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Mike Brearley

B r e a r l e y w a s e d u c a t e d a t t h e C i t y o f L o n d o n S c h o o l ( w h e r e h i s f a t h e r H o r a c e , h i m s e l f a f i r s t - c l a s s c r i c k e t e r , w a s a m a s t e r ) . W h i l e a t S t . J o h n ' s C o l l e g e , C a m b r i d g e , B r e a r l e y e x c e l l e d a t c r i c k e t ( h e w a s t h e n a w i c k e t k e e p e r / b a t s m a n ) . A f t e r m a k i n g 7 6 o n h i s f i r s t - c l a s s d e b u t a s a w i c k e t k e e p e r , h e p l a y e d f o r C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y b e t w e e n 1 9 6 1 a n d 1 9 6 8 ( c a p t a i n i n g t h e s i d e f r o m 1 9 6 4 o n w a r d s ) , f i r s t a s a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e i n t h e C l a s s i c a l a n d M o r a l S c i e n c e s t r i p o s , a n d t h e n a s a p o s t g r a d u a t e . W h i l e s t i l l a t C a m b r i d g e , h e w a s c h o s e n f o r t h e M a r y l e b o n e C r i c k e t C l u b ( M C C ) t o u r t o S o u t h A f r i c a i n 1 9 6 4 – 6 5 , a n d t o c a p t a i n t h e M C C U n d e r - 2 5 s i d e i n P a k i s t a n i n 1 9 6 6 – 6 7 , w h e r e h e s c o r e d 3 1 2 n o t o u t a g a i n s t N o r t h Z o n e ( h i s h i g h e s t f i r s t - c l a s s s c o r e ) a n d 2 2 3 a g a i n s t t h e P a k i s t a n U n d e r - 2 5 s i d e h e e n d e d t h e t o u r w i t h 7 9 3 r u n s f r o m s i x m a t c h e s a t a n a v e r a g e o f 1 3 2 . F r o m 1 9 6 1 o n w a r d s , h e p l a y e d f o r M i d d l e s e x C o u n t y C r i c k e t C l u b , o f t e n o p e n i n g t h e i n n i n g s w i t h M i c h a e l S m i t h . A s c a p t a i n b e t w e e n 1 9 7 1 a n d 1 9 8 2 , h e l e d M i d d l e s e x t o C o u n t y C h a m p i o n s h i p s i n 1 9 7 6 , 1 9 7 7 ( j o i n t l y w i t h K e n t ) , 1 9 8 0 a n d 1 9 8 2 ; a n d h e a p p e a r e d i n F r e e F o r e s t e r s ' v e r y l a s t f i r s t - c l a s s f i x t u r e , i n 1 9 6 8 , k e e p i n g w i c k e t a n d s c o r i n g 9 1 . I n p a r t b e c a u s e o f h i s p u r s u i t o f a n a c a d e m i c c a r e e r a s a l e c t u r e r i n p h i l o s o p h y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N e w c a s t l e - u p o n - T y n e , w h i c h l i m i t e d h i s c r i c k e t i n g a c t i v i t y i n 1 9 6 9 a n d 1 9 7 0 , B r e a r l e y w a s n o t s e l e c t e d f o r E n g l a n d u n t i l t h e a g e o f 3 4 i n 1 9 7 6 . H i s r e c o r d i n T e s t c r i c k e t a s a b a t s m a n w a s m o d e s t ( h e a v e r a g e d 2 2 . 8 8 i n 6 6 T e s t i n n i n g s , w i t h o u t a c e n t u r y ) , b u t h e w a s a n o u t s t a n d i n g c a p t a i n . H e m a d e h i s h i g h e s t t e s t s c o r e o f 9 1 o n t o u r a g a i n s t I n d i a i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 7 . H a v i n g p r e v i o u s l y k e p t w i c k e t , h e w a s a l s o a f i n e s l i p c a t c h e r , u s u a l l y a t f i r s t s l i p . H e t o o k o v e r a s c a p t a i n o f E n g l a n d l a t e r i n 1 9 7 7 . H i s m a n a g e m e n t s k i l l s ( h e w a s o n c e d e s c r i b e d b y R o d n e y H o g g a s h a v i n g " a d e g r e e i n p e o p l e " ) d r e w t h e b e s t f r o m t h e p l a y e r s i n h i s t e a m , a l t h o u g h h e w a s f o r t u n a t e t o b e a b l e t o c a l l o n t h e s e r v i c e s o f B o b W i l l i s , D a v i d G o w e r a n d I a n B o t h a m a t t h e i r p e a k . B r e a r l e y w a s c a p t a i n d u r i n g t h e i n f a m o u s a l u m i n i u m b a t i n c i d e n t i n 1 9 7 9 , w h e n h e o b j e c t e d t o D e n n i s L i l l e e ' s u s e o f a m e t a l b a t i n s t e a d o f o n e m a d e o f w i l l o w . O n t h e s a m e t o u r , h e c a u s e d c o n t r o v e r s y a t t h e e n d o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l o n e - d a y m a t c h a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s a t t h e S y d n e y C r i c k e t G r o u n d w h e n h e o r d e r e d a l l h i s f i e l d e r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e w i c k e t k e e p e r , t o t h e b o u n d a r y w i t h t h r e e r u n s r e q u i r e d o f f t h e l a s t b a l l ( t h i s w a s l e g a l b y t h e r u l e s o f t h e t i m e ) . I n a l l B o t h a m a n d W i l l i s t o o k 2 6 2 w i c k e t s d u r i n g t h e 3 1 t e s t m a t c h e s t h a t B r e a r l e y c a p t a i n e d . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f W i l l i s i n p a r t i c u l a r t o E n g l a n d l e d B r e a r l e y i n t o f u r t h e r c o n t r o v e r s i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e b o w l i n g o f s h o r t - p i t c h e d d e l i v e r i e s a t r e c o g n i s e d t a i l e n d b a t s m e n , d u r i n g P a k i s t a n ’ s t o u r o f E n g l a n d i n 1 9 7 8 , a n d m o r e b r i e f l y , d u r i n g E n g l a n d ' s 1 9 7 8 - 9 t o u r o f A u s t r a l i a . B r e a r l e y h i m s e l f h a d b e e n a n i n n o v a t o r r e g a r d i n g c r i c k e t e q u i p m e n t h i m s e l f , w e a r i n g a ' s k u l l c a p ' u n d e r h i s E n g l a n d c a p i n 1 9 7 7 ( i n t h e d a y s b e f o r e p l a y e r s w o r e h e l m e t s ) . I t c o n s i s t e d o f a p l a s t i c p r o t e c t o r w i t h t w o s i d e p i e c e s p r o t e c t i n g h i s t e m p l e s . I t w a s l a t e r p o p u l a r i s e d b y t h e I n d i a n b a t s m a n S u n i l G a v a s k a r . B r e a r l e y c a p t a i n e d E n g l a n d t o t h e f i n a l o f t h e 1 9 7 9 C r i c k e t W o r l d C u p , s c o r i n g 5 3 i n t h e s e m i - f i n a l a g a i n s t N e w Z e a l a n d a n d 6 4 i n t h e f i n a l a g a i n s t t h e W e s t I n d i e s . H o w e v e r , h i s o p e n i n g p a r t n e r s h i p o f 1 2 9 w i t h G e o f f B o y c o t t i n t h e f i n a l u s e d u p 3 8 o f 6 0 a l l o t t e d o v e r s ; a l t h o u g h i t w a s r e c o g n i s e d t h a t a p o t e n t p a c e a t t a c k o f A n d y R o b e r t s , M i c h a e l H o l d i n g , C o l i n C r o f t a n d J o e l G a r n e r n e e d e d t o b e c o u n t e r e d , t h e s p e e d o f t h e p a r t n e r s h i p g r e a t l y a d d e d t o t h e p r e s s u r e o n t h e r e s t o f t h e o r d e r . G a r n e r b o w l e d a s p e l l o f 5 w i c k e t s f o r 4 r u n s t o i n d u c e a d r a s t i c c o l l a p s e a n d h a n d t h e W e s t I n d i e s t h e m a t c h a n d t h e W o r l d C u p b y 9 2 r u n s . H a v i n g p a s s e d t h e E n g l a n d c a p t a i n c y t o I a n B o t h a m i n 1 9 8 0 ( l o s i n g h i s T e s t p l a c e i n t h e p r o c e s s ) , B r e a r l e y r e t u r n e d a s c a p t a i n f o l l o w i n g B o t h a m ' s r e s i g n a t i o n f o r t h e t h i r d T e s t a g a i n s t A u s t r a l i a a t H e a d i n g l e y i n 1 9 8 1 , g o i n g o n t o w i n t h e m a t c h a n d t w o o f t h e r e m a i n i n g t h r e e m a t c h e s o f t h e s e r i e s t o w i n t h e A s h e s 3 – 1 . H i s l e a d e r s h i p b e n e f i t e d f r o m B o t h a m ' s r e c o v e r e d f o r m f o l l o w i n g h i s w i n l e s s c a p t a i n c y r e c o r d a n d h i s n o s e d i v e i n f o r m ( h e h a d m a d e a p a i r i n t h e s e c o n d T e s t a t L o r d ' s ) t o t a k e a f i r s t - i n n i n g s 6 f o r 9 5 a n d s c o r e 5 0 a n d 1 4 9 n o t o u t i n t h e t h i r d T e s t a t H e a d i n g l e y , b o w l a s p e l l o f 5 w i c k e t s f o r 1 r u n i n t h e f o u r t h T e s t a t E d g b a s t o n , s c o r e 1 1 8 f r o m 1 0 2 b a l l s i n t h e f i f t h T e s t a t O l d T r a f f o r d , a n d t a k e a 1 0 - w i c k e t m a t c h h a u l ( 6 f o r 1 2 5 a n d 4 f o r 1 2 8 ) i n t h e s i x t h T e s t a t t h e O v a l . I n s p i t e o f h i s l i m i t e d r e p u t a t i o n a s a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a t s m a n , B r e a r l e y a l s o m a d e a n i m p o r t a n t i f l e s s h i g h - p r o f i l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e f o u r t h t e s t , s c o r i n g m o r e r u n s t h a n a n y o t h e r b a t s m a n ( 6 1 ) i n a m a t c h w h i c h E n g l a n d w o n b y 2 9 r u n s . B r e a r l e y o p p o s e d s p o r t i n g l i n k s w i t h a p a r t h e i d S o u t h A f r i c a , s e c o n d i n g a m o t i o n t o t h e M C C i n 1 9 6 8 c a l l i n g f o r t h e c e s s a t i o n o f t o u r s u n t i l t h e r e w a s a c t u a l p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s n o n - r a c i a l c r i c k e t . H e s e c o n d e d t h e m o t i o n f r o m D a v i d S h e p p a r d t o t h e M C C , c a l l i n g f o r t h e E n g l a n d t o u r t o S o u t h A f r i c a t o b e c a n c e l l e d , a n d w a s a s u p p o r t e r o f J o h n A r l o t t w h o c a m p a i g n e d i n " T h e G u a r d i a n " f o r t h e s a m e o b j e c t i v e . H e i s n o w a p s y c h o a n a l y s t , p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t ( r e g i s t e r e d w i t h t h e B P C ) , m o t i v a t i o n a l s p e a k e r , a n d p a r t - t i m e c r i c k e t j o u r n a l i s t f o r " T h e T i m e s " . H e w a s a p p o i n t e d a n O B E i n 1 9 7 8 , a n d p u b l i s h e d " T h e A r t o f C a p t a i n c y " i n 1 9 8 5 . H e p u b l i s h e d a n o t h e r b o o k , " O n F o r m " , i n 2 0 1 7 . I n 1 9 9 8 , h e b e c a m e a n H o n o r a r y F e l l o w o f h i s C a m b r i d g e c o l l e g e , S t . J o h n ' s a n d i n 2 0 0 6 w a s a w a r d e d a n h o n o r a r y d o c t o r a t e b y O x f o r d B r o o k e s U n i v e r s i t y . B r e a r l e y s u c c e e d e d D o u g I n s o l e a s P r e s i d e n t o f M C C o n 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 0 7 , a n d c h o s e D e r e k U n d e r w o o d t o s u c c e e d h i m a t t h e e n d o f h i s t e r m . H e w a s p r e s i d e n t o f t h e B r i t i s h P s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l S o c i e t y , 2 0 0 8 – 1 0 .

Post-cricket career

After retiring from cricket, Mike Brearley pursued a career in academia, becoming a lecturer in philosophy at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. He later transitioned into a career as a psychoanalyst, psychotherapist, and motivational speaker. Brearley has written two books, "The Art of Captaincy" in 1985 and "On Form" in 2017. He has also held various honorary positions, including President of the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) from 2007 to 2008 and President of the British Psychoanalytical Society from 2008 to 2010.

Brearley was educated at the City of London School (where his father Horace, himself a first-class cricketer, was a master). While at St. John's College, Cambridge, Brearley excelled at cricket (he was then a wicketkeeper/batsman). After making 76 on his first-class debut as a wicketkeeper, he played for Cambridge University between 1961 and 1968 (captaining the side from 1964 onwards), first as an undergraduate in the Classical and Moral Sciences tripos, and then as a postgraduate. While still at Cambridge, he was chosen for the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) tour to South Africa in 1964–65, and to captain the MCC Under-25 side in Pakistan in 1966–67, where he scored 312 not out against North Zone (his highest first-class score) and 223 against the Pakistan Under-25 side he ended the tour with 793 runs from six matches at an average of 132. From 1961 onwards, he played for Middlesex County Cricket Club, often opening the innings with Michael Smith. As captain between 1971 and 1982, he led Middlesex to County Championships in 1976, 1977 (jointly with Kent), 1980 and 1982; and he appeared in Free Foresters' very last first-class fixture, in 1968, keeping wicket and scoring 91. In part because of his pursuit of an academic career as a lecturer in philosophy at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, which limited his cricketing activity in 1969 and 1970, Brearley was not selected for England until the age of 34 in 1976. His record in Test cricket as a batsman was modest (he averaged 22.88 in 66 Test innings, without a century), but he was an outstanding captain. He made his highest test score of 91 on tour against India in February 1977. Having previously kept wicket, he was also a fine slip catcher, usually at first slip. He took over as captain of England later in 1977. His management skills (he was once described by Rodney Hogg as having "a degree in people") drew the best from the players in his team, although he was fortunate to be able to call on the services of Bob Willis, David Gower and Ian Botham at their peak. Brearley was captain during the infamous aluminium bat incident in 1979, when he objected to Dennis Lillee's use of a metal bat instead of one made of willow. On the same tour, he caused controversy at the end of an international one-day match against the West Indies at the Sydney Cricket Ground when he ordered all his fielders, including the wicketkeeper, to the boundary with three runs required off the last ball (this was legal by the rules of the time). In all Botham and Willis took 262 wickets during the 31 test matches that Brearley captained. The importance of Willis in particular to England led Brearley into further controversies regarding the bowling of short-pitched deliveries at recognised tailend batsmen, during Pakistan’s tour of England in 1978, and more briefly, during England's 1978-9 tour of Australia. Brearley himself had been an innovator regarding cricket equipment himself, wearing a 'skull cap' under his England cap in 1977 (in the days before players wore helmets). It consisted of a plastic protector with two side pieces protecting his temples. It was later popularised by the Indian batsman Sunil Gavaskar. Brearley captained England to the final of the 1979 Cricket World Cup, scoring 53 in the semi-final against New Zealand and 64 in the final against the West Indies. However, his opening partnership of 129 with Geoff Boycott in the final used up 38 of 60 allotted overs; although it was recognised that a potent pace attack of Andy Roberts, Michael Holding, Colin Croft and Joel Garner needed to be countered, the speed of the partnership greatly added to the pressure on the rest of the order. Garner bowled a spell of 5 wickets for 4 runs to induce a drastic collapse and hand the West Indies the match and the World Cup by 92 runs. Having passed the England captaincy to Ian Botham in 1980 (losing his Test place in the process), Brearley returned as captain following Botham's resignation for the third Test against Australia at Headingley in 1981, going on to win the match and two of the remaining three matches of the series to win the Ashes 3–1. His leadership benefited from Botham's recovered form following his winless captaincy record and his nosedive in form (he had made a pair in the second Test at Lord's) to take a first-innings 6 for 95 and score 50 and 149 not out in the third Test at Headingley, bowl a spell of 5 wickets for 1 run in the fourth Test at Edgbaston, score 118 from 102 balls in the fifth Test at Old Trafford, and take a 10-wicket match haul (6 for 125 and 4 for 128) in the sixth Test at the Oval. In spite of his limited reputation as an international batsman, Brearley also made an important if less high-profile contribution to the fourth test, scoring more runs than any other batsman (61) in a match which England won by 29 runs. Brearley opposed sporting links with apartheid South Africa, seconding a motion to the MCC in 1968 calling for the cessation of tours until there was actual progress towards non-racial cricket. He seconded the motion from David Sheppard to the MCC, calling for the England tour to South Africa to be cancelled, and was a supporter of John Arlott who campaigned in "The Guardian" for the same objective. He is now a psychoanalyst, psychotherapist (registered with the BPC), motivational speaker, and part-time cricket journalist for "The Times". He was appointed an OBE in 1978, and published "The Art of Captaincy" in 1985. He published another book, "On Form", in 2017. In 1998, he became an Honorary Fellow of his Cambridge college, St. John's and in 2006 was awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford Brookes University. Brearley succeeded Doug Insole as President of MCC on 1 October 2007, and chose Derek Underwood to succeed him at the end of his term. He was president of the British Psychoanalytical Society, 2008–10.

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J e t 2 . c o m L i m i t e d i s a s u b s i d i a r y o f J e t 2 p l c , a n a v i a t i o n s e r v i c e s g r o u p . T h e a i r l i n e b e g a n o p e r a t i n g c o m m e r c i a l a i r c r a f t i n 1 9 8 3 u n d e r t h e n a m e C h a n n e l E x p r e s s , w h e n i t w a s p u r c h a s e d b y t h e D a r t G r o u p ' s c u r r e n t E x e c u t i v e C h a i r m a n , P h i l i p M e e s o n . I n i t i a l l y , a f r e i g h t o p e r a t o r , f r o m 2 0 0 1 t h e a i r l i n e a l s o b e g a n o p e r a t i n g p a s s e n g e r c h a r t e r s e r v i c e s u s i n g B o e i n g a i r c r a f t t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e s t i n a t i o n s o n m a i n l y s h o r t a n d m e d i u m - h a u l r o u t e s . I n 2 0 0 2 , C h a n n e l E x p r e s s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e J e t 2 . c o m b r a n d f r o m L e e d s B r a d f o r d I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t . T h e r e - b r a n d e d J e t 2 . c o m b e g a n o p e r a t i n g a s a l e i s u r e a i r l i n e w i t h i t s f i r s t f l i g h t f r o m L e e d s B r a d f o r d t o A m s t e r d a m o n 1 2 F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 3 , w h i c h o p e r a t e d a t w i c e - d a i l y r o t a t i o n w i t h t w o B o e i n g 7 3 7 - 3 0 0 a i r c r a f t . D u r i n g 2 0 0 3 , f u r t h e r s c h e d u l e d f l i g h t s w e r e l a u n c h e d t o s e v e n E u r o p e a n s u n a n d c i t y b r e a k d e s t i n a t i o n s . I n 2 0 0 4 , a s e c o n d b a s e w a s o p e n e d a t M a n c h e s t e r A i r p o r t w i t h t h e a i r l i n e o p e r a t i n g f r o m T e r m i n a l 1 . T h e a i r l i n e a l s o a c q u i r e d f u r t h e r B o e i n g 7 3 7 a n d 7 5 7 a i r c r a f t a n d o p e n e d a b a s e a t B e l f a s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t . I n 2 0 0 5 , J e t 2 . c o m o p e n e d a t h i r d b a s e a t N e w c a s t l e . L a t e r i n t h e y e a r , t h e c o m p a n y a c q u i r e d t w o B o e i n g 7 5 7 - 2 0 0 a i r c r a f t , e n a b l i n g i t t o f l y m e d i u m - l o n g h a u l d e s t i n a t i o n s a s w e l l a s c a r r y i n g m o r e p a s s e n g e r s o n p o p u l a r e x i s t i n g r o u t e s . T h e s e a i r c r a f t h e l p e d t h e c o m p a n y t o o p e n t w o m o r e b a s e s a t B l a c k p o o l a n d E d i n b u r g h . I n 2 0 0 6 t h e c o m p a n y r e l o c a t e d f r o m B o u r n e m o u t h t o L e e d s a n d w a s r e n a m e d J e t 2 . c o m L i m i t e d . I n N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 8 J e t 2 . c o m c h a n g e d i t s s l o g a n f r o m " T h e N o r t h ' s L o w C o s t A i r l i n e " t o " F r i e n d l y L o w F a r e s " . T h i s p r e c e d e d t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f o p e n i n g a h u b a t E a s t M i d l a n d s A i r p o r t , t h e f i r s t o f t h e a i r l i n e ' s h u b s o u t s i d e t h e N o r t h o f E n g l a n d a n d S c o t l a n d . T h e b a s e a t E a s t M i d l a n d s A i r p o r t o p e n e d i n M a y 2 0 1 0 . D u r i n g N o v e m b e r a n d D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 8 t h e a i r l i n e o p e r a t e d f o u r d i r e c t f l i g h t s f r o m L e e d s B r a d f o r d t o N e w a r k L i b e r t y I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t u s i n g B o e i n g 7 5 7 - 2 0 0 s , w i t h a s e r i e s o f f l i g h t s a l s o p l a n n e d f r o m b o t h L e e d s B r a d f o r d a n d N e w c a s t l e d u r i n g D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 0 . O n c e a g a i n , J e t 2 . c o m r e - i n t r o d u c e d s e a s o n a l C h r i s t m a s f l i g h t s t o N e w Y o r k d u r i n g t h e 2 0 1 2 w i n t e r s e a s o n , h o w e v e r , t h i s t i m e f l i g h t s w o u l d o p e r a t e f r o m G l a s g o w , E a s t M i d l a n d s a n d N e w c a s t l e , i n a d d i t i o n t o L e e d s . T h e s e a s o n a l f l i g h t s t o N e w Y o r k h a v e c o n t i n u e d a n n u a l l y a n d n o w r u n f r o m f i v e o f i t s U K b a s e s . I n 2 0 1 0 , t h e a i r l i n e a n n o u n c e d a n e i g h t h b a s e a t G l a s g o w A i r p o r t w o u l d b e o p e n e d i n A p r i l 2 0 1 1 , w i t h a n i n i t i a l n i n e r o u t e s . T h e b a s e w a s o p e n e d o n 3 1 M a r c h , s l i g h t l y e a r l i e r t h a n s c h e d u l e d . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 1 , t h e a i r l i n e i n t r o d u c e d s e c o n d - h a n d B o e i n g 7 3 7 - 8 0 0 a i r c r a f t i n t o i t s f l e e t . T h i s p r o v i d e d a i r c r a f t l a r g e r t h a n i t s e x i s t i n g 7 3 7 - 3 0 0 s y e t s m a l l e r t h a n i t s 7 5 7 - 2 0 0 a i r c r a f t . J e t 2 . c o m c a r r i e d o v e r 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 p a s s e n g e r s i n i t s f i r s t y e a r o f o p e r a t i o n a n d o v e r n i n e m i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s d u r i n g 2 0 1 7 ; i t s h i g h e s t r e c o r d e d t o t a l . O n 1 7 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , t h e a i r l i n e r e c e i v e d i t s f i r s t b r a n d n e w B o e i n g 7 3 7 - 8 0 0 o f t h e o r d e r f o r t h i r t y m a d e i n 2 0 1 5 . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , J e t 2 . c o m a n n o u n c e d i t w o u l d b e g i n o p e r a t i o n s f r o m B i r m i n g h a m A i r p o r t a n d L o n d o n S t a n s t e d A i r p o r t ( t h e a i r l i n e ' s f i r s t b a s e i n s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d ) i n M a r c h 2 0 1 7 . I n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , J e t 2 . c o m o p e n e d i t s n e w m a i n t e n a n c e h a n g a r a t M a n c h e s t e r A i r p o r t . I n D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , J e t 2 . c o m a n n o u n c e d t h a t i t h a d o r d e r e d a f u r t h e r f o u r B o e i n g 7 3 7 - 8 0 0 a i r c r a f t , b r i n g i n g t h e t o t a l o n o r d e r t o 3 4 . I n 2 0 1 9 , J e t 2 . c o m r e c e i v e d d e l i v e r y o f i t s 3 4 t h n e w B o e i n g 7 3 7 - 8 0 0 a i r c r a f t , t a k i n g i t s p e r m a n e n t a n d l e a s e d f l e e t s i z e t o o v e r 1 0 0 a i r c r a f t . A l s o i n 2 0 1 9 J e t 2 . c o m c a r r i e d a r e c o r d 1 4 . 3 9 m i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s o n 8 2 , 9 3 1 f l i g h t s . T h i s w a s a n i n c r e a s e o f o v e r 1 8 % o v e r t h e y e a r p r i o r . O w i n g t o t h e C O V I D - 1 9 p a n d e m i c ' s i m p a c t o n a v i a t i o n , J e t 2 . c o m a n n o u n c e d t h e y w e r e s u s p e n d i n g f l i g h t o p e r a t i o n s u n t i l a t l e a s t 1 5 J u l y 2 0 2 0 . T h e a i r l i n e c o n t i n u e d t o o p e r a t e r e p a t r i a t i o n f l i g h t s f o r B r i t i s h c i t i z e n s o v e r s e a s . O n 1 7 A u g 2 0 2 0 , J e t 2 a n n o u n c e d v i a B A L P A , t h a t t h e y w o u l d b e l a y i n g o f f 1 0 2 p i l o t s f r o m v a r i o u s U K b a s e s , d u e t o t h e C O V I D - 1 9 p a n d e m i c . O n 1 1 N o v e m b e r 2 0 2 0 , J e t 2 . c o m & J e t 2 h o l i d a y s a n n o u n c e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d o p e n t h e i r t e n t h U K b a s e a t B r i s t o l A i r p o r t o n 1 J u l y 2 0 2 1 , o p e r a t i n g t o 3 3 d e s t i n a t i o n s . I n J u n e 2 0 2 1 , J e t 2 . c o m a n n o u n c e d t h a t i t h a d p u s h e d b a c k a p l a n n e d r e s t a r t o f o p e r a t i o n s t o 1 J u l y 2 0 2 1 i n t h e w a k e o f t h e l a t e s t c h a n g e s t o g o v e r n m e n t t r a v e l r e g u l a t i o n s . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 2 1 , J e t 2 . c o m a n n o u n c e d a n o r d e r f o r 3 6 A i r b u s A 3 2 1 n e o a i r c r a f t , p l u s 2 4 o p t i o n s , t o t a l l i n g p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r f o r 6 0 p l a n e s . A l t h o u g h J e t 2 h a s o p e r a t e d a s m a l l n u m b e r o f A i r b u s j e t s o n l e a s e t o c o p e w i t h s u m m e r d e m a n d , t h i s i s A i r b u s ' f i r s t d i r e c t o r d e r f r o m J e t 2 , a n d a s h i f t a w a y f r o m t h e c o m p a n y ' s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a l l - B o e i n g f l e e t . I n 2 0 0 7 , s i s t e r c o m p a n y J e t 2 h o l i d a y s w a s l a u n c h e d o f f e r i n g p a c k a g e h o l i d a y s . O n 2 9 A p r i l 2 0 1 5 , s i s t e r c o m p a n y J e t 2 C i t y B r e a k s w a s l a u n c h e d . I n J u n e 2 0 1 7 , J e t 2 . c o m l a u n c h e d J e t 2 V i l l a s t h r o u g h i t s J e t 2 h o l i d a y s b r a n d . J e t 2 . c o m i s w h o l l y o w n e d b y J e t 2 p l c ( f o r m e r l y D a r t G r o u p P L C ) , a h o l d i n g c o m p a n y b a s e d i n L e e d s , E n g l a n d . I t s h e a d o f f i c e i s l o c a t e d i n t h e L o w F a r e F i n d e r H o u s e o n t h e g r o u n d s o f L e e d s B r a d f o r d A i r p o r t . J e t 2 . c o m ' s R e g i s t e r e d o f f i c e , L o w F a r e F i n d e r H o u s e , i s l o c a t e d o n t h e g r o u n d s o f L e e d s B r a d f o r d I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e f a c i l i t y b r o k e g r o u n d i n 2 0 0 6 , i n o r d e r t o a c c o m m o d a t e p i l o t s , c a b i n c r e w , a n d b a c k o f h o u s e o p e r a t i o n s . I n A p r i l 2 0 1 3 , J e t 2 . c o m m o v e d i t s C u s t o m e r C o n t a c t , F i n a n c e , I T , H u m a n R e s o u r c e s , C o m m e r c i a l a n d M a r k e t i n g d e p a r t m e n t s t o a n e w o f f i c e ; " H o l i d a y H o u s e " l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e c i t y c e n t r e o f L e e d s . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4 , t h e a i r l i n e o p e n e d a n e w £ 9 . 5 m i l l i o n t r a i n i n g a c a d e m y a t E u r o w a y I n d u s t r i a l E s t a t e i n B r a d f o r d . J e t 2 . c o m o p e r a t e s f l i g h t s t o 7 0 d e s t i n a t i o n s a c r o s s E u r o p e , w i t h a n o t a b l e f o c u s o n S p a i n , t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a , F r a n c e , G r e e c e , I t a l y a n d T u r k e y . I t s m a i n b a s e i s a t L e e d s B r a d f o r d A i r p o r t w i t h n i n e a d d i t i o n a l o p e r a t i n g b a s e s a c r o s s t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m a l o n g s i d e o v e r s e a s b a s e s a t A l i c a n t e – E l c h e A i r p o r t , P a l m a d e M a l l o r c a A i r p o r t a n d T e n e r i f e S o u t h A i r p o r t . , t h e J e t 2 . c o m f l e e t ( e x c l u d i n g w e t / d a m p l e a s e s ) c o n s i s t s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g a i r c r a f t :

History

Jet2.com Limited is a subsidiary of Jet2 plc, an aviation services group. It began operating commercial aircraft in 1983 as Channel Express, initially as a freight operator before expanding to passenger charter services in 2001. Rebranded as Jet2.com in 2002, it started operating as a leisure airline from Leeds Bradford International Airport. Over the years, it expanded to other bases, including Manchester, Belfast, Newcastle, Blackpool, Edinburgh, East Midlands, Glasgow, Birmingham, and London Stansted. The airline has grown significantly, carrying over 14 million passengers in 2019. Despite facing challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic, Jet2.com continues to operate and expand its services, including introducing new aircraft types like the Airbus A321neo.

