e r b y o n e p l a y e r a g a i n s t o n e c o u n t r y ; h e a l s o o c c u p i e s t h i r d p l a c e o n t h a t l i s t , w i t h 2 0 2 a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a . ( C a r t e r i s c u r r e n t l y s e c o n d w i t h 2 0 7 p o i n t s a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a . ) M e h r t e n s i s a l s o a t o p t h e a l l - t i m e l i s t f o r T e s t c o n v e r s i o n s , w i t h 1 6 7 . A s u p p o s e d d r o p i n f o r m , c o m b i n e d w i t h i n j u r i e s , s a w h i m m i s s o u t o n t h e A l l B l a c k s W o r l d C u p s q u a d i n 2 0 0 3 . C r i t i c s o f c o a c h J o h n M i t c h e l l f e l t N e w Z e a l a n d ' s c h a n c e s w e r e d e a l t a b l o w w i t h o u t t h e c h o i c e o f a n e x p e r i e n c e d g o a l - k i c k e r , a n a r e a i n w h i c h N e w Z e a l a n d c o u l d n o t c o m p e t e i n t h e s e m i - f i n a l a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a . N o n e t h e l e s s , a s t r o n g 2 0 0 4 S u p e r 1 2 c a m p a i g n s a w h i m c a l l e d b a c k t o t h e A l l B l a c k s . H e w a s a l s o n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e 2 0 0 5 A l l B l a c k s q u a d t o f a c e t h e B r i t i s h a n d I r i s h L i o n s . I n S u p e r 1 2 , M e h r t e n s w a s a k e y m e m b e r o f t h e d o m i n a n t C r u s a d e r s s i d e t h a t w o n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n f o u r t i m e s i n f i v e y e a r s ( 1 9 9 8 , 1 9 9 9 , 2 0 0 0 , 2 0 0 2 ) , a n d i n 2 0 0 5 , a n o t h e r s u c c e s s f u l y e a r f o r t h e C r u s a d e r s , h e a l s o p l a y e d w e l l , m a k i n g r e g u l a r a p p e a r a n c e s o f f t h e b e n c h a n d s t a r t i n g i n a f e w g a m e s . D u r i n g 2 0 0 5 h e b e c a m e t h e c o m p e t i t i o n ' s l e a d i n g a l l - t i m e s c o r e r , a c r o w n h e h e l d u n t i l 9 M a y 2 0 0 9 , w h e n t h e B r u m b i e s ' S t i r l i n g M o r t l o c k p a s s e d h i s r e c o r d o f 9 9 0 p o i n t s . H e w a s a l s o o n t h r e e N P C - w i n n i n g C a n t e r b u r y s i d e s , i n 1 9 9 7 , 2 0 0 1 a n d 2 0 0 4 . M e h r t e n s i s c r e d i t e d w i t h r e e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e C a n t e r b u r y r e g i o n a s a f o r c e i n N e w Z e a l a n d r u g b y a g a i n a f t e r n i n e y e a r s i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s w h e n i n 1 9 9 4 h e g e n e r a l e d a y o u n g t e a m w h o w o n t h e R a n f u r l y S h i e l d o f f W a i k a t o . S i n c e t h a t t i m e C a n t e r b u r y a n d u n d e r h i s s t e w a r d s h i p w o n n u m e r o u s N P C c h a m p i o n s h i p s l i s t e d a b o v e t o g e t h e r w i t h r e w i n n i n g t h e R a n f u r l y S h i e l d i n 2 0 0 0 . H e w o n h i s w a y i n t o t h e t e a m h a v i n g d i s p l a c e d G r e g C o f f e y i n t h e C a n t e r b u r y A t e a m . M e h r t e n s p l a y e d h i s f i n a l m a t c h f o r H a r l e q u i n s o n t h e f i n a l d a y o f t h e 2 0 0 6 – 0 7 s e a s o n w h i c h f e l l o n h i s b i r t h d a y , s c o r i n g 2 4 p o i n t s i n a v i c t o r y o v e r t h e S a l e S h a r k s , a f t e r w h i c h s u p p o r t e r s a n d t e a m m a t e s c e l e b r a t e d h i s b i r t h d a y a n d b i d f a r e w e l l t o h i m a f t e r t h e g a m e e n d e d . O n 2 3 M a y 2 0 0 7 , M e h r t e n s j o i n e d F r e n c h P r o D 2 t e a m T o u l o n , w h o w e n t o n t o w i n t h e l e a g u e t i t l e t h a t s e a s o n a n d g a i n p r o m o t i o n t o t h e T o p 1 4 . F o r t h e 2 0 0 8 – 2 0 0 9 s e a s o n , M e h r t e n s s i g n e d t o p l a y w i t h F r e n c h P r o D 2 t e a m R a c i n g M é t r o 9 2 . A f t e r t w o y e a r s i n P a r i s , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e 2 0 0 9 P r o D 2 c h a m p i o n s h i p a n d a T o p 1 4 p l a y o f f a p p e a r a n c e i n 2 0 1 0 ( w h i c h a l s o s e c u r e d R a c i n g a p l a c e i n t h e 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 H e i n e k e n C u p ) , h i s c o n t r a c t w a s n o t r e n e w e d . H e m o v e d t o t h e F é d é r a l e 1 ( t h i r d - d i v i s i o n ) s i d e B é z i e r s , s i g n i n g a t h r e e - y e a r d e a l w i t h t h e c l u b . U n d e r h i s c o n t r a c t , M e h r t e n s h a s t h e o p t i o n t o m o v e i n t o t h e c l u b ' s c o a c h i n g s t a f f o n c e h e d e c i d e s t o e n d h i s p l a y i n g c a r e e r . I n 2 0 1 4 h e j o i n e d t h e W a r a t a h s a s a k i c k i n g c o a c h . I n t h e 2 0 0 6 N e w Y e a r H o n o u r s , M e h r t e n s w a s a p p o i n t e d a M e m b e r o f t h e N e w Z e a l a n d O r d e r o f M e r i t , f o r s e r v i c e s t o r u g b y .

Career ; Post All Blacks

Andrew Mehrtens is a former New Zealand rugby union player who played as a first-five eighth for the All Blacks, Canterbury, and the Crusaders. He is known for his exceptional kicking ability and tactical awareness on the field. Mehrtens debuted for the All Blacks in 1995 and went on to play 72 games for the team, scoring 967 points. He also played for the Crusaders in the Super 12 competition, helping the team win three titles. Mehrtens is a highly decorated player, having been named the New Zealand Rugby Player of the Year multiple times and being appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit in 2006. After retiring from playing, Mehrtens went on to become a kicking coach, working with teams such as the Waratahs.