Jet2.com Limited is a subsidiary of Jet2 plc, an aviation services group. The airline began operating commercial aircraft in 1983 under the name Channel Express, when it was purchased by the Dart Group's current Executive Chairman, Philip Meeson. Initially, a freight operator, from 2001 the airline also began operating passenger charter services using Boeing aircraft to international destinations on mainly short and medium-haul routes. In 2002, Channel Express established the Jet2.com brand from Leeds Bradford International Airport. The re-branded Jet2.com began operating as a leisure airline with its first flight from Leeds Bradford to Amsterdam on 12 February 2003, which operated a twice-daily rotation with two Boeing 737-300 aircraft. During 2003, further scheduled flights were launched to seven European sun and city break destinations. In 2004, a second base was opened at Manchester Airport with the airline operating from Terminal 1. The airline also acquired further Boeing 737 and 757 aircraft and opened a base at Belfast International Airport. In 2005, Jet2.com opened a third base at Newcastle. Later in the year, the company acquired two Boeing 757-200 aircraft, enabling it to fly medium-long haul destinations as well as carrying more passengers on popular existing routes. These aircraft helped the company to open two more bases at Blackpool and Edinburgh. In 2006 the company relocated from Bournemouth to Leeds and was renamed Jet2.com Limited. In November 2008 Jet2.com changed its slogan from "The North's Low Cost Airline" to "Friendly Low Fares". This preceded the announcement of opening a hub at East Midlands Airport, the first of the airline's hubs outside the North of England and Scotland. The base at East Midlands Airport opened in May 2010. During November and December 2008 the airline operated four direct flights from Leeds Bradford to Newark Liberty International Airport using Boeing 757-200s, with a series of flights also planned from both Leeds Bradford and Newcastle during December 2010. Once again, Jet2.com re-introduced seasonal Christmas flights to New York during the 2012 winter season, however, this time flights would operate from Glasgow, East Midlands and Newcastle, in addition to Leeds. The seasonal flights to New York have continued annually and now run from five of its UK bases. In 2010, the airline announced an eighth base at Glasgow Airport would be opened in April 2011, with an initial nine routes. The base was opened on 31 March, slightly earlier than scheduled. In January 2011, the airline introduced second-hand Boeing 737-800 aircraft into its fleet. This provided aircraft larger than its existing 737-300s yet smaller than its 757-200 aircraft. Jet2.com carried over 600,000 passengers in its first year of operation and over nine million passengers during 2017; its highest recorded total. On 17 September 2016, the airline received its first brand new Boeing 737-800 of the order for thirty made in 2015. In September 2016, Jet2.com announced it would begin operations from Birmingham Airport and London Stansted Airport (the airline's first base in southern England) in March 2017. In November 2016, Jet2.com opened its new maintenance hangar at Manchester Airport. In December 2016, Jet2.com announced that it had ordered a further four Boeing 737-800 aircraft, bringing the total on order to 34. In 2019, Jet2.com received delivery of its 34th new Boeing 737-800 aircraft, taking its permanent and leased fleet size to over 100 aircraft. Also in 2019 Jet2.com carried a record 14.39 million passengers on 82,931 flights. This was an increase of over 18% over the year prior. Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic's impact on aviation, Jet2.com announced they were suspending flight operations until at least 15 July 2020. The airline continued to operate repatriation flights for British citizens overseas. On 17 Aug 2020, Jet2 announced via BALPA, that they would be laying off 102 pilots from various UK bases, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On 11 November 2020, Jet2.com & Jet2holidays announced that they would open their tenth UK base at Bristol Airport on 1 July 2021, operating to 33 destinations. In June 2021, Jet2.com announced that it had pushed back a planned restart of operations to 1 July 2021 in the wake of the latest changes to government travel regulations. In September 2021, Jet2.com announced an order for 36 Airbus A321neo aircraft, plus 24 options, totalling purchasing power for 60 planes. Although Jet2 has operated a small number of Airbus jets on lease to cope with summer demand, this is Airbus' first direct order from Jet2, and a shift away from the company's traditionally all-Boeing fleet. In 2007, sister company Jet2holidays was launched offering package holidays. On 29 April 2015, sister company Jet2CityBreaks was launched. In June 2017, Jet2.com launched Jet2Villas through its Jet2holidays brand. Jet2.com is wholly owned by Jet2 plc (formerly Dart Group PLC), a holding company based in Leeds, England. Its head office is located in the Low Fare Finder House on the grounds of Leeds Bradford Airport. Jet2.com's Registered office, Low Fare Finder House, is located on the grounds of Leeds Bradford International Airport. Construction of the facility broke ground in 2006, in order to accommodate pilots, cabin crew, and back of house operations. In April 2013, Jet2.com moved its Customer Contact, Finance, IT, Human Resources, Commercial and Marketing departments to a new office; "Holiday House" located within the city centre of Leeds. In September 2014, the airline opened a new £9.5 million training academy at Euroway Industrial Estate in Bradford. Jet2.com operates flights to 70 destinations across Europe, with a notable focus on Spain, the Mediterranean Sea, France, Greece, Italy and Turkey. Its main base is at Leeds Bradford Airport with nine additional operating bases across the United Kingdom alongside overseas bases at Alicante–Elche Airport, Palma de Mallorca Airport and Tenerife South Airport. , the Jet2.com fleet (excluding wet/damp leases) consists of the following aircraft:

Jet2.com

J e t 2 . c o m L i m i t e d i s a s u b s i d i a r y o f J e t 2 p l c , a n a v i a t i o n s e r v i c e s g r o u p . T h e a i r l i n e b e g a n o p e r a t i n g c o m m e r c i a l a i r c r a f t i n 1 9 8 3 u n d e r t h e n a m e C h a n n e l E x p r e s s , w h e n i t w a s p u r c h a s e d b y t h e D a r t G r o u p ' s c u r r e n t E x e c u t i v e C h a i r m a n , P h i l i p M e e s o n . I n i t i a l l y , a f r e i g h t o p e r a t o r , f r o m 2 0 0 1 t h e a i r l i n e a l s o b e g a n o p e r a t i n g p a s s e n g e r c h a r t e r s e r v i c e s u s i n g B o e i n g a i r c r a f t t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e s t i n a t i o n s o n m a i n l y s h o r t a n d m e d i u m - h a u l r o u t e s . I n 2 0 0 2 , C h a n n e l E x p r e s s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e J e t 2 . c o m b r a n d f r o m L e e d s B r a d f o r d I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t . T h e r e - b r a n d e d J e t 2 . c o m b e g a n o p e r a t i n g a s a l e i s u r e a i r l i n e w i t h i t s f i r s t f l i g h t f r o m L e e d s B r a d f o r d t o A m s t e r d a m o n 1 2 F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 3 , w h i c h o p e r a t e d a t w i c e - d a i l y r o t a t i o n w i t h t w o B o e i n g 7 3 7 - 3 0 0 a i r c r a f t . D u r i n g 2 0 0 3 , f u r t h e r s c h e d u l e d f l i g h t s w e r e l a u n c h e d t o s e v e n E u r o p e a n s u n a n d c i t y b r e a k d e s t i n a t i o n s . I n 2 0 0 4 , a s e c o n d b a s e w a s o p e n e d a t M a n c h e s t e r A i r p o r t w i t h t h e a i r l i n e o p e r a t i n g f r o m T e r m i n a l 1 . T h e a i r l i n e a l s o a c q u i r e d f u r t h e r B o e i n g 7 3 7 a n d 7 5 7 a i r c r a f t a n d o p e n e d a b a s e a t B e l f a s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t . I n 2 0 0 5 , J e t 2 . c o m o p e n e d a t h i r d b a s e a t N e w c a s t l e . L a t e r i n t h e y e a r , t h e c o m p a n y a c q u i r e d t w o B o e i n g 7 5 7 - 2 0 0 a i r c r a f t , e n a b l i n g i t t o f l y m e d i u m - l o n g h a u l d e s t i n a t i o n s a s w e l l a s c a r r y i n g m o r e p a s s e n g e r s o n p o p u l a r e x i s t i n g r o u t e s . T h e s e a i r c r a f t h e l p e d t h e c o m p a n y t o o p e n t w o m o r e b a s e s a t B l a c k p o o l a n d E d i n b u r g h . I n 2 0 0 6 t h e c o m p a n y r e l o c a t e d f r o m B o u r n e m o u t h t o L e e d s a n d w a s r e n a m e d J e t 2 . c o m L i m i t e d . I n N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 8 J e t 2 . c o m c h a n g e d i t s s l o g a n f r o m " T h e N o r t h ' s L o w C o s t A i r l i n e " t o " F r i e n d l y L o w F a r e s " . T h i s p r e c e d e d t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f o p e n i n g a h u b a t E a s t M i d l a n d s A i r p o r t , t h e f i r s t o f t h e a i r l i n e ' s h u b s o u t s i d e t h e N o r t h o f E n g l a n d a n d S c o t l a n d . T h e b a s e a t E a s t M i d l a n d s A i r p o r t o p e n e d i n M a y 2 0 1 0 . D u r i n g N o v e m b e r a n d D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 8 t h e a i r l i n e o p e r a t e d f o u r d i r e c t f l i g h t s f r o m L e e d s B r a d f o r d t o N e w a r k L i b e r t y I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t u s i n g B o e i n g 7 5 7 - 2 0 0 s , w i t h a s e r i e s o f f l i g h t s a l s o p l a n n e d f r o m b o t h L e e d s B r a d f o r d a n d N e w c a s t l e d u r i n g D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 0 . O n c e a g a i n , J e t 2 . c o m r e - i n t r o d u c e d s e a s o n a l C h r i s t m a s f l i g h t s t o N e w Y o r k d u r i n g t h e 2 0 1 2 w i n t e r s e a s o n , h o w e v e r , t h i s t i m e f l i g h t s w o u l d o p e r a t e f r o m G l a s g o w , E a s t M i d l a n d s a n d N e w c a s t l e , i n a d d i t i o n t o L e e d s . T h e s e a s o n a l f l i g h t s t o N e w Y o r k h a v e c o n t i n u e d a n n u a l l y a n d n o w r u n f r o m f i v e o f i t s U K b a s e s . I n 2 0 1 0 , t h e a i r l i n e a n n o u n c e d a n e i g h t h b a s e a t G l a s g o w A i r p o r t w o u l d b e o p e n e d i n A p r i l 2 0 1 1 , w i t h a n i n i t i a l n i n e r o u t e s . T h e b a s e w a s o p e n e d o n 3 1 M a r c h , s l i g h t l y e a r l i e r t h a n s c h e d u l e d . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 1 , t h e a i r l i n e i n t r o d u c e d s e c o n d - h a n d B o e i n g 7 3 7 - 8 0 0 a i r c r a f t i n t o i t s f l e e t . T h i s p r o v i d e d a i r c r a f t l a r g e r t h a n i t s e x i s t i n g 7 3 7 - 3 0 0 s y e t s m a l l e r t h a n i t s 7 5 7 - 2 0 0 a i r c r a f t . J e t 2 . c o m c a r r i e d o v e r 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 p a s s e n g e r s i n i t s f i r s t y e a r o f o p e r a t i o n a n d o v e r n i n e m i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s d u r i n g 2 0 1 7 ; i t s h i g h e s t r e c o r d e d t o t a l . O n 1 7 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , t h e a i r l i n e r e c e i v e d i t s f i r s t b r a n d n e w B o e i n g 7 3 7 - 8 0 0 o f t h e o r d e r f o r t h i r t y m a d e i n 2 0 1 5 . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , J e t 2 . c o m a n n o u n c e d i t w o u l d b e g i n o p e r a t i o n s f r o m B i r m i n g h a m A i r p o r t a n d L o n d o n S t a n s t e d A i r p o r t ( t h e a i r l i n e ' s f i r s t b a s e i n s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d ) i n M a r c h 2 0 1 7 . I n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , J e t 2 . c o m o p e n e d i t s n e w m a i n t e n a n c e h a n g a r a t M a n c h e s t e r A i r p o r t . I n D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , J e t 2 . c o m a n n o u n c e d t h a t i t h a d o r d e r e d a f u r t h e r f o u r B o e i n g 7 3 7 - 8 0 0 a i r c r a f t , b r i n g i n g t h e t o t a l o n o r d e r t o 3 4 . I n 2 0 1 9 , J e t 2 . c o m r e c e i v e d d e l i v e r y o f i t s 3 4 t h n e w B o e i n g 7 3 7 - 8 0 0 a i r c r a f t , t a k i n g i t s p e r m a n e n t a n d l e a s e d f l e e t s i z e t o o v e r 1 0 0 a i r c r a f t . A l s o i n 2 0 1 9 J e t 2 . c o m c a r r i e d a r e c o r d 1 4 . 3 9 m i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s o n 8 2 , 9 3 1 f l i g h t s . T h i s w a s a n i n c r e a s e o f o v e r 1 8 % o v e r t h e y e a r p r i o r . O w i n g t o t h e C O V I D - 1 9 p a n d e m i c ' s i m p a c t o n a v i a t i o n , J e t 2 . c o m a n n o u n c e d t h e y w e r e s u s p e n d i n g f l i g h t o p e r a t i o n s u n t i l a t l e a s t 1 5 J u l y 2 0 2 0 . T h e a i r l i n e c o n t i n u e d t o o p e r a t e r e p a t r i a t i o n f l i g h t s f o r B r i t i s h c i t i z e n s o v e r s e a s . O n 1 7 A u g 2 0 2 0 , J e t 2 a n n o u n c e d v i a B A L P A , t h a t t h e y w o u l d b e l a y i n g o f f 1 0 2 p i l o t s f r o m v a r i o u s U K b a s e s , d u e t o t h e C O V I D - 1 9 p a n d e m i c . O n 1 1 N o v e m b e r 2 0 2 0 , J e t 2 . c o m & J e t 2 h o l i d a y s a n n o u n c e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d o p e n t h e i r t e n t h U K b a s e a t B r i s t o l A i r p o r t o n 1 J u l y 2 0 2 1 , o p e r a t i n g t o 3 3 d e s t i n a t i o n s . I n J u n e 2 0 2 1 , J e t 2 . c o m a n n o u n c e d t h a t i t h a d p u s h e d b a c k a p l a n n e d r e s t a r t o f o p e r a t i o n s t o 1 J u l y 2 0 2 1 i n t h e w a k e o f t h e l a t e s t c h a n g e s t o g o v e r n m e n t t r a v e l r e g u l a t i o n s . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 2 1 , J e t 2 . c o m a n n o u n c e d a n o r d e r f o r 3 6 A i r b u s A 3 2 1 n e o a i r c r a f t , p l u s 2 4 o p t i o n s , t o t a l l i n g p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r f o r 6 0 p l a n e s . A l t h o u g h J e t 2 h a s o p e r a t e d a s m a l l n u m b e r o f A i r b u s j e t s o n l e a s e t o c o p e w i t h s u m m e r d e m a n d , t h i s i s A i r b u s ' f i r s t d i r e c t o r d e r f r o m J e t 2 , a n d a s h i f t a w a y f r o m t h e c o m p a n y ' s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a l l - B o e i n g f l e e t . I n 2 0 0 7 , s i s t e r c o m p a n y J e t 2 h o l i d a y s w a s l a u n c h e d o f f e r i n g p a c k a g e h o l i d a y s . O n 2 9 A p r i l 2 0 1 5 , s i s t e r c o m p a n y J e t 2 C i t y B r e a k s w a s l a u n c h e d . I n J u n e 2 0 1 7 , J e t 2 . c o m l a u n c h e d J e t 2 V i l l a s t h r o u g h i t s J e t 2 h o l i d a y s b r a n d . J e t 2 . c o m i s w h o l l y o w n e d b y J e t 2 p l c ( f o r m e r l y D a r t G r o u p P L C ) , a h o l d i n g c o m p a n y b a s e d i n L e e d s , E n g l a n d . I t s h e a d o f f i c e i s l o c a t e d i n t h e L o w F a r e F i n d e r H o u s e o n t h e g r o u n d s o f L e e d s B r a d f o r d A i r p o r t . J e t 2 . c o m ' s R e g i s t e r e d o f f i c e , L o w F a r e F i n d e r H o u s e , i s l o c a t e d o n t h e g r o u n d s o f L e e d s B r a d f o r d I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e f a c i l i t y b r o k e g r o u n d i n 2 0 0 6 , i n o r d e r t o a c c o m m o d a t e p i l o t s , c a b i n c r e w , a n d b a c k o f h o u s e o p e r a t i o n s . I n A p r i l 2 0 1 3 , J e t 2 . c o m m o v e d i t s C u s t o m e r C o n t a c t , F i n a n c e , I T , H u m a n R e s o u r c e s , C o m m e r c i a l a n d M a r k e t i n g d e p a r t m e n t s t o a n e w o f f i c e ; " H o l i d a y H o u s e " l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e c i t y c e n t r e o f L e e d s . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4 , t h e a i r l i n e o p e n e d a n e w £ 9 . 5 m i l l i o n t r a i n i n g a c a d e m y a t E u r o w a y I n d u s t r i a l E s t a t e i n B r a d f o r d . J e t 2 . c o m o p e r a t e s f l i g h t s t o 7 0 d e s t i n a t i o n s a c r o s s E u r o p e , w i t h a n o t a b l e f o c u s o n S p a i n , t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a , F r a n c e , G r e e c e , I t a l y a n d T u r k e y . I t s m a i n b a s e i s a t L e e d s B r a d f o r d A i r p o r t w i t h n i n e a d d i t i o n a l o p e r a t i n g b a s e s a c r o s s t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m a l o n g s i d e o v e r s e a s b a s e s a t A l i c a n t e – E l c h e A i r p o r t , P a l m a d e M a l l o r c a A i r p o r t a n d T e n e r i f e S o u t h A i r p o r t . , t h e J e t 2 . c o m f l e e t ( e x c l u d i n g w e t / d a m p l e a s e s ) c o n s i s t s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g a i r c r a f t :

History ; Origins

Jet2.com Limited is a subsidiary of Jet2 plc, an aviation services group. It began operating commercial aircraft in 1983 as Channel Express, initially as a freight operator before starting passenger charter services in 2001. The airline rebranded as Jet2.com in 2002 and started operating as a leisure airline in 2003. Since then, it has expanded rapidly, opening multiple bases across the UK and introducing new aircraft types. Today, Jet2.com operates flights to 70 destinations across Europe, with a focus on Spain, the Mediterranean, France, Greece, Italy, and Turkey.

Jet2.com Limited is a subsidiary of Jet2 plc, an aviation services group. The airline began operating commercial aircraft in 1983 under the name Channel Express, when it was purchased by the Dart Group's current Executive Chairman, Philip Meeson. Initially, a freight operator, from 2001 the airline also began operating passenger charter services using Boeing aircraft to international destinations on mainly short and medium-haul routes. In 2002, Channel Express established the Jet2.com brand from Leeds Bradford International Airport. The re-branded Jet2.com began operating as a leisure airline with its first flight from Leeds Bradford to Amsterdam on 12 February 2003, which operated a twice-daily rotation with two Boeing 737-300 aircraft. During 2003, further scheduled flights were launched to seven European sun and city break destinations. In 2004, a second base was opened at Manchester Airport with the airline operating from Terminal 1. The airline also acquired further Boeing 737 and 757 aircraft and opened a base at Belfast International Airport. In 2005, Jet2.com opened a third base at Newcastle. Later in the year, the company acquired two Boeing 757-200 aircraft, enabling it to fly medium-long haul destinations as well as carrying more passengers on popular existing routes. These aircraft helped the company to open two more bases at Blackpool and Edinburgh. In 2006 the company relocated from Bournemouth to Leeds and was renamed Jet2.com Limited. In November 2008 Jet2.com changed its slogan from "The North's Low Cost Airline" to "Friendly Low Fares". This preceded the announcement of opening a hub at East Midlands Airport, the first of the airline's hubs outside the North of England and Scotland. The base at East Midlands Airport opened in May 2010. During November and December 2008 the airline operated four direct flights from Leeds Bradford to Newark Liberty International Airport using Boeing 757-200s, with a series of flights also planned from both Leeds Bradford and Newcastle during December 2010. Once again, Jet2.com re-introduced seasonal Christmas flights to New York during the 2012 winter season, however, this time flights would operate from Glasgow, East Midlands and Newcastle, in addition to Leeds. The seasonal flights to New York have continued annually and now run from five of its UK bases. In 2010, the airline announced an eighth base at Glasgow Airport would be opened in April 2011, with an initial nine routes. The base was opened on 31 March, slightly earlier than scheduled. In January 2011, the airline introduced second-hand Boeing 737-800 aircraft into its fleet. This provided aircraft larger than its existing 737-300s yet smaller than its 757-200 aircraft. Jet2.com carried over 600,000 passengers in its first year of operation and over nine million passengers during 2017; its highest recorded total. On 17 September 2016, the airline received its first brand new Boeing 737-800 of the order for thirty made in 2015. In September 2016, Jet2.com announced it would begin operations from Birmingham Airport and London Stansted Airport (the airline's first base in southern England) in March 2017. In November 2016, Jet2.com opened its new maintenance hangar at Manchester Airport. In December 2016, Jet2.com announced that it had ordered a further four Boeing 737-800 aircraft, bringing the total on order to 34. In 2019, Jet2.com received delivery of its 34th new Boeing 737-800 aircraft, taking its permanent and leased fleet size to over 100 aircraft. Also in 2019 Jet2.com carried a record 14.39 million passengers on 82,931 flights. This was an increase of over 18% over the year prior. Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic's impact on aviation, Jet2.com announced they were suspending flight operations until at least 15 July 2020. The airline continued to operate repatriation flights for British citizens overseas. On 17 Aug 2020, Jet2 announced via BALPA, that they would be laying off 102 pilots from various UK bases, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On 11 November 2020, Jet2.com & Jet2holidays announced that they would open their tenth UK base at Bristol Airport on 1 July 2021, operating to 33 destinations. In June 2021, Jet2.com announced that it had pushed back a planned restart of operations to 1 July 2021 in the wake of the latest changes to government travel regulations. In September 2021, Jet2.com announced an order for 36 Airbus A321neo aircraft, plus 24 options, totalling purchasing power for 60 planes. Although Jet2 has operated a small number of Airbus jets on lease to cope with summer demand, this is Airbus' first direct order from Jet2, and a shift away from the company's traditionally all-Boeing fleet. In 2007, sister company Jet2holidays was launched offering package holidays. On 29 April 2015, sister company Jet2CityBreaks was launched. In June 2017, Jet2.com launched Jet2Villas through its Jet2holidays brand. Jet2.com is wholly owned by Jet2 plc (formerly Dart Group PLC), a holding company based in Leeds, England. Its head office is located in the Low Fare Finder House on the grounds of Leeds Bradford Airport. Jet2.com's Registered office, Low Fare Finder House, is located on the grounds of Leeds Bradford International Airport. Construction of the facility broke ground in 2006, in order to accommodate pilots, cabin crew, and back of house operations. In April 2013, Jet2.com moved its Customer Contact, Finance, IT, Human Resources, Commercial and Marketing departments to a new office; "Holiday House" located within the city centre of Leeds. In September 2014, the airline opened a new £9.5 million training academy at Euroway Industrial Estate in Bradford. Jet2.com operates flights to 70 destinations across Europe, with a notable focus on Spain, the Mediterranean Sea, France, Greece, Italy and Turkey. Its main base is at Leeds Bradford Airport with nine additional operating bases across the United Kingdom alongside overseas bases at Alicante–Elche Airport, Palma de Mallorca Airport and Tenerife South Airport. , the Jet2.com fleet (excluding wet/damp leases) consists of the following aircraft:

Internal resistance

A b a t t e r y m a y b e m o d e l e d a s a v o l t a g e s o u r c e i n s e r i e s w i t h a r e s i s t a n c e . T h e s e t y p e s o f m o d e l s a r e k n o w n a s e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t m o d e l s . A n o t h e r c o m m o n m o d e l b e i n g p h y s i o c h e m i c a l m o d e l s t h a t a r e p h y s i c a l i n n a t u r e i n v o l v i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a n d r e a c t i o n r a t e s . I n p r a c t i c e , t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e o f a b a t t e r y i s d e p e n d e n t o n i t s s i z e , s t a t e o f c h a r g e , c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , a g e , t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d t h e d i s c h a r g e c u r r e n t . I t h a s a n e l e c t r o n i c c o m p o n e n t d u e t o t h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e c o m p o n e n t m a t e r i a l s a n d a n i o n i c c o m p o n e n t d u e t o e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l f a c t o r s s u c h a s e l e c t r o l y t e c o n d u c t i v i t y , i o n m o b i l i t y , s p e e d o f e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n a n d e l e c t r o d e s u r f a c e a r e a . M e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e o f a b a t t e r y i s a g u i d e t o i t s c o n d i t i o n , b u t m a y n o t a p p l y a t o t h e r t h a n t h e t e s t c o n d i t i o n s . M e a s u r e m e n t w i t h a n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t , t y p i c a l l y a t a f r e q u e n c y o f , m a y u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e r e s i s t a n c e , a s t h e f r e q u e n c y m a y b e t o o h i g h t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t s l o w e r e l e c t r o c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s e s . I n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e d e p e n d s o n t e m p e r a t u r e ; f o r e x a m p l e , a f r e s h E n e r g i z e r E 9 1 A A a l k a l i n e p r i m a r y b a t t e r y d r o p s f r o m a b o u t 0 . 9 Ω a t - 4 0   ° C , w h e n t h e l o w t e m p e r a t u r e r e d u c e s i o n m o b i l i t y , t o a b o u t 0 . 1 5 Ω a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e a n d a b o u t 0 . 1 Ω a t 4 0   ° C . A l a r g e p a r t o f t h i s d r o p i s d u e t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e e l e c t r o l y t e d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . T h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e o f a b a t t e r y m a y b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m i t s o p e n c i r c u i t v o l t a g e " V " N L , l o a d v o l t a g e " V " F L , a n d t h e l o a d r e s i s t a n c e " R " L : f o r m u l a _ 1 T h i s c a n a l s o b e e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f t h e O v e r p o t e n t i a l η a n d t h e c u r r e n t I : f o r m u l a _ 2 M a n y e q u i v a l e n t s e r i e s r e s i s t a n c e ( E S R ) m e t e r s , e s s e n t i a l l y A C m i l l i o h m - m e t e r s n o r m a l l y u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e E S R o f c a p a c i t o r s , c a n b e u s e d t o e s t i m a t e b a t t e r y i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o c h e c k t h e s t a t e o f d i s c h a r g e o f a b a t t e r y r a t h e r t h a n o b t a i n a n a c c u r a t e D C v a l u e . S o m e c h a r g e r s f o r r e c h a r g e a b l e b a t t e r i e s i n d i c a t e t h e E S R . I n u s e , t h e v o l t a g e a c r o s s t h e t e r m i n a l s o f a d i s p o s a b l e b a t t e r y d r i v i n g a l o a d d e c r e a s e s u n t i l i t d r o p s t o o l o w t o b e u s e f u l ; t h i s i s l a r g e l y d u e t o a n i n c r e a s e i n i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e r a t h e r t h a n a d r o p i n t h e v o l t a g e o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t s o u r c e . I n r e c h a r g e a b l e l i t h i u m p o l y m e r b a t t e r i e s , t h e i n t e r n a l r e s i s t a n c e i s l a r g e l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e s t a t e o f c h a r g e b u t i n c r e a s e s a s t h e b a t t e r y a g e s ; t h u s , i t i s a g o o d i n d i c a t o r o f e x p e c t e d l i f e .

Battery

A battery's internal resistance is influenced by various factors including size, state of charge, chemical properties, age, temperature, and discharge current. Models like equivalent circuit models and physiochemical models help understand the internal resistance. Measuring internal resistance provides insight into a battery's condition, but results may vary depending on testing conditions. Temperature affects internal resistance, and formulas exist to calculate it based on open circuit voltage, load voltage, and load resistance or overpotential and current. Equivalent series resistance meters can estimate internal resistance, and some chargers display it. Internal resistance increases as a disposable battery discharges and is a key indicator of a rechargeable battery's lifespan.

A battery may be modeled as a voltage source in series with a resistance. These types of models are known as equivalent circuit models. Another common model being physiochemical models that are physical in nature involving concentrations and reaction rates. In practice, the internal resistance of a battery is dependent on its size, state of charge, chemical properties, age, temperature, and the discharge current. It has an electronic component due to the resistivity of the component materials and an ionic component due to electrochemical factors such as electrolyte conductivity, ion mobility, speed of electrochemical reaction and electrode surface area. Measurement of the internal resistance of a battery is a guide to its condition, but may not apply at other than the test conditions. Measurement with an alternating current, typically at a frequency of , may underestimate the resistance, as the frequency may be too high to take into account slower electrochemical processes. Internal resistance depends on temperature; for example, a fresh Energizer E91 AA alkaline primary battery drops from about 0.9 Ω at -40 °C, when the low temperature reduces ion mobility, to about 0.15 Ω at room temperature and about 0.1 Ω at 40 °C. A large part of this drop is due to the increase in the magnitude of the electrolyte diffusion coefficient. The internal resistance of a battery may be calculated from its open circuit voltage "V"NL, load voltage "V"FL, and the load resistance "R"L: formula_1 This can also be expressed in terms of the Overpotential η and the current I: formula_2 Many equivalent series resistance (ESR) meters, essentially AC milliohm-meters normally used to measure the ESR of capacitors, can be used to estimate battery internal resistance, particularly to check the state of discharge of a battery rather than obtain an accurate DC value. Some chargers for rechargeable batteries indicate the ESR. In use, the voltage across the terminals of a disposable battery driving a load decreases until it drops too low to be useful; this is largely due to an increase in internal resistance rather than a drop in the voltage of the equivalent source. In rechargeable lithium polymer batteries, the internal resistance is largely independent of the state of charge but increases as the battery ages; thus, it is a good indicator of expected life.

F.C. Copenhagen

F o o t b a l l C l u b C o p e n h a g e n i s , i n m a n y w a y s , b o t h a n o l d a n d a n e w c l u b . E v e n t h o u g h t h e c l u b w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 9 9 2 , i t i s r o o t e d i n m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 y e a r s o f c l u b t r a d i t i o n . T h e c l u b ' s f i r s t t e a m r e p r e s e n t s t w o s e p a r a t e c l u b s : K j ø b e n h a v n s B o l d k l u b ( c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e ' s o l d e s t f o o t b a l l c l u b ) f o u n d e d i n 1 8 7 6 a n d B o l d k l u b b e n 1 9 0 3 f o u n d e d i n 1 9 0 3 . D u e t o f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c l u b s i n t h e C o p e n h a g e n a r e a i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s a n d K j ø b e n h a v n s B o l d k l u b ' s o n t h e v e r g e o f b a n k r u p t c y , t h e t w o o l d C o p e n h a g e n c l u b s g o t t o g e t h e r a n d e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e w h i c h i s F C K ø b e n h a v n . C o p e n h a g e n u s e d B o l d k l u b b e n ' s c l u b l i c e n s e t o p l a y i n t h e D a n i s h S u p e r l i g a c h a m p i o n s h i p , w h i l e K j ø b e n h a v n s B o l d k l u b b e c a m e t h e o f f i c i a l r e s e r v e t e a m o f t h e c l u b . W i t h t h e r e b u i l d i n g o f t h e P a r k e n S t a d i u m , D e n m a r k ' s n a t i o n a l t e a m s t a d i u m , t h e n e w c l u b h a d a m o d e r n s t a d i u m t o p l a y a t f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g . T h e i n i t i a l a m b i t i o n o f t h e c l u b w a s c o n t i n u a l l y t o q u a l i f y f o r o n e o f t h e E u r o p e a n c o m p e t i t i o n s e a c h s e a s o n . T o r e a c h t h i s g o a l , t h e c l u b n e e d e d a s o l i d e c o n o m y , a r e l a t i v e l y b i g f a n b a s e a n d a n " a t t r a c t i v e a n d p o s i t i v e s t y l e o f f o o t b a l l . " B e n n y J o h a n s e n m a n a g e d t h e c l u b a n d s t a r t e d i t s m a i d e n s e a s o n w e l l . F C K m a d e i t s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e E u r o p e a n t o u r n a m e n t s w h e n i t b e a t S w i s s t e a m G r a s s h o p p e r s 2 – 1 i n t h e 1 9 9 2 U E F A I n t e r t o t o C u p . F C K w o n t h e I n t e r t o t o C u p t h a t y e a r a n d t h e r e b y q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e U E F A C u p , w h e r e i t w a s e l i m i n a t e d i n t h e s e c o n d r o u n d b y F r e n c h t e a m A u x e r r e . T h e c l u b w o n t h e 1 9 9 2 – 9 3 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n o n e p o i n t a h e a d o f O d e n s e B o l d k l u b a n d t w o p o i n t s a h e a d o f t h i r d - p l a c e B r ø n d b y I F . F o r t h e 1 9 9 3 – 9 4 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n , e x p e c t a t i o n s w e r e h i g h . T h e s e a s o n o p e n e d w i t h a 0 – 6 t h r a s h i n g a t t h e h a n d s o f I t a l i a n t e a m M i l a n i n t h e 1 9 9 3 – 9 4 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e q u a l i f i c a t i o n . F C K w e n t o n w i n t e r b r e a k a f t e r t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n i n t h i r d p l a c e . I n t h e s p r i n g o f 1 9 9 4 , C o p e n h a g e n g a i n e d o n l e a d i n g t e a m S i l k e b o r g I F . I n t h e p e n u l t i m a t e m a t c h o f t h e s e a s o n , t h e t w o t e a m s m e t a t t h e P a r k e n S t a d i u m . I n f r o n t o f a r e c o r d - s e t t i n g a t t e n d a n c e o f 2 6 , 6 7 9 , F C K w o n t h e m a t c h 4 – 1 . T h e c l u b w a s o n e p o i n t a h e a d o f S i l k e b o r g , b u t b e c a u s e F C K l o s t 3 – 2 t o O d e n s e i n t h e f i n a l g a m e o f t h e s e a s o n , i t h a d t o s e t t l e f o r s e c o n d p l a c e . F o r t h e n e x t t h r e e s e a s o n s , C o p e n h a g e n h a d l i t t l e s u c c e s s i n t h e S u p e r l i g a , d e s p i t e w i n n i n g t w o D a n i s h C u p s . T h e t e a m w o n t h e 1 9 9 5 C u p f i n a l a g a i n s t A k a d e m i s k B o l d k l u b w i t h a 5 – 0 w i n , q u a l i f y i n g f o r E u r o p e a n f o o t b a l l o n c e a g a i n , d e s p i t e m e d i o c r e r e s u l t s i n t h e l e a g u e . K i m B r i n k t o o k o v e r a s m a n a g e r i n 1 9 9 6 , b u t d e s p i t e w i n n i n g t h e s e c o n d C u p t r o p h y f o r t h e c l u b , t h e e i g h t h - p l a c e f i n i s h i n t h e 1 9 9 6 – 9 7 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n p r o m p t e d a n o t h e r c h a n g e i n m a n a g e r s . I n F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 7 , F l e m m i n g Ø s t e r g a a r d , l a t e r g i v e n t h e n i c k n a m e " D o n Ø , " j o i n e d t h e b o a r d o f t h e c l u b a s v i c e c h a i r m a n a n d C E O . A f t e r a s u c c e s s f u l I P O , g e n e r a t i n g D K K 7 5   m i l l i o n , F C K w a s i n t r o d u c e d o n t h e C o p e n h a g e n S t o c k E x c h a n g e i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 7 . T h e 1 9 9 7 – 9 8 s e a s o n m a r k e d t h e f i r s t s e a s o n t h a t C o p e n h a g e n a v e r a g e d m o r e t h a n 1 0 , 0 0 0 s p e c t a t o r s a t h o m e , a n d t h e c l u b b o u g h t t h e i r s t a d i u m P a r k e n f o r D K K 1 3 8   m i l l i o n i n J u n e 1 9 9 8 . T h e s e l f - a c c l a i m e d " b e s t m a n a g e r i n D e n m a r k , " C h r i s t i a n A n d e r s e n , b e g a n m a n a g i n g t h e c l u b i n J a n u a r y 1 9 9 9 . A f t e r 7 5 c o n t r o v e r s i a l d a y s , h o w e v e r , h e w a s f i r e d i n M a r c h 1 9 9 9 ; S p o r t s D i r e c t o r N i e l s - C h r i s t i a n H o l m s t r ø m e x p l a i n e d A n d e r s e n h a d c r e a t e d f r u s t r a t i o n a m o n g t h e p l a y e r s . I n 1 9 9 9 , C o p e n h a g e n m a d e i t s i m p a c t i n E u r o p e w h e n i t f a c e d E n g l i s h s i d e C h e l s e a i n t h e s e c o n d r o u n d U E F A C u p W i n n e r s ' C u p . I n t h e f i r s t l e g a w a y a t S t a m f o r d B r i d g e , B j a r n e G o l d b æ k g a v e C o p e n h a g e n t h e l e a d n i n e m i n u t e s b e f o r e t h e e n d o f t h e m a t c h , b u t C h e l s e a s c o r e d i n t h e l a s t m i n u t e o f t h e g a m e . C h e l s e a l a t e r w o n t h e s e c o n d g a m e a t P a r k e n w i t h a g o a l b y t h e D a n e B r i a n L a u d r u p , k n o c k i n g o u t F C K . A t t h e p o s t - m a t c h p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e , i t w a s a n n o u n c e d t h a t C h e l s e a ' s B r i a n L a u d r u p w a s s i g n i n g w i t h C o p e n h a g e n i n J a n u a r y 1 9 9 9 , w i t h B j a r n e G o l d b æ k m o v i n g i n t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n f o r C h e l s e a . A f o u r - t i m e D a n i s h P l a y e r o f t h e Y e a r a w a r d w i n n e r , L a u d r u p , h o w e v e r , c o u l d n o t h e l p C o p e n h a g e n i m p r o v e t h e i r l e a g u e p o s i t i o n , a n d t h e c l u b e n d e d t h e y e a r i n s e v e n t h i n t h e 1 9 9 8 – 9 9 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n . L a u d r u p o n l y s t a y e d f o r j u s t s i x m o n t h s a t t h e c l u b b e f o r e s i g n i n g f o r A j a x a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n . I n t h e 1 9 9 9 – 2 0 0 0 s e a s o n , F . C . C o p e n h a g e n s t r u g g l e d t o m a k e a n y s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t a n d f i n i s h e d e i g h t h i n t h e l e a g u e . I n t h e w i n t e r 2 0 0 0 t r a n s f e r w i n d o w , S o u t h A f r i c a n s t r i k e r S i b u s i s o Z u m a w a s s i g n e d f r o m S o u t h A f r i c a n s i d e O r l a n d o P i r a t e s , a n d i n M a y 2 0 0 0 , E n g l i s h m a n a g e r R o y H o d g s o n b e c a m e t h e n e w m a n a g e r . F r o m t h e 2 0 0 0 – 0 1 s e a s o n , t h e c l u b s t a r t e d t o i m p r o v e . T h e c l u b w o n i t s s e c o n d S u p e r l i g a c h a m p i o n s h i p , w i n n i n g 3 – 1 i n t h e l a s t C o p e n h a g e n D e r b y m a t c h o f t h e s e a s o n , a t t h e P a r k e n S t a d i u m . T h e 2 – 0 g o a l w a s a b i c y c l e k i c k b y Z u m a , w h o r e c e i v e d t h e b a l l a t h i s c h e s t , b o u n c e d i t i n t h e a i r a n d i n t h e s a m e m o t i o n e x e c u t e d t h e o v e r h e a d k i c k , v o l l e y i n g t h e b a l l i n t o t h e f a r c o r n e r o u t o f B r ø n d b y g o a l k e e p e r M o g e n s K r o g h ' s r e a c h . T h i s w a s l a t e r v o t e d t h e D a n i s h g o a l o f t h e y e a r , a n d w a s v o t e d t h e b e s t S u p e r l i g a g o a l o f t h e d e c a d e i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 9 a n d w a s i n 2 0 1 3 v o t e d a s t h e g r e a t e s t m o m e n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f F C K . R o y H o d g s o n b r o k e h i s c o n t r a c t w i t h C o p e n h a g e n a f e w w e e k s a f t e r h a v i n g w o n t h e c h a m p i o n s h i p , s i g n i n g w i t h I t a l i a n t e a m U d i n e s e , a n d h e w a s r e p l a c e d b y S w e d e K e n t K a r l s s o n . T h e 2 0 0 1 s e a s o n i s a l s o r e m e m b e r e d f o r a h i g h l y d r a m a t i c e v e n t . D u r i n g t r a i n i n g o n 1 3 M a r c h 2 0 0 1 c h a r i s m a t i c m i d f i e l d e r S t å l e S o l b a k k e n s u f f e r e d a h e a r t a t t a c k . H e w a s r a p i d l y a t t e n d e d t o b y c l u b d o c t o r F r a n k O d g a a r d w h o f o u n d t h a t h i s h e a r t h a d s t o p p e d b e a t i n g a n d s t a r t e d t o a d m i n i s t e r c a r d i a c m a s s a g e . U p o n t h e a m b u l a n c e ' s a r r i v a l , S o l b a k k e n w a s p r o n o u n c e d c l i n i c a l l y d e a d a t t h e s c e n e , b u t o n t h e w a y t o t h e h o s p i t a l i n t h e a m b u l a n c e h e w a s r e v i v e d n e a r l y s e v e n m i n u t e s l a t e r . H e s u r v i v e d t h e e p i s o d e a n d h a d a p a c e m a k e r f i t t e d . S h o r t l y a f t e r , o n m e d i c a l a d v i c e , h e a n n o u n c e d h i s p l a y i n g r e t i r e m e n t , b u t w o u l d l a t e r r e t u r n t o t h e c l u b a n d b e c o m e i t s m o s t s u c c e s s f u l m a n a g e r . C o p e n h a g e n f a c e d I t a l i a n t e a m L a z i o f o r q u a l i f i c a t i o n t o t h e 2 0 0 1 – 0 2 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e q u a l i f i c a t i o n . A 2 – 1 w i n f o r F C K i n t h e f i r s t g a m e p r o v e d m o o t , a s L a z i o u l t i m a t e l y p r o g r e s s e d w i t h a 5 – 3 a g g r e g a t e s c o r e . C o p e n h a g e n t h u s e n t e r e d t h e 2 0 0 1 – 0 2 U E F A C u p , w h e r e i t d e f e a t e d D u t c h g i a n t s A j a x 1 – 0 o n a g o a l f r o m l e f t b a c k N i c l a s J e n s e n . I n t h e n e x t r o u n d , h o w e v e r , G e r m a n t e a m B o r u s s i a D o r t m u n d e l i m i n a t e d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e 2 0 0 1 – 0 2 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n a l s o e n d e d i n d i s a p p o i n t m e n t f o r K ø b e n h a v n , a s B r ø n d b y w o n t h e c h a m p i o n s h i p o n g o a l d i f f e r e n c e a f t e r F C K h a d c a u g h t u p w i t h B r ø n d b y ' s t e n - p o i n t l e a d a f t e r t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e s e a s o n . I n t h e s e c o n d - l a s t r o u n d o f t h e 2 0 0 2 – 0 3 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n , F C K f a c e d B r ø n d b y a t B r ø n d b y S t a d i u m . I n e x t r a t i m e , H j a l t e N ø r r e g a a r d s c o r e d h i s f i r s t g o a l f o r C o p e n h a g e n a n d b r o u g h t t h e c h a m p i o n s h i p b a c k t o P a r k e n . I n t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e s e c o n d q u a l i f y i n g r o u n d i n 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 , F C K w o n t h e f i r s t m a t c h a g a i n s t S l o v e n i a n c l u b N D G o r i c a 2 – 1 , b u t l a t e r l o s t a t P a r k e n 0 – 5 . U n d e r B a c k e , C o p e n h a g e n w e n t o n t o w i n t h e 2 0 0 4 a n d 2 0 0 6 D a n i s h c h a m p i o n s h i p s a n d t h e 2 0 0 4 D a n i s h C u p . C o p e n h a g e n a l s o w o n t h e i n a u g u r a l 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 e d i t i o n o f t h e R o y a l L e a g u e t o u r n a m e n t , b e a t i n g S w e d i s h t e a m I F K G ö t e b o r g o n p e n a l t y s h o o t o u t i n t h e 2 0 0 5 f i n a l . C o p e n h a g e n r e p e a t e d t h e a c h i e v e m e n t i n t h e 2 0 0 6 e d i t i o n o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t , t h i s t i m e b e a t i n g N o r w e g i a n t e a m L i l l e s t r ø m S K 1 – 0 i n t h e 2 0 0 6 f i n a l . B a c k e b e c a m e t h e l o n g e s t - s e r v i n g c o a c h f o r F C K b e f o r e l e a v i n g t h e c l u b i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 5 . F o r m e r C o p e n h a g e n p l a y e r S t å l e S o l b a k k e n t o o k o v e r a s m a n a g e r . F o r t h e 2 0 0 6 – 0 7 s e a s o n , D a n i s h n a t i o n a l t e a m p l a y e r J e s p e r G r ø n k j æ r r e i n f o r c e d C o p e n h a g e n . F C K l o o k e d f o r w a r d t o t h e 2 0 0 6 – 0 7 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e q u a l i f i e r s , w h e r e i t b e a t A j a x . F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e c l u b ' s h i s t o r y , F C K e n t e r e d t h e g r o u p s t a g e o f t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e , b e i n g g r o u p e d w i t h C e l t i c , B e n f i c a a n d M a n c h e s t e r U n i t e d , a l l f o r m e r w i n n e r s o f t h e t r o p h y . D e s p i t e n o t l o s i n g a g a m e a t P a r k e n ( B e n f i c a 0 – 0 , M a n c h e s t e r U n i t e d 1 – 0 a n d C e l t i c 3 – 1 ) , F C K f a i l e d t o q u a l i f y f r o m t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e g r o u p s t a g e a f t e r l o s i n g a l l o f i t s a w a y g a m e s . O n 9 M a y , C o p e n h a g e n d e f e a t e d B r ø n d b y 1 – 0 a n d w o n i t s f i f t h D a n i s h c h a m p i o n s h i p i n s e v e n y e a r s w i t h f o u r g a m e s t o s p a r e i n t h e l e a g u e . I n t h e 2 0 0 7 – 0 8 s e a s o n , C o p e n h a g e n l o s t t h e t h i r d q u a l i f i c a t i o n r o u n d o f t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e w i t h a 1 – 3 a g g r e g a t e s c o r e t o B e n f i c a . A f t e r b e a t i n g L e n s 3 – 2 , F C K q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e g r o u p s t a g e s o f t h e 2 0 0 7 – 0 8 U E F A C u p , w h e r e i t p l a y e d P a n a t h i n a i k o s ( H ) , L o k o m o t i v M o s c o w ( A ) , A t l é t i c o M a d r i d ( H ) a n d A b e r d e e n . C o p e n h a g e n f e l l t o P a n a t h i n a i k o s a n d A t l é t i c o , b u t a w i n a g a i n s t L o k o m o t i v m e a n t t h a t t h e c l u b n e e d e d o n l y a d r a w a g a i n s t A b e r d e e n t o q u a l i f y f o r t h e n e x t r o u n d . H o w e v e r , a 0 – 4 d e f e a t t o A b e r d e e n p u t t h e m o u t o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t . I n t h e 2 0 0 7 – 0 8 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n , C o p e n h a g e n f i n i s h e d t h i r d , w i t h A a B t a k i n g t h e t i t l e . I n t h e 2 0 0 8 – 0 9 s e a s o n , C o p e n h a g e n b e g a n s t r o n g . T h e t e a m q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e 2 0 0 8 – 0 9 U E F A C u p g r o u p s t a g e b y e l i m i n a t i n g N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d c l u b C l i f t o n v i l l e , L i l l e s t r ø m a n d F C M o s c o w . I n t h e g r o u p , F C K l o s t a t h o m e t o S a i n t - É t i e n n e a n d d r e w 1 – 1 a g a i n s t V a l e n c i a . W i t h a 1 – 1 d r a w a g a i n s t R o s e n b o r g a n d a w i n o v e r C l u b B r u g g e , C o p e n h a g e n q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e k n o c k o u t p h a s e o f t h e c o m p e t i t i o n , w h e r e i t d r e w 2 – 2 i n t h e f i r s t l e g o f t h e r o u n d o f 3 2 a g a i n s t M a n c h e s t e r C i t y o n 1 9 F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 9 . T h e c l u b l o s t 1 – 2 i n t h e s e c o n d l e g , a l o s s t h a t e n d e d i t s E u r o p e a n s e a s o n . I n t h e d o m e s t i c l e a g u e , F C K b a t t l e d f o r f i r s t p l a c e w i t h B r ø n d b y a n d O d e n s e . E v e n t u a l l y , C o p e n h a g e n w o n t h e C u p f i n a l a g a i n s t A a B a n d c l a i m e d t h e l e a g u e t i t l e w i t h o n e g a m e t o s p a r e i n t h e t o u r n a m e n t , t h u s s e c u r i n g t h e D o u b l e f o r t h e s e c o n d t i m e i n t h e c l u b ' s h i s t o r y . 2 0 1 0 p r o v e d t o b e y e t a n o t h e r E u r o p e a n s u c c e s s . E v e n t h o u g h t h e t e a m l o s t t h e 2 0 0 9 – 1 0 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e p l a y o f f m a t c h t o A P O E L w i t h a 2 – 3 a g g r e g a t e l o s s , t h e t e a m h a d a l r e a d y q u a l i f i e d t o t h e 2 0 0 9 – 1 0 E u r o p a L e a g u e g r o u p s t a g e b y e l i m i n a t i n g F K M o g r e n a n d S t a b æ k . C o p e n h a g e n l o s t a w a y t o C F R C l u j , w o n 1 – 0 a t h o m e a g a i n s t S p a r t a P r a g u e , 0 – 1 a w a y l o s s a g a i n s t P S V a n d b y b e a t i n g C l u j a t h o m e 2 – 0 a n d 3 – 0 a w a y o v e r S p a r t a , C o p e n h a g e n q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e r o u n d o f 3 2 t o f a c e M a r s e i l l e . T h e m a t c h - u p , h o w e v e r , r e s u l t e d i n t w o 1 – 3 l o s s e s f o r C o p e n h a g e n , t h u s e l i m i n a t i n g t h e m f r o m t h e c o m p e t i t i o n . T h e t e a m ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n t o t h e 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e w a s s e c u r e d a f t e r i t b e a t i n g B A T E B o r i s o v ( 0 – 0 / 3 – 2 ) a n d R o s e n b o r g ( 1 – 2 / 1 – 0 ) . T h e t e a m t h u s e n t e r e d t h e g r o u p s t a g e i n G r o u p D a n d m e t B a r c e l o n a , P a n a t h i n a i k o s a n d R u b i n K a z a n . A f t e r a 3 – 1 w i n a g a i n s t P a n a t h i n a i k o s i n t h e i r l a s t g r o u p s t a g e m a t c h , t h e y q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e r o u n d o f 1 6 — t h e r e b y b e c o m i n g t h e f i r s t - e v e r D a n i s h c l u b t o r e a c h t h e s t a g e i n t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e — w h e r e C h e l s e a d e f e a t e d t h e m . C o p e n h a g e n w o n t h e 2 0 1 2 – 1 3 D a n i s h S u p e r l i g a t o s e c u r e a d i r e c t p l a c e i n t h e g r o u p s t a g e o f t h e 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e . H o w e v e r , a f t e r a h o r r i f i c s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 D a n i s h S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n , F C K f i r e d m a n a g e r A r i ë l J a c o b s , r e h i r i n g S t å l e S o l b a k k e n a s h i s r e p l a c e m e n t . S o l b a k k e n w a s g i v e n a t w o - y e a r c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e o p t i o n f o r a f u r t h e r t w o - y e a r e x t e n s i o n . I n t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e , t h e c l u b w a s p l a c e d i n t o G r o u p B a l o n g s i d e R e a l M a d r i d , J u v e n t u s a n d G a l a t a s a r a y . F C K s e c u r e d f o u r p o i n t s b y d r a w i n g 1 – 1 a g a i n s t J u v e n t u s a t h o m e a n d w i n n i n g 1 – 0 a t h o m e o v e r G a l a t a s a r a y a f t e r a g r e a t g o a l b y D a n i e l B r a a t e n . T h e c l u b , h o w e v e r , c o n c e d e d i t s f i r s t - e v e r C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e g r o u p s t a g e h o m e d e f e a t a f t e r f a l l i n g 0 – 2 t o R e a l M a d r i d i n t h e l a s t r o u n d o f t h e g r o u p s t a g e . C o p e n h a g e n f i n i s h e d t h e 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 l e a g u e i n s e c o n d p l a c e , d e s p i t e h a v i n g b e e n s i t u a t e d t h i r d f o r n u m e r o u s w e e k s . A 3 – 2 a w a y w i n a g a i n s t F C M i d t j y l l a n d s a w t h e m c l o s i n g i n o n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e . I n t h e l a s t r o u n d o f t h e l e a g u e , F C K b e a t O d e n s e B o l d k l u b 3 – 2 a t h o m e w h i l s t M i d t j y l l a n d l o s t t h e i r g a m e 3 – 1 , e n s u r i n g C o p e n h a g e n ' s s e i z u r e o f s e c o n d p l a c e a n d i t s s u b s e q u e n t s p o t i n t h e q u a l i f y i n g r o u n d o f t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e . A f t e r a b u s y s u m m e r t r a n s f e r w i n d o w w i t h n u m e r o u s n e w p l a y e r s a r r i v i n g a t t h e c l u b , C o p e n h a g e n w a s d r a w n a g a i n s t U k r a i n i a n o u t f i t D n i p r o D n i p r o p e t r o v s k i n t h e t h i r d q u a l i f y i n g r o u n d o f t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e . A f t e r a n a g g r e g a t e v i c t o r y o f 2 – 0 o v e r D n i p r o , C o p e n h a g e n w a s d r a w n a g a i n s t G e r m a n c l u b B a y e r L e v e r k u s e n i n t h e p l a y - o f f r o u n d . T h e G e r m a n s , h o w e v e r , d e f e a t e d C o p e n h a g e n 7 – 2 a g g r e g a t e , d r o p p i n g C o p e n h a g e n t o c o n t e n t i o n i n t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 E u r o p a L e a g u e . F C K d r e w I t a l i a n c l u b T o r i n o , C l u b B r u g g e a n d F i n n i s h s i d e H J K H e l s i n k i . I t s c a m p a i g n s t a r t e d w e l l , s e c u r i n g a d e s e r v e d 2 – 0 v i c t o r y o v e r H J K a t h o m e f r o m t w o g o a l s b y N i c o l a i J ø r g e n s e n . C o p e n h a g e n ' s n e x t t w o g a m e s w e r e a g a i n s t T o r i n o a n d C l u b B r u g g e r e s p e c t i v e l y ; i t l o s t 1 – 0 a g a i n s t T o r i n o a n d p l a y e d t o a 1 – 1 d r a w a g a i n s t B r u g g e a f t e r c o n c e d i n g a l a t e g o a l i n i n j u r y t i m e i n b o t h m a t c h e s . C o p e n h a g e n t h e n f a i l e d t o s e c u r e a n i m p o r t a n t w i n a g a i n s t B r u g g e a t h o m e , a m a t c h t h e y l o s t 0 – 4 , s e t t i n g u p a m u s t - w i n s i t u a t i o n f o r F C K a g a i n s t H J K t o p r o g r e s s t o t h e r o u n d o f 3 2 . C o p e n h a g e n , h o w e v e r , f a i l e d — M a c o u m b a K a n d j i m a n a g e d t o s e c u r e a 2 – 1 v i c t o r y f o r H J K , t h e i r s e c o n d w i n i n t h e g r o u p , w i t h a n o t h e r l a t e g o a l . T h e r e s u l t e l i m i n a t e d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 s e a s o n e n d e d w i t h C o p e n h a g e n w i n n i n g t h e D a n i s h C u p a n d f i n i s h i n g s e c o n d i n t h e S u p e r l i g a . T h e 2 0 1 5 – 1 6 s e a s o n b e g a n w i t h F C K b r i n g i n g i n s i x n e w p l a y e r s , m o s t n o t a b l y D a n i s h i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d f o r m e r A a B p l a y e r K a s p e r K u s k . B y p l a c i n g s e c o n d i n 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 , C o p e n h a g e n b e g a n i n t h e s e c o n d q u a l i f y i n g r o u n d o f t h e 2 0 1 5 – 1 6 U E F A E u r o p a L e a g u e , w h e r e t h e y w e r e d r a w n a g a i n s t W e l s h c l u b N e w t o w n , d e f e a t i n g t h e m 5 – 1 o n a g g r e g a t e t o q u a l i f y t h e m f o r t h e n e x t r o u n d a g a i n s t C z e c h o u t f i t B a u m i t J a b l o n e c . T h e o p e n i n g g a m e o f t h e 2 0 1 5 – 1 6 D a n i s h S u p e r l i g a e n d e d i n a 2 – 1 a w a y w i n f o r F C K a g a i n s t E s b j e r g f B t h r o u g h g o a l s f r o m M a r v i n P o u r i é a n d N i c o l a i J ø r g e n s e n . D e s p i t e a 0 – 1 a w a y w i n o v e r B a u m i t J a b l o n e c , C o p e n h a g e n l o s t i t s h o m e g a m e 2 – 3 , r e s u l t i n g i n a 3 – 3 a g g r e g a t e l o s s o n t h e a w a y g o a l s r u l e . T h i s m a r k e d t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t e n y e a r s t h a t C o p e n h a g e n f a i l e d t o q u a l i f y f o r e i t h e r t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e o r E u r o p a L e a g u e . O n 5 M a y , t h e D a n i s h C u p w a s w o n , a f t e r a 2 – 1 w i n O v e r A G F , w i t h g o a l s f r o m N i c o l a i J ø r g e n s e n a n d W i l l i a m K v i s t . A f t e r w i n n i n g t h e t i t l e t h e p r e v i o u s s e a s o n , C o p e n h a g e n w o u l d c o m p e t e i n t h e 2 0 1 6 - 1 7 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e q u a l i f i e r s . I n t h e p l a y o f f r o u n d t h e y m e t A P O E L F C , a n d w a s f a c e d w i t h t h e c h a l l e n g e o n g e t t i n g r e v e n g e a f t e r t h e i r t i e a g a i n s t t h e m i n 2 0 0 9 . T h e f i r s t l e g a t P a r k e n s t a d i u m e n d e d 1 – 0 t o t h e h o m e t e a m , a n d i n t h e s e c o n d l e g , C o p e n h a g e n e q u a l i s e d i n t h e 8 6 t h m i n u t e v i a F e d e r i c o S a n t a n d e r ' s s h o t f r o m a w i d e a n g l e , q u a l i f y i n g f o r t h e g r o u p s t a g e , w i t h a n a g g r e g a t e s c o r e o f 2 – 1 . C o p e n h a g e n w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y p l a c e d i n a g r o u p w i t h L e i c e s t e r C i t y , F C P o r t o a n d C l u b B r ü g g e . T h e y w o u l d a f t e r 2 w i n s , 1 l o s s a n d 3 d r a w s , f i n i s h 3 r d i n t h e i r g r o u p a n d m o v e o n t o t h e 2 0 1 6 – 1 7 E u r o p a L e a g u e R o u n d o f 3 2 , w h e r e t h e y m e t L u d o g o r a t s , w h o m t h e y b e a t 2 – 1 o n a g g r e g a t e . I n t h e r o u n d o f 1 6 , t h e y m e t A j a x A m s t e r d a m . I n t h e f i r s t l e g a t h o m e , C o p e n h a g e n w o n 2 - 1 a f t e r a f i r s t - m i n u t e g o a l f r o m R a s m u s F a l k a n d a g o a l i n t h e 5 9 t h m i n u t e b y A n d r e a s C o r n e l i u s . T h e a w a y l e g f i n i s h e d 2 – 0 t o A j a x , a n d C o p e n h a g e n w e r e k n o c k e d o u t o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t , w i t h t h a t s e a s o n s a c h i e v e m e n t s i n t h e E u r o p a L e a g u e b e i n g t h e i r b e s t f i n i s h i n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n a t t h e t i m e . D o m e s t i c a l l y , t h e s e a s o n w a s a n o t h e r s e a s o n t o e n j o y f o r f a n s o f t h e c l u b . C o p e n h a g e n w o n t h e l e a g u e w i t h t h e c l o s e s t c o m p e t i t i o n , B r ø n d b y , f i n i s h i n g 2 4 p o i n t s b e h i n d t h e m . A t t h e t i m e t h e y w e r e c r o w n e d c h a m p i o n s , f o l l o w i n g a d r a w a g a i n s t F C N o r d s j æ l l a n d t h e y w e r e u n b e a t e n i n t h e l e a g u e , w i t h t h e i r f i r s t l o s s o f t h e s e a s o n c o m i n g a g a i n s t F C M i d t j y l l a n d 2 r o u n d s l a t e r , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y a n o t h e r l o s s a g a i n s t L y n g b y B K t h e r o u n d r i g h t a f t e r . C o p e n h a g e n a l s o r e a c h e d t h e c u p f i n a l , w h e r e t h e y m e t a r c h - r i v a l s B r ø n d b y . C o p e n h a g e n o p e n e d t h e s c o r i n g v i a A n d r e a s C o r n e l i u s ' s f i r s t e v e r g o a l a g a i n s t t h e c l u b , w i t h B r ø n d b y r e s p o n d i n g j u s t 1 0 m i n u t e s l a t e r w i t h a n e q u a l i s e r . C o p e n h a g e n s e c u r e d t h e w i n w i t h t w o g o a l s i n r a p i d s u c c e s s i o n , i n t h e 8 3 r d a n d 8 5 t h m i n u t e s , b o t h l o n g b a l l s f r o m d e f e n c e t o a t t a c k , s c o r e d b y S a n t a n d e r a n d C o r n e l i u s r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h u s r e s u l t i n g i n t h e c l u b f r o m t h e c a p i t a l w i n n i n g t h e i r t h i r d c o n s e c u t i v e c u p f i n a l , a l o n g w i t h t h e i r s e c o n d c o n s e c u t i v e d o m e s t i c d o u b l e . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 9 , t h e c l u b a n n o u n c e d t h a t i t w o u l d c h a n g e i t s n a m e i n E u r o p e a n c o m p e t i t i o n s a n d w o u l d s u b s e q u e n t l y b e k n o w n a s F . C . C o p e n h a g e n w i t h U E F A c h a n g i n g t h e i r a b b r e v i a t i o n ' K O B ' t o ' C P H ' . W i n n i n g t h e 2 0 1 8 – 1 9 D a n i s h S u p e r l i g a p l a c e d C o p e n h a g e n i n t h e s e c o n d q u a l i f y i n g r o u n d o f t h e 2 0 1 9 – 2 0 U E F A C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e , b e a t i n g W e l s h o u t f i t T h e N e w S a i n t s . T h e f o l l o w i n g r o u n d a g a i n s t R e d S t a r B e l g r a d e e n d e d 2 – 2 o n a g g r e g a t e , w i t h C o p e n h a g e n p u l l i n g t h e s h o r t e s t s t r a w a n d g o i n g o u t i n p e n a l t i e s , t h u s s e n d i n g C o p e n h a g e n t o t h e U E F A E u r o p a L e a g u e i n s t e a d . H e r e L a t v i a n t e a m R i g a w e r e b e a t e n 3 – 2 o n a g g r e g a t e t h u s s e c u r i n g q u a l i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e G r o u p S t a g e . C o p e n h a g e n f i n i s h i n g s e c o n d i n G r o u p B c o n t e s t e d w i t h F C L u g a n o , D y n a m o K y i v a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n r i v a l s M a l m ö F F . C o p e n h a g e n w e r e t h e n d r a w n a g a i n s t S c o t t i s h o u t f i t C e l t i c i n t h e f i r s t k n o c k o u t r o u n d o f t h e U E F A E u r o p a L e a g u e . T h e f i r s t m a t c h i n T e l i a P a r k e n f i n i s h e d 1 – 1 , w h i l s t C o p e n h a g e n w o n t h e r e t u r n l e g 3 – 1 a t C e l t i c P a r k . T h e o p p o n e n t f o r t h e n e x t r o u n d w e r e t h e T u r k i s h c l u b I s t a n b u l B a ş a k ş e h i r . T h e g a m e e n d e d 1 – 0 w i t h C o p e n h a g e n f a l l i n g t o a l a t e p e n a l t y c o n v e r t e d b y E d i n V i š ć a . T h e s u b s e q u e n t r e t u r n m a t c h i n C o p e n a h a g e n w a s t e m p o r a r i l y p u t o n h o l d d u e t o t h e C O V I D - 1 9 p a n d e m i c . O n 5 A u g u s t 2 0 2 0 , C o p e n h a g e n w o n 3 – 0 o v e r I s t a n b u l B a ş a k ş e h i r t o r e a c h t h e q u a r t e r - f i n a l s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e i r h i s t o r y . I n t h e q u a r t e r - f i n a l s , C o p e n h a g e n l o s t 0 – 1 t o M a n c h e s t e r U n i t e d w i t h a p e n a l t y f r o m B r u n o F e r n a n d e s c o m i n g i n a f t e r e x t r a t i m e . A f t e r p o o r r e s u l t s i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 2 0 2 0 - 2 1 D a n i s h S u p e r l i g a , a n d f a i l u r e t o q u a l i f y f o r t h e 2 0 2 0 - 2 1 E u r o p a L e a g u e , S t å l e S o l b a k k e n w a s s a c k e d b y t h e c l u b , a n d H j a l t e B o N ø r r e g a a r d t o o k o v e r a s c a r e t a k e r m a n a g e r , u n t i l J e s s T h o r u p w a s a p p o i n t e d i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 2 0 . F C K o w n s i t s s t a d i u m , t h e n a t i o n a l a r e n a P a r k e n S t a d i u m . I t w a s b u i l t i n 1 9 9 2 , t h e s a m e y e a r t h e c l u b w a s f o u n d e d . U n t i l t h e s t a d i u m o p e n e d ( a s P a r k e n ) i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 2 , t h e c l u b p l a y e d i t s f i r s t h o m e m a t c h e s a t t h e s m a l l e r Ø s t e r b r o S t a d i o n , w h i c h i s l o c a t e d a d j a c e n t t o P a r k e n . P a r k e n h a s 3 8 , 0 6 5 s e a t s , 4 , 0 0 0 f e w e r s e a t s t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l c a p a c i t y o f 4 2 , 3 0 5 . A f t e r 2 0 0 0 , t h e c l u b h a s r e g u l a r l y a t t r a c t e d o n e o f t h e h i g h e s t a t t e n d a n c e s i n S c a n d i n a v i a . T h e o f f i c i a l f a n c l u b , F . C . K ø b e n h a v n F a n C l u b h a s m o r e t h a n 2 0 , 0 0 0 m e m b e r s . " F C K F C " w a s f o u n d e d o n 2 4 O c t o b e r 1 9 9 1 , a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f a y e a r b e f o r e F C K p l a y e d i t s f i r s t m a t c h . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e a r e m a n y u n o f f i c i a l " f a c t i o n s " c o n n e c t e d t o C o p e n h a g e n , t h e b i g g e s t b e i n g " U r b a n C r e w " , " C o p e n h a g e n C o o l i g a n s " a n d " C o p e n h a g e n C a s u a l s " . T h e s e a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d t o h a v e f r i e n d s h i p s w i t h f a c t i o n s f r o m H a m b u r g e r S V , R a n g e r s , I F K H e l s i n k i a n d H e l s i n g b o r g s I F . F o r t h e 2 0 0 6 – 0 7 s e a s o n , t h e r e w e r e 2 3 , 7 9 5 s p e c t a t o r s o n a v e r a g e . F o r m a n y y e a r s , t h e l o w e r p a r t o f t h e " C - s t a n d " a t P a r k e n , " N e d r e C " , h a s b e e n t h e m a i n s t a n d f o r t h e s u p p o r t e r s o f F C K . I n 2 0 0 6 , a p a r t o f t h e l o w e r " B - s t a n d " w a s m a d e a s e p a r a t e f a n s e c t i o n f o r t h e f a n s w h o w a n t e d t o c r e a t e m o r e o f a n a t m o s p h e r e a n d n a m e d " S e k t i o n 1 2 " . I n g e n e r a l , m o s t o f F C K ' s s u p p o r t e r s a r e f r o m , a n d l i v e , i n t h e C o p e n h a g e n a r e a , u n l i k e t h e i r r i v a l s , B r ø n d b y I F , w h o h a v e a r e p o r t e d 5 7 % o f t h e i r f a n b a s e c o m i n g f r o m J u t l a n d . T h e a r e a S e k t i o n 1 2 o n t h e l o w e r " B - s t a n d " g r e w s o p o p u l a r t h a t t h e f a n s i n a d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e c l u b m a d e i t b i g g e r . T h a t m e a n t t h a t t h e f o r m e r f a m i l y - a r e a i n t h e s t a d i u m i n t h e o t h e r p a r t o f t h e " B - s t a n d " g o t t h e w h o l e n e w a r e a c a l l e d t h e " D - s t a n d " . T h e S e k t i o n 1 2 a r e a o n t h e w h o l e l o w e r " B - s t a n d " g r e w m o r e a n d m o r e p o p u l a r w h i c h m e a n t t h a t t h e f a n s h a d a n e w d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e c l u b . T h a t d i a l o g u e w e n t w e l l f o r t h e s u p p o r t e r s a n d t h e c l u b s u p p o r t e d t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f m a k i n g t h e u p p e r " B - s t a n d " t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f S e k t i o n 1 2 . S e k t i o n 1 2 o n t h e w h o l e " B - s t a n d " i s n o w N o r t h e r n E u r o p e ' s b i g g e s t a c t i v e s t a n d . C o p e n h a g e n ' s f i r s t c o m p e t i t i v e E u r o p e a n m a t c h w a s o n 1 6 S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 2 , i n t h e 1 9 9 2 – 9 3 U E F A C u p , b e a t i n g M P 1 0 – 1 b e f o r e l o s i n g t o A J A u x e r r e i n t h e s e c o n d r o u n d . I n t h e i r f i r s t e v e r U E F A C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e g r o u p s t a g e m a t c h , t h e y b e a t M a n c h e s t e r U n i t e d 1 – 0 a t h o m e , v i a a g o a l i n t h e 7 3 r d m i n u t e b y M a r c u s A l l b ä c k . S i n c e t h e n , t h e c l u b h a s q u i c k l y b e c o m e t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l D a n i s h t e a m i n E u r o p e a n c o m p e t i t i o n , r e a c h i n g t h e g r o u p s t a g e o f t h e U E F A C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e f o u r t i m e s a n d a d v a n c i n g t o t h e R o u n d o f 1 6 i n 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 . T h e y a l s o r e a c h e d t h e q u a r t e r - f i n a l s o f t h e U E F A E u r o p a L e a g u e i n 2 0 1 9 – 2 0 w h i c h t h e y l o s t t o M a n c h e s t e r U n i t e d 1 – 0 i n e x t r a t i m e . " A s o f 2 4 M a y 2 0 2 1 , S o u r c e : e x t e r n a l _ l i n k _ 1 " " S e e F . C . C o p e n h a g e n R e s e r v e s a n d Y o u t h T e a m " I n 2 0 1 4 , 3 2 , 0 0 0 f a n s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a f a n v o t e s e l e c t i n g t h e i r 1 1 a l l - t i m e f a v o u r i t e C o p e n h a g e n p l a y e r s . T h e r e h a v e b e e n f i f t e e n d i f f e r e n t c o a c h e s ( p e r m a n e n t c o a c h e s a n d c a r e t a k e r s ) o f F C C o p e n h a g e n s i n c e 1 9 9 2 . O n e o f t h e c a r e t a k e r s , K i m B r i n k , h a s c o a c h e d t h e c l u b d u r i n g t h r e e s e p a r a t e t e n u r e s . T h e o n l y n o n - S c a n d i n a v i a n s t o c o a c h F C K a r e R o y H o d g s o n a n d A r i ë l J a c o b s . T h e l o n g e s t - r u n n i n g c o a c h i s S t å l e S o l b a k k e n w h o h a s b e e n i n c h a r g e o f F C K f r o m 2 0 0 6 t o 2 0 1 1 a n d f r o m 2 0 1 3 u n t i l 2 0 2 0 . S t å l e S o l b a k k e n i s a l s o t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l c o a c h , i n t e r m s o f w i n n i n g p e r c e n t a g e , w i t h a w i n n i n g p e r c e n t a g e a t 5 8 . 5 % . C h r i s t i a n A n d e r s e n i s F C K ' s l e a s t s u c c e s s f u l c o a c h w i t h a w i n n i n g p e r c e n t a g e a t 0 % . A n d e r s e n i s a l s o t h e s h o r t e s t - r u n n i n g p e r m a n e n t c o a c h o f F C K a s h e o n l y w a s i n c h a r g e o f F C K f o r j u s t a s i n g l e m a t c h b e f o r e h e w a s f i r e d . A l l - t i m e g o a l s c o r e r s i n a l l o f f i c i a l t o u r n a m e n t s M o s t m a t c h e s M o s t g o a l s B i g g e s t v i c t o r y i n t h e S u p e r l i g a B i g g e s t d e f e a t i n t h e S u p e r l i g a B i g g e s t v i c t o r y i n E u r o p e a n c u p s B i g g e s t d e f e a t i n E u r o p e a n c u p s A t t e n d a n c e r e c o r d Y o u n g e s t a n d o l d e s t p l a y e r p l a y i n g i n t h e S u p e r l i g a M o s t D a n i s h n a t i o n a l c h a m p i o n s h i p s w o n a s p l a y e r a n d m a n a g e r " ( I n b r a c k e t s d e b u t y e a r ) " F . C . C o p e n h a g e n l a u n c h e d a n e s p o r t s d i v i s i o n c a l l e d N o r t h i n 2 0 1 7 , w i t h a D a n i s h t e a m i n " C o u n t e r - S t r i k e : G l o b a l O f f e n s i v e " . T h e t e a m h a d s o m e s u c c e s s , m a k i n g t h e p l a y o f f s o f t w o " G l o b a l O f f e n s i v e " M a j o r s a n d w i n n i n g D r e a m H a c k M a s t e r s S t o c k h o l m 2 0 1 8 . T h e t e a m c e a s e d o p e r a t i o n s i n F e b r u a r y 2 0 2 1 , c i t i n g f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s b r o u g h t o n i n p a r t b y t h e C O V I D - 1 9 p a n d e m i c .