All Black in unofficial internationals against New South Wales in 1928. His father, Terry, also a first five, represented Canterbury between 1964 and 1976. He was a New Zealand under-23 player in 1965 against the Springboks and again in 1967, and while in South Africa played as a fullback for against the 1970 All Blacks. New Zealand rugby has had few players who have won such wide popularity and affection as Andrew Mehrtens, who in a 12-year career at first class level became a national figure rather than simply an icon of his Canterbury province. However, there was never total agreement on his ranking in the pecking order of All Black first five-eighths. Some headed by Colin Meads believed that Mehrtens was the best in his position ever where in various age groups he was nationally ranked. His first significant rugby selection was in 1992 when he played in the national under 19s against Australia in a side which also included later Crusaders or All Blacks teammates Adrian Cashmore, Norman Berryman, Milton Going, Tabai Matson, Justin Marshall and Taine Randell. He was first chosen for Canterbury in 1993–94 and in each of those seasons he was in the New Zealand Colts, making his first major impact nationally in the Canterbury side which in 1994 took the Ranfurly Shield from Waikato. His performance that day and in Shield defences later that season against Counties and Otago marked him as a clear All Black prospect. Though left out of the initial training squads, Mehrtens developed so much that seasons injury and competition from the likes of Carlos Spencer and Tony Brown saw him miss a number of tests. But he reasserted himself during the 1999 season, both in kicking a record nine penalties in a trans-Tasman test against Australia at Eden Park and then at the World Cup. However, an injury in the quarter-final against Scotland clearly affected him in the latter rounds. Besides his importance to the All Blacks, Mehrtens from the late 1990s to the mid-2000s fashioned an outstanding record for the Crusaders at Super 12 level. He had key roles in their three title wins in 1998–2000, either through his tactical command of games or, as in the 2000 final against the Brumbies, with a penalty goal under severe pressure. He also played the All Blacks for the 2003 season, though many believed he should have been recalled for the World Cup. He eventually did win his All Black place back for a brief period in 2004, but by then it had become clear that the immediate future belonged to Carter. At the end of the 2005 Super 12, Mehrtens left New Zealand rugby to play for the Harlequins in Britain. He left behind a formidable record: 281 first class games for 3,178 points, 108 games for Canterbury for 1,056 points, 87 for the Crusaders and 981 points, 72 games for the All Blacks and 967 points in 70 tests. His test aggregate, a record for a New Zealander until Dan Carter surpassed it in November 2009, would have been greater, and well into four figures, had he not missed many of the "softer" tests played during his time in the All Blacks. His understudies – Simon Culhane, Spencer and Brown – all scored heavily in his absence from these matches. Mehrtens debuted for the All Blacks in 1995 and made an immediate impact, scoring 28 points against Canada in his Test debut; at that time, that was the highest point total ever by a player making his international debut. He also featured in the team that played in the 1995 Rugby World Cup final against South Africa and came within inches of claiming victory for New Zealand, with a drop goal attempt veering just wide of the posts at the end of regulation time. Mehrtens is currently the second all-time points scorer for the All Blacks, with 967 points (7t, 169c, 188p, 10dg), having been overtaken by Dan Carter on 21 November 2009. He has scored 20 or more points in 13 separate Tests, has scored nine penalties in two separate Tests, and is currently the only player to have scored over 300 points in the Tri Nations Series. His 209 points against South Africa is the most ever by one player against one country; he also occupies third place on that list, with 202 against Australia. (Carter is currently second with 207 points against Australia.) Mehrtens is also atop the all-time list for Test conversions, with 167. A supposed drop in form, combined with injuries, saw him miss out on the All Blacks World Cup all-time scorer, a crown he held until 9 May 2009, when the Brumbies' Stirling Mortlock passed his record of 990 points. He was also on three NPC-winning Canterbury sides, in 1997, 2001 and 2004. Mehrtens is credited with reestablishing the Canterbury region as a force in New Zealand rugby again after nine years in the wilderness when in 1994 he generaled a young team who won the Ranfurly Shield off Waikato. Since that time Canterbury and under his stewardship won numerous NPC championships listed above together with rewinning the Ranfurly Shield in 2000. He won his way into the team having displaced Greg Coffey in the Canterbury A team. Mehrtens played his final match for Harlequins on the final day of the 2006–07 season which fell on his has the option to move into the club's coaching staff once he decides to end his playing career. In 2014 he joined the Waratahs as a kicking coach. In the 2006 New Year Honours, Mehrtens was appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to rugby.