History

FC Copenhagen, founded in 1992, has a rich history in Danish football. The club has won several domestic titles, including five Danish championships between 2003 and 2009. They have also enjoyed success in European competitions, reaching the group stage of the Champions League four times and advancing to the Round of 16 in 2010-11. The club plays its home matches at Parken Stadium, which has a seating capacity of 38,065. FC Copenhagen has a strong fan base, with the official fan club being one of the largest in Northern Europe.

two points ahead of third-place Brøndby IF. For the 1993–94 Superliga season, expectations were high. The season opened with a 0–6 thrashing at the hands of Italian team Milan in the 1993–94 Champions League qualification. FCK went on winter break after the first half of the Superliga season in third place. In the spring of 1994, Copenhagen gained on leading team Silkeborg IF. In the penultimate match of the season, the two teams met at the Parken Stadium. In front of a record-setting attendance of 26,679, FCK won the match 4–1. The club was one point ahead of Silkeborg, but because FCK lost 3–2 to Odense in the final game of the season, it had to settle for second place. For the next three seasons, Copenhagen had little in 2004–05, FCK won the first match against Slovenian club ND Gorica 2–1, but later lost at Parken 0–5. Under Backe, Copenhagen went on to win the 2004 and 2006 Danish championships and the 2004 Danish Cup. Copenhagen also won the inaugural 2004–05 edition of the Royal League tournament, beating Swedish team IFK Göteborg on penalty shootout in the 2005 final. Copenhagen repeated the achievement in the 2006 edition of the tournament, this time beating Norwegian team Lillestrøm SK 1–0 in the 2006 final. Backe became the longest-serving coach for FCK before leaving the club in December 2005. Former Copenhagen player Ståle Solbakken took over as manager. For the 2006–07 season, Danish national team player Jesper Grønkjær reinforced Copenhagen. FCK looked forward to the 2006–07 Champions League qualifiers, where it beat Ajax. For the first time in the club's history, FCK entered the group stage of the Champions League, being grouped with Celtic, Benfica and Manchester United, all former winners of the trophy. Despite not losing a game at Parken (Benfica 0–0, Manchester United 1–0 and Celtic 3–1), FCK failed to qualify from the Champions League group stage after losing all of its away games. On 9 May, Copenhagen defeated Brøndby 1–0 and won its fifth Danish championship in seven years with four games to spare in the league. In the 2007–08 season, Copenhagen lost the third qualification round of the Champions League with a 1–3 aggregate score to Benfica. After beating Lens 3–2, FCK qualified for the group stages of the 2007–08 UEFA Cup, where enjoy for fans of the club. Copenhagen won the league with the closest competition, Brøndby, finishing 24 points behind them. At the time they were crowned champions, following a draw against FC Nordsjælland they were unbeaten in the league, with their first loss of the season coming against FC Midtjylland 2 rounds later, and subsequently another loss against Lyngby BK the round right after. Copenhagen also reached the cup final, where they met arch-rivals Brøndby. Copenhagen opened the scoring via Andreas Cornelius's first ever goal against the club, with Brøndby responding just 10 minutes later with an equaliser. Copenhagen secured the win with two goals in rapid succession, in the 83rd and 85th minutes, both long balls from defence to attack, scored by Santander and Cornelius respectively, thus after extra time. After poor results in the beginning of the 2020-21 Danish Superliga, and failure to qualify for the 2020-21 Europa League, Ståle Solbakken was sacked by the club, and Hjalte Bo Nørregaard took over as caretaker manager, until Jess Thorup was appointed in November 2020. FCK owns its stadium, the national arena Parken Stadium. It was built in 1992, the same year the club was founded. Until the stadium opened (as Parken) in September 1992, the club played its first home matches at the smaller Østerbro Stadion, which is located adjacent to Parken. Parken has 38,065 seats, 4,000 fewer seats than the original capacity of 42,305. After 2000, the club has regularly attracted one of the highest attendances in Scandinavia. The official fan club, F.C. København is now Northern Europe's biggest active stand. Copenhagen's first competitive European match was on 16 September 1992, in the 1992–93 UEFA Cup, beating MP 10–1 before losing to AJ Auxerre in the second round. In their first ever UEFA Champions League group stage match, they beat Manchester United 1–0 at home, via a goal in the 73rd minute by Marcus Allbäck. Since then, the club has quickly become the most successful Danish team in European competition, reaching the group stage of the UEFA Champions League four times and advancing to the Round of 16 in 2010–11. They also reached the quarter-finals of the UEFA Europa League in 2019–20 which they lost to Manchester United 1–0 in extra time. "As of 24 May 2021, Source: external_link_1" "See F.C. Copenhagen Reserves and Youth Team" In 2014, 32,000 fans participated in a fan vote selecting their 11 all-time favourite Copenhagen players. There have been fifteen different coaches (permanent coaches and caretakers) of FC Copenhagen since 1992. One of the caretakers, Kim Brink, has coached the club during three separate tenures. The only non-Scandinavians to coach FCK are Roy Hodgson and Ariël Jacobs. The longest-running coach is Ståle Solbakken who has been in charge of FCK from 2006 to 2011 and from 2013 until 2020. Ståle Solbakken is also the most successful coach, in terms of winning percentage, with a winning percentage at 58.5%. Christian Andersen is FCK's least successful coach with a winning percentage at 0%. Andersen is also the shortest-running permanent coach of FCK as he only was in charge of FCK for just a single match before he was fired. All-time goal scorers in all official tournaments Most matches Most goals Biggest victory in the Superliga Biggest defeat in the Superliga Biggest victory in European cups Biggest defeat in European cups Attendance record Youngest and oldest player playing in the Superliga Most Danish national championships won as player and manager "(In brackets debut year)" F.C. Copenhagen launched an esports division called North in 2017, with a Danish team in "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive". The team had some success, making the playoffs of two "Global Offensive" Majors and winning DreamHack Masters Stockholm 2018. The team ceased operations in February 2021, citing financial difficulties brought on in part by the COVID-19 pandemic.

F.C. Copenhagen

F o o t b a l l C l u b C o p e n h a g e n i s , i n m a n y w a y s , b o t h a n o l d a n d a n e w c l u b . E v e n t h o u g h t h e c l u b w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 9 9 2 , i t i s r o o t e d i n m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 y e a r s o f c l u b t r a d i t i o n . T h e c l u b ' s f i r s t t e a m r e p r e s e n t s t w o s e p a r a t e c l u b s : K j ø b e n h a v n s B o l d k l u b ( c o n t i n e n t a l E u r o p e ' s o l d e s t f o o t b a l l c l u b ) f o u n d e d i n 1 8 7 6 a n d B o l d k l u b b e n 1 9 0 3 f o u n d e d i n 1 9 0 3 . D u e t o f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c l u b s i n t h e C o p e n h a g e n a r e a i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s a n d K j ø b e n h a v n s B o l d k l u b ' s o n t h e v e r g e o f b a n k r u p t c y , t h e t w o o l d C o p e n h a g e n c l u b s g o t t o g e t h e r a n d e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e w h i c h i s F C K ø b e n h a v n . C o p e n h a g e n u s e d B o l d k l u b b e n ' s c l u b l i c e n s e t o p l a y i n t h e D a n i s h S u p e r l i g a c h a m p i o n s h i p , w h i l e K j ø b e n h a v n s B o l d k l u b b e c a m e t h e o f f i c i a l r e s e r v e t e a m o f t h e c l u b . W i t h t h e r e b u i l d i n g o f t h e P a r k e n S t a d i u m , D e n m a r k ' s n a t i o n a l t e a m s t a d i u m , t h e n e w c l u b h a d a m o d e r n s t a d i u m t o p l a y a t f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g . T h e i n i t i a l a m b i t i o n o f t h e c l u b w a s c o n t i n u a l l y t o q u a l i f y f o r o n e o f t h e E u r o p e a n c o m p e t i t i o n s e a c h s e a s o n . T o r e a c h t h i s g o a l , t h e c l u b n e e d e d a s o l i d e c o n o m y , a r e l a t i v e l y b i g f a n b a s e a n d a n " a t t r a c t i v e a n d p o s i t i v e s t y l e o f f o o t b a l l . " B e n n y J o h a n s e n m a n a g e d t h e c l u b a n d s t a r t e d i t s m a i d e n s e a s o n w e l l . F C K m a d e i t s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e E u r o p e a n t o u r n a m e n t s w h e n i t b e a t S w i s s t e a m G r a s s h o p p e r s 2 – 1 i n t h e 1 9 9 2 U E F A I n t e r t o t o C u p . F C K w o n t h e I n t e r t o t o C u p t h a t y e a r a n d t h e r e b y q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e U E F A C u p , w h e r e i t w a s e l i m i n a t e d i n t h e s e c o n d r o u n d b y F r e n c h t e a m A u x e r r e . T h e c l u b w o n t h e 1 9 9 2 – 9 3 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n o n e p o i n t a h e a d o f O d e n s e B o l d k l u b a n d t w o p o i n t s a h e a d o f t h i r d - p l a c e B r ø n d b y I F . F o r t h e 1 9 9 3 – 9 4 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n , e x p e c t a t i o n s w e r e h i g h . T h e s e a s o n o p e n e d w i t h a 0 – 6 t h r a s h i n g a t t h e h a n d s o f I t a l i a n t e a m M i l a n i n t h e 1 9 9 3 – 9 4 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e q u a l i f i c a t i o n . F C K w e n t o n w i n t e r b r e a k a f t e r t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n i n t h i r d p l a c e . I n t h e s p r i n g o f 1 9 9 4 , C o p e n h a g e n g a i n e d o n l e a d i n g t e a m S i l k e b o r g I F . I n t h e p e n u l t i m a t e m a t c h o f t h e s e a s o n , t h e t w o t e a m s m e t a t t h e P a r k e n S t a d i u m . I n f r o n t o f a r e c o r d - s e t t i n g a t t e n d a n c e o f 2 6 , 6 7 9 , F C K w o n t h e m a t c h 4 – 1 . T h e c l u b w a s o n e p o i n t a h e a d o f S i l k e b o r g , b u t b e c a u s e F C K l o s t 3 – 2 t o O d e n s e i n t h e f i n a l g a m e o f t h e s e a s o n , i t h a d t o s e t t l e f o r s e c o n d p l a c e . F o r t h e n e x t t h r e e s e a s o n s , C o p e n h a g e n h a d l i t t l e s u c c e s s i n t h e S u p e r l i g a , d e s p i t e w i n n i n g t w o D a n i s h C u p s . T h e t e a m w o n t h e 1 9 9 5 C u p f i n a l a g a i n s t A k a d e m i s k B o l d k l u b w i t h a 5 – 0 w i n , q u a l i f y i n g f o r E u r o p e a n f o o t b a l l o n c e a g a i n , d e s p i t e m e d i o c r e r e s u l t s i n t h e l e a g u e . K i m B r i n k t o o k o v e r a s m a n a g e r i n 1 9 9 6 , b u t d e s p i t e w i n n i n g t h e s e c o n d C u p t r o p h y f o r t h e c l u b , t h e e i g h t h - p l a c e f i n i s h i n t h e 1 9 9 6 – 9 7 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n p r o m p t e d a n o t h e r c h a n g e i n m a n a g e r s . I n F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 7 , F l e m m i n g Ø s t e r g a a r d , l a t e r g i v e n t h e n i c k n a m e " D o n Ø , " j o i n e d t h e b o a r d o f t h e c l u b a s v i c e c h a i r m a n a n d C E O . A f t e r a s u c c e s s f u l I P O , g e n e r a t i n g D K K 7 5   m i l l i o n , F C K w a s i n t r o d u c e d o n t h e C o p e n h a g e n S t o c k E x c h a n g e i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 7 . T h e 1 9 9 7 – 9 8 s e a s o n m a r k e d t h e f i r s t s e a s o n t h a t C o p e n h a g e n a v e r a g e d m o r e t h a n 1 0 , 0 0 0 s p e c t a t o r s a t h o m e , a n d t h e c l u b b o u g h t t h e i r s t a d i u m P a r k e n f o r D K K 1 3 8   m i l l i o n i n J u n e 1 9 9 8 . T h e s e l f - a c c l a i m e d " b e s t m a n a g e r i n D e n m a r k , " C h r i s t i a n A n d e r s e n , b e g a n m a n a g i n g t h e c l u b i n J a n u a r y 1 9 9 9 . A f t e r 7 5 c o n t r o v e r s i a l d a y s , h o w e v e r , h e w a s f i r e d i n M a r c h 1 9 9 9 ; S p o r t s D i r e c t o r N i e l s - C h r i s t i a n H o l m s t r ø m e x p l a i n e d A n d e r s e n h a d c r e a t e d f r u s t r a t i o n a m o n g t h e p l a y e r s . I n 1 9 9 9 , C o p e n h a g e n m a d e i t s i m p a c t i n E u r o p e w h e n i t f a c e d E n g l i s h s i d e C h e l s e a i n t h e s e c o n d r o u n d U E F A C u p W i n n e r s ' C u p . I n t h e f i r s t l e g a w a y a t S t a m f o r d B r i d g e , B j a r n e G o l d b æ k g a v e C o p e n h a g e n t h e l e a d n i n e m i n u t e s b e f o r e t h e e n d o f t h e m a t c h , b u t C h e l s e a s c o r e d i n t h e l a s t m i n u t e o f t h e g a m e . C h e l s e a l a t e r w o n t h e s e c o n d g a m e a t P a r k e n w i t h a g o a l b y t h e D a n e B r i a n L a u d r u p , k n o c k i n g o u t F C K . A t t h e p o s t - m a t c h p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e , i t w a s a n n o u n c e d t h a t C h e l s e a ' s B r i a n L a u d r u p w a s s i g n i n g w i t h C o p e n h a g e n i n J a n u a r y 1 9 9 9 , w i t h B j a r n e G o l d b æ k m o v i n g i n t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n f o r C h e l s e a . A f o u r - t i m e D a n i s h P l a y e r o f t h e Y e a r a w a r d w i n n e r , L a u d r u p , h o w e v e r , c o u l d n o t h e l p C o p e n h a g e n i m p r o v e t h e i r l e a g u e p o s i t i o n , a n d t h e c l u b e n d e d t h e y e a r i n s e v e n t h i n t h e 1 9 9 8 – 9 9 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n . L a u d r u p o n l y s t a y e d f o r j u s t s i x m o n t h s a t t h e c l u b b e f o r e s i g n i n g f o r A j a x a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n . I n t h e 1 9 9 9 – 2 0 0 0 s e a s o n , F . C . C o p e n h a g e n s t r u g g l e d t o m a k e a n y s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t a n d f i n i s h e d e i g h t h i n t h e l e a g u e . I n t h e w i n t e r 2 0 0 0 t r a n s f e r w i n d o w , S o u t h A f r i c a n s t r i k e r S i b u s i s o Z u m a w a s s i g n e d f r o m S o u t h A f r i c a n s i d e O r l a n d o P i r a t e s , a n d i n M a y 2 0 0 0 , E n g l i s h m a n a g e r R o y H o d g s o n b e c a m e t h e n e w m a n a g e r . F r o m t h e 2 0 0 0 – 0 1 s e a s o n , t h e c l u b s t a r t e d t o i m p r o v e . T h e c l u b w o n i t s s e c o n d S u p e r l i g a c h a m p i o n s h i p , w i n n i n g 3 – 1 i n t h e l a s t C o p e n h a g e n D e r b y m a t c h o f t h e s e a s o n , a t t h e P a r k e n S t a d i u m . T h e 2 – 0 g o a l w a s a b i c y c l e k i c k b y Z u m a , w h o r e c e i v e d t h e b a l l a t h i s c h e s t , b o u n c e d i t i n t h e a i r a n d i n t h e s a m e m o t i o n e x e c u t e d t h e o v e r h e a d k i c k , v o l l e y i n g t h e b a l l i n t o t h e f a r c o r n e r o u t o f B r ø n d b y g o a l k e e p e r M o g e n s K r o g h ' s r e a c h . T h i s w a s l a t e r v o t e d t h e D a n i s h g o a l o f t h e y e a r , a n d w a s v o t e d t h e b e s t S u p e r l i g a g o a l o f t h e d e c a d e i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 9 a n d w a s i n 2 0 1 3 v o t e d a s t h e g r e a t e s t m o m e n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f F C K . R o y H o d g s o n b r o k e h i s c o n t r a c t w i t h C o p e n h a g e n a f e w w e e k s a f t e r h a v i n g w o n t h e c h a m p i o n s h i p , s i g n i n g w i t h I t a l i a n t e a m U d i n e s e , a n d h e w a s r e p l a c e d b y S w e d e K e n t K a r l s s o n . T h e 2 0 0 1 s e a s o n i s a l s o r e m e m b e r e d f o r a h i g h l y d r a m a t i c e v e n t . D u r i n g t r a i n i n g o n 1 3 M a r c h 2 0 0 1 c h a r i s m a t i c m i d f i e l d e r S t å l e S o l b a k k e n s u f f e r e d a h e a r t a t t a c k . H e w a s r a p i d l y a t t e n d e d t o b y c l u b d o c t o r F r a n k O d g a a r d w h o f o u n d t h a t h i s h e a r t h a d s t o p p e d b e a t i n g a n d s t a r t e d t o a d m i n i s t e r c a r d i a c m a s s a g e . U p o n t h e a m b u l a n c e ' s a r r i v a l , S o l b a k k e n w a s p r o n o u n c e d c l i n i c a l l y d e a d a t t h e s c e n e , b u t o n t h e w a y t o t h e h o s p i t a l i n t h e a m b u l a n c e h e w a s r e v i v e d n e a r l y s e v e n m i n u t e s l a t e r . H e s u r v i v e d t h e e p i s o d e a n d h a d a p a c e m a k e r f i t t e d . S h o r t l y a f t e r , o n m e d i c a l a d v i c e , h e a n n o u n c e d h i s p l a y i n g r e t i r e m e n t , b u t w o u l d l a t e r r e t u r n t o t h e c l u b a n d b e c o m e i t s m o s t s u c c e s s f u l m a n a g e r . C o p e n h a g e n f a c e d I t a l i a n t e a m L a z i o f o r q u a l i f i c a t i o n t o t h e 2 0 0 1 – 0 2 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e q u a l i f i c a t i o n . A 2 – 1 w i n f o r F C K i n t h e f i r s t g a m e p r o v e d m o o t , a s L a z i o u l t i m a t e l y p r o g r e s s e d w i t h a 5 – 3 a g g r e g a t e s c o r e . C o p e n h a g e n t h u s e n t e r e d t h e 2 0 0 1 – 0 2 U E F A C u p , w h e r e i t d e f e a t e d D u t c h g i a n t s A j a x 1 – 0 o n a g o a l f r o m l e f t b a c k N i c l a s J e n s e n . I n t h e n e x t r o u n d , h o w e v e r , G e r m a n t e a m B o r u s s i a D o r t m u n d e l i m i n a t e d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e 2 0 0 1 – 0 2 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n a l s o e n d e d i n d i s a p p o i n t m e n t f o r K ø b e n h a v n , a s B r ø n d b y w o n t h e c h a m p i o n s h i p o n g o a l d i f f e r e n c e a f t e r F C K h a d c a u g h t u p w i t h B r ø n d b y ' s t e n - p o i n t l e a d a f t e r t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e s e a s o n . I n t h e s e c o n d - l a s t r o u n d o f t h e 2 0 0 2 – 0 3 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n , F C K f a c e d B r ø n d b y a t B r ø n d b y S t a d i u m . I n e x t r a t i m e , H j a l t e N ø r r e g a a r d s c o r e d h i s f i r s t g o a l f o r C o p e n h a g e n a n d b r o u g h t t h e c h a m p i o n s h i p b a c k t o P a r k e n . I n t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e s e c o n d q u a l i f y i n g r o u n d i n 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 , F C K w o n t h e f i r s t m a t c h a g a i n s t S l o v e n i a n c l u b N D G o r i c a 2 – 1 , b u t l a t e r l o s t a t P a r k e n 0 – 5 . U n d e r B a c k e , C o p e n h a g e n w e n t o n t o w i n t h e 2 0 0 4 a n d 2 0 0 6 D a n i s h c h a m p i o n s h i p s a n d t h e 2 0 0 4 D a n i s h C u p . C o p e n h a g e n a l s o w o n t h e i n a u g u r a l 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 e d i t i o n o f t h e R o y a l L e a g u e t o u r n a m e n t , b e a t i n g S w e d i s h t e a m I F K G ö t e b o r g o n p e n a l t y s h o o t o u t i n t h e 2 0 0 5 f i n a l . C o p e n h a g e n r e p e a t e d t h e a c h i e v e m e n t i n t h e 2 0 0 6 e d i t i o n o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t , t h i s t i m e b e a t i n g N o r w e g i a n t e a m L i l l e s t r ø m S K 1 – 0 i n t h e 2 0 0 6 f i n a l . B a c k e b e c a m e t h e l o n g e s t - s e r v i n g c o a c h f o r F C K b e f o r e l e a v i n g t h e c l u b i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 5 . F o r m e r C o p e n h a g e n p l a y e r S t å l e S o l b a k k e n t o o k o v e r a s m a n a g e r . F o r t h e 2 0 0 6 – 0 7 s e a s o n , D a n i s h n a t i o n a l t e a m p l a y e r J e s p e r G r ø n k j æ r r e i n f o r c e d C o p e n h a g e n . F C K l o o k e d f o r w a r d t o t h e 2 0 0 6 – 0 7 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e q u a l i f i e r s , w h e r e i t b e a t A j a x . F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e c l u b ' s h i s t o r y , F C K e n t e r e d t h e g r o u p s t a g e o f t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e , b e i n g g r o u p e d w i t h C e l t i c , B e n f i c a a n d M a n c h e s t e r U n i t e d , a l l f o r m e r w i n n e r s o f t h e t r o p h y . D e s p i t e n o t l o s i n g a g a m e a t P a r k e n ( B e n f i c a 0 – 0 , M a n c h e s t e r U n i t e d 1 – 0 a n d C e l t i c 3 – 1 ) , F C K f a i l e d t o q u a l i f y f r o m t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e g r o u p s t a g e a f t e r l o s i n g a l l o f i t s a w a y g a m e s . O n 9 M a y , C o p e n h a g e n d e f e a t e d B r ø n d b y 1 – 0 a n d w o n i t s f i f t h D a n i s h c h a m p i o n s h i p i n s e v e n y e a r s w i t h f o u r g a m e s t o s p a r e i n t h e l e a g u e . I n t h e 2 0 0 7 – 0 8 s e a s o n , C o p e n h a g e n l o s t t h e t h i r d q u a l i f i c a t i o n r o u n d o f t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e w i t h a 1 – 3 a g g r e g a t e s c o r e t o B e n f i c a . A f t e r b e a t i n g L e n s 3 – 2 , F C K q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e g r o u p s t a g e s o f t h e 2 0 0 7 – 0 8 U E F A C u p , w h e r e i t p l a y e d P a n a t h i n a i k o s ( H ) , L o k o m o t i v M o s c o w ( A ) , A t l é t i c o M a d r i d ( H ) a n d A b e r d e e n . C o p e n h a g e n f e l l t o P a n a t h i n a i k o s a n d A t l é t i c o , b u t a w i n a g a i n s t L o k o m o t i v m e a n t t h a t t h e c l u b n e e d e d o n l y a d r a w a g a i n s t A b e r d e e n t o q u a l i f y f o r t h e n e x t r o u n d . H o w e v e r , a 0 – 4 d e f e a t t o A b e r d e e n p u t t h e m o u t o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t . I n t h e 2 0 0 7 – 0 8 S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n , C o p e n h a g e n f i n i s h e d t h i r d , w i t h A a B t a k i n g t h e t i t l e . I n t h e 2 0 0 8 – 0 9 s e a s o n , C o p e n h a g e n b e g a n s t r o n g . T h e t e a m q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e 2 0 0 8 – 0 9 U E F A C u p g r o u p s t a g e b y e l i m i n a t i n g N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d c l u b C l i f t o n v i l l e , L i l l e s t r ø m a n d F C M o s c o w . I n t h e g r o u p , F C K l o s t a t h o m e t o S a i n t - É t i e n n e a n d d r e w 1 – 1 a g a i n s t V a l e n c i a . W i t h a 1 – 1 d r a w a g a i n s t R o s e n b o r g a n d a w i n o v e r C l u b B r u g g e , C o p e n h a g e n q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e k n o c k o u t p h a s e o f t h e c o m p e t i t i o n , w h e r e i t d r e w 2 – 2 i n t h e f i r s t l e g o f t h e r o u n d o f 3 2 a g a i n s t M a n c h e s t e r C i t y o n 1 9 F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 9 . T h e c l u b l o s t 1 – 2 i n t h e s e c o n d l e g , a l o s s t h a t e n d e d i t s E u r o p e a n s e a s o n . I n t h e d o m e s t i c l e a g u e , F C K b a t t l e d f o r f i r s t p l a c e w i t h B r ø n d b y a n d O d e n s e . E v e n t u a l l y , C o p e n h a g e n w o n t h e C u p f i n a l a g a i n s t A a B a n d c l a i m e d t h e l e a g u e t i t l e w i t h o n e g a m e t o s p a r e i n t h e t o u r n a m e n t , t h u s s e c u r i n g t h e D o u b l e f o r t h e s e c o n d t i m e i n t h e c l u b ' s h i s t o r y . 2 0 1 0 p r o v e d t o b e y e t a n o t h e r E u r o p e a n s u c c e s s . E v e n t h o u g h t h e t e a m l o s t t h e 2 0 0 9 – 1 0 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e p l a y o f f m a t c h t o A P O E L w i t h a 2 – 3 a g g r e g a t e l o s s , t h e t e a m h a d a l r e a d y q u a l i f i e d t o t h e 2 0 0 9 – 1 0 E u r o p a L e a g u e g r o u p s t a g e b y e l i m i n a t i n g F K M o g r e n a n d S t a b æ k . C o p e n h a g e n l o s t a w a y t o C F R C l u j , w o n 1 – 0 a t h o m e a g a i n s t S p a r t a P r a g u e , 0 – 1 a w a y l o s s a g a i n s t P S V a n d b y b e a t i n g C l u j a t h o m e 2 – 0 a n d 3 – 0 a w a y o v e r S p a r t a , C o p e n h a g e n q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e r o u n d o f 3 2 t o f a c e M a r s e i l l e . T h e m a t c h - u p , h o w e v e r , r e s u l t e d i n t w o 1 – 3 l o s s e s f o r C o p e n h a g e n , t h u s e l i m i n a t i n g t h e m f r o m t h e c o m p e t i t i o n . T h e t e a m ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n t o t h e 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e w a s s e c u r e d a f t e r i t b e a t i n g B A T E B o r i s o v ( 0 – 0 / 3 – 2 ) a n d R o s e n b o r g ( 1 – 2 / 1 – 0 ) . T h e t e a m t h u s e n t e r e d t h e g r o u p s t a g e i n G r o u p D a n d m e t B a r c e l o n a , P a n a t h i n a i k o s a n d R u b i n K a z a n . A f t e r a 3 – 1 w i n a g a i n s t P a n a t h i n a i k o s i n t h e i r l a s t g r o u p s t a g e m a t c h , t h e y q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e r o u n d o f 1 6 — t h e r e b y b e c o m i n g t h e f i r s t - e v e r D a n i s h c l u b t o r e a c h t h e s t a g e i n t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e — w h e r e C h e l s e a d e f e a t e d t h e m . C o p e n h a g e n w o n t h e 2 0 1 2 – 1 3 D a n i s h S u p e r l i g a t o s e c u r e a d i r e c t p l a c e i n t h e g r o u p s t a g e o f t h e 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e . H o w e v e r , a f t e r a h o r r i f i c s t a r t t o t h e 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 D a n i s h S u p e r l i g a s e a s o n , F C K f i r e d m a n a g e r A r i ë l J a c o b s , r e h i r i n g S t å l e S o l b a k k e n a s h i s r e p l a c e m e n t . S o l b a k k e n w a s g i v e n a t w o - y e a r c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e o p t i o n f o r a f u r t h e r t w o - y e a r e x t e n s i o n . I n t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e , t h e c l u b w a s p l a c e d i n t o G r o u p B a l o n g s i d e R e a l M a d r i d , J u v e n t u s a n d G a l a t a s a r a y . F C K s e c u r e d f o u r p o i n t s b y d r a w i n g 1 – 1 a g a i n s t J u v e n t u s a t h o m e a n d w i n n i n g 1 – 0 a t h o m e o v e r G a l a t a s a r a y a f t e r a g r e a t g o a l b y D a n i e l B r a a t e n . T h e c l u b , h o w e v e r , c o n c e d e d i t s f i r s t - e v e r C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e g r o u p s t a g e h o m e d e f e a t a f t e r f a l l i n g 0 – 2 t o R e a l M a d r i d i n t h e l a s t r o u n d o f t h e g r o u p s t a g e . C o p e n h a g e n f i n i s h e d t h e 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 l e a g u e i n s e c o n d p l a c e , d e s p i t e h a v i n g b e e n s i t u a t e d t h i r d f o r n u m e r o u s w e e k s . A 3 – 2 a w a y w i n a g a i n s t F C M i d t j y l l a n d s a w t h e m c l o s i n g i n o n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e . I n t h e l a s t r o u n d o f t h e l e a g u e , F C K b e a t O d e n s e B o l d k l u b 3 – 2 a t h o m e w h i l s t M i d t j y l l a n d l o s t t h e i r g a m e 3 – 1 , e n s u r i n g C o p e n h a g e n ' s s e i z u r e o f s e c o n d p l a c e a n d i t s s u b s e q u e n t s p o t i n t h e q u a l i f y i n g r o u n d o f t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e . A f t e r a b u s y s u m m e r t r a n s f e r w i n d o w w i t h n u m e r o u s n e w p l a y e r s a r r i v i n g a t t h e c l u b , C o p e n h a g e n w a s d r a w n a g a i n s t U k r a i n i a n o u t f i t D n i p r o D n i p r o p e t r o v s k i n t h e t h i r d q u a l i f y i n g r o u n d o f t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e . A f t e r a n a g g r e g a t e v i c t o r y o f 2 – 0 o v e r D n i p r o , C o p e n h a g e n w a s d r a w n a g a i n s t G e r m a n c l u b B a y e r L e v e r k u s e n i n t h e p l a y - o f f r o u n d . T h e G e r m a n s , h o w e v e r , d e f e a t e d C o p e n h a g e n 7 – 2 a g g r e g a t e , d r o p p i n g C o p e n h a g e n t o c o n t e n t i o n i n t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 E u r o p a L e a g u e . F C K d r e w I t a l i a n c l u b T o r i n o , C l u b B r u g g e a n d F i n n i s h s i d e H J K H e l s i n k i . I t s c a m p a i g n s t a r t e d w e l l , s e c u r i n g a d e s e r v e d 2 – 0 v i c t o r y o v e r H J K a t h o m e f r o m t w o g o a l s b y N i c o l a i J ø r g e n s e n . C o p e n h a g e n ' s n e x t t w o g a m e s w e r e a g a i n s t T o r i n o a n d C l u b B r u g g e r e s p e c t i v e l y ; i t l o s t 1 – 0 a g a i n s t T o r i n o a n d p l a y e d t o a 1 – 1 d r a w a g a i n s t B r u g g e a f t e r c o n c e d i n g a l a t e g o a l i n i n j u r y t i m e i n b o t h m a t c h e s . C o p e n h a g e n t h e n f a i l e d t o s e c u r e a n i m p o r t a n t w i n a g a i n s t B r u g g e a t h o m e , a m a t c h t h e y l o s t 0 – 4 , s e t t i n g u p a m u s t - w i n s i t u a t i o n f o r F C K a g a i n s t H J K t o p r o g r e s s t o t h e r o u n d o f 3 2 . C o p e n h a g e n , h o w e v e r , f a i l e d — M a c o u m b a K a n d j i m a n a g e d t o s e c u r e a 2 – 1 v i c t o r y f o r H J K , t h e i r s e c o n d w i n i n t h e g r o u p , w i t h a n o t h e r l a t e g o a l . T h e r e s u l t e l i m i n a t e d C o p e n h a g e n . T h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 s e a s o n e n d e d w i t h C o p e n h a g e n w i n n i n g t h e D a n i s h C u p a n d f i n i s h i n g s e c o n d i n t h e S u p e r l i g a . T h e 2 0 1 5 – 1 6 s e a s o n b e g a n w i t h F C K b r i n g i n g i n s i x n e w p l a y e r s , m o s t n o t a b l y D a n i s h i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d f o r m e r A a B p l a y e r K a s p e r K u s k . B y p l a c i n g s e c o n d i n 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 , C o p e n h a g e n b e g a n i n t h e s e c o n d q u a l i f y i n g r o u n d o f t h e 2 0 1 5 – 1 6 U E F A E u r o p a L e a g u e , w h e r e t h e y w e r e d r a w n a g a i n s t W e l s h c l u b N e w t o w n , d e f e a t i n g t h e m 5 – 1 o n a g g r e g a t e t o q u a l i f y t h e m f o r t h e n e x t r o u n d a g a i n s t C z e c h o u t f i t B a u m i t J a b l o n e c . T h e o p e n i n g g a m e o f t h e 2 0 1 5 – 1 6 D a n i s h S u p e r l i g a e n d e d i n a 2 – 1 a w a y w i n f o r F C K a g a i n s t E s b j e r g f B t h r o u g h g o a l s f r o m M a r v i n P o u r i é a n d N i c o l a i J ø r g e n s e n . D e s p i t e a 0 – 1 a w a y w i n o v e r B a u m i t J a b l o n e c , C o p e n h a g e n l o s t i t s h o m e g a m e 2 – 3 , r e s u l t i n g i n a 3 – 3 a g g r e g a t e l o s s o n t h e a w a y g o a l s r u l e . T h i s m a r k e d t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t e n y e a r s t h a t C o p e n h a g e n f a i l e d t o q u a l i f y f o r e i t h e r t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e o r E u r o p a L e a g u e . O n 5 M a y , t h e D a n i s h C u p w a s w o n , a f t e r a 2 – 1 w i n O v e r A G F , w i t h g o a l s f r o m N i c o l a i J ø r g e n s e n a n d W i l l i a m K v i s t . A f t e r w i n n i n g t h e t i t l e t h e p r e v i o u s s e a s o n , C o p e n h a g e n w o u l d c o m p e t e i n t h e 2 0 1 6 - 1 7 C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e q u a l i f i e r s . I n t h e p l a y o f f r o u n d t h e y m e t A P O E L F C , a n d w a s f a c e d w i t h t h e c h a l l e n g e o n g e t t i n g r e v e n g e a f t e r t h e i r t i e a g a i n s t t h e m i n 2 0 0 9 . T h e f i r s t l e g a t P a r k e n s t a d i u m e n d e d 1 – 0 t o t h e h o m e t e a m , a n d i n t h e s e c o n d l e g , C o p e n h a g e n e q u a l i s e d i n t h e 8 6 t h m i n u t e v i a F e d e r i c o S a n t a n d e r ' s s h o t f r o m a w i d e a n g l e , q u a l i f y i n g f o r t h e g r o u p s t a g e , w i t h a n a g g r e g a t e s c o r e o f 2 – 1 . C o p e n h a g e n w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y p l a c e d i n a g r o u p w i t h L e i c e s t e r C i t y , F C P o r t o a n d C l u b B r ü g g e . T h e y w o u l d a f t e r 2 w i n s , 1 l o s s a n d 3 d r a w s , f i n i s h 3 r d i n t h e i r g r o u p a n d m o v e o n t o t h e 2 0 1 6 – 1 7 E u r o p a L e a g u e R o u n d o f 3 2 , w h e r e t h e y m e t L u d o g o r a t s , w h o m t h e y b e a t 2 – 1 o n a g g r e g a t e . I n t h e r o u n d o f 1 6 , t h e y m e t A j a x A m s t e r d a m . I n t h e f i r s t l e g a t h o m e , C o p e n h a g e n w o n 2 - 1 a f t e r a f i r s t - m i n u t e g o a l f r o m R a s m u s F a l k a n d a g o a l i n t h e 5 9 t h m i n u t e b y A n d r e a s C o r n e l i u s . T h e a w a y l e g f i n i s h e d 2 – 0 t o A j a x , a n d C o p e n h a g e n w e r e k n o c k e d o u t o f t h e t o u r n a m e n t , w i t h t h a t s e a s o n s a c h i e v e m e n t s i n t h e E u r o p a L e a g u e b e i n g t h e i r b e s t f i n i s h i n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n a t t h e t i m e . D o m e s t i c a l l y , t h e s e a s o n w a s a n o t h e r s e a s o n t o e n j o y f o r f a n s o f t h e c l u b . C o p e n h a g e n w o n t h e l e a g u e w i t h t h e c l o s e s t c o m p e t i t i o n , B r ø n d b y , f i n i s h i n g 2 4 p o i n t s b e h i n d t h e m . A t t h e t i m e t h e y w e r e c r o w n e d c h a m p i o n s , f o l l o w i n g a d r a w a g a i n s t F C N o r d s j æ l l a n d t h e y w e r e u n b e a t e n i n t h e l e a g u e , w i t h t h e i r f i r s t l o s s o f t h e s e a s o n c o m i n g a g a i n s t F C M i d t j y l l a n d 2 r o u n d s l a t e r , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y a n o t h e r l o s s a g a i n s t L y n g b y B K t h e r o u n d r i g h t a f t e r . C o p e n h a g e n a l s o r e a c h e d t h e c u p f i n a l , w h e r e t h e y m e t a r c h - r i v a l s B r ø n d b y . C o p e n h a g e n o p e n e d t h e s c o r i n g v i a A n d r e a s C o r n e l i u s ' s f i r s t e v e r g o a l a g a i n s t t h e c l u b , w i t h B r ø n d b y r e s p o n d i n g j u s t 1 0 m i n u t e s l a t e r w i t h a n e q u a l i s e r . C o p e n h a g e n s e c u r e d t h e w i n w i t h t w o g o a l s i n r a p i d s u c c e s s i o n , i n t h e 8 3 r d a n d 8 5 t h m i n u t e s , b o t h l o n g b a l l s f r o m d e f e n c e t o a t t a c k , s c o r e d b y S a n t a n d e r a n d C o r n e l i u s r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h u s r e s u l t i n g i n t h e c l u b f r o m t h e c a p i t a l w i n n i n g t h e i r t h i r d c o n s e c u t i v e c u p f i n a l , a l o n g w i t h t h e i r s e c o n d c o n s e c u t i v e d o m e s t i c d o u b l e . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 9 , t h e c l u b a n n o u n c e d t h a t i t w o u l d c h a n g e i t s n a m e i n E u r o p e a n c o m p e t i t i o n s a n d w o u l d s u b s e q u e n t l y b e k n o w n a s F . C . C o p e n h a g e n w i t h U E F A c h a n g i n g t h e i r a b b r e v i a t i o n ' K O B ' t o ' C P H ' . W i n n i n g t h e 2 0 1 8 – 1 9 D a n i s h S u p e r l i g a p l a c e d C o p e n h a g e n i n t h e s e c o n d q u a l i f y i n g r o u n d o f t h e 2 0 1 9 – 2 0 U E F A C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e , b e a t i n g W e l s h o u t f i t T h e N e w S a i n t s . T h e f o l l o w i n g r o u n d a g a i n s t R e d S t a r B e l g r a d e e n d e d 2 – 2 o n a g g r e g a t e , w i t h C o p e n h a g e n p u l l i n g t h e s h o r t e s t s t r a w a n d g o i n g o u t i n p e n a l t i e s , t h u s s e n d i n g C o p e n h a g e n t o t h e U E F A E u r o p a L e a g u e i n s t e a d . H e r e L a t v i a n t e a m R i g a w e r e b e a t e n 3 – 2 o n a g g r e g a t e t h u s s e c u r i n g q u a l i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e G r o u p S t a g e . C o p e n h a g e n f i n i s h i n g s e c o n d i n G r o u p B c o n t e s t e d w i t h F C L u g a n o , D y n a m o K y i v a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n r i v a l s M a l m ö F F . C o p e n h a g e n w e r e t h e n d r a w n a g a i n s t S c o t t i s h o u t f i t C e l t i c i n t h e f i r s t k n o c k o u t r o u n d o f t h e U E F A E u r o p a L e a g u e . T h e f i r s t m a t c h i n T e l i a P a r k e n f i n i s h e d 1 – 1 , w h i l s t C o p e n h a g e n w o n t h e r e t u r n l e g 3 – 1 a t C e l t i c P a r k . T h e o p p o n e n t f o r t h e n e x t r o u n d w e r e t h e T u r k i s h c l u b I s t a n b u l B a ş a k ş e h i r . T h e g a m e e n d e d 1 – 0 w i t h C o p e n h a g e n f a l l i n g t o a l a t e p e n a l t y c o n v e r t e d b y E d i n V i š ć a . T h e s u b s e q u e n t r e t u r n m a t c h i n C o p e n a h a g e n w a s t e m p o r a r i l y p u t o n h o l d d u e t o t h e C O V I D - 1 9 p a n d e m i c . O n 5 A u g u s t 2 0 2 0 , C o p e n h a g e n w o n 3 – 0 o v e r I s t a n b u l B a ş a k ş e h i r t o r e a c h t h e q u a r t e r - f i n a l s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e i r h i s t o r y . I n t h e q u a r t e r - f i n a l s , C o p e n h a g e n l o s t 0 – 1 t o M a n c h e s t e r U n i t e d w i t h a p e n a l t y f r o m B r u n o F e r n a n d e s c o m i n g i n a f t e r e x t r a t i m e . A f t e r p o o r r e s u l t s i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 2 0 2 0 - 2 1 D a n i s h S u p e r l i g a , a n d f a i l u r e t o q u a l i f y f o r t h e 2 0 2 0 - 2 1 E u r o p a L e a g u e , S t å l e S o l b a k k e n w a s s a c k e d b y t h e c l u b , a n d H j a l t e B o N ø r r e g a a r d t o o k o v e r a s c a r e t a k e r m a n a g e r , u n t i l J e s s T h o r u p w a s a p p o i n t e d i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 2 0 . F C K o w n s i t s s t a d i u m , t h e n a t i o n a l a r e n a P a r k e n S t a d i u m . I t w a s b u i l t i n 1 9 9 2 , t h e s a m e y e a r t h e c l u b w a s f o u n d e d . U n t i l t h e s t a d i u m o p e n e d ( a s P a r k e n ) i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 2 , t h e c l u b p l a y e d i t s f i r s t h o m e m a t c h e s a t t h e s m a l l e r Ø s t e r b r o S t a d i o n , w h i c h i s l o c a t e d a d j a c e n t t o P a r k e n . P a r k e n h a s 3 8 , 0 6 5 s e a t s , 4 , 0 0 0 f e w e r s e a t s t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l c a p a c i t y o f 4 2 , 3 0 5 . A f t e r 2 0 0 0 , t h e c l u b h a s r e g u l a r l y a t t r a c t e d o n e o f t h e h i g h e s t a t t e n d a n c e s i n S c a n d i n a v i a . T h e o f f i c i a l f a n c l u b , F . C . K ø b e n h a v n F a n C l u b h a s m o r e t h a n 2 0 , 0 0 0 m e m b e r s . " F C K F C " w a s f o u n d e d o n 2 4 O c t o b e r 1 9 9 1 , a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f a y e a r b e f o r e F C K p l a y e d i t s f i r s t m a t c h . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e a r e m a n y u n o f f i c i a l " f a c t i o n s " c o n n e c t e d t o C o p e n h a g e n , t h e b i g g e s t b e i n g " U r b a n C r e w " , " C o p e n h a g e n C o o l i g a n s " a n d " C o p e n h a g e n C a s u a l s " . T h e s e a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d t o h a v e f r i e n d s h i p s w i t h f a c t i o n s f r o m H a m b u r g e r S V , R a n g e r s , I F K H e l s i n k i a n d H e l s i n g b o r g s I F . F o r t h e 2 0 0 6 – 0 7 s e a s o n , t h e r e w e r e 2 3 , 7 9 5 s p e c t a t o r s o n a v e r a g e . F o r m a n y y e a r s , t h e l o w e r p a r t o f t h e " C - s t a n d " a t P a r k e n , " N e d r e C " , h a s b e e n t h e m a i n s t a n d f o r t h e s u p p o r t e r s o f F C K . I n 2 0 0 6 , a p a r t o f t h e l o w e r " B - s t a n d " w a s m a d e a s e p a r a t e f a n s e c t i o n f o r t h e f a n s w h o w a n t e d t o c r e a t e m o r e o f a n a t m o s p h e r e a n d n a m e d " S e k t i o n 1 2 " . I n g e n e r a l , m o s t o f F C K ' s s u p p o r t e r s a r e f r o m , a n d l i v e , i n t h e C o p e n h a g e n a r e a , u n l i k e t h e i r r i v a l s , B r ø n d b y I F , w h o h a v e a r e p o r t e d 5 7 % o f t h e i r f a n b a s e c o m i n g f r o m J u t l a n d . T h e a r e a S e k t i o n 1 2 o n t h e l o w e r " B - s t a n d " g r e w s o p o p u l a r t h a t t h e f a n s i n a d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e c l u b m a d e i t b i g g e r . T h a t m e a n t t h a t t h e f o r m e r f a m i l y - a r e a i n t h e s t a d i u m i n t h e o t h e r p a r t o f t h e " B - s t a n d " g o t t h e w h o l e n e w a r e a c a l l e d t h e " D - s t a n d " . T h e S e k t i o n 1 2 a r e a o n t h e w h o l e l o w e r " B - s t a n d " g r e w m o r e a n d m o r e p o p u l a r w h i c h m e a n t t h a t t h e f a n s h a d a n e w d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e c l u b . T h a t d i a l o g u e w e n t w e l l f o r t h e s u p p o r t e r s a n d t h e c l u b s u p p o r t e d t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f m a k i n g t h e u p p e r " B - s t a n d " t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f S e k t i o n 1 2 . S e k t i o n 1 2 o n t h e w h o l e " B - s t a n d " i s n o w N o r t h e r n E u r o p e ' s b i g g e s t a c t i v e s t a n d . C o p e n h a g e n ' s f i r s t c o m p e t i t i v e E u r o p e a n m a t c h w a s o n 1 6 S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 2 , i n t h e 1 9 9 2 – 9 3 U E F A C u p , b e a t i n g M P 1 0 – 1 b e f o r e l o s i n g t o A J A u x e r r e i n t h e s e c o n d r o u n d . I n t h e i r f i r s t e v e r U E F A C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e g r o u p s t a g e m a t c h , t h e y b e a t M a n c h e s t e r U n i t e d 1 – 0 a t h o m e , v i a a g o a l i n t h e 7 3 r d m i n u t e b y M a r c u s A l l b ä c k . S i n c e t h e n , t h e c l u b h a s q u i c k l y b e c o m e t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l D a n i s h t e a m i n E u r o p e a n c o m p e t i t i o n , r e a c h i n g t h e g r o u p s t a g e o f t h e U E F A C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e f o u r t i m e s a n d a d v a n c i n g t o t h e R o u n d o f 1 6 i n 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 . T h e y a l s o r e a c h e d t h e q u a r t e r - f i n a l s o f t h e U E F A E u r o p a L e a g u e i n 2 0 1 9 – 2 0 w h i c h t h e y l o s t t o M a n c h e s t e r U n i t e d 1 – 0 i n e x t r a t i m e . " A s o f 2 4 M a y 2 0 2 1 , S o u r c e : e x t e r n a l _ l i n k _ 1 " " S e e F . C . C o p e n h a g e n R e s e r v e s a n d Y o u t h T e a m " I n 2 0 1 4 , 3 2 , 0 0 0 f a n s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a f a n v o t e s e l e c t i n g t h e i r 1 1 a l l - t i m e f a v o u r i t e C o p e n h a g e n p l a y e r s . T h e r e h a v e b e e n f i f t e e n d i f f e r e n t c o a c h e s ( p e r m a n e n t c o a c h e s a n d c a r e t a k e r s ) o f F C C o p e n h a g e n s i n c e 1 9 9 2 . O n e o f t h e c a r e t a k e r s , K i m B r i n k , h a s c o a c h e d t h e c l u b d u r i n g t h r e e s e p a r a t e t e n u r e s . T h e o n l y n o n - S c a n d i n a v i a n s t o c o a c h F C K a r e R o y H o d g s o n a n d A r i ë l J a c o b s . T h e l o n g e s t - r u n n i n g c o a c h i s S t å l e S o l b a k k e n w h o h a s b e e n i n c h a r g e o f F C K f r o m 2 0 0 6 t o 2 0 1 1 a n d f r o m 2 0 1 3 u n t i l 2 0 2 0 . S t å l e S o l b a k k e n i s a l s o t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l c o a c h , i n t e r m s o f w i n n i n g p e r c e n t a g e , w i t h a w i n n i n g p e r c e n t a g e a t 5 8 . 5 % . C h r i s t i a n A n d e r s e n i s F C K ' s l e a s t s u c c e s s f u l c o a c h w i t h a w i n n i n g p e r c e n t a g e a t 0 % . A n d e r s e n i s a l s o t h e s h o r t e s t - r u n n i n g p e r m a n e n t c o a c h o f F C K a s h e o n l y w a s i n c h a r g e o f F C K f o r j u s t a s i n g l e m a t c h b e f o r e h e w a s f i r e d . A l l - t i m e g o a l s c o r e r s i n a l l o f f i c i a l t o u r n a m e n t s M o s t m a t c h e s M o s t g o a l s B i g g e s t v i c t o r y i n t h e S u p e r l i g a B i g g e s t d e f e a t i n t h e S u p e r l i g a B i g g e s t v i c t o r y i n E u r o p e a n c u p s B i g g e s t d e f e a t i n E u r o p e a n c u p s A t t e n d a n c e r e c o r d Y o u n g e s t a n d o l d e s t p l a y e r p l a y i n g i n t h e S u p e r l i g a M o s t D a n i s h n a t i o n a l c h a m p i o n s h i p s w o n a s p l a y e r a n d m a n a g e r " ( I n b r a c k e t s d e b u t y e a r ) " F . C . C o p e n h a g e n l a u n c h e d a n e s p o r t s d i v i s i o n c a l l e d N o r t h i n 2 0 1 7 , w i t h a D a n i s h t e a m i n " C o u n t e r - S t r i k e : G l o b a l O f f e n s i v e " . T h e t e a m h a d s o m e s u c c e s s , m a k i n g t h e p l a y o f f s o f t w o " G l o b a l O f f e n s i v e " M a j o r s a n d w i n n i n g D r e a m H a c k M a s t e r s S t o c k h o l m 2 0 1 8 . T h e t e a m c e a s e d o p e r a t i o n s i n F e b r u a r y 2 0 2 1 , c i t i n g f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s b r o u g h t o n i n p a r t b y t h e C O V I D - 1 9 p a n d e m i c .