Müggelturm

T h e M ü g g e l t u r m a r e a c a n b e r e a c h e d f r o m t h e f o r m e r " M a r i e n l u s t " r e s t a u r a n t t o t h e s o u t h a t t h e R i v e r D a h m e v i a a f o o t p a t h e n d i n g i n a s t a i r w a y ( 3 7 4 s t e p s ) , o r f r o m l a k e " M ü g g e l s s e e " i n t h e n o r t h e a s t u p a n o t h e r s t a i r w a y ( 1 1 1 s t e p s ) . F r o m t h e s t r e e t M ü g g e l h e i m e r D a m m t h e r e i s a r o a d l e a d i n g t o t h e t o w e r ( n a m e d " S t r a ß e z u m M ü g g e l t u r m " ) , b u t c a r s m u s t b e l e f t a t a p a r k i n g l o t a f e w h u n d r e d m e t r e s b e f o r e t h e p l a t e a u . I n 1 8 8 0 , C a r l S p i n d l e r , o w n e r o f t h e K ö p e n i c k l a u n d r y a n d d y e w o r k s W . S p i n d l e r ( a n d s o u r c e o f t h e n a m e o f t h e B e r l i n d i s t r i c t " S p i n d l e r s f e l d " ) , h a d a 1 0 m h i g h w o o d e n l o o k o u t t o w e r , k n o w n a s t h e " S p i n d l e r t u r m " , b u i l t o n t h e " K l e i n e r M ü g g e l b e r g " . B e c a u s e o f i t s l o w h e i g h t t h e r e w a s n o t m u c h o f a v i e w a n d i t a c c o r d i n g l y a t t r a c t e d f e w v i s i t o r s . I n 1 8 8 9 S p i n d e r s p e n t 4 0 , 0 0 0 m a r k s t o e x t e n d t h e t o w e r , n o w 2 7 m e t r e s h i g h , a n d c h o o s i n g a n a r c h i t e c t u r e r e m i n i s c e n t o f a p a g o d a , I t o p e n e d t o t h e p u b l i c o n 1 A p r i l 1 8 9 0 a n d h a d a q u a d r a t i c b a s e o f 5 m p e r s i d e t a p e r i n g t o 4 . 2 m a b o v e t h e r e s t a u r a n t a n d 2 . 8 m a t t h e v i e w i n g p l a t f o r m . T h i s t o w e r w a s a l s o a w o o d e n c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d h a d a s h i n g l e d f a c i n g . T h e a r c h i t e c t w a s M a x J a c o b ; a n d t h e f i r s t r e s t a u r a n t m a n a g e r w a s C a r l S t r e i c h h a h n . T h e e n l a r g e d t o w e r a n d i t s r e s t a u r a n t r a p i d l y b e c a m e a p o p u l a r e x c u r s i o n d e s t i n a t i o n . F r o m t h e p l a t f o r m a t t h e t o p a p a n o r a m i c v i e w e x t e n d e d a s f a r a s 5 0   k m o n c l e a r d a y s a n d i n c l u d e d t h e r e g i o n ' s f o r e s t a n d l a k e l a n d s c a p e a n d t h e B e r l i n s k y l i n e . T h e r e w e r e s o m e 5 2 , 0 0 0 v i s i t o r s a l r e a d y i n i t s f i r s t y e a r o f o p e r a t i o n . I n 1 9 2 4 t h e a r c h i t e c t W a l t e r W i c h e l h a u s p u r c h a s e d t h e t o w e r a n d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s c a r r i e d o u t s t r u c t u r a l i m p r o v e m e n t s o n t h e " K l e i n e r M ü g g e l b e r g " . H e c o n s t r u c t e d s e v e r a l b u i l d i n g s w h i c h i n c l u d e d a n e w r e s t a u r a n t , a k i t c h e n , a n d a n a p a r t m e n t f o r h i m s e l f . D u r i n g e x c a v a t i o n w o r k f o r t h e s e n e w o u t b u i l d i n g s p r e h i s t o r i c r e l i c t s w e r e f o u n d . I n 1 9 2 6 a n e w t e r r a c e w i t h a l a r g e h a l l a t t h e s i d e w a s b u i l t i n f r o n t o f t h e t o w e r . H e r e W i c h e l h a u s a n d t h e M ä r k i s c h e s M u s e u m d i s p l a y e d a c o l l e c t i o n e n t i t l e d “ G e s c h i c h t e d e s M ü g g e l l a n d e s u n d d e r M ü g g e l b e r g e ” ( “ H i s t o r y o f t h e M ü g g e l A r e a a n d t h e M ü g g e l H i l l s ” ) w i t h p r e h i s t o r i c a r t i f a c t s f r o m t h e M ü g g e l r e g i o n . V i s i t o r s c o u l d l e a r n s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e l o c a l i n h a b i t a n t s d u r i n g t h e s t o n e a g e , B r o n z e A g e a n d I r o n A g e , a s w e l l a s a b o u t t h e S p r e w a n e n , a W e n d i s h t r i b e w h i c h l i v e d i n t h e D a h m e - S p r e e r e g i o n . A f a m o u s e x h i b i t i t e m w a s a m o l a r f r o m a m a m m o t h . A n o t h e r p a r t o f t h e e x h i b i t p r o v i d e d t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e r e w a s f o r m e r l y a l a r g e h a l l o n t h e " K l e i n e r M ü g g e l b e r g " w h i c h p r o b a b l y s e r v e d a s a p l a c e o f r i t u a l w o r s h i p f o r t h e S p r e w a n e n . I n 1 9 2 8 t w o s t a i r w a y s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d u p t h e " K l e i n e r M ü g g e l b e r g " . I n 1 9 4 2 t h e m u s e u m ' s a r t i f a c t s w e r e m o v e d t o t h e " S c h m e t t e r l i n g s h o r s t " r e s t a u r a n t , w h e r e t h e y c o u l d b e v i e w e d t h e r e t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e w o r l d - f a m o u s b u t t e r f l y c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e r e s t a u r a n t ' s o w n e r , B ü t t n e r . B o t h c o l l e c t i o n s w e r e d e s t r o y e d i n b o m b i n g r a i d s d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I . I n 1 9 4 5 a s t h e S o v i e t a r m y a p p r o a c h e d B e r l i n t h e t o w e r w a s d e c l a r e d a m i l i t a r y o b j e c t a n d u s e d a s a r a d i o t r a n s m i s s i o n t o w e r a s w e l l a s a n o b s e r v a t i o n p o s t f o r a r t i l l e r y u n i t s . A s w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e B i s m a r c k v a n t a g e p o i n t o n t h e n e i g h b o r i n g " G r o ß e r M ü g g e l b e r g " , t h e M ü g g e l t o w e r w a s t o b e b l o w n u p b y G e r m a n t r o o p s b e f o r e t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e a d v a n c i n g S o v i e t a r m y . T h e t o w e r r e s t a u r a n t p r o p r i e t o r W a l t e r W i c h e l h a u s p r e v e n t e d t h i s d e s t r u c t i o n b y c u t t i n g t h e e l e c t r i c a l c a b l e l e a d i n g t o t h e e x p l o s i v e s . A f t e r t h e w a r a r e s t a u r a n t w a s a g a i n p r o v i d e d f o r v i s i t o r s , a n d i n 1 9 5 6 H O K ö p e n i c k t o o k o v e r o p e r a t i o n o f t h e M ü g g e l T o w e r g r o u n d s . I n J a n u a r y 1 9 5 7 t h e M ü g g e l T o w e r w a s c l o s e d b e c a u s e i t s d i l a p i d a t e d s t a t e m a d e i t u n s a f e ; t h e f o l l o w i n g m o n t h t h e B e r l i n m a g i s t r a t e d e c i d e d t o s t a b i l i z e t h e t o w e r w i t h a n e w f o u n d a t i o n a n d t h e a d d i t i o n o f a s t e e l t r u s s c o n s t r u c t i o n . A s p a r t o f t h i s w o r k t h e r e s t a u r a n t w a s t o b e e n l a r g e d , b u t o n t h e a f t e r n o o n o f 1 9 M a y 1 9 5 8 t h e t o w e r b u r n e d d o w n c o m p l e t e l y , t h e p r o b a b l e c a u s e b e i n g w e l d i n g a c t i v i t i e s d u r i n g t h e r e n o v a t i o n . T h a t s a m e y e a r t h e " B e r l i n e r Z e i t u n g " l a u n c h e d a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l c o m p e t i t i o n f o r a n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h i c h a t t r a c t e d 3 2 d e s i g n s . T h e s e w e r e e x h i b i t e d t o t h e p u b l i c i n A u g u s t 1 9 5 8 i n t h e K ö p e n i c k c i t y h a l l a n d a m o n t h l a t e r i n t h e n e w s p a p e r ' s p a v i l i o n a t t h e " F r i e d r i c h s t r a ß e " t r a i n s t a t i o n . T h e o p i n i o n s e x p r e s s e d b y v i s i t o r s i n a b o o k m a d e a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e p u r p o s e c o n f i r m e d t h e c h o i c e o f t h e j u r o r s . T h e p r o p o s a l b y a s t u d e n t c o l l e c t i v e f r o m t h e " K u n s t h o c h s c h u l e B e r l i n - W e i ß e n s e e " h e a d e d b y J ö r g S t r e i t p a r t h , S i e g f r i e d W a g n e r a n d K l a u s W e i ß h a u p t w o n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n a n d a f t e r m o d i f i c a t i o n i t f o r m e d t h e b a s i s o f t h e n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n . A n o v a l g r o u n d p l a n w a s o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d f o r t h e t o w e r , b u t t h i s w a s c h a n g e d t o t o d a y ' s q u a d r a t i c f o r m f o r r e a s o n s o f c o s t . T h e f o u n d a t i o n s t o n e w a s l a i d o n 6 O c t o b e r 1 9 5 9 a n d o n 2 0 A u g u s t 1 9 6 0 t h e t o p p i n g o u t c e r e m o n y w a s c e l e b r a t e d . T h e t o w e r w a s o p e n e d o n N e w Y e a r ' s E v e , 3 1 D e c e m b e r 1 9 6 1 . T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e n e w M ü g g e l T o w e r w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p p o r t e d b y p u b l i c i n v o l v e m e n t a n d d o n a t i o n s . A s p a r t o f t h e G e r m a n D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c ' s i n i t i a t i v e c a l l i n g f o r v o l u n t a r y , c h a r i t a b l e w o r k ( “ N a t i o n a l e A u f b a u w e r k ” ) , t h e p u b l i c c o n t r i b u t e d 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 M a r k s a n d 3 , 7 0 0 h o u r s o f w o r k . T h e 2 9 . 6 1 m h i g h t o w e r o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e h a s n i n e s t o r e y s w i t h p a n o r a m a w i n d o w s a n d a p l a t f o r m w h i c h c a n b e r e a c h e d v i a 1 2 6 s t e p s . A l o n g w i t h i t s a u x i l i a r y b u i l d i n g s i t r e f l e c t s a m o d e r n a p p r o a c h i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e e c l e c t i c i s m o f t h e p r e v i o u s c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d i s a n e a r l y e x a m p l e o f D D R a r c h i t e c t u r e i n t h e s t y l e o f s o c i a l i s t c l a s s i c i s m . T h e g a s t r o n o m y a r e a i n c l u d e s a r e s t a u r a n t , a w i n e t a v e r n a n d s u n t e r r a c e s . T h e n e w t o w e r a g a i n b e c a m e a c e n t r e o f a t t r a c t i o n f o r B e r l i n ' s p o p u l a c e , w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 2 4 0 , 0 0 0 v i s i t o r s a n n u a l l y . E s p e c i a l l y o n h o l i d a y s s u c h a s P e n t e c o s t t h e r e w e r e l a r g e c r o w d s i n t h e t o w e r a n d g a s t r o n o m y a r e a . A l a c k o f m a i n t e n a n c e e f f o r t c o n t i n u e s t o p l a g u e t h e a r e a . I n 1 9 9 6 t h e t o w e r i t s e l f w a s f u l l y r e n o v a t e d w i t h E U f i n a n c i n g a m o u n t i n g t o o n e m i l l i o n D M , b u t m o r e w o r k r e m a i n s t o b e d o n e . I n a r e s t a u r a n t f l o w e r w i n d o w c a n b e f o u n d t h e t r i a n g u l a t i o n p o i n t “ 1 s t o r d e r M ü g g e l b e r g , ” w h i c h i s i m p o r t a n t f o r B e r l i n a n d G e r m a n g e o d e s y a s i t d e f i n e s t h e z e r o p o i n t o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e n e t w o r k f o r B e r l i n t o p o g r a p h i c a l m a p s . T h e s t o n e i s a l s o a m e m o r i a l t o J o h a n n J a c o b B a e y e r ( 1 7 9 4 – 1 8 8 5 ) w h o w a s b o r n i n M ü g g e l h e i m a n d i s k n o w n f o r h i s r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g c e n t r a l E u r o p e a n l o n g i t u d e a n d l a t i t u d e d e g r e e c o o r d i n a t e s . H e a l s o u s e d t h e M ü g g e l b e r g h i l l s a l o n g w i t h m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e c i t y o f B e r l i n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e l e v a t i o n o f t h e i m m e d i a t e s u r r o u n d i n g s , s u c h a s t h e h e i g h t o f K ö p e n i c k ' s S t . L a u r e n t i u s c h u r c h a n d t h e G o s e n e r m o u n t a i n s . S i n c e t h e s t o n e a n d i t s p r e c i s e l o c a t i o n a s a s u r v e y i n g p o i n t i s p r o t e c t e d , i t c a n n o t b e m o v e d w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e B e r l i n S e n a t e ( " S e n a t s v e r w a l t u n g f ü r S t a d t e n t w i c k l u n g " ) . I n 1 9 9 5 t h e c i t y o f B e r l i n b e c a m e o w n e r o f t h e a r e a a n d t h e d i s t r i c t o f K ö p e n i c k h a s a d m i n i s t e r e d i t e v e r s i n c e . I n t h e s a m e y e a r t h e b u i l d i n g o n t h e " K l e i n e r M ü g g e l b e r g " r e c e i v e d t h e s t a t u s o f a l i s t e d m o n u m e n t . S i n c e 2 0 0 0 a n u m b e r o f i n v i t a t i o n s t o t e n d e r h a v e b e e n i s s u e d i n a s e a r c h f o r a n i n v e s t o r t o d e v e l o p a n d m a i n t a i n t h e a r e a . P r o p o s a l s i n c l u d e d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a h o t e l , a r e s t a u r a n t , a n d r e n o v a t i o n o f t h e w a t e r a n d p o w e r s u p p l i e s , b u t n o n e w e r e a c c e p t e d f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s . I n 2 0 0 7 t h e p r o p e r t y w a s s o l d t o a n i n v e s t o r f r o m K r e f e l d .

The early towers

The Müggelturm area offers scenic views of the surrounding forest and lake landscape and the Berlin skyline. The current tower, built in 1961, stands 29.61m tall and features panorama windows and a platform accessible via 126 steps. The area has a rich history, dating back to 1880 when a wooden lookout tower was first built, and has undergone various renovations and restorations over the years.

The Müggelturm area can be reached from the former "Marienlust" restaurant to the south at the River Dahme via a footpath ending in a stairway (374 steps), or from lake "Müggelssee" in the northeast up another stairway (111 steps). From the street Müggelheimer Damm there is a road leading to the tower (named "Straße zum Müggelturm"), but cars must be left at a parking lot a few hundred metres before the plateau. In 1880, Carl Spindler, owner of the Köpenick laundry and dyeworks W. Spindler (and source of the name of the Berlin district "Spindlersfeld"), had a 10 m high wooden lookout tower, known as the "Spindlerturm", built on the" Kleiner Müggelberg". Because of its low height there was not much of a view and it accordingly attracted few visitors. In 1889 Spinder spent 40,000 marks to extend the tower, now 27 metres high, and choosing an architecture reminiscent of a pagoda, It opened to the public on 1 April 1890 and had a quadratic base of 5 m per side tapering to 4.2 m above the restaurant and 2.8 m at the viewing platform. This tower was also a wooden construction and had a shingled facing. The architect was Max Jacob; and the first restaurant manager was Carl Streichhahn. The enlarged tower and its restaurant rapidly became a popular excursion destination. From the platform at the top a panoramic view extended as far as 50 km on clear days and included the region's forest and lake landscape and the Berlin skyline. There were some 52,000 visitors already in its first year of operation. In 1924 the architect Walter Wichelhaus purchased the tower and in the following years carried out structural improvements on the "Kleiner Müggelberg". He constructed several buildings which included a new restaurant, a kitchen, and an apartment for himself. During excavation work for these new outbuildings prehistoric relicts were found. In 1926 a new terrace with a large hall at the side was built in front of the tower. Here Wichelhaus and the Märkisches Museum displayed a collection entitled “Geschichte des Müggellandes und der Müggelberge” (“History of the Müggel Area and the Müggel Hills”) with prehistoric artifacts from the Müggel region. Visitors could learn something about the culture of the local inhabitants during the stone age, Bronze Age and Iron Age, as well as about the Sprewanen, a Wendish tribe which lived in the Dahme-Spree region. A famous exhibit item was a molar from a mammoth. Another part of the exhibit provided the evidence that there was formerly a large hall on the "Kleiner Müggelberg" which probably served as a place of ritual worship for the Sprewanen. In 1928 two stairways were constructed up the "Kleiner Müggelberg". In 1942 the museum's artifacts were moved to the "Schmetterlingshorst" restaurant, where they could be viewed there together with the world-famous butterfly collection of the restaurant's owner, Büttner. Both collections were destroyed in bombing raids during World War II. In 1945 as the Soviet army approached Berlin the tower was declared a military object and used as a radio transmission tower as well as an observation post for artillery units. As was the case with the Bismarck vantage point on the neighboring "Großer Müggelberg", the Müggel tower was to be blown up by German troops before the arrival of the advancing Soviet army. The tower restaurant proprietor Walter Wichelhaus prevented this destruction by cutting the electrical cable leading to the explosives. After the war a restaurant was again provided for visitors, and in 1956 HO Köpenick took over operation of the Müggel Tower grounds. In January 1957 the Müggel Tower was closed because its dilapidated state made it unsafe; the following month the Berlin magistrate decided to stabilize the tower with a new foundation and the addition of a steel truss construction. As part of this work the restaurant was to be enlarged, but on the afternoon of 19 May 1958 the tower burned down completely, the probable cause being welding activities during the renovation. That same year the "Berliner Zeitung" launched an architectural competition for a new construction, which attracted 32 designs. These were exhibited to the public in August 1958 in the Köpenick city hall and a month later in the newspaper's pavilion at the "Friedrichstraße" train station. The opinions expressed by visitors in a book made available for the purpose confirmed the choice of the jurors. The proposal by a student collective from the "Kunsthochschule Berlin-Weißensee" headed by Jörg Streitparth, Siegfried Wagner and Klaus Weißhaupt won the competition and after modification it formed the basis of the new construction. An oval ground plan was originally intended for the tower, but this was changed to today's quadratic form for reasons of cost. The foundation stone was laid on 6 October 1959 and on 20 August 1960 the topping out ceremony was celebrated. The tower was opened on New Year's Eve, 31 December 1961. The construction of the new Müggel Tower was significantly supported by public involvement and donations. As part of the German Democratic Republic's initiative calling for voluntary, charitable work (“Nationale Aufbauwerk”), the public contributed 130,000 Marks and 3,700 hours of work. The 29.61 m high tower of reinforced concrete has nine storeys with panorama windows and a platform which can be reached via 126 steps. Along with its auxiliary buildings it reflects a modern approach in contrast to the eclecticism of the previous construction and is an early example of DDR architecture in the style of socialist classicism. The gastronomy area includes a restaurant, a wine tavern and sun terraces. The new tower again became a centre of attraction for Berlin's populace, with an average of 240,000 visitors annually. Especially on holidays such as Pentecost there were large crowds in the tower and gastronomy area. A lack of maintenance effort continues to plague the area. In 1996 the tower itself was fully renovated with EU financing amounting to one million DM, but more work remains to be done. In a restaurant flower window can be found the triangulation point “1st order Müggelberg,” which is important for Berlin and German geodesy as it defines the zero point of the coordinate network