History ; Early success

F.C. Copenhagen, founded in 1992, aimed to consistently qualify for European competitions. The club achieved early success, winning the 1992 UEFA Intertoto Cup and the 1992-93 Superliga season. It continued to experience success throughout the years, winning multiple Danish championships and cups, as well as participating in European tournaments like the Champions League and Europa League.

the new club had a modern stadium to play at from the beginning. The initial ambition of the club was continually to qualify for one of the European competitions each season. To reach this goal, the club needed a solid economy, a relatively big fan base and an "attractive and positive style of football. " Benny Johansen managed the club and started its maiden season well. FCK made its first appearance in the European tournaments when it beat Swiss team Grasshoppers 2–1 in the 1992 UEFA Intertoto Cup. FCK won the Intertoto Cup that year and thereby qualified for the UEFA Cup, where it was eliminated in the second round by French team Auxerre. The club won the 1992–93 Superliga season one point ahead of Odense Boldklub and success in the Superliga, despite winning two Danish Cups. The team won the 1995 Cup final against Akademisk Boldklub with a 5–0 win, qualifying for European football once again, despite mediocre results in the league. Kim Brink took over as manager in 1996, but despite winning the second Cup trophy for the club, the eighth-place finish in the 1996–97 Superliga season prompted another change in managers. In February 1997, Flemming Østergaard, later given the nickname "Don Ø," joined the board of the club as vice chairman and CEO. After a successful IPO, generating DKK 75 million, FCK was introduced on the Copenhagen Stock Exchange in November 1997. The 1997–98 season marked the first season that Copenhagen averaged more than 10,000 spectators at home, and the club bought their in 2004–05, FCK won the first match against Slovenian club ND Gorica 2–1, but later lost at Parken 0–5. Under Backe, Copenhagen went on to win the 2004 and 2006 Danish championships and the 2004 Danish Cup. Copenhagen also won the inaugural 2004–05 edition of the Royal League tournament, beating Swedish team IFK Göteborg on penalty shootout in the 2005 final. Copenhagen repeated the achievement in the 2006 edition of the tournament, this time beating Norwegian team Lillestrøm SK 1–0 in the 2006 final. Backe became the longest-serving coach for FCK before leaving the club in December 2005. Former Copenhagen player Ståle Solbakken took over as manager. For the 2006–07 season, Danish national team player Jesper Grønkjær reinforced Copenhagen. FCK looked forward to the 2006–07 Champions League qualifiers, where it beat Ajax. For the first time in the club's history, FCK entered the group stage of the Champions League, being grouped with Celtic, Benfica and Manchester United, all former winners of the trophy. Despite not losing a game at Parken (Benfica 0–0, Manchester United 1–0 and Celtic 3–1), FCK failed to qualify from the Champions League group stage after losing all of its away games. On 9 May, Copenhagen defeated Brøndby 1–0 and won its fifth Danish championship in seven years with four games to spare in the league. In the 2007–08 season, Copenhagen lost the third qualification round of the Champions League with a 1–3 aggregate score to Benfica. After beating Lens 3–2, FCK qualified for the group stages of the 2007–08 UEFA Cup, where the 2014–15 Europa League. FCK drew Italian club Torino, Club Brugge and Finnish side HJK Helsinki. Its campaign started well, securing a deserved 2–0 victory over HJK at home from two goals by Nicolai Jørgensen. Copenhagen's next two games were against Torino and Club Brugge respectively; it lost 1–0 against Torino and played to a 1–1 draw against Brugge after conceding a late goal in injury time in both matches. Copenhagen then failed to secure an important win against Brugge at home, a match they lost 0–4, setting up a must-win situation for FCK against HJK to progress to the round of 32. Copenhagen, however, failed—Macoumba Kandji managed to secure a 2–1 victory for HJK, their second win in the group, with another late goal. The result eliminated enjoy for fans of the club. Copenhagen won the league with the closest competition, Brøndby, finishing 24 points behind them. At the time they were crowned champions, following a draw against FC Nordsjælland they were unbeaten in the league, with their first loss of the season coming against FC Midtjylland 2 rounds later, and subsequently another loss against Lyngby BK the round right after. Copenhagen also reached the cup final, where they met arch-rivals Brøndby. Copenhagen opened the scoring via Andreas Cornelius's first ever goal against the club, with Brøndby responding just 10 minutes later with an equaliser. Copenhagen secured the win with two goals in rapid succession, in the 83rd and 85th minutes, both long balls from defence to attack, scored by Santander and Cornelius respectively, thus is now Northern Europe's biggest active stand. Copenhagen's first competitive European match was on 16 September 1992, in the 1992–93 UEFA Cup, beating MP 10–1 before losing to AJ Auxerre in the second round. In their first ever UEFA Champions League group stage match, they beat Manchester United 1–0 at home, via a goal in the 73rd minute by Marcus Allbäck. Since then, the club has quickly become the most successful Danish team in European competition, reaching the group stage of the UEFA Champions League four times and advancing to the Round of 16 in 2010–11. They also reached the quarter-finals of the UEFA Europa League in 2019–20 which they lost to Manchester United 1–0 in extra time. "As of 24 May 2021, Source: external_link_1" "See F.C. Copenhagen in charge of FCK for just a single match before he was fired. All-time goal scorers in all official tournaments Most matches Most goals Biggest victory in the Superliga Biggest defeat in the Superliga Biggest victory in European cups Biggest defeat in European cups Attendance record Youngest and oldest player playing in the Superliga Most Danish national championships won as player and manager "(In brackets debut year)" F.C. Copenhagen launched an esports division called North in 2017, with a Danish team in "Counter-Strike: Global Offensive". The team had some success, making the playoffs of two "Global Offensive" Majors and winning DreamHack Masters Stockholm 2018. The team ceased operations in February 2021, citing financial difficulties brought on in part by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Trabzonspor

I n 1 9 2 1 T r a b z o n İ d m a n O c a ğ ı w e r e f o u n d e d . T r a b z o n s p o r w e r e f o u n d e d t h r o u g h a m e r g e r o f s e v e r a l l o c a l c l u b s i n c l u d i n g İ d m a n O c a ğ ı i n 1 9 6 7 . T h e c l u b h a s w o n t h e T u r k i s h l e a g u e o n s e v e n o c c a s i o n s i n 1 9 7 5 – 7 6 , 1 9 7 6 – 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 – 7 9 , 1 9 7 9 – 8 0 , 1 9 8 0 – 8 1 , 1 9 8 3 – 8 4 , a n d 2 0 2 1 – 2 2 . I n t h e 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 s e a s o n T r a b z o n s p o r f i n i s h e d r u n n e r s - u p t o F e n e r b a h ç e h a v i n g a c h i e v e d t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s , a l t h o u g h F e n e r b a h ç e w o n t h e t i t l e o n g o a l d i f f e r e n c e . A f t e r t h e t i t l e w a s g i v e n t o F e n e r b a h ç e , i n t h e s u m m e r o f 2 0 1 1 , t h e s e a s o n b e c a m e t h e s u b j e c t o f a m a t c h f i x i n g s c a n d a l . O n 2 5 J u n e 2 0 1 3 , U E F A b a n n e d F e n e r b a h ç e a n d B e ş i k t a ş f r o m E u r o p e a n c o m p e t i t i o n s o v e r m a t c h - f i x i n g . H o w e v e r , i n 2 0 2 1 , l a t e r s t a g e s o f t h e p r o s e c u t i o n s c o n f i r m e d t h e m a t c h - f i x i n g c a s e i s a s e t u p a g a i n s t t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d E x e c u t i v e s o f F e n e r b a h c e S . K . a n d c o n c l u d e d t h e v e r d i c t i s n o t j u s t a n d c r o s s i n g t h e T u r k i s h C o n s t i t u t i o n . A l l l e g a l c h a r g e s d r o p p e d a g a i n s t F e n e r b a h c e S . K . e x t e r n a l _ l i n k _ 1 T r a b z o n s p o r u s e s t h e t e a m l o g o , w h i c h h a s t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n o f i t s n a m e , c o m p o s e d o f t h e l e t t e r " T S " i n b l u e w i t h a c o m b i n e d f o n t o n a b u r g u n d y b a c k g r o u n d . A l t h o u g h a n u m b e r o f t h e o r i e s h a v e b e e n p u t f o r w a r d a s t o w h y t h e c l u b c o l o u r s o f T r a b z o n s p o r a r e c l a r e t a n d b l u e , i t h a s b e e n c l a i m e d t h a t t h e y w e r e a d o p t e d a f t e r t h e c l u b w e r e s e n t a s e t o f k i t s b y t h e E n g l i s h c l u b A s t o n V i l l a a f t e r t h e i r f o r m a t i o n i n 1 9 6 7 . S i n c e D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , t h e i r h o m e g r o u n d i s t h e Ş e n o l G ü n e ş S p o r t s C o m p l e x , w h i c h h a s a c a p a c i t y o f 4 0 , 7 8 2 . P r i o r t o t h i s , T r a b z o n s p o r p l a y e d t h e i r h o m e m a t c h e s a t t h e H ü s e y i n A v n i A k e r S t a d i u m , w h i c h h a s a c a p a c i t y o f 2 4 , 1 6 9 . T r a b z o n s p o r f i r s t c o m p e t e d i n E u r o p e i n t h e 1 9 7 6 – 7 7 s e a s o n , a n d r e a c h e d t h e g r o u p s t a g e s o f t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e i n t h e 2 0 1 1 – 1 2 s e a s o n . T r a b z o n s p o r U 2 1 i s a y o u t h t e a m o f T r a b z o n s p o r . T h e c l u b c o m p e t e s i n t h e U 2 1 l e a g u e , a l o n g s i d e o t h e r U 2 1 c l u b s a r o u n d T u r k e y . N o t a b l e f o r m e r p l a y e r s i n c l u d e H a m i M a n d ı r a l ı ( h i g h e s t c a p p e d T r a b z o n s p o r p l a y e r ( 5 5 8 t i m e s ) ) , G ö k d e n i z K a r a d e n i z ( m o s t c a p s f o r t h e T u r k i s h n a t i o n a l t e a m b y a T r a b z o n s p o r p l a y e r ( 5 0 ) ) , F a t i h T e k k e ( 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 S ü p e r L i g t o p s c o r e r ( 3 1 g o a l s ) ) , T r a b z o n s p o r K u l ü b ü K a d ı n F u t b o l T a k ı m ı a r e a T u r k i s h w o m e n ' s a s s o c i a t i o n f o o t b a l l c l u b a f f i l i a t e d w i t h T r a b z o n s p o r . T h e c l u b w a s f o u n d e d i n 2 0 0 7 a n d t h e y a r e t i t l e h o l d e r s o f 2 0 0 8 – 0 9 s e a s o n o f T u r k i s h W o m e n ' s F o o t b a l l S u p e r L e a g u e . 1 4 6 1 T r a b z o n w a s f o u n d e d a s T r a b z o n K a r a d e n i z s p o r i n 2 0 0 8 a s a f e e d e r c l u b i n w h i c h T r a b z o n s p o r h o l d s f i r s t b u y i n g o p t i o n o n p l a y e r s a s w e l l a s b e i n g a b l e t o l o a n o u t y o u n g s t e r s t o g a i n f i r s t - t e a m e x p e r i e n c e .

History

Trabzonspor was formed in 1967 through a merger of local clubs, including İdman Ocağı, founded in 1921. The club has won the Turkish league seven times and finished runner-up once. They have participated in European competitions since 1976-77 and reached the Champions League group stage in 2011-12. The club's colors, claret and blue, may have originated from a kit donation by Aston Villa. They currently play at the Şenol Güneş Sports Complex and have a notable women's team and feeder club, 1461 Trabzon.

In 1921 Trabzon İdman Ocağı were founded. Trabzonspor were founded through a merger of several local clubs including İdman Ocağı in 1967. The club has won the Turkish league on seven occasions in 1975–76, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1980–81, 1983–84, and 2021–22. In the 2010–11 season Trabzonspor finished runners-up to Fenerbahçe having achieved the same number of points, although Fenerbahçe won the title on goal difference. After the title was given to Fenerbahçe, in the summer of 2011, the season became the subject of a match fixing scandal. On 25 June 2013, UEFA banned Fenerbahçe and Beşiktaş from European competitions over match-fixing. However, in 2021, later stages of the prosecutions confirmed the match-fixing case is a setup against the President and Executives of Fenerbahce S.K. and concluded the verdict is not just and crossing the Turkish Constitution. All legal charges dropped against Fenerbahce S.K.external_link_1 Trabzonspor uses the team logo, which has the abbreviation of its name, composed of the letter "TS" in blue with a combined font on a burgundy background. Although a number of theories have been put forward as to why the club colours of Trabzonspor are claret and blue, it has been claimed that they were adopted after the club were sent a set of kits by the English club Aston Villa after their formation in 1967. Since December 2016, their home ground is the Şenol Güneş Sports Complex, which has a capacity of 40,782. Prior to this, Trabzonspor played their home matches at the Hüseyin Avni Aker Stadium, which has a capacity of 24,169. Trabzonspor first competed in Europe in the 1976–77 season, and reached the group stages of the Champions League in the 2011–12 season. Trabzonspor U21 is a youth team of Trabzonspor. The club competes in the U21 league, alongside other U21 clubs around Turkey. Notable former players include Hami Mandıralı (highest capped Trabzonspor player (558 times)), Gökdeniz Karadeniz (most caps for the Turkish national team by a Trabzonspor player (50)), Fatih Tekke (2004–05 Süper Lig top scorer (31 goals)), Trabzonspor Kulübü Kadın Futbol Takımı are a Turkish women's association football club affiliated with Trabzonspor. The club was founded in 2007 and they are title holders of 2008–09 season of Turkish Women's Football Super League. 1461 Trabzon was founded as Trabzon Karadenizspor in 2008 as a feederclub in which Trabzonspor holds first buying option on players as well as being able to loan out youngsters to gain first-team experience.

Trabzonspor

I n 1 9 2 1 T r a b z o n İ d m a n O c a ğ ı w e r e f o u n d e d . T r a b z o n s p o r w e r e f o u n d e d t h r o u g h a m e r g e r o f s e v e r a l l o c a l c l u b s i n c l u d i n g İ d m a n O c a ğ ı i n 1 9 6 7 . T h e c l u b h a s w o n t h e T u r k i s h l e a g u e o n s e v e n o c c a s i o n s i n 1 9 7 5 – 7 6 , 1 9 7 6 – 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 – 7 9 , 1 9 7 9 – 8 0 , 1 9 8 0 – 8 1 , 1 9 8 3 – 8 4 , a n d 2 0 2 1 – 2 2 . I n t h e 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 s e a s o n T r a b z o n s p o r f i n i s h e d r u n n e r s - u p t o F e n e r b a h ç e h a v i n g a c h i e v e d t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s , a l t h o u g h F e n e r b a h ç e w o n t h e t i t l e o n g o a l d i f f e r e n c e . A f t e r t h e t i t l e w a s g i v e n t o F e n e r b a h ç e , i n t h e s u m m e r o f 2 0 1 1 , t h e s e a s o n b e c a m e t h e s u b j e c t o f a m a t c h f i x i n g s c a n d a l . O n 2 5 J u n e 2 0 1 3 , U E F A b a n n e d F e n e r b a h ç e a n d B e ş i k t a ş f r o m E u r o p e a n c o m p e t i t i o n s o v e r m a t c h - f i x i n g . H o w e v e r , i n 2 0 2 1 , l a t e r s t a g e s o f t h e p r o s e c u t i o n s c o n f i r m e d t h e m a t c h - f i x i n g c a s e i s a s e t u p a g a i n s t t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d E x e c u t i v e s o f F e n e r b a h c e S . K . a n d c o n c l u d e d t h e v e r d i c t i s n o t j u s t a n d c r o s s i n g t h e T u r k i s h C o n s t i t u t i o n . A l l l e g a l c h a r g e s d r o p p e d a g a i n s t F e n e r b a h c e S . K . e x t e r n a l _ l i n k _ 1 T r a b z o n s p o r u s e s t h e t e a m l o g o , w h i c h h a s t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n o f i t s n a m e , c o m p o s e d o f t h e l e t t e r " T S " i n b l u e w i t h a c o m b i n e d f o n t o n a b u r g u n d y b a c k g r o u n d . A l t h o u g h a n u m b e r o f t h e o r i e s h a v e b e e n p u t f o r w a r d a s t o w h y t h e c l u b c o l o u r s o f T r a b z o n s p o r a r e c l a r e t a n d b l u e , i t h a s b e e n c l a i m e d t h a t t h e y w e r e a d o p t e d a f t e r t h e c l u b w e r e s e n t a s e t o f k i t s b y t h e E n g l i s h c l u b A s t o n V i l l a a f t e r t h e i r f o r m a t i o n i n 1 9 6 7 . S i n c e D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , t h e i r h o m e g r o u n d i s t h e Ş e n o l G ü n e ş S p o r t s C o m p l e x , w h i c h h a s a c a p a c i t y o f 4 0 , 7 8 2 . P r i o r t o t h i s , T r a b z o n s p o r p l a y e d t h e i r h o m e m a t c h e s a t t h e H ü s e y i n A v n i A k e r S t a d i u m , w h i c h h a s a c a p a c i t y o f 2 4 , 1 6 9 . T r a b z o n s p o r f i r s t c o m p e t e d i n E u r o p e i n t h e 1 9 7 6 – 7 7 s e a s o n , a n d r e a c h e d t h e g r o u p s t a g e s o f t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e i n t h e 2 0 1 1 – 1 2 s e a s o n . T r a b z o n s p o r U 2 1 i s a y o u t h t e a m o f T r a b z o n s p o r . T h e c l u b c o m p e t e s i n t h e U 2 1 l e a g u e , a l o n g s i d e o t h e r U 2 1 c l u b s a r o u n d T u r k e y . N o t a b l e f o r m e r p l a y e r s i n c l u d e H a m i M a n d ı r a l ı ( h i g h e s t c a p p e d T r a b z o n s p o r p l a y e r ( 5 5 8 t i m e s ) ) , G ö k d e n i z K a r a d e n i z ( m o s t c a p s f o r t h e T u r k i s h n a t i o n a l t e a m b y a T r a b z o n s p o r p l a y e r ( 5 0 ) ) , F a t i h T e k k e ( 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 S ü p e r L i g t o p s c o r e r ( 3 1 g o a l s ) ) , T r a b z o n s p o r K u l ü b ü K a d ı n F u t b o l T a k ı m ı a r e a T u r k i s h w o m e n ' s a s s o c i a t i o n f o o t b a l l c l u b a f f i l i a t e d w i t h T r a b z o n s p o r . T h e c l u b w a s f o u n d e d i n 2 0 0 7 a n d t h e y a r e t i t l e h o l d e r s o f 2 0 0 8 – 0 9 s e a s o n o f T u r k i s h W o m e n ' s F o o t b a l l S u p e r L e a g u e . 1 4 6 1 T r a b z o n w a s f o u n d e d a s T r a b z o n K a r a d e n i z s p o r i n 2 0 0 8 a s a f e e d e r c l u b i n w h i c h T r a b z o n s p o r h o l d s f i r s t b u y i n g o p t i o n o n p l a y e r s a s w e l l a s b e i n g a b l e t o l o a n o u t y o u n g s t e r s t o g a i n f i r s t - t e a m e x p e r i e n c e .

Stadium

Trabzonspor is a Turkish sports club founded in 1967 through a merger of local clubs. They have won the Turkish league seven times and have participated in European competitions since 1976. Their home stadium is the Şenol Güneş Sports Complex, and they have a notable history of producing talented players.

In 1921 Trabzon İdman Ocağı were founded. Trabzonspor were founded through a merger of several local clubs including İdman Ocağı in 1967. The club has won the Turkish league on seven occasions in 1975–76, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1980–81, 1983–84, and 2021–22. In the 2010–11 season Trabzonspor finished runners-up to Fenerbahçe having achieved the same number of points, although Fenerbahçe won the title on goal difference. After the title was given to Fenerbahçe, in the summer of 2011, the season became the subject of a match fixing scandal. On 25 June 2013, UEFA banned Fenerbahçe and Beşiktaş from European competitions over match-fixing. However, in 2021, later stages of the prosecutions confirmed the match-fixing case is a setup against the President and Executives of Fenerbahce S.K. and concluded the verdict is not just and crossing the Turkish Constitution. All legal charges dropped against Fenerbahce S.K.external_link_1 Trabzonspor uses the team logo, which has the abbreviation of its name, composed of the letter "TS" in blue with a combined font on a burgundy background. Although a number of theories have been put forward as to why the club colours of Trabzonspor are claret and blue, it has been claimed that they were adopted after the club were sent a set of kits by the English club Aston Villa after their formation in 1967. Since December 2016, their home ground is the Şenol Güneş Sports Complex, which has a capacity of 40,782. Prior to this, Trabzonspor played their home matches at the Hüseyin Avni Aker Stadium, which has a capacity of 24,169. Trabzonspor first competed in Europe in the 1976–77 season, and reached the group stages of the Champions League in the 2011–12 season. Trabzonspor U21 is a youth team of Trabzonspor. The club competes in the U21 league, alongside other U21 clubs around Turkey. Notable former players include Hami Mandıralı (highest capped Trabzonspor player (558 times)), Gökdeniz Karadeniz (most caps for the Turkish national team by a Trabzonspor player (50)), Fatih Tekke (2004–05 Süper Lig top scorer (31 goals)), Trabzonspor Kulübü Kadın Futbol Takımı are a Turkish women's association football club affiliated with Trabzonspor. The club was founded in 2007 and they are title holders of 2008–09 season of Turkish Women's Football Super League. 1461 Trabzon was founded as Trabzon Karadenizspor in 2008 as a feederclub in which Trabzonspor holds first buying option on players as well as being able to loan out youngsters to gain first-team experience.

Trabzonspor

I n 1 9 2 1 T r a b z o n İ d m a n O c a ğ ı w e r e f o u n d e d . T r a b z o n s p o r w e r e f o u n d e d t h r o u g h a m e r g e r o f s e v e r a l l o c a l c l u b s i n c l u d i n g İ d m a n O c a ğ ı i n 1 9 6 7 . T h e c l u b h a s w o n t h e T u r k i s h l e a g u e o n s e v e n o c c a s i o n s i n 1 9 7 5 – 7 6 , 1 9 7 6 – 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 – 7 9 , 1 9 7 9 – 8 0 , 1 9 8 0 – 8 1 , 1 9 8 3 – 8 4 , a n d 2 0 2 1 – 2 2 . I n t h e 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 s e a s o n T r a b z o n s p o r f i n i s h e d r u n n e r s - u p t o F e n e r b a h ç e h a v i n g a c h i e v e d t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s , a l t h o u g h F e n e r b a h ç e w o n t h e t i t l e o n g o a l d i f f e r e n c e . A f t e r t h e t i t l e w a s g i v e n t o F e n e r b a h ç e , i n t h e s u m m e r o f 2 0 1 1 , t h e s e a s o n b e c a m e t h e s u b j e c t o f a m a t c h f i x i n g s c a n d a l . O n 2 5 J u n e 2 0 1 3 , U E F A b a n n e d F e n e r b a h ç e a n d B e ş i k t a ş f r o m E u r o p e a n c o m p e t i t i o n s o v e r m a t c h - f i x i n g . H o w e v e r , i n 2 0 2 1 , l a t e r s t a g e s o f t h e p r o s e c u t i o n s c o n f i r m e d t h e m a t c h - f i x i n g c a s e i s a s e t u p a g a i n s t t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d E x e c u t i v e s o f F e n e r b a h c e S . K . a n d c o n c l u d e d t h e v e r d i c t i s n o t j u s t a n d c r o s s i n g t h e T u r k i s h C o n s t i t u t i o n . A l l l e g a l c h a r g e s d r o p p e d a g a i n s t F e n e r b a h c e S . K . e x t e r n a l _ l i n k _ 1 T r a b z o n s p o r u s e s t h e t e a m l o g o , w h i c h h a s t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n o f i t s n a m e , c o m p o s e d o f t h e l e t t e r " T S " i n b l u e w i t h a c o m b i n e d f o n t o n a b u r g u n d y b a c k g r o u n d . A l t h o u g h a n u m b e r o f t h e o r i e s h a v e b e e n p u t f o r w a r d a s t o w h y t h e c l u b c o l o u r s o f T r a b z o n s p o r a r e c l a r e t a n d b l u e , i t h a s b e e n c l a i m e d t h a t t h e y w e r e a d o p t e d a f t e r t h e c l u b w e r e s e n t a s e t o f k i t s b y t h e E n g l i s h c l u b A s t o n V i l l a a f t e r t h e i r f o r m a t i o n i n 1 9 6 7 . S i n c e D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , t h e i r h o m e g r o u n d i s t h e Ş e n o l G ü n e ş S p o r t s C o m p l e x , w h i c h h a s a c a p a c i t y o f 4 0 , 7 8 2 . P r i o r t o t h i s , T r a b z o n s p o r p l a y e d t h e i r h o m e m a t c h e s a t t h e H ü s e y i n A v n i A k e r S t a d i u m , w h i c h h a s a c a p a c i t y o f 2 4 , 1 6 9 . T r a b z o n s p o r f i r s t c o m p e t e d i n E u r o p e i n t h e 1 9 7 6 – 7 7 s e a s o n , a n d r e a c h e d t h e g r o u p s t a g e s o f t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e i n t h e 2 0 1 1 – 1 2 s e a s o n . T r a b z o n s p o r U 2 1 i s a y o u t h t e a m o f T r a b z o n s p o r . T h e c l u b c o m p e t e s i n t h e U 2 1 l e a g u e , a l o n g s i d e o t h e r U 2 1 c l u b s a r o u n d T u r k e y . N o t a b l e f o r m e r p l a y e r s i n c l u d e H a m i M a n d ı r a l ı ( h i g h e s t c a p p e d T r a b z o n s p o r p l a y e r ( 5 5 8 t i m e s ) ) , G ö k d e n i z K a r a d e n i z ( m o s t c a p s f o r t h e T u r k i s h n a t i o n a l t e a m b y a T r a b z o n s p o r p l a y e r ( 5 0 ) ) , F a t i h T e k k e ( 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 S ü p e r L i g t o p s c o r e r ( 3 1 g o a l s ) ) , T r a b z o n s p o r K u l ü b ü K a d ı n F u t b o l T a k ı m ı a r e a T u r k i s h w o m e n ' s a s s o c i a t i o n f o o t b a l l c l u b a f f i l i a t e d w i t h T r a b z o n s p o r . T h e c l u b w a s f o u n d e d i n 2 0 0 7 a n d t h e y a r e t i t l e h o l d e r s o f 2 0 0 8 – 0 9 s e a s o n o f T u r k i s h W o m e n ' s F o o t b a l l S u p e r L e a g u e . 1 4 6 1 T r a b z o n w a s f o u n d e d a s T r a b z o n K a r a d e n i z s p o r i n 2 0 0 8 a s a f e e d e r c l u b i n w h i c h T r a b z o n s p o r h o l d s f i r s t b u y i n g o p t i o n o n p l a y e r s a s w e l l a s b e i n g a b l e t o l o a n o u t y o u n g s t e r s t o g a i n f i r s t - t e a m e x p e r i e n c e .

Affiliated clubs

Trabzonspor was formed in 1967 through a merger of local clubs, including İdman Ocağı, founded in 1921. The club has won the Turkish league seven times and has participated in European competitions since 1976-77. They play at the Şenol Güneş Sports Complex and have an affiliated women's team, Trabzonspor Kulübü Kadın Futbol Takımı, and a feeder club, 1461 Trabzon.

In 1921 Trabzon İdman Ocağı were founded. Trabzonspor were founded through a merger of several local clubs including İdman Ocağı in 1967. The club has won the Turkish league on seven occasions in 1975–76, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1980–81, 1983–84, and 2021–22. In the 2010–11 season Trabzonspor finished runners-up to Fenerbahçe having achieved the same number of points, although Fenerbahçe won the title on goal difference. After the title was given to Fenerbahçe, in the summer of 2011, the season became the subject of a match fixing scandal. On 25 June 2013, UEFA banned Fenerbahçe and Beşiktaş from European competitions over match-fixing. However, in 2021, later stages of the prosecutions confirmed the match-fixing case is a setup against the President and Executives of Fenerbahce S.K. and concluded the verdict is not just and crossing the Turkish Constitution. All legal charges dropped against Fenerbahce S.K.external_link_1 Trabzonspor uses the team logo, which has the abbreviation of its name, composed of the letter "TS" in blue with a combined font on a burgundy background. Although a number of theories have been put forward as to why the club colours of Trabzonspor are claret and blue, it has been claimed that they were adopted after the club were sent a set of kits by the English club Aston Villa after their formation in 1967. Since December 2016, their home ground is the Şenol Güneş Sports Complex, which has a capacity of 40,782. Prior to this, Trabzonspor played their home matches at the Hüseyin Avni Aker Stadium, which has a capacity of 24,169. Trabzonspor first competed in Europe in the 1976–77 season, and reached the group stages of the Champions League in the 2011–12 season. Trabzonspor U21 is a youth team of Trabzonspor. The club competes in the U21 league, alongside other U21 clubs around Turkey. Notable former players include Hami Mandıralı (highest capped Trabzonspor player (558 times)), Gökdeniz Karadeniz (most caps for the Turkish national team by a Trabzonspor player (50)), Fatih Tekke (2004–05 Süper Lig top scorer (31 goals)), Trabzonspor Kulübü Kadın Futbol Takımı are a Turkish women's association football club affiliated with Trabzonspor. The club was founded in 2007 and they are title holders of 2008–09 season of Turkish Women's Football Super League. 1461 Trabzon was founded as Trabzon Karadenizspor in 2008 as a feederclub in which Trabzonspor holds first buying option on players as well as being able to loan out youngsters to gain first-team experience.

Trabzonspor

I n 1 9 2 1 T r a b z o n İ d m a n O c a ğ ı w e r e f o u n d e d . T r a b z o n s p o r w e r e f o u n d e d t h r o u g h a m e r g e r o f s e v e r a l l o c a l c l u b s i n c l u d i n g İ d m a n O c a ğ ı i n 1 9 6 7 . T h e c l u b h a s w o n t h e T u r k i s h l e a g u e o n s e v e n o c c a s i o n s i n 1 9 7 5 – 7 6 , 1 9 7 6 – 7 7 , 1 9 7 8 – 7 9 , 1 9 7 9 – 8 0 , 1 9 8 0 – 8 1 , 1 9 8 3 – 8 4 , a n d 2 0 2 1 – 2 2 . I n t h e 2 0 1 0 – 1 1 s e a s o n T r a b z o n s p o r f i n i s h e d r u n n e r s - u p t o F e n e r b a h ç e h a v i n g a c h i e v e d t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s , a l t h o u g h F e n e r b a h ç e w o n t h e t i t l e o n g o a l d i f f e r e n c e . A f t e r t h e t i t l e w a s g i v e n t o F e n e r b a h ç e , i n t h e s u m m e r o f 2 0 1 1 , t h e s e a s o n b e c a m e t h e s u b j e c t o f a m a t c h f i x i n g s c a n d a l . O n 2 5 J u n e 2 0 1 3 , U E F A b a n n e d F e n e r b a h ç e a n d B e ş i k t a ş f r o m E u r o p e a n c o m p e t i t i o n s o v e r m a t c h - f i x i n g . H o w e v e r , i n 2 0 2 1 , l a t e r s t a g e s o f t h e p r o s e c u t i o n s c o n f i r m e d t h e m a t c h - f i x i n g c a s e i s a s e t u p a g a i n s t t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d E x e c u t i v e s o f F e n e r b a h c e S . K . a n d c o n c l u d e d t h e v e r d i c t i s n o t j u s t a n d c r o s s i n g t h e T u r k i s h C o n s t i t u t i o n . A l l l e g a l c h a r g e s d r o p p e d a g a i n s t F e n e r b a h c e S . K . e x t e r n a l _ l i n k _ 1 T r a b z o n s p o r u s e s t h e t e a m l o g o , w h i c h h a s t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n o f i t s n a m e , c o m p o s e d o f t h e l e t t e r " T S " i n b l u e w i t h a c o m b i n e d f o n t o n a b u r g u n d y b a c k g r o u n d . A l t h o u g h a n u m b e r o f t h e o r i e s h a v e b e e n p u t f o r w a r d a s t o w h y t h e c l u b c o l o u r s o f T r a b z o n s p o r a r e c l a r e t a n d b l u e , i t h a s b e e n c l a i m e d t h a t t h e y w e r e a d o p t e d a f t e r t h e c l u b w e r e s e n t a s e t o f k i t s b y t h e E n g l i s h c l u b A s t o n V i l l a a f t e r t h e i r f o r m a t i o n i n 1 9 6 7 . S i n c e D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , t h e i r h o m e g r o u n d i s t h e Ş e n o l G ü n e ş S p o r t s C o m p l e x , w h i c h h a s a c a p a c i t y o f 4 0 , 7 8 2 . P r i o r t o t h i s , T r a b z o n s p o r p l a y e d t h e i r h o m e m a t c h e s a t t h e H ü s e y i n A v n i A k e r S t a d i u m , w h i c h h a s a c a p a c i t y o f 2 4 , 1 6 9 . T r a b z o n s p o r f i r s t c o m p e t e d i n E u r o p e i n t h e 1 9 7 6 – 7 7 s e a s o n , a n d r e a c h e d t h e g r o u p s t a g e s o f t h e C h a m p i o n s L e a g u e i n t h e 2 0 1 1 – 1 2 s e a s o n . T r a b z o n s p o r U 2 1 i s a y o u t h t e a m o f T r a b z o n s p o r . T h e c l u b c o m p e t e s i n t h e U 2 1 l e a g u e , a l o n g s i d e o t h e r U 2 1 c l u b s a r o u n d T u r k e y . N o t a b l e f o r m e r p l a y e r s i n c l u d e H a m i M a n d ı r a l ı ( h i g h e s t c a p p e d T r a b z o n s p o r p l a y e r ( 5 5 8 t i m e s ) ) , G ö k d e n i z K a r a d e n i z ( m o s t c a p s f o r t h e T u r k i s h n a t i o n a l t e a m b y a T r a b z o n s p o r p l a y e r ( 5 0 ) ) , F a t i h T e k k e ( 2 0 0 4 – 0 5 S ü p e r L i g t o p s c o r e r ( 3 1 g o a l s ) ) , T r a b z o n s p o r K u l ü b ü K a d ı n F u t b o l T a k ı m ı a r e a T u r k i s h w o m e n ' s a s s o c i a t i o n f o o t b a l l c l u b a f f i l i a t e d w i t h T r a b z o n s p o r . T h e c l u b w a s f o u n d e d i n 2 0 0 7 a n d t h e y a r e t i t l e h o l d e r s o f 2 0 0 8 – 0 9 s e a s o n o f T u r k i s h W o m e n ' s F o o t b a l l S u p e r L e a g u e . 1 4 6 1 T r a b z o n w a s f o u n d e d a s T r a b z o n K a r a d e n i z s p o r i n 2 0 0 8 a s a f e e d e r c l u b i n w h i c h T r a b z o n s p o r h o l d s f i r s t b u y i n g o p t i o n o n p l a y e r s a s w e l l a s b e i n g a b l e t o l o a n o u t y o u n g s t e r s t o g a i n f i r s t - t e a m e x p e r i e n c e .