Mike Brearley

B r e a r l e y w a s e d u c a t e d a t t h e C i t y o f L o n d o n S c h o o l ( w h e r e h i s f a t h e r H o r a c e , h i m s e l f a f i r s t - c l a s s c r i c k e t e r , w a s a m a s t e r ) . W h i l e a t S t . J o h n ' s C o l l e g e , C a m b r i d g e , B r e a r l e y e x c e l l e d a t c r i c k e t ( h e w a s t h e n a w i c k e t k e e p e r / b a t s m a n ) . A f t e r m a k i n g 7 6 o n h i s f i r s t - c l a s s d e b u t a s a w i c k e t k e e p e r , h e p l a y e d f o r C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y b e t w e e n 1 9 6 1 a n d 1 9 6 8 ( c a p t a i n i n g t h e s i d e f r o m 1 9 6 4 o n w a r d s ) , f i r s t a s a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e i n t h e C l a s s i c a l a n d M o r a l S c i e n c e s t r i p o s , a n d t h e n a s a p o s t g r a d u a t e . W h i l e s t i l l a t C a m b r i d g e , h e w a s c h o s e n f o r t h e M a r y l e b o n e C r i c k e t C l u b ( M C C ) t o u r t o S o u t h A f r i c a i n 1 9 6 4 – 6 5 , a n d t o c a p t a i n t h e M C C U n d e r - 2 5 s i d e i n P a k i s t a n i n 1 9 6 6 – 6 7 , w h e r e h e s c o r e d 3 1 2 n o t o u t a g a i n s t N o r t h Z o n e ( h i s h i g h e s t f i r s t - c l a s s s c o r e ) a n d 2 2 3 a g a i n s t t h e P a k i s t a n U n d e r - 2 5 s i d e h e e n d e d t h e t o u r w i t h 7 9 3 r u n s f r o m s i x m a t c h e s a t a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 2 . F r o m 1 9 6 1 o n w a r d s , h e p l a y e d f o r M i d d l e s e x C o u n t y C r i c k e t C l u b , o f t e n o p e n i n g t h e i n n i n g s w i t h M i c h a e l S m i t h . A s c a p t a i n b e t w e e n 1 9 7 1 a n d 1 9 8 2 , h e l e d M i d d l e s e x t o C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p s i n 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 7 ( j o i n t l y w i t h K e n t ) , 1 9 8 0 a n d 1 9 8 2 ; a n d h e a p p e a r e d i n F r e e F o r e s t e r s ' v e r y l a s t f i r s t - c l a s s f i x t u r e , i n 1 9 6 8 , k e e p i n g w i c k e t a n d s c o r i n g 9 1 . I n p a r t b e c a u s e o f h i s p u r s u i t o f a n a c a d e m i c c a r e e r a s a l e c t u r e r i n p h i l o s o p h y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w c a s t l e - u p o n - T y n e , w h i c h l i m i t e d h i s c r i c k e t i n g a c t i v i t y i n 1 9 6 9 a n d 1 9 7 0 , B r e a r l e y w a s n o t s e l e c t e d f o r E n g l a n d u n t i l t h e a g e o f 3 4 i n 1 9 7 6 . H i s r e c o r d i n T e s t c r i c k e t a s a b a t s m a n w a s m o d e s t ( h e a v e r a g e d 2 2 . 8 8 i n 6 6 T e s t i n n i n g s , w i t h o u t a c e n t u r y ) , b u t h e w a s a n o u t s t a n d i n g c a p t a i n . H e m a d e h i s h i g h e s t t e s t s c o r e o f 9 1 o n t o u r a g a i n s t I n d i a i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 7 . H a v i n g p r e v i o u s l y k e p t w i c k e t , h e w a s a l s o a f i n e s l i p c a t c h e r , u s u a l l y a t f i r s t s l i p . H e t o o k o v e r a s c a p t a i n o f E n g l a n d l a t e r i n 1 9 7 7 . H i s m a n a g e m e n t s k i l l s ( h e w a s o n c e d e s c r i b e d b y R o d n e y H o g g a s h a v i n g " a d e g r e e i n p e o p l e " ) d r e w t h e b e s t f r o m t h e p l a y e r s i n h i s t e a m , a l t h o u g h h e w a s f o r t u n a t e t o b e a b l e t o c a l l o n t h e s e r v i c e s o f B o b W i l l i s , D a v i d G o w e r a n d I a n B o t h a m a t t h e i r p e a k . B r e a r l e y w a s c a p t a i n d u r i n g t h e i n f a m o u s a l u m i n i u m b a t i n c i d e n t i n 1 9 7 9 , w h e n h e o b j e c t e d t o D e n n i s L i l l e e ' s u s e o f a m e t a l b a t i n s t e a d o f o n e m a d e o f w i l l o w . O n t h e s a m e t o u r , h e c a u s e d c o n t r o v e r s y a t t h e e n d o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l o n e - d a y m a t c h a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a t t h e S y d n e y C r i c k e t G r o u n d w h e n h e o r d e r e d a l l h i s f i e l d e r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e w i c k e t k e e p e r , t o t h e b o u n d a r y w i t h t h r e e r u n s r e q u i r e d o f f t h e l a s t b a l l ( t h i s w a s l e g a l b y t h e r u l e s o f t h e t i m e ) . I n a l l B o t h a m a n d W i l l i s t o o k 2 6 2 w i c k e t s d u r i n g t h e 3 1 t e s t m a t c h e s t h a t B r e a r l e y c a p t a i n e d . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f W i l l i s i n p a r t i c u l a r t o E n g l a n d l e d B r e a r l e y i n t o f u r t h e r c o n t r o v e r s i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e b o w l i n g o f s h o r t - p i t c h e d d e l i v e r i e s a t r e c o g n i s e d t a i l e n d b a t s m e n , d u r i n g P a k i s t a n ’ s t o u r o f E n g l a n d i n 1 9 7 8 , a n d m o r e b r i e f l y , d u r i n g E n g l a n d ' s 1 9 7 8 - 9 t o u r o f A u s t r a l i a . B r e a r l e y h i m s e l f h a d b e e n a n i n n o v a t o r r e g a r d i n g c r i c k e t e q u i p m e n t h i m s e l f , w e a r i n g a ' s k u l l c a p ' u n d e r h i s E n g l a n d c a p i n 1 9 7 7 ( i n t h e d a y s b e f o r e p l a y e r s w o r e h e l m e t s ) . I t c o n s i s t e d o f a p l a s t i c p r o t e c t o r w i t h t w o s i d e p i e c e s p r o t e c t i n g h i s t e m p l e s . I t w a s l a t e r p o p u l a r i s e d b y t h e I n d i a n b a t s m a n S u n i l G a v a s k a r . B r e a r l e y c a p t a i n e d E n g l a n d t o t h e f i n a l o f t h e 1 9 7 9 C r i c k e t W o r l d C u p , s c o r i n g 5 3 i n t h e s e m i - f i n a l a g a i n s t N e w Z e a l a n d a n d 6 4 i n t h e f i n a l a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s . H o w e v e r , h i s o p e n i n g p a r t n e r s h i p o f 1 2 9 w i t h G e o f f B o y c o t t i n t h e f i n a l u s e d u p 3 8 o f 6 0 a l l o t t e d o v e r s ; a l t h o u g h i t w a s r e c o g n i s e d t h a t a p o t e n t p a c e a t t a c k o f A n d y R o b e r t s , M i c h a e l H o l d i n g , C o l i n C r o f t a n d J o e l G a r n e r n e e d e d t o b e c o u n t e r e d , t h e s p e e d o f t h e p a r t n e r s h i p g r e a t l y a d d e d t o t h e p r e s s u r e o n t h e r e s t o f t h e o r d e r . G a r n e r b o w l e d a s p e l l o f 5 w i c k e t s f o r 4 r u n s t o i n d u c e a d r a s t i c c o l l a p s e a n d h a n d t h e W e s t I n d i e s t h e m a t c h a n d t h e W o r l d C u p b y 9 2 r u n s . H a v i n g p a s s e d t h e E n g l a n d c a p t a i n c y t o I a n B o t h a m i n 1 9 8 0 ( l o s i n g h i s T e s t p l a c e i n t h e p r o c e s s ) , B r e a r l e y r e t u r n e d a s c a p t a i n f o l l o w i n g B o t h a m ' s r e s i g n a t i o n f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a a t H e a d i n g l e y i n 1 9 8 1 , g o i n g o n t o w i n t h e m a t c h a n d t w o o f t h e r e m a i n i n g t h r e e m a t c h e s o f t h e s e r i e s t o w i n t h e A s h e s 3 – 1 . H i s l e a d e r s h i p b e n e f i t e d f r o m B o t h a m ' s r e c o v e r e d f o r m f o l l o w i n g h i s w i n l e s s c a p t a i n c y r e c o r d a n d h i s n o s e d i v e i n f o r m ( h e h a d m a d e a p a i r i n t h e s e c o n d T e s t a t L o r d ' s ) t o t a k e a f i r s t - i n n i n g s 6 f o r 9 5 a n d s c o r e 5 0 a n d 1 4 9 n o t o u t i n t h e t h i r d T e s t a t H e a d i n g l e y , b o w l a s p e l l o f 5 w i c k e t s f o r 1 r u n i n t h e f o u r t h T e s t a t E d g b a s t o n , s c o r e 1 1 8 f r o m 1 0 2 b a l l s i n t h e f i f t h T e s t a t O l d T r a f f o r d , a n d t a k e a 1 0 - w i c k e t m a t c h h a u l ( 6 f o r 1 2 5 a n d 4 f o r 1 2 8 ) i n t h e s i x t h T e s t a t t h e O v a l . I n s p i t e o f h i s l i m i t e d r e p u t a t i o n a s a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a t s m a n , B r e a r l e y a l s o m a d e a n i m p o r t a n t i f l e s s h i g h - p r o f i l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e f o u r t h t e s t , s c o r i n g m o r e r u n s t h a n a n y o t h e r b a t s m a n ( 6 1 ) i n a m a t c h w h i c h E n g l a n d w o n b y 2 9 r u n s . B r e a r l e y o p p o s e d s p o r t i n g l i n k s w i t h a p a r t h e i d S o u t h A f r i c a , s e c o n d i n g a m o t i o n t o t h e M C C i n 1 9 6 8 c a l l i n g f o r t h e c e s s a t i o n o f t o u r s u n t i l t h e r e w a s a c t u a l p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s n o n - r a c i a l c r i c k e t . H e s e c o n d e d t h e m o t i o n f r o m D a v i d S h e p p a r d t o t h e M C C , c a l l i n g f o r t h e E n g l a n d t o u r t o S o u t h A f r i c a t o b e c a n c e l l e d , a n d w a s a s u p p o r t e r o f J o h n A r l o t t w h o c a m p a i g n e d i n " T h e G u a r d i a n " f o r t h e s a m e o b j e c t i v e . H e i s n o w a p s y c h o a n a l y s t , p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t ( r e g i s t e r e d w i t h t h e B P C ) , m o t i v a t i o n a l s p e a k e r , a n d p a r t - t i m e c r i c k e t j o u r n a l i s t f o r " T h e T i m e s " . H e w a s a p p o i n t e d a n O B E i n 1 9 7 8 , a n d p u b l i s h e d " T h e A r t o f C a p t a i n c y " i n 1 9 8 5 . H e p u b l i s h e d a n o t h e r b o o k , " O n F o r m " , i n 2 0 1 7 . I n 1 9 9 8 , h e b e c a m e a n H o n o r a r y F e l l o w o f h i s C a m b r i d g e c o l l e g e , S t . J o h n ' s a n d i n 2 0 0 6 w a s a w a r d e d a n h o n o r a r y d o c t o r a t e b y O x f o r d B r o o k e s U n i v e r s i t y . B r e a r l e y s u c c e e d e d D o u g I n s o l e a s P r e s i d e n t o f M C C o n 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 , a n d c h o s e D e r e k U n d e r w o o d t o s u c c e e d h i m a t t h e e n d o f h i s t e r m . H e w a s p r e s i d e n t o f t h e B r i t i s h P s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l S o c i e t y , 2 0 0 8 – 1 0 .