Affiliated clubs ; Trabzonspor U21

Trabzonspor was formed in 1967 through a merger of local clubs, including İdman Ocağı, founded in 1921. They've won the Turkish league seven times and finished runner-up once amidst a match-fixing scandal. Their logo features the letters "TS" in blue on a burgundy background. Theories suggest their colors were inspired by Aston Villa. They play at the Şenol Güneş Sports Complex and have a notable youth team, Trabzonspor U21. The club also has a women's team, Trabzonspor Kulübü Kadın Futbol Takımı, founded in 2007, and a feeder club, 1461 Trabzon, established in 2008.

In 1921 Trabzon İdman Ocağı were founded. Trabzonspor were founded through a merger of several local clubs including İdman Ocağı in 1967. The club has won the Turkish league on seven occasions in 1975–76, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1980–81, 1983–84, and 2021–22. In the 2010–11 season Trabzonspor finished runners-up to Fenerbahçe having achieved the same number of points, although Fenerbahçe won the title on goal difference. After the title was given to Fenerbahçe, in the summer of 2011, the season became the subject of a match fixing scandal. On 25 June 2013, UEFA banned Fenerbahçe and Beşiktaş from European competitions over match-fixing. However, in 2021, later stages of the prosecutions confirmed the match-fixing case is a setup against the President and Executives of Fenerbahce S.K. and concluded the verdict is not just and crossing the Turkish Constitution. All legal charges dropped against Fenerbahce S.K.external_link_1 Trabzonspor uses the team logo, which has the abbreviation of its name, composed of the letter "TS" in blue with a combined font on a burgundy background. Although a number of theories have been put forward as to why the club colours of Trabzonspor are claret and blue, it has been claimed that they were adopted after the club were sent a set of kits by the English club Aston Villa after their formation in 1967. Since December 2016, their home ground is the Şenol Güneş Sports Complex, which has a capacity of 40,782. Prior to this, Trabzonspor played their home matches at the Hüseyin Avni Aker Stadium, which has a capacity of 24,169. Trabzonspor first competed in Europe in the 1976–77 season, and reached the group stages of the Champions League in the 2011–12 season. Trabzonspor U21 is a youth team of Trabzonspor. The club competes in the U21 league, alongside other U21 clubs around Turkey. Notable former players include Hami Mandıralı (highest capped Trabzonspor player (558 times)), Gökdeniz Karadeniz (most caps for the Turkish national team by a Trabzonspor player (50)), Fatih Tekke (2004–05 Süper Lig top scorer (31 goals)), Trabzonspor Kulübü Kadın Futbol Takımı are a Turkish women's association football club affiliated with Trabzonspor. The club was founded in 2007 and they are title holders of 2008–09 season of Turkish Women's Football Super League. 1461 Trabzon was founded as Trabzon Karadenizspor in 2008 as a feederclub in which Trabzonspor holds first buying option on players as well as being able to loan out youngsters to gain first-team experience.

Old English Sheepdog

T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g i s a l a r g e d o g , i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o g n i z a b l e b y i t s l o n g , t h i c k , s h a g g y g r e y a n d w h i t e c o a t , w i t h f u r c o v e r i n g t h e i r f a c e a n d e y e s . T h e e a r s l i e f l a t t o t h e h e a d . H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h e b r e e d ' s t a i l w a s c o m m o n l y d o c k e d ( r e s u l t i n g i n a p a n d a b e a r – l i k e r e a r e n d ) , b u t t a i l e d O l d E n g l i s h s h e e p d o g s a r e n o w c o m m o n , a s m a n y c o u n t r i e s h a v e o u t l a w e d c o s m e t i c d o c k i n g . W h e n t h e d o g h a s a t a i l , i t h a s l o n g f u r ( f e a t h e r i n g ) , i s l o w s e t , a n d n o r m a l l y h a n g s d o w n . T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s t a n d s l o w e r a t t h e s h o u l d e r t h a n a t t h e l o i n , a n d w a l k s w i t h a " b e a r - l i k e r o l l f r o m t h e r e a r " . H e i g h t a t t h e w i t h e r s i s a t l e a s t 6 1   c m ( 2 4   i n ) , w i t h f e m a l e s s l i g h t l y s m a l l e r t h a n m a l e s . T h e b o d y i s s h o r t a n d c o m p a c t , a n d i d e a l w e i g h t s a r e n o t s p e c i f i e d i n t h e b r e e d s t a n d a r d s , b u t m a y b e a s m u c h a s 4 6   k g ( 1 0 1   l b ) f o r l a r g e m a l e s . C o l o u r o f t h e d o u b l e c o a t m a y b e a n y s h a d e o f g r e y , g r i z z l e , b l a c k , b l u e , o r b l u e m e r l e , w i t h o p t i o n a l w h i t e m a r k i n g s . T h e u n d e r c o a t i s w a t e r r e s i s t a n t . P u p p i e s a r e b o r n w i t h a b l a c k a n d w h i t e c o a t , a n d i t i s o n l y a f t e r t h e p u p p y c o a t h a s b e e n s h e d t h a t t h e m o r e c o m m o n g r e y o r s i l v e r s h a g g y h a i r a p p e a r s . O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s o n l y s h e d w h e n t h e y a r e b r u s h e d . U n d o c k e d O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s a r e b e c o m i n g a m o r e c o m m o n s i g h t a s m a n y c o u n t r i e s h a v e n o w b a n n e d d o c k i n g . T h e K e n n e l C l u b ( U K ) a n d T h e A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l K e n n e l C o u n c i l b r e e d s t a n d a r d s d o n o t e x p r e s s a p r e f e r e n c e f o r ( l e g a l l y ) d o c k e d o r u n - d o c k e d a n i m a l s , a n d e i t h e r c a n b e s h o w n . T h e A m e r i c a n K e n n e l C l u b b r e e d s t a n d a r d s t a t e s t h a t t h e t a i l s h o u l d b e " d o c k e d c l o s e t o t h e b o d y , w h e n n o t n a t u r a l l y " , e v e n t h o u g h t h e p r a c t i c e o f c o s m e t i c d o c k i n g i s c u r r e n t l y o p p o s e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n V e t e r i n a r y M e d i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e o f t a i l d o c k i n g c a m e a b o u t i n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y a s a r e s u l t o f t a x a t i o n l a w s t h a t r e q u i r e d w o r k i n g d o g s t o b e d o c k e d a s e v i d e n c e o f t h e i r w o r k i n g s t a t u s , b u t n o w a d a y s , i n p l a c e s w h e r e t h e p r a c t i c e i s s t i l l l e g a l , t a i l d o c k i n g i s m a i n l y p e r f o r m e d f o r p u r e l y c o s m e t i c r e a s o n s . T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g c o m e s f r o m t h e p a s t o r a l t y p e d o g s o f E n g l a n d . A s m a l l d r o p - e a r e d d o g s e e n i n a 1 7 7 1 p a i n t i n g b y G a i n s b o r o u g h i s b e l i e v e d b y s o m e t o r e p r e s e n t t h e e a r l y t y p e o f t h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 t h c e n t u r y a b o b t a i l e d d r o v e r s d o g , c a l l e d t h e S m i t h f i e l d o r C o t s w o l d C o r , w a s n o t i c e d i n t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n c o u n t i e s o f E n g l a n d a n d m a y h a v e b e e n a n a n c e s t o r . M o s t f a n c i e r s a g r e e t h a t t h e B e a r d e d C o l l i e w a s a m o n g t h e o r i g i n a l s t o c k u s e d i n d e v e l o p i n g t o d a y ' s b r e e d . < r e f n a m e = " C l a r k / B r a c e " > < / r e f > S o m e s p e c u l a t e t h a t t h e R u s s i a n O w t c h a r w a s a m o n g t h e b r e e d ' s a n c e s t o r s . T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g w a s a t f i r s t c a l l e d t h e " S h e p h e r d ' s D o g " a n d w a s e x h i b i t e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e a t a s h o w i n B i r m i n g h a m , E n g l a n d , i n 1 8 7 3 . T h e r e w e r e o n l y t h r e e e n t r i e s , a n d t h e j u d g e f e l t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e d o g s w a s s o p o o r t h a t h e o f f e r e d o n l y a s e c o n d p l a c i n g . F r o m t h a t b e g i n n i n g , t h e b r e e d b e c a m e a p o p u l a r s h o w d o g , a n d , a l t h o u g h t h e s h a p e o f t h e d o g i t s e l f h a s c h a n g e d v e r y l i t t l e o v e r t h e y e a r s , e l a b o r a t e g r o o m i n g i n c l u d i n g b a c k c o m b i n g a n d p o w d e r i n g t h e f u r w a s r e c o r d e d a s e a r l y a s 1 9 0 7 . T h e b r e e d w a s e x p o r t e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e 1 8 8 0 s , a n d b y t h e t u r n o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , f i v e o f t h e t e n w e a l t h i e s t A m e r i c a n f a m i l i e s b r e d a n d s h o w e d t h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g . T h e b r e e d c o n t i n u e s t o b e a p o p u l a r s h o w d o g t o d a y . T h e b e s t r e c e n t f i n i s h o f a n O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g a t t h e W e s t m i n s t e r K e n n e l C l u b d o g s h o w w a s i n 2 0 1 3 w h e n B u g a b o o ' s P i c t u r e P e r f e c t w a s a w a r d e d R e s e r v e B e s t i n S h o w . U S a n d U K s u r v e y s p u t t h e a v e r a g e l i f e s p a n o f t h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g a t 1 2 – 1 5 y e a r s . T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g C l u b o f A m e r i c a s p o n s o r s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o d i s e a s e s e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e b r e e d i n o r d e r t o a s s i s t b r e e d e r s i n s e l e c t i n g h e a l t h y d o g s f o r b r e e d i n g , a n d b r e e d e r s o f O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s w h o a r e m e m b e r s o f t h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g C l u b o f A m e r i c a m u s t s u p p o r t i t s C o d e o f E t h i c s i n b r e e d i n g a n d s e l l i n g s h e e p d o g s . S o m e d i s e a s e s b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d i n c l u d e h i p d y s p l a s i a , c a t a r a c t s , g l a u c o m a , e n t r o p i o n , t h y r o i d p r o b l e m s , d e a f n e s s , d i a b e t e s , H D , P R A , a l l e r g i e s a n d s k i n p r o b l e m s . T h e r e i s n o d a t a o n h o w m a n y d o g s a r e a f f e c t e d , o r w h a t p e r c e n t o f t h e b r e e d i s a f f e c t e d b y a n y o f t h e s e a i l m e n t s . H e a t s t r o k e i s a l s o a s e r i o u s c o n c e r n i n f u l l c o a t e d d o g s . C a n c e r i s a m a j o r c a u s e o f d e a t h a m o n g s t O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s . T h e b r e e d s t a n d a r d s d e s c r i b e t h e i d e a l O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g a s n e v e r b e i n g n e r v o u s o r a g g r e s s i v e . T h e N e w Z e a l a n d K e n n e l C l u b a d d s t h a t " t h e y a r e s o m e t i m e s c o u c h p o t a t o e s " a n d " m a y e v e n t r y t o h e r d c h i l d r e n b y g e n t l y b u m p i n g t h e m . " T h i s b r e e d ' s t e m p e r a m e n t c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s i n t e l l i g e n t , s o c i a l a n d a d a p t a b l e . T h e A m e r i c a n K e n n e l C l u b a d d s t h a t t h e b r e e d h a s " a c l o w n i s h e n e r g y " a n d " m a y t r y t o h e r d p e o p l e o r o t h e r o b j e c t s . " W i t h w i d e o p e n s p a c e s b e i n g t h e i d e a l s e t t i n g f o r a n O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g , t h e b r e e d i s a n a t u r a l f i t i n a r u r a l s e t t i n g , s u c h a s w o r k i n g o n a f a r m ; a l t h o u g h , w i t h p r o p e r e x e r c i s e a n d t r a i n i n g , t h e y a r e p e r f e c t l y c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h a s u b u r b a n o r u r b a n l i f e s t y l e . O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s s h o u l d n o t b e d e p r i v e d o f t h e c o m p a n y a n d t h e w a r m t h o f p e o p l e . T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g c a n c o m p e t e i n d o g a g i l i t y t r i a l s , o b e d i e n c e , R a l l y o b e d i e n c e , S c h u t z h u n d , s h o w m a n s h i p , f l y b a l l , t r a c k i n g , a n d h e r d i n g e v e n t s . H e r d i n g i n s t i n c t s a n d t r a i n a b i l i t y c a n b e m e a s u r e d a t n o n c o m p e t i t i v e h e r d i n g t e s t s . O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s t h a t e x h i b i t b a s i c h e r d i n g i n s t i n c t s c a n b e t r a i n e d t o c o m p e t e i n h e r d i n g t r i a l s . T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g ' s l o n g c o a t r e q u i r e s a t h o r o u g h b r u s h i n g a t l e a s t o n c e w e e k l y , w h i c h m a y t a k e o n e t o t h r e e h o u r s . W i t h o u t r e g u l a r c a r e , t h e c o a t c a n b e c o m e " a t r a p f o r d u s t , d e b r i s , f e c a l m a t t e r , u r i n e a n d m o i s t u r e . " M a t t i n g m a y b e c o m e p a i n f u l t o t h e a n i m a l , s u c h a s i n b e t w e e n t h e t o e s , a n d c a n r e s t r i c t m o v e m e n t i n s e v e r e c a s e s . P r o s p e c t i v e o w n e r s m a y b e d e t e r r e d b y t h e l e v e l o f c a r e r e q u i r e d i f l o n g h a i r i s d e s i r e d . T h e p r e f e r r e d m e t h o d o f g r o o m i n g i n v o l v e s s t a r t i n g f r o m t h e b a s e o f t h e h a i r s t o k e e p t h e t h i c k u n d e r c o a t h a i r m a t - a n d t a n g l e - f r e e . T h e b r u s h i n g s h o u l d b e s t a r t e d a t a v e r y y o u n g a g e t o g e t t h e d o g u s e d t o i t . A h a i r b a n d m a y b e u s e d t o k e e p a d o g ' s f u r o u t o f i t s e y e s . M a n y p e o p l e t r i m t h e i r d o g s ' c o a t s t o a m o r e m a n a g e a b l e l e n g t h . A p r o f e s s i o n a l q u a l i t y e l e c t r i c s h e a r r e d u c e s t i m e s p e n t t r i m m i n g . H o w e v e r , d o g s t h a t a r e b e i n g s h o w n i n c o n f o r m a t i o n m u s t r e t a i n t h e i r n a t u r a l c o a t . S o m e p e o p l e s h a v e t h e i r S h e e p d o g ' s h a i r a n d s p i n i t i n t o y a r n .

Appearance

The Old English Sheepdog is a large dog with a distinctive shaggy grey and white coat, often with a docked tail. They stand around 24 inches tall and weigh up to 101 pounds. Their coat sheds minimally and requires regular brushing to prevent matting. They come in various shades of grey, grizzle, black, blue, or blue merle, with optional white markings.

The Old English Sheepdog is a large dog, immediately recognizable by its long, thick, shaggy grey and white coat, with fur covering their face and eyes. The ears lie flat to the head. Historically, the breed's tail was commonly docked (resulting in a panda bear–like rear end), but tailed Old English sheepdogs are now common, as many countries have outlawed cosmetic docking. When the dog has a tail, it has long fur (feathering), is low set, and normally hangs down. The Old English Sheepdog stands lower at the shoulder than at the loin, and walks with a "bear-like roll from the rear". Height at the withers is at least 61 cm (24 in), with females slightly smaller than males. The body is short and compact, and ideal weights are not specified in the breed standards, but may be as much as 46 kg (101 lb) for large males. Colour of the double coat may be any shade of grey, grizzle, black, blue, or blue merle, with optional white markings. The undercoat is water resistant. Puppies are born with a black and white coat, and it is only after the puppy coat has been shed that the more common grey or silver shaggy hair appears. Old English Sheepdogs only shed when they are brushed. Undocked Old English Sheepdogs are becoming a more common sight as many countries have now banned docking. The Kennel Club (UK) and The Australian National Kennel Council breed standards do not express a preference for (legally) docked or un-docked animals, and either can be shown. The American Kennel Club breed standard states that the tail should be "docked close to the body, when not naturally ", even though the practice of cosmetic docking is currently opposed by the American Veterinary Medical Association. It is believed that the practice of tail docking came about in the 18th century as a result of taxation laws that required working dogs to be docked as evidence of their working status, but nowadays, in places where the practice is still legal, tail docking is mainly performed for purely cosmetic reasons. The Old English Sheepdog comes from the pastoral type dogs of England. A small drop-eared dog seen in a 1771 painting by Gainsborough is believed by some to represent the early type of the Old English changed very little over the years, elaborate grooming including backcombing and powdering the fur was recorded as early as 1907. The breed was exported to the United States in the 1880s, and by the turn of the 20th century, five of the ten wealthiest American families bred and showed the Old English Sheepdog. The breed continues to be a popular show dog today. The best recent finish of an Old English Sheepdog at the Westminster Kennel Club dog show was in 2013 when Bugaboo's Picture Perfect was awarded Reserve Best in Show. US and UK surveys put the average lifespan of the Old English Sheepdog at 12–15 years. The Old English Sheepdog Club of America sponsors investigations into diseases encountered in the breed in order to assist breeders in selecting healthy dogs for breeding, and breeders of Old English Sheepdogs who are members of the Old English Sheepdog Club of America must support its Code of Ethics in breeding and selling sheepdogs. Some diseases being investigated include hip dysplasia, cataracts, glaucoma, entropion, thyroid problems, deafness, diabetes, HD, PRA, allergies and skin problems. There is no data on how many dogs are affected, or what percent of the breed is affected by any of these ailments. Heatstroke is also a serious concern in full coated dogs. Cancer is a major cause of death amongst Old English Sheepdogs. The breed standards describe the ideal Old English Sheepdog as never being nervous or aggressive. The New Zealand Kennel Club adds that "they are sometimes couch potatoes" and "may even try to herd children by gently bumping them." This breed's temperament can be described as intelligent, social and adaptable. The American Kennel Club adds that the breed has "a clownish energy" and "may try to herd people or other objects." With wide open spaces being the ideal setting for an Old English Sheepdog, the breed is a natural fit in a rural setting, such as working on a farm; although, with proper exercise and training, they are perfectly comfortable with a suburban or urban lifestyle. Old English Sheepdogs should not be deprived of the company and the warmth of people. The Old English Sheepdog can compete in dog agility trials, obedience, Rally obedience, Schutzhund, showmanship, flyball, tracking, and herding events. Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive herding tests. Old English Sheepdogs that exhibit basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials. The Old English Sheepdog's long coat requires a thorough brushing at least once weekly, which may take one to three hours. Without regular care, the coat can become "a trap for dust, debris, fecal matter, urine and moisture." Matting may become painful to the animal, such as in between the toes, and can restrict movement in severe cases. Prospective owners may be deterred by the level of care required if long hair is desired. The preferred method of grooming involves starting from the base of the hairs to keep the thick undercoat hair mat- and tangle-free. The brushing should be started at a very young age to get the dog used to it. A hairband may be used to keep a dog's fur out of its eyes. Many people trim their dogs' coats to a more manageable length. A professional quality electric shear reduces time spent trimming. However, dogs that are being shown in conformation must retain their natural coat. Some people shave their Sheepdog's hair and spin it into yarn.

Old English Sheepdog

T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g i s a l a r g e d o g , i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o g n i z a b l e b y i t s l o n g , t h i c k , s h a g g y g r e y a n d w h i t e c o a t , w i t h f u r c o v e r i n g t h e i r f a c e a n d e y e s . T h e e a r s l i e f l a t t o t h e h e a d . H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h e b r e e d ' s t a i l w a s c o m m o n l y d o c k e d ( r e s u l t i n g i n a p a n d a b e a r – l i k e r e a r e n d ) , b u t t a i l e d O l d E n g l i s h s h e e p d o g s a r e n o w c o m m o n , a s m a n y c o u n t r i e s h a v e o u t l a w e d c o s m e t i c d o c k i n g . W h e n t h e d o g h a s a t a i l , i t h a s l o n g f u r ( f e a t h e r i n g ) , i s l o w s e t , a n d n o r m a l l y h a n g s d o w n . T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s t a n d s l o w e r a t t h e s h o u l d e r t h a n a t t h e l o i n , a n d w a l k s w i t h a " b e a r - l i k e r o l l f r o m t h e r e a r " . H e i g h t a t t h e w i t h e r s i s a t l e a s t 6 1   c m ( 2 4   i n ) , w i t h f e m a l e s s l i g h t l y s m a l l e r t h a n m a l e s . T h e b o d y i s s h o r t a n d c o m p a c t , a n d i d e a l w e i g h t s a r e n o t s p e c i f i e d i n t h e b r e e d s t a n d a r d s , b u t m a y b e a s m u c h a s 4 6   k g ( 1 0 1   l b ) f o r l a r g e m a l e s . C o l o u r o f t h e d o u b l e c o a t m a y b e a n y s h a d e o f g r e y , g r i z z l e , b l a c k , b l u e , o r b l u e m e r l e , w i t h o p t i o n a l w h i t e m a r k i n g s . T h e u n d e r c o a t i s w a t e r r e s i s t a n t . P u p p i e s a r e b o r n w i t h a b l a c k a n d w h i t e c o a t , a n d i t i s o n l y a f t e r t h e p u p p y c o a t h a s b e e n s h e d t h a t t h e m o r e c o m m o n g r e y o r s i l v e r s h a g g y h a i r a p p e a r s . O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s o n l y s h e d w h e n t h e y a r e b r u s h e d . U n d o c k e d O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s a r e b e c o m i n g a m o r e c o m m o n s i g h t a s m a n y c o u n t r i e s h a v e n o w b a n n e d d o c k i n g . T h e K e n n e l C l u b ( U K ) a n d T h e A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l K e n n e l C o u n c i l b r e e d s t a n d a r d s d o n o t e x p r e s s a p r e f e r e n c e f o r ( l e g a l l y ) d o c k e d o r u n - d o c k e d a n i m a l s , a n d e i t h e r c a n b e s h o w n . T h e A m e r i c a n K e n n e l C l u b b r e e d s t a n d a r d s t a t e s t h a t t h e t a i l s h o u l d b e " d o c k e d c l o s e t o t h e b o d y , w h e n n o t n a t u r a l l y " , e v e n t h o u g h t h e p r a c t i c e o f c o s m e t i c d o c k i n g i s c u r r e n t l y o p p o s e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n V e t e r i n a r y M e d i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e o f t a i l d o c k i n g c a m e a b o u t i n t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y a s a r e s u l t o f t a x a t i o n l a w s t h a t r e q u i r e d w o r k i n g d o g s t o b e d o c k e d a s e v i d e n c e o f t h e i r w o r k i n g s t a t u s , b u t n o w a d a y s , i n p l a c e s w h e r e t h e p r a c t i c e i s s t i l l l e g a l , t a i l d o c k i n g i s m a i n l y p e r f o r m e d f o r p u r e l y c o s m e t i c r e a s o n s . T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g c o m e s f r o m t h e p a s t o r a l t y p e d o g s o f E n g l a n d . A s m a l l d r o p - e a r e d d o g s e e n i n a 1 7 7 1 p a i n t i n g b y G a i n s b o r o u g h i s b e l i e v e d b y s o m e t o r e p r e s e n t t h e e a r l y t y p e o f t h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 t h c e n t u r y a b o b t a i l e d d r o v e r s d o g , c a l l e d t h e S m i t h f i e l d o r C o t s w o l d C o r , w a s n o t i c e d i n t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n c o u n t i e s o f E n g l a n d a n d m a y h a v e b e e n a n a n c e s t o r . M o s t f a n c i e r s a g r e e t h a t t h e B e a r d e d C o l l i e w a s a m o n g t h e o r i g i n a l s t o c k u s e d i n d e v e l o p i n g t o d a y ' s b r e e d . < r e f n a m e = " C l a r k / B r a c e " > < / r e f > S o m e s p e c u l a t e t h a t t h e R u s s i a n O w t c h a r w a s a m o n g t h e b r e e d ' s a n c e s t o r s . T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g w a s a t f i r s t c a l l e d t h e " S h e p h e r d ' s D o g " a n d w a s e x h i b i t e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e a t a s h o w i n B i r m i n g h a m , E n g l a n d , i n 1 8 7 3 . T h e r e w e r e o n l y t h r e e e n t r i e s , a n d t h e j u d g e f e l t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e d o g s w a s s o p o o r t h a t h e o f f e r e d o n l y a s e c o n d p l a c i n g . F r o m t h a t b e g i n n i n g , t h e b r e e d b e c a m e a p o p u l a r s h o w d o g , a n d , a l t h o u g h t h e s h a p e o f t h e d o g i t s e l f h a s c h a n g e d v e r y l i t t l e o v e r t h e y e a r s , e l a b o r a t e g r o o m i n g i n c l u d i n g b a c k c o m b i n g a n d p o w d e r i n g t h e f u r w a s r e c o r d e d a s e a r l y a s 1 9 0 7 . T h e b r e e d w a s e x p o r t e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e 1 8 8 0 s , a n d b y t h e t u r n o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , f i v e o f t h e t e n w e a l t h i e s t A m e r i c a n f a m i l i e s b r e d a n d s h o w e d t h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g . T h e b r e e d c o n t i n u e s t o b e a p o p u l a r s h o w d o g t o d a y . T h e b e s t r e c e n t f i n i s h o f a n O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g a t t h e W e s t m i n s t e r K e n n e l C l u b d o g s h o w w a s i n 2 0 1 3 w h e n B u g a b o o ' s P i c t u r e P e r f e c t w a s a w a r d e d R e s e r v e B e s t i n S h o w . U S a n d U K s u r v e y s p u t t h e a v e r a g e l i f e s p a n o f t h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g a t 1 2 – 1 5 y e a r s . T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g C l u b o f A m e r i c a s p o n s o r s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o d i s e a s e s e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e b r e e d i n o r d e r t o a s s i s t b r e e d e r s i n s e l e c t i n g h e a l t h y d o g s f o r b r e e d i n g , a n d b r e e d e r s o f O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s w h o a r e m e m b e r s o f t h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g C l u b o f A m e r i c a m u s t s u p p o r t i t s C o d e o f E t h i c s i n b r e e d i n g a n d s e l l i n g s h e e p d o g s . S o m e d i s e a s e s b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d i n c l u d e h i p d y s p l a s i a , c a t a r a c t s , g l a u c o m a , e n t r o p i o n , t h y r o i d p r o b l e m s , d e a f n e s s , d i a b e t e s , H D , P R A , a l l e r g i e s a n d s k i n p r o b l e m s . T h e r e i s n o d a t a o n h o w m a n y d o g s a r e a f f e c t e d , o r w h a t p e r c e n t o f t h e b r e e d i s a f f e c t e d b y a n y o f t h e s e a i l m e n t s . H e a t s t r o k e i s a l s o a s e r i o u s c o n c e r n i n f u l l c o a t e d d o g s . C a n c e r i s a m a j o r c a u s e o f d e a t h a m o n g s t O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s . T h e b r e e d s t a n d a r d s d e s c r i b e t h e i d e a l O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g a s n e v e r b e i n g n e r v o u s o r a g g r e s s i v e . T h e N e w Z e a l a n d K e n n e l C l u b a d d s t h a t " t h e y a r e s o m e t i m e s c o u c h p o t a t o e s " a n d " m a y e v e n t r y t o h e r d c h i l d r e n b y g e n t l y b u m p i n g t h e m . " T h i s b r e e d ' s t e m p e r a m e n t c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s i n t e l l i g e n t , s o c i a l a n d a d a p t a b l e . T h e A m e r i c a n K e n n e l C l u b a d d s t h a t t h e b r e e d h a s " a c l o w n i s h e n e r g y " a n d " m a y t r y t o h e r d p e o p l e o r o t h e r o b j e c t s . " W i t h w i d e o p e n s p a c e s b e i n g t h e i d e a l s e t t i n g f o r a n O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g , t h e b r e e d i s a n a t u r a l f i t i n a r u r a l s e t t i n g , s u c h a s w o r k i n g o n a f a r m ; a l t h o u g h , w i t h p r o p e r e x e r c i s e a n d t r a i n i n g , t h e y a r e p e r f e c t l y c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h a s u b u r b a n o r u r b a n l i f e s t y l e . O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s s h o u l d n o t b e d e p r i v e d o f t h e c o m p a n y a n d t h e w a r m t h o f p e o p l e . T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g c a n c o m p e t e i n d o g a g i l i t y t r i a l s , o b e d i e n c e , R a l l y o b e d i e n c e , S c h u t z h u n d , s h o w m a n s h i p , f l y b a l l , t r a c k i n g , a n d h e r d i n g e v e n t s . H e r d i n g i n s t i n c t s a n d t r a i n a b i l i t y c a n b e m e a s u r e d a t n o n c o m p e t i t i v e h e r d i n g t e s t s . O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g s t h a t e x h i b i t b a s i c h e r d i n g i n s t i n c t s c a n b e t r a i n e d t o c o m p e t e i n h e r d i n g t r i a l s . T h e O l d E n g l i s h S h e e p d o g ' s l o n g c o a t r e q u i r e s a t h o r o u g h b r u s h i n g a t l e a s t o n c e w e e k l y , w h i c h m a y t a k e o n e t o t h r e e h o u r s . W i t h o u t r e g u l a r c a r e , t h e c o a t c a n b e c o m e " a t r a p f o r d u s t , d e b r i s , f e c a l m a t t e r , u r i n e a n d m o i s t u r e . " M a t t i n g m a y b e c o m e p a i n f u l t o t h e a n i m a l , s u c h a s i n b e t w e e n t h e t o e s , a n d c a n r e s t r i c t m o v e m e n t i n s e v e r e c a s e s . P r o s p e c t i v e o w n e r s m a y b e d e t e r r e d b y t h e l e v e l o f c a r e r e q u i r e d i f l o n g h a i r i s d e s i r e d . T h e p r e f e r r e d m e t h o d o f g r o o m i n g i n v o l v e s s t a r t i n g f r o m t h e b a s e o f t h e h a i r s t o k e e p t h e t h i c k u n d e r c o a t h a i r m a t - a n d t a n g l e - f r e e . T h e b r u s h i n g s h o u l d b e s t a r t e d a t a v e r y y o u n g a g e t o g e t t h e d o g u s e d t o i t . A h a i r b a n d m a y b e u s e d t o k e e p a d o g ' s f u r o u t o f i t s e y e s . M a n y p e o p l e t r i m t h e i r d o g s ' c o a t s t o a m o r e m a n a g e a b l e l e n g t h . A p r o f e s s i o n a l q u a l i t y e l e c t r i c s h e a r r e d u c e s t i m e s p e n t t r i m m i n g . H o w e v e r , d o g s t h a t a r e b e i n g s h o w n i n c o n f o r m a t i o n m u s t r e t a i n t h e i r n a t u r a l c o a t . S o m e p e o p l e s h a v e t h e i r S h e e p d o g ' s h a i r a n d s p i n i t i n t o y a r n .