Early life

Mike Brearley was born to a cricket-loving family and was educated at the City of London School and St. John's College, Cambridge. He excelled at cricket, playing for Cambridge University and Middlesex County Cricket Club. Despite pursuing an academic career, he eventually became a professional cricketer, leading Middlesex to several championships and becoming captain of England in 1977. He was known for his exceptional leadership skills, which helped bring out the best in his teammates.

Brearley was educated at the City of London School (where his father Horace, himself a first-class cricketer, was a master). While at St. John's College, Cambridge, Brearley excelled at cricket (he was then a wicketkeeper/batsman). After making 76 on his first-class debut as a wicketkeeper, he played for Cambridge University between 1961 and 1968 (captaining the side from 1964 onwards), first as an undergraduate in the Classical and Moral Sciences tripos, and then as a postgraduate. While still at Cambridge, he was chosen for the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) tour to South Africa in 1964–65, and to captain the MCC Under-25 side in Pakistan in 1966–67, where he scored 312 not out against North Zone (his highest first-class score) and 223 against the Pakistan Under-25 side he ended the tour with 793 runs from six matches at an average of 132. From 1961 onwards, he played for Middlesex County Cricket Club, often opening the innings with Michael Smith. As captain between 1971 and 1982, he led Middlesex to County Championships in 1976, 1977 (jointly with Kent), 1980 and 1982; and he appeared in Free Foresters' very last first-class fixture, in 1968, keeping wicket and scoring 91. In part because of his pursuit of an academic career as a lecturer in philosophy at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, which limited his cricketing activity in 1969 and 1970, Brearley was not selected for England until the age of 34 in 1976. His record in Test cricket as a batsman was modest (he averaged 22.88 in 66 Test innings, without a century), but he was an outstanding captain. He made his highest test score of 91 on tour against India in February 1977. Having previously kept wicket, he was also a fine slip catcher, usually at first slip. He took over as captain of England later in 1977. His management skills (he was once described by Rodney Hogg as having "a degree in people") drew the best from the players in his team, although he was fortunate to be able to call on the services of Bob Willis, David Gower and Ian Botham at their peak. Brearley was captain during the infamous aluminium bat incident in 1979, when he objected to Dennis Lillee's use of a metal bat instead of one made of willow. On the same tour, he caused controversy at the end of an international one-day match against the West Indies at the Sydney Cricket Ground when he ordered all his fielders, including the wicketkeeper, to the boundary with three runs required off the last ball (this was legal by the rules of the time). In all Botham and Willis took 262 wickets during the 31 test matches that Brearley captained. The importance of Willis in particular to England led Brearley into further controversies regarding the bowling of short-pitched deliveries at recognised tailend batsmen, during Pakistan’s tour of England in 1978, and more briefly, during England's 1978-9 tour of Australia. Brearley himself had been an innovator regarding cricket equipment himself, wearing a 'skull cap' under his England cap in 1977 (in the days before players wore helmets). It consisted of a plastic protector with two side pieces protecting his temples. It was later popularised by the Indian batsman Sunil Gavaskar. Brearley captained England to the final of the 1979 Cricket World Cup, scoring 53 in the semi-final against New Zealand and 64 in the final against the West Indies. However, his opening partnership of 129 with Geoff Boycott in the final used up 38 of 60 allotted overs; although it was recognised that a potent pace attack of Andy Roberts, Michael Holding, Colin Croft and Joel Garner needed to be countered, the speed of the partnership greatly added to the pressure on the rest of the order. Garner bowled a spell of 5 wickets for 4 runs to induce a drastic collapse and hand the West Indies the match and the World Cup by 92 runs. Having passed the England captaincy to Ian Botham in 1980 (losing his Test place in the process), Brearley returned as captain following Botham's resignation for the third Test against Australia at Headingley in 1981, going on to win the match and two of the remaining three matches of the series to win the Ashes 3–1. His leadership benefited from Botham's recovered form following his winless captaincy record and his nosedive in form (he had made a pair in the second Test at Lord's) to take a first-innings 6 for 95 and score 50 and 149 not out in the third Test at Headingley, bowl a spell of 5 wickets for 1 run in the fourth Test at Edgbaston, score 118 from 102 balls in the fifth Test at Old Trafford, and take a 10-wicket match haul (6 for 125 and 4 for 128) in the sixth Test at the Oval. In spite of his limited reputation as an international batsman, Brearley also made an important if less high-profile contribution to the fourth test, scoring more runs than any other batsman (61) in a match which England won by 29 runs. Brearley opposed sporting links with apartheid South Africa, seconding a motion to the MCC in 1968 calling for the cessation of tours until there was actual progress towards non-racial cricket. He seconded the motion from David Sheppard to the MCC, calling for the England tour to South Africa to be cancelled, and was a supporter of John Arlott who campaigned in "The Guardian" for the same objective. He is now a psychoanalyst, psychotherapist (registered with the BPC), motivational speaker, and part-time cricket journalist for "The Times". He was appointed an OBE in 1978, and published "The Art of Captaincy" in 1985. He published another book, "On Form", in 2017. In 1998, he became an Honorary Fellow of his Cambridge college, St. John's and in 2006 was awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford Brookes University. Brearley succeeded Doug Insole as President of MCC on 1 October 2007, and chose Derek Underwood to succeed him at the end of his term. He was president of the British Psychoanalytical Society, 2008–10.

Mike Brearley

B r e a r l e y w a s e d u c a t e d a t t h e C i t y o f L o n d o n S c h o o l ( w h e r e h i s f a t h e r H o r a c e , h i m s e l f a f i r s t - c l a s s c r i c k e t e r , w a s a m a s t e r ) . W h i l e a t S t . J o h n ' s C o l l e g e , C a m b r i d g e , B r e a r l e y e x c e l l e d a t c r i c k e t ( h e w a s t h e n a w i c k e t k e e p e r / b a t s m a n ) . A f t e r m a k i n g 7 6 o n h i s f i r s t - c l a s s d e b u t a s a w i c k e t k e e p e r , h e p l a y e d f o r C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y b e t w e e n 1 9 6 1 a n d 1 9 6 8 ( c a p t a i n i n g t h e s i d e f r o m 1 9 6 4 o n w a r d s ) , f i r s t a s a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e i n t h e C l a s s i c a l a n d M o r a l S c i e n c e s t r i p o s , a n d t h e n a s a p o s t g r a d u a t e . W h i l e s t i l l a t C a m b r i d g e , h e w a s c h o s e n f o r t h e M a r y l e b o n e C r i c k e t C l u b ( M C C ) t o u r t o S o u t h A f r i c a i n 1 9 6 4 – 6 5 , a n d t o c a p t a i n t h e M C C U n d e r - 2 5 s i d e i n P a k i s t a n i n 1 9 6 6 – 6 7 , w h e r e h e s c o r e d 3 1 2 n o t o u t a g a i n s t N o r t h Z o n e ( h i s h i g h e s t f i r s t - c l a s s s c o r e ) a n d 2 2 3 a g a i n s t t h e P a k i s t a n U n d e r - 2 5 s i d e h e e n d e d t h e t o u r w i t h 7 9 3 r u n s f r o m s i x m a t c h e s a t a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 2 . F r o m 1 9 6 1 o n w a r d s , h e p l a y e d f o r M i d d l e s e x C o u n t y C r i c k e t C l u b , o f t e n o p e n i n g t h e i n n i n g s w i t h M i c h a e l S m i t h . A s c a p t a i n b e t w e e n 1 9 7 1 a n d 1 9 8 2 , h e l e d M i d d l e s e x t o C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p s i n 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 7 ( j o i n t l y w i t h K e n t ) , 1 9 8 0 a n d 1 9 8 2 ; a n d h e a p p e a r e d i n F r e e F o r e s t e r s ' v e r y l a s t f i r s t - c l a s s f i x t u r e , i n 1 9 6 8 , k e e p i n g w i c k e t a n d s c o r i n g 9 1 . I n p a r t b e c a u s e o f h i s p u r s u i t o f a n a c a d e m i c c a r e e r a s a l e c t u r e r i n p h i l o s o p h y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w c a s t l e - u p o n - T y n e , w h i c h l i m i t e d h i s c r i c k e t i n g a c t i v i t y i n 1 9 6 9 a n d 1 9 7 0 , B r e a r l e y w a s n o t s e l e c t e d f o r E n g l a n d u n t i l t h e a g e o f 3 4 i n 1 9 7 6 . H i s r e c o r d i n T e s t c r i c k e t a s a b a t s m a n w a s m o d e s t ( h e a v e r a g e d 2 2 . 8 8 i n 6 6 T e s t i n n i n g s , w i t h o u t a c e n t u r y ) , b u t h e w a s a n o u t s t a n d i n g c a p t a i n . H e m a d e h i s h i g h e s t t e s t s c o r e o f 9 1 o n t o u r a g a i n s t I n d i a i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 7 . H a v i n g p r e v i o u s l y k e p t w i c k e t , h e w a s a l s o a f i n e s l i p c a t c h e r , u s u a l l y a t f i r s t s l i p . H e t o o k o v e r a s c a p t a i n o f E n g l a n d l a t e r i n 1 9 7 7 . H i s m a n a g e m e n t s k i l l s ( h e w a s o n c e d e s c r i b e d b y R o d n e y H o g g a s h a v i n g " a d e g r e e i n p e o p l e " ) d r e w t h e b e s t f r o m t h e p l a y e r s i n h i s t e a m , a l t h o u g h h e w a s f o r t u n a t e t o b e a b l e t o c a l l o n t h e s e r v i c e s o f B o b W i l l i s , D a v i d G o w e r a n d I a n B o t h a m a t t h e i r p e a k . B r e a r l e y w a s c a p t a i n d u r i n g t h e i n f a m o u s a l u m i n i u m b a t i n c i d e n t i n 1 9 7 9 , w h e n h e o b j e c t e d t o D e n n i s L i l l e e ' s u s e o f a m e t a l b a t i n s t e a d o f o n e m a d e o f w i l l o w . O n t h e s a m e t o u r , h e c a u s e d c o n t r o v e r s y a t t h e e n d o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l o n e - d a y m a t c h a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a t t h e S y d n e y C r i c k e t G r o u n d w h e n h e o r d e r e d a l l h i s f i e l d e r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e w i c k e t k e e p e r , t o t h e b o u n d a r y w i t h t h r e e r u n s r e q u i r e d o f f t h e l a s t b a l l ( t h i s w a s l e g a l b y t h e r u l e s o f t h e t i m e ) . I n a l l B o t h a m a n d W i l l i s t o o k 2 6 2 w i c k e t s d u r i n g t h e 3 1 t e s t m a t c h e s t h a t B r e a r l e y c a p t a i n e d . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f W i l l i s i n p a r t i c u l a r t o E n g l a n d l e d B r e a r l e y i n t o f u r t h e r c o n t r o v e r s i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e b o w l i n g o f s h o r t - p i t c h e d d e l i v e r i e s a t r e c o g n i s e d t a i l e n d b a t s m e n , d u r i n g P a k i s t a n ’ s t o u r o f E n g l a n d i n 1 9 7 8 , a n d m o r e b r i e f l y , d u r i n g E n g l a n d ' s 1 9 7 8 - 9 t o u r o f A u s t r a l i a . B r e a r l e y h i m s e l f h a d b e e n a n i n n o v a t o r r e g a r d i n g c r i c k e t e q u i p m e n t h i m s e l f , w e a r i n g a ' s k u l l c a p ' u n d e r h i s E n g l a n d c a p i n 1 9 7 7 ( i n t h e d a y s b e f o r e p l a y e r s w o r e h e l m e t s ) . I t c o n s i s t e d o f a p l a s t i c p r o t e c t o r w i t h t w o s i d e p i e c e s p r o t e c t i n g h i s t e m p l e s . I t w a s l a t e r p o p u l a r i s e d b y t h e I n d i a n b a t s m a n S u n i l G a v a s k a r . B r e a r l e y c a p t a i n e d E n g l a n d t o t h e f i n a l o f t h e 1 9 7 9 C r i c k e t W o r l d C u p , s c o r i n g 5 3 i n t h e s e m i - f i n a l a g a i n s t N e w Z e a l a n d a n d 6 4 i n t h e f i n a l a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s . H o w e v e r , h i s o p e n i n g p a r t n e r s h i p o f 1 2 9 w i t h G e o f f B o y c o t t i n t h e f i n a l u s e d u p 3 8 o f 6 0 a l l o t t e d o v e r s ; a l t h o u g h i t w a s r e c o g n i s e d t h a t a p o t e n t p a c e a t t a c k o f A n d y R o b e r t s , M i c h a e l H o l d i n g , C o l i n C r o f t a n d J o e l G a r n e r n e e d e d t o b e c o u n t e r e d , t h e s p e e d o f t h e p a r t n e r s h i p g r e a t l y a d d e d t o t h e p r e s s u r e o n t h e r e s t o f t h e o r d e r . G a r n e r b o w l e d a s p e l l o f 5 w i c k e t s f o r 4 r u n s t o i n d u c e a d r a s t i c c o l l a p s e a n d h a n d t h e W e s t I n d i e s t h e m a t c h a n d t h e W o r l d C u p b y 9 2 r u n s . H a v i n g p a s s e d t h e E n g l a n d c a p t a i n c y t o I a n B o t h a m i n 1 9 8 0 ( l o s i n g h i s T e s t p l a c e i n t h e p r o c e s s ) , B r e a r l e y r e t u r n e d a s c a p t a i n f o l l o w i n g B o t h a m ' s r e s i g n a t i o n f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a a t H e a d i n g l e y i n 1 9 8 1 , g o i n g o n t o w i n t h e m a t c h a n d t w o o f t h e r e m a i n i n g t h r e e m a t c h e s o f t h e s e r i e s t o w i n t h e A s h e s 3 – 1 . H i s l e a d e r s h i p b e n e f i t e d f r o m B o t h a m ' s r e c o v e r e d f o r m f o l l o w i n g h i s w i n l e s s c a p t a i n c y r e c o r d a n d h i s n o s e d i v e i n f o r m ( h e h a d m a d e a p a i r i n t h e s e c o n d T e s t a t L o r d ' s ) t o t a k e a f i r s t - i n n i n g s 6 f o r 9 5 a n d s c o r e 5 0 a n d 1 4 9 n o t o u t i n t h e t h i r d T e s t a t H e a d i n g l e y , b o w l a s p e l l o f 5 w i c k e t s f o r 1 r u n i n t h e f o u r t h T e s t a t E d g b a s t o n , s c o r e 1 1 8 f r o m 1 0 2 b a l l s i n t h e f i f t h T e s t a t O l d T r a f f o r d , a n d t a k e a 1 0 - w i c k e t m a t c h h a u l ( 6 f o r 1 2 5 a n d 4 f o r 1 2 8 ) i n t h e s i x t h T e s t a t t h e O v a l . I n s p i t e o f h i s l i m i t e d r e p u t a t i o n a s a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a t s m a n , B r e a r l e y a l s o m a d e a n i m p o r t a n t i f l e s s h i g h - p r o f i l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e f o u r t h t e s t , s c o r i n g m o r e r u n s t h a n a n y o t h e r b a t s m a n ( 6 1 ) i n a m a t c h w h i c h E n g l a n d w o n b y 2 9 r u n s . B r e a r l e y o p p o s e d s p o r t i n g l i n k s w i t h a p a r t h e i d S o u t h A f r i c a , s e c o n d i n g a m o t i o n t o t h e M C C i n 1 9 6 8 c a l l i n g f o r t h e c e s s a t i o n o f t o u r s u n t i l t h e r e w a s a c t u a l p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s n o n - r a c i a l c r i c k e t . H e s e c o n d e d t h e m o t i o n f r o m D a v i d S h e p p a r d t o t h e M C C , c a l l i n g f o r t h e E n g l a n d t o u r t o S o u t h A f r i c a t o b e c a n c e l l e d , a n d w a s a s u p p o r t e r o f J o h n A r l o t t w h o c a m p a i g n e d i n " T h e G u a r d i a n " f o r t h e s a m e o b j e c t i v e . H e i s n o w a p s y c h o a n a l y s t , p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t ( r e g i s t e r e d w i t h t h e B P C ) , m o t i v a t i o n a l s p e a k e r , a n d p a r t - t i m e c r i c k e t j o u r n a l i s t f o r " T h e T i m e s " . H e w a s a p p o i n t e d a n O B E i n 1 9 7 8 , a n d p u b l i s h e d " T h e A r t o f C a p t a i n c y " i n 1 9 8 5 . H e p u b l i s h e d a n o t h e r b o o k , " O n F o r m " , i n 2 0 1 7 . I n 1 9 9 8 , h e b e c a m e a n H o n o r a r y F e l l o w o f h i s C a m b r i d g e c o l l e g e , S t . J o h n ' s a n d i n 2 0 0 6 w a s a w a r d e d a n h o n o r a r y d o c t o r a t e b y O x f o r d B r o o k e s U n i v e r s i t y . B r e a r l e y s u c c e e d e d D o u g I n s o l e a s P r e s i d e n t o f M C C o n 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 , a n d c h o s e D e r e k U n d e r w o o d t o s u c c e e d h i m a t t h e e n d o f h i s t e r m . H e w a s p r e s i d e n t o f t h e B r i t i s h P s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l S o c i e t y , 2 0 0 8 – 1 0 .

International cricket

Mike Brearley, a renowned English cricketer, played for Cambridge University and Middlesex County Cricket Club. He captained Middlesex to four County Championships and led England to several victories, including the Ashes in 1981. Despite being a modest batsman, Brearley was an exceptional captain, known for his man-management skills and ability to get the best out of his players. He also made significant contributions to cricket journalism and has written books on the sport. Off the field, Brearley is a psychoanalyst, motivational speaker, and has held various honorary positions, including President of the Marylebone Cricket Club.

Brearley was educated at the City of London School (where his father Horace, himself a first-class cricketer, was a master). While at St. John's College, Cambridge, Brearley excelled at cricket (he was then a wicketkeeper/batsman). After making 76 on his first-class debut as a wicketkeeper, he played for Cambridge University between 1961 and 1968 (captaining the side from 1964 onwards), first as an undergraduate in the Classical and Moral Sciences tripos, and then as a postgraduate. While still at Cambridge, he was chosen for the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) tour to South Africa in 1964–65, and to captain the MCC Under-25 side in Pakistan in 1966–67, where he scored 312 not out against North Zone (his highest first-class score) and 223 against the Pakistan Under-25 side he ended the tour with 793 runs from six matches at an average of 132. From 1961 onwards, he played for Middlesex County Cricket Club, often opening the innings with Michael Smith. As captain between 1971 and 1982, he led Middlesex to County Championships in 1976, 1977 (jointly with Kent), 1980 and 1982; and he appeared in Free Foresters' very last first-class fixture, in 1968, keeping wicket and scoring 91. In part because of his pursuit of an academic career as a lecturer in philosophy at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, which limited his cricketing activity in 1969 and 1970, Brearley was not selected for England until the age of 34 in 1976. His record in Test cricket as a batsman was modest (he averaged 22.88 in 66 Test innings, without a century), but he was an outstanding captain. He made his highest test score of 91 on tour against India in February 1977. Having previously kept wicket, he was also a fine slip catcher, usually at first slip. He took over as captain of England later in 1977. His management skills (he was once described by Rodney Hogg as having "a degree in people") drew the best from the players in his team, although he was fortunate to be able to call on the services of Bob Willis, David Gower and Ian Botham at their peak. Brearley was captain during the infamous aluminium bat incident in 1979, when he objected to Dennis Lillee's use of a metal bat instead of one made of willow. On the same tour, he caused controversy at the end of an international one-day match against the West Indies at the Sydney Cricket Ground when he ordered all his fielders, including the wicketkeeper, to the boundary with three runs required off the last ball (this was legal by the rules of the time). In all Botham and Willis took 262 wickets during the 31 test matches that Brearley captained. The importance of Willis in particular to England led Brearley into further controversies regarding the bowling of short-pitched deliveries at recognised tailend batsmen, during Pakistan’s tour of England in 1978, and more briefly, during England's 1978-9 tour of Australia. Brearley himself had been an innovator regarding cricket equipment himself, wearing a 'skull cap' under his England cap in 1977 (in the days before players wore helmets). It consisted of a plastic protector with two side pieces protecting his temples. It was later popularised by the Indian batsman Sunil Gavaskar. Brearley captained England to the final of the 1979 Cricket World Cup, scoring 53 in the semi-final against New Zealand and 64 in the final against the West Indies. However, his opening partnership of 129 with Geoff Boycott in the final used up 38 of 60 allotted overs; although it was recognised that a potent pace attack of Andy Roberts, Michael Holding, Colin Croft and Joel Garner needed to be countered, the speed of the partnership greatly added to the pressure on the rest of the order. Garner bowled a spell of 5 wickets for 4 runs to induce a drastic collapse and hand the West Indies the match and the World Cup by 92 runs. Having passed the England captaincy to Ian Botham in 1980 (losing his Test place in the process), Brearley returned as captain following Botham's resignation for the third Test against Australia at Headingley in 1981, going on to win the match and two of the remaining three matches of the series to win the Ashes 3–1. His leadership benefited from Botham's recovered form following his winless captaincy record and his nosedive in form (he had made a pair in the second Test at Lord's) to take a first-innings 6 for 95 and score 50 and 149 not out in the third Test at Headingley, bowl a spell of 5 wickets for 1 run in the fourth Test at Edgbaston, score 118 from 102 balls in the fifth Test at Old Trafford, and take a 10-wicket match haul (6 for 125 and 4 for 128) in the sixth Test at the Oval. In spite of his limited reputation as an international batsman, Brearley also made an important if less high-profile contribution to the fourth test, scoring more runs than any other batsman (61) in a match which England won by 29 runs. Brearley opposed sporting links with apartheid South Africa, seconding a motion to the MCC in 1968 calling for the cessation of tours until there was actual progress towards non-racial cricket. He seconded the motion from David Sheppard to the MCC, calling for the England tour to South Africa to be cancelled, and was a supporter of John Arlott who campaigned in "The Guardian" for the same objective. He is now a psychoanalyst, psychotherapist (registered with the BPC), motivational speaker, and part-time cricket journalist for "The Times". He was appointed an OBE in 1978, and published "The Art of Captaincy" in 1985. He published another book, "On Form", in 2017. In 1998, he became an Honorary Fellow of his Cambridge college, St. John's and in 2006 was awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford Brookes University. Brearley succeeded Doug Insole as President of MCC on 1 October 2007, and chose Derek Underwood to succeed him at the end of his term. He was president of the British Psychoanalytical Society, 2008–10.