History

The Old English Sheepdog is a breed of dog known for its distinctive shaggy coat and friendly temperament. Originating in England, the breed was developed to herd sheep and other livestock. They come in various colors including grey, grizzle, black, blue, and blue merle, with optional white markings. The breed has a history dating back to the 18th century, and was recognized by kennel clubs in the late 19th century. Today, the Old English Sheepdog is a popular breed kept as both a pet and a working dog, competing in dog sports such as agility, obedience, and herding. They require regular grooming to prevent matting and tangling of their coat, and are generally considered to be a healthy breed with an average lifespan of 12-15 years.

are not specified in the breed standards, but may be as much as 46 kg (101 lb) for large males. Colour of the double coat may be any shade of grey, grizzle, black, blue, or blue merle, with optional white markings. The undercoat is water resistant. Puppies are born with a black and white coat, and it is only after the puppy coat has been shed that the more common grey or silver shaggy hair appears. Old English Sheepdogs only shed when they are brushed. Undocked Old English Sheepdogs are becoming a more common sight as many countries have now banned docking. The Kennel Club (UK) and The Australian National Kennel Council breed standards do not express a preference for (legally) docked or un-docked animals, and either can be shown. The American Kennel Club breed standard states that the tail should be "docked close to the body, when not naturally ", even though the practice of cosmetic docking is currently opposed by the American Veterinary Medical Association. It is believed that the practice of tail docking came about in the 18th century as a result of taxation laws that required working dogs to be docked as evidence of their working status, but nowadays, in places where the practice is still legal, tail docking is mainly performed for purely cosmetic reasons. The Old English Sheepdog comes from the pastoral type dogs of England. A small drop-eared dog seen in a 1771 painting by Gainsborough is believed by some to represent the early type of the Old English Sheepdog. In the early 19th century a bobtailed drovers dog, called the Smithfield or Cotswold Cor, was noticed in the southwestern counties of England and may have been an ancestor. Most fanciers agree that the Bearded Collie was among the original stock used in developing today's breed.<ref name="Clark/Brace"></ref> Some speculate that the Russian Owtchar was among the breed's ancestors. The Old English Sheepdog was at first called the "Shepherd's Dog" and was exhibited for the first time at a show in Birmingham, England, in 1873. There were only three entries, and the judge felt the quality of the dogs was so poor that he offered only a second placing. From that beginning, the breed became a popular show dog, and, although the shape of the dog itself has changed very little over the years, elaborate grooming including backcombing and powdering the fur was recorded as early as 1907. The breed was exported to the United States in the 1880s, and by the turn of the 20th century, five of the ten wealthiest American families bred and showed the Old English Sheepdog. The breed continues to be a popular show dog today. The best recent finish of an Old English Sheepdog at the Westminster Kennel Club dog show was in 2013 when Bugaboo's Picture Perfect was awarded Reserve Best in Show. US and UK surveys put the average lifespan of the Old English Sheepdog at 12–15 years. The Old English Sheepdog Club of America sponsors investigations into diseases encountered in the breed in order to assist breeders in selecting healthy dogs for breeding, and breeders of Old English Sheepdogs who are members of the Old English Sheepdog Club of America must support its Code of Ethics in breeding and selling sheepdogs. Some diseases being investigated include hip dysplasia, cataracts, glaucoma, entropion, thyroid problems, deafness, diabetes, HD, PRA, allergies and skin problems. There is no data on how many dogs are affected, or what percent of the breed is affected by any of these ailments. Heatstroke is also a serious concern in full coated dogs. Cancer is a major cause of death amongst Old English Sheepdogs. The breed standards describe the ideal Old English Sheepdog as never being nervous or aggressive. The New Zealand Kennel Club adds that "they are sometimes couch potatoes" and "may even try to herd children by gently bumping them." This breed's temperament can be described as intelligent, social and adaptable. The American Kennel Club adds that the breed has "a clownish energy" and "may try to herd people or other objects." With wide open spaces being the ideal setting for an Old English Sheepdog, the breed is a natural fit in a rural setting, such as working on a farm; although, with proper exercise and training, they are perfectly comfortable with a suburban or urban lifestyle. Old English Sheepdogs should not be deprived of the company and the warmth of people. The Old English Sheepdog can compete in dog agility trials, obedience, Rally obedience, Schutzhund, showmanship, flyball, tracking, and herding events. Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive herding tests. Old English Sheepdogs that exhibit basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials. The Old English Sheepdog's long coat requires a thorough brushing at least once weekly, which may take one to three hours. Without regular care, the coat can become "a trap for dust, debris, fecal matter, urine and moisture." Matting may become painful to the animal, such as in between the toes, and can restrict movement in severe cases. Prospective owners may be deterred by the level of care required if long hair is desired. The preferred method of grooming involves starting from the base of the hairs to keep the thick undercoat hair mat- and tangle-free. The brushing should be started at a very young age to get the dog used to it. A hairband may be used to keep a dog's fur out of its eyes. Many people trim their dogs' coats to a more manageable length. A professional quality electric shear reduces time spent trimming. However, dogs that are being shown in conformation must retain their natural coat. Some people shave their Sheepdog's hair and spin it into yarn.

Chrysler LA engine

T h e V 6 w a s r e l e a s e d i n 1 9 8 7 f o r u s e i n t h e D o d g e D a k o t a a n d a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e o l d e r , l o n g e r S l a n t - S i x f o r t h e D o d g e R A M . I t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a s i x - c y l i n d e r v e r s i o n o f t h e 3 1 8 V 8 . O u t p u t w a s a n d u n t i l i t w a s r e p l a c e d b y t h e M a g n u m 3 . 9 s t a r t i n g i n 1 9 9 2 . I n 1 9 8 7 i t u s e d a t w o - b a r r e l H o l l e y c a r b u r e t o r a n d h y d r a u l i c t a p p e t s . I n 1 9 8 8 i t w a s u p g r a d e d w i t h t h r o t t l e - b o d y f u e l i n j e c t i o n a n d r o l l e r t a p p e t s w h i c h i t r e t a i n e d u n t i l t h e 1 9 9 2 M a g n u m u p d a t e . N e x t , i n t h e 1 9 9 2 M a g n u m u p d a t e , t h e t h r o t t l e - b o d y f u e l i n j e c t i o n w a s u p g r a d e d t o a m u l t i - p o r t f u e l i n j e c t i o n . T h e e n g i n e w a s p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h 2 0 0 4 b e f o r e i t w a s r e p l a c e d w i t h t h e 3 . 7 L P o w e r T e c h V 6 . T h e w a s t h e f i r s t L A e n g i n e , b e g i n n i n g m o d e l y e a r 1 9 6 4 a n d o f f e r e d t h r o u g h 1 9 6 9 , r a t e d a t . I t h a d a b o r e a n d s t r o k e o f . I t h a d a m e c h a n i c a l s o l i d l i f t e r v a l v e t r a i n u n t i l 1 9 6 8 w h e n h y d r a u l i c l i f t e r s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d ; h y d r a u l i c l i f t e r s g e n e r a l l y m a k e f o r a q u i e t e r v a l v e t r a i n . T h e r e c i p r o c a t i n g a s s e m b l y i n c l u d e d a c a s t o r f o r g e d s t e e l c r a n k s h a f t , d r o p f o r g e d s t e e l c o n n e c t i n g r o d s a n d c a s t a l u m i n u m p i s t o n s . T h e v a l v e t r a i n c o n s i s t e d o f a c a s t n o d u l a r i r o n c a m s h a f t , s o l i d o r h y d r a u l i c l i f t e r s , s o l i d p u s h r o d s a n d s h a f t - m o u n t e d , m a l l e a b l e i r o n r o c k e r a r m s ( s t a m p e d s t e e l o n l a t e r h y d r a u l i c - c a m e n g i n e s ) . T h e s e a c t u a t e d t h e o v e r h e a d s t e e l i n t a k e a n d e x h a u s t v a l v e s . T h e c y l i n d e r h e a d s f e a t u r e d w e d g e - s h a p e d c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r s w i t h a s i n g l e i n t a k e a n d a s i n g l e e x h a u s t v a l v e f o r e a c h c y l i n d e r . S p a r k p l u g s w e r e l o c a t e d i n t h e s i d e o f t h e c y l i n d e r h e a d , b e t w e e n t h e e x h a u s t p o r t s . A h i g h p e r f o r m a n c e w a s o f f e r e d 1 9 6 5 - ' 6 7 , t h i s w a s s t a n d a r d i n t h e B a r r a c u d a F o r m u l a S m o d e l a n d o p t i o n a l i n a l l o t h e r c o m p a c t m o d e l s e x c l u d i n g s t a t i o n w a g o n s . I t f e a t u r e d a 4 - b b l . c a r b u r e t o r a n d m a t c h i n g i n t a k e m a n i f o l d , c h r o m e u n s i l e n c e d a i r c l e a n e r w i t h c a l l o u t s t i c k e r , l o n g e r - d u r a t i o n a n d h i g h e r - l i f t c a m s h a f t a n d s t r o n g e r v a l v e s p r i n g s , 1 0 . 5 : 1 c o m p r e s s i o n r a t i o , s p e c i a l b l a c k w r i n k l e v a l v e c o v e r s w i t h e x t r u d e d a l u m i n u m a p p l i q u e s , a n d a l o w - r e s t r i c t i o n e x h a u s t s y s t e m w i t h a e x h a u s t p i p e , c o l l e c t o r - t y p e Y - j u n c t i o n , a n d e x p o s e d r e s o n a t o r . I n 1 9 6 5 ( o n l y ) t h e m u f f l e r w a s o f " s t r a i g h t t h r o u g h " c o n s t r u c t i o n . A s p e c i a l v e r s i o n w a s a l s o a v a i l a b l e i n 1 9 6 6 o n l y - i t u s e d a l i f t s o l i d - l i f t e r c a m s h a f t , f a b r i c a t e d - s t e e l - t u b e e x h a u s t , a n d a H o l l e y 4 - b a r r e l c a r b u r e t o r , p r o d u c i n g ( 1   h p / c u   i n ) . I t w a s a v a i l a b l e i n t h e D o d g e D a r t o n l y , a n d t h e c a r s o e q u i p p e d w a s c a l l e d t h e " D - D a r t " , a r e f e r e n c e t o i t s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n N H R A D - s t o c k f o r d r a g r a c i n g , w h i c h w a s t h e c a r ' s o n l y i n t e n d e d p u r p o s e . T h e L A 3 1 8 w a s a r e l a t i v e o f t h e A 3 1 8 . L i k e t h e A 3 1 8 , i t h a s a b o r e & s t r o k e o f X . I t a p p e a r e d i n v o l u m e p r o d u c t i o n b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e 1 9 6 8 m o d e l y e a r , r e p l a c i n g t h e s o l i d l i f t e r ' A ' e n g i n e v e r s i o n t h a t w a s e q u i p p e d w i t h t h e p o l y s p h e r i c a l c h a m b e r e d h e a d s . T h e L A e n g i n e w a s a v a i l a b l e u n t i l 1 9 9 1 w h e n i t w a s s u p e r s e d e d b y t h e M a g n u m v e r s i o n ( S e e b e l o w ) . I t u s e d h y d r a u l i c l i f t e r s a n d a t w o b a r r e l c a r b u r e t o r f o r m o s t o f i t s p r o d u c t i o n , t h o u g h f o u r - b a r r e l C a r t e r T h e r m o - Q u a d a n d R o c h e s t e r Q u a d r a j e t c a r b u r e t o r s w e r e u s e d i n p o l i c e a p p l i c a t i o n s s t a r t i n g i n 1 9 7 8 . T h e 3 1 8 r e c e i v e d r o l l e r l i f t e r s a n d a f a s t - b u r n c h a m b e r e d c y l i n d e r h e a d i n 1 9 8 5 . T h r o t t l e - b o d y e l e c t r o n i c f u e l i n j e c t i o n w a s f a c t o r y e q u i p m e n t o n t h e 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 8 3 I m p e r i a l . F r o m 1 9 8 8 t o 1 9 9 1 , a n o t h e r t h r o t t l e - b o d y f u e l i n j e c t i o n s y s t e m w a s u s e d f o r t r u c k a n d v a n a p p l i c a t i o n s . I n t h e m i d - 1 9 6 0 s , C h r y s l e r d e c i d e d t o a d a p t t h e s m a l l b l o c k V 8 i n t o a l i g h t w e i g h t , h i g h o u t p u t e n g i n e e q u a l l y s u i t e d f o r d r a g s t r i p o r s t r e e t p e r f o r m a n c e u s e . I t s b l o c k w a s b o r e d o u t t o b u t s t r o k e l e f t u n c h a n g e d , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e e n g i n e i n t r o d u c e d f o r t h e 1 9 6 8 m o d e l y e a r . A n t i c i p a t i n g h i g h e r l o a d s r e s u l t i n g f r o m r a c i n g o p e r a t i o n , t h e e n g i n e e r s f i t t e d a f o r g e d s h o t p e e n e d s t e e l c r a n k s h a f t i n s t e a d o f t h e c a s t n o d u l a r i r o n u n i t u s e d i n t h e 3 1 8 . T h i s a l s o i n c l u d e d s h o t p e e n e d h a m m e r - f o r g e d s t e e l c o n n e c t i n g r o d s a n d h i g h c o m p r e s s i o n c a s t a l u m i n u m p i s t o n s w i t h f u l l f l o a t i n g p i n s . A 4 - b a r r e l c a r b u r e t o r w a s m a t e d t o a h i g h - r i s e , d u a l p l a n e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d f e e d i n g h i g h - f l o w c y l i n d e r h e a d s I t s b i g p o r t s u s e d i n t a k e a n d e x h a u s t v a l v e s . A n a g g r e s s i v e c a m w a s f i t t e d t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e m u c h b e t t e r b r e a t h i n g t o p e n d . T h e 1 9 6 8 4 - s p e e d c a r s g o t a n e v e n h o t t e r c a m , b u t i t w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d f o r 1 9 6 9 , w h e r e b o t h a u t o m a t i c a n d m a n u a l c a r s s h a r e d t h e s a m e c a m . T h e e n g i n e w a s e q u i p p e d w i t h h y d r a u l i c l i f t e r s a n d t w o b o l t m a i n b e a r i n g c a p s , l e a d i n g s o m e t o i n i t i a l l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e 3 4 0 ' s p o t e n t i a l . T h e 1 9 6 8 - ' 7 1 3 4 0 ' s c o m p r e s s i o n r a t i o w a s 1 0 . 5 : 1 , p l a c i n g i t n e a r t h e l i m i t o f w h a t w a s p o s s i b l e o n p u m p g a s o l i n e d u r i n g t h a t e r a . T h e 3 4 0 a l s o u s e d a d d i t i o n a l h e a v y - d u t y p a r t s , s u c h a s a d o u b l e - r o w r o l l e r t i m i n g c h a i n a n d s u m p - m o u n t e d w i n d a g e t r a y . P o w e r o u t p u t w a s o f f i c i a l l y s t a t e d a s g r o s s f o r t h e 4 b a r r e l . I n 1 9 7 0 , C h r y s l e r o f f e r e d a s p e c i a l S i x - P a c k v e r s i o n o f t h e 3 4 0 w i t h t r i p l e 2 - b a r r e l c a r b u r e t o r s r a t e d a t g r o s s t h a t w a s s p e c i f i c t o C h a l l e n g e r T A a n d C u d a A A R m o d e l s . T h i s v e r s i o n f e a t u r e d a h e a v y d u t y s h o r t b l o c k w i t h a d d i t i o n a l w e b b i n g t o a l l o w f o r a f t e r m a r k e t i n s t a l l e d 4 b o l t m a i n b e a r i n g c a p s . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n - s p e c i f i c c y l i n d e r h e a d s f e a t u r e d r e l o c a t e d i n t a k e p u s h r o d p a s s a g e s w i t h o f f s e t r o c k e r a r m s t h a t a l l o w e d t h e p u s h r o d s t o b e m o v e d a w a y f r o m t h e i n t a k e p o r t s , w h i c h c o u l d i m p r o v e a i r f l o w i f t h e p u s h r o d - c l e a r a n c e " h u m p " w a s g r o u n d a w a y f r o m t h e i n t a k e p o r t b y t h e e n d u s e r . A n a l u m i n u m i n t a k e m a n i f o l d m o u n t e d t h r e e H o l l e y c a r b u r e t o r s , a n d a d u a l p o i n t s i g n i t i o n s y s t e m w a s f i t t e d . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f r i s i n g g a s o l i n e p r i c e s a n d i n s u r a n c e c o m p a n y c r a c k d o w n o n h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e v e h i c l e s s a w t h e r e l a t i v e l y e x p e n s i v e 3 4 0 d e t u n e d a n d p h a s e d o u t . I t r e m a i n e d a h i g h p e r f o r m a n c e e n g i n e t h r o u g h 1 9 7 1 , b u t w a s d e - t u n e d i n 1 9 7 2 w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f l o w c o m p r e s s i o n ( 8 . 5 : 1 ) s m a l l v a l v e h e a d s , a n d b y m i d - y e a r , a c a s t n o d u l a r i r o n c r a n k s h a f t , a n d a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r e m i s s i o n s r e l a t e d c h a n g e s . F o r t h e 1 9 7 4 m o d e l y e a r i t w a s r e p l a c e d b y t h e e n g i n e . T h e L A h a s a b o r e a n d s t r o k e o f . I t w a s r e l e a s e d i n 1 9 7 1 w i t h a t w o b a r r e l c a r b u r e t o r . T h e 3 6 0 u s e d t h e l a r g e i n t a k e p o r t 3 4 0 h e a d s w i t h a s m a l l e r i n t a k e v a l v e o f . I n 1 9 7 4 , w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e c o d e E 5 8 4 - B B l d u a l e x h a u s t v e r s i o n , a t S A E n e t , b e c a m e t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l L A e n g i n e w i t h t h e e n d o f 3 4 0 p r o d u c t i o n . P o w e r s t a r t e d d r o p p i n g f r o m 1 9 7 5 o n a s m o r e e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l s w e r e a d d e d r e s u l t i n g w i t h t h e 1 9 8 0 E 5 8 e n g i n e o n l y p r o d u c i n g S A E n e t . S t a r t i n g w i t h 1 9 8 1 , t h e 3 6 0 w a s e x c l u s i v e l y u s e d i n D o d g e t r u c k s a n d v a n s . T h e 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 7 9 L i ' l R e d E x p r e s s t r u c k u s e d a s p e c i a l h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e 3 6 0 4 - b a r r e l e n g i n e w i t h f a c t o r y p r o d u c t i o n c o d e E H 1 t h a t w a s r a t e d a t 2 2 5 S A E N e t H P i n p r o d u c t i o n f o r m T h e E H 1 w a s a m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n o f t h e E 5 8 3 6 0 p o l i c e e n g i n e ( E 5 8 ) p r o d u c i n g n e t a t 3 8 0 0   r p m d u e i n p a r t , t h a t a s i t w a s i n s t a l l e d i n a " t r u c k " , a n d n o t a c a r , i t d i d n o t h a v e t o u s e c a t a l y t i c c o n v e r t e r s ( 1 9 7 8 o n l y ) w h i c h a l l o w e d f o r a f r e e - f l o w i n g e x h a u s t s y s t e m . S o m e p r o t o t y p e s f o r t h e E H 1 f e a t u r e d M o p a r P e r f o r m a n c e W 2 h e a d s , a l t h o u g h t h e p r o d u c t i o n u n i t s h a d t h e s t a n d a r d 3 6 0 h e a d s . S o m e p o l i c e p a c k a g e c a r s c a m e f r o m t h e f a c t o r y w i t h a s t e e l c r a n k a n d h - b e a m r o d s . T h e r e w a s a l s o a " l e a n b u r n " v e r s i o n o f t h e 3 6 0 . T h e L A 3 6 0 w a s r e p l a c e d i n 1 9 9 3 b y t h e 5 . 9 M a g n u m , w h i c h s h a r e d s o m e d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s w i t h t h e L A 3 6 0 , h o w e v e r t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t s c o m p o n e n t s w e r e d i f f e r e n t . D u e t o a d d i t i o n a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s , t h e p r o t o t y p e L i ' l R e d E x p r e s s t r u c k t e s t e d b y v a r i o u s p e r i o d m a g a z i n e s r a n a p p r e c i a b l y s t r o n g e r t h a n a c t u a l p r o d u c t i o n e x a m p l e s . T h e l a s t v a r i a t i o n o f t h e L A s e r i e s t o b e i n t r o d u c e d b e f o r e t h e M a g n u m u p g r a d e w a s t h e 1 9 8 8 - 9 2 t h r o t t l e - b o d y f u e l i n j e c t i o n , r o l l e r c a m e n g i n e . T h e f i r s t e n g i n e s t o r e c e i v e t h e s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s w e r e t h e V 8 a n d V 6 e n g i n e s . A H o l l e y / C h r y s l e r - d e s i g n e d , s i n g l e - p o i n t , t w i n - i n j e c t o r t h r o t t l e b o d y a s s e m b l y t h a t w a s m o u n t e d a t o p a s l i g h t l y r e - d e s i g n e d c a s t i r o n i n t a k e m a n i f o l d . A n i n - t a n k e l e c t r i c p u m p a n d r e s e r v o i r r e p l a c e d t h e e a r l i e r m e c h a n i c a l ( c a m s h a f t - e c c e n t r i c d r i v e n ) p u m p . T h e v a l v e t r a i n w a s u p g r a d e d t o i n c l u d e h y d r a u l i c r o l l e r l i f t e r s , h o w e v e r c a m s p e c s r e m a i n e d e s s e n t i a l l y u n c h a n g e d . T h e r e s u l t i n g e n g i n e w a s s o m e w h a t i m p r o v e d a s t o p o w e r a n d e f f i c i e n c y . T h e 5 . 9 L V 8 e n g i n e s f o l l o w e d s u i t i n 1 9 8 9 , b u t a l s o r e c e i v e d t h e o v e r a l l i m p r o v e d " 3 0 8 " c y l i n d e r h e a d s ( c a s t i n g n u m b e r 4 4 4 8 3 0 8 ) t h a t f e a t u r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r f l o w i n g e x h a u s t p o r t s a n d a r e t u r n t o t h e o r i g i n a l 1 9 7 1 ( n o n f a s t b u r n ) c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . H o w e v e r , w i t h o t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c i n g t h e s u p e r i o r m u l t i - p o i n t f u e l i n j e c t i o n s y s t e m , C h r y s l e r C o r p o r a t i o n c o n s i d e r e d a m o r e d r a s t i c u p g r a d e p r o g r a m . A s t h e T B I e n g i n e s w e r e b e i n g i n t r o d u c e d , t h e n e w u p g r a d e p r o g r a m w a s i n i t i a t e d i n t h e C h r y s l e r e n g i n e e r i n g d e p a r t m e n t . I n 1 9 9 2 , w i t h e m i s s i o n s s t a n d a r d s b e c o m i n g e v e r m o r e s t r i n g e n t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , C h r y s l e r C o r p o r a t i o n r e l e a s e d t h e f i r s t o f t h e u p g r a d e d e n g i n e s . I n 1 9 9 2 , C h r y s l e r i n t r o d u c e d t h e f i r s t o f a s e r i e s o f u p g r a d e d v e r s i o n s o f t h e L A e n g i n e s . T h e c o m p a n y n a m e d t h e i r e n g i n e t h e " M a g n u m " , a m a r k e t i n g t e r m t h a t h a d b e e n u s e d b y t h e c o m p a n y p r e v i o u s l y t o d e s c r i b e b o t h t h e D o d g e M a g n u m a u t o m o b i l e a n d a n e a r l i e r D o d g e p a s s e n g e r c a r ( o n l y ) e n g i n e s e r i e s ; t h e l a t t e r w a s b a s e d o n t h e b i g - b l o c k B / R B V 8 e n g i n e s o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s - 7 0 s . T h e C h r y s l e r M a g n u m e n g i n e s a r e a s e r i e s o f V 6 , V 8 , a n d V 1 0 p o w e r p l a n t s u s e d i n a n u m b e r o f C h r y s l e r C o r p o r a t i o n m o t o r v e h i c l e s , a s w e l l a s i n m a r i n e a n d i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . T h i s f a m i l y o f g a s o l i n e - b u r n i n g e n g i n e s l a s t e d f o r o v e r a d e c a d e , w e r e i n s t a l l e d i n v e h i c l e s s o l d a c r o s s t h e g l o b e , a n d w e r e p r o d u c e d i n t h e m i l l i o n s . T h e M a g n u m e n g i n e i s a d i r e c t d e s c e n d a n t o f t h e C h r y s l e r L A e n g i n e , w h i c h b e g a n w i t h t h e V 8 i n 1 9 6 4 . W h i l e t h e M a g n u m 3 . 9 , M a g n u m 5 . 2 , a n d M a g n u m 5 . 9 ( 1 9 9 2 - u p ) e n g i n e s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y b a s e d o n t h e 2 3 9 , t h e 3 1 8 , a n d t h e 3 6 0 — r e s p e c t i v e l y — m a n y o f t h e p a r t s w i l l n o t d i r e c t l y i n t e r c h a n g e a n d t h e M a g n u m s a r e n o t t e c h n i c a l l y L A e n g i n e s ; t h e o n l y m a j o r p a r t s t h a t a r e a c t u a l l y u n c h a n g e d a r e t h e c o n n e c t i n g r o d s . T h e c y l i n d e r b l o c k r e m a i n e d b a s i c a l l y t h e s a m e . I t w a s s t i l l a V - s h a p e d , 9 0 - d e g r e e d e s i g n m a d e o f c a s t i r o n . T h e c r a n k s h a f t , l o c a t e d t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e b l o c k b y f i v e m a i n b e a r i n g c a p s , w a s c a s t n o d u l a r i r o n , a n d t h e e i g h t c o n n e c t i n g r o d s w e r e f o r g e d s t e e l . T h e p i s t o n s w e r e c a s t a l u m i n u m , w i t h a h y p e r e u t e c t i c d e s i g n . C y l i n d e r s w e r e n u m b e r e d f r o m t h e f r o n t o f t h e e n g i n e t o t h e r e a r ; c y l i n d e r s 1 , 3 , 5 a n d 7 w e r e f o u n d o n t h e l e f t ( d r i v e r s i d e ) b a n k , o r " b a n k 1 " , w i t h t h e e v e n n u m b e r s o n t h e o t h e r b a n k . C o o l a n t p a s s a g e s w e r e l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e c y l i n d e r s . T h e g e r o t o r - t y p e o i l p u m p w a s l o c a t e d a t t h e b o t t o m r e a r o f t h e e n g i n e , a n d p r o v i d e d o i l t o b o t h t h e c r a n k s h a f t m a i n b e a r i n g s a n d t h e c y l i n d e r h e a d s ( v i a t h e l i f t e r s a n d p u s h r o d s , a s o p p o s e d t o a d r i l l e d p a s s a g e o n L A e n g i n e s ) . C h r y s l e r ' s e n g i n e e r s a l s o r e d e s i g n e d t h e o i l s e a l s o n t h e c r a n k s h a f t t o i m p r o v e a n t i - l e a k s e a l p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e o i l p a n w a s a l s o m a d e f r o m t h i c k e r s t e e l , a n d w a s i n s t a l l e d w i t h a m o r e l e a k - r e s i s t a n t s i l i c o n e - r u b b e r g a s k e t . G a s o l i n e w a s s u p p l i e d t o t h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d t h r o u g h a p a i r o f s t e e l r a i l s t h a t f e d e i g h t B o s c h - t y p e , t o p - f e d , e l e c t r o n i c a l l y a c t u a t e d f u e l i n j e c t o r s ; t h e r e w a s o n e i n j e c t o r l o c a t e d i n e a c h i n t a k e r u n n e r . E a c h c y l i n d e r h a d i t s o w n i n j e c t o r , t h u s m a k i n g t h e f u e l s y s t e m a " m u l t i - p o i n t " t y p e . F u e l p r e s s u r e w a s r e g u l a t e d b y a v a c u u m - c o n t r o l l e d p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t o r , l o c a t e d o n t h e r e t u r n s i d e o f t h e s e c o n d f u e l r a i l . E x c e s s f u e l w a s t h e r e a f t e r d e l i v e r e d b a c k t o t h e f u e l t a n k . ( L a t e r v e r s i o n s h a d t h e r e g u l a t o r a n d f i l t e r m o u n t e d a t t h e i n - t a n k p u m p ) . T o s u p p o r t t h e n e w f u e l s y s t e m , t h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d w a s o f a n e w d e s i g n . K n o w n c o l l o q u i a l l y a s t h e " b e e r k e g " o r " k e g g e r " m a n i f o l d , t h e p a r t w a s s h a p e d l i k e h a l f o f a b e e r b a r r e l l y i n g l o n g i t u d i n a l l y a t o p t h e c e n t e r o f t h e V - s h a p e d e n g i n e b l o c k . T h e i n t a k e r u n n e r s , w h i c h s u p p l i e d t h e f u e l a n d a i r t o e a c h c y l i n d e r , f e d e a c h o f t h e i n t a k e p o r t s i n t h e n e w l y d e s i g n e d c y l i n d e r h e a d s . T h e b o l t s t h a t s e c u r e d t h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d t o t h e c y l i n d e r h e a d s w e r e i n s t a l l e d a t a d i f f e r e n t a n g l e t h a n t h o s e o n t h e o l d e r L A e n g i n e ; t h e y t h r e a d e d i n v e r t i c a l l y , r a t h e r t h a n a t t h e 4 5 - d e g r e e a n g l e o f t h e 1 9 6 6 - u p L A . A i r w a s p r o v i d e d f r o m t h e a i r f i l t e r i n t a k e t o t h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d b y a H o l l e y - d e s i g n e d , a l u m i n u m , t w i n - v e n t u r i , m e c h a n i c a l l y a c t u a t e d t h r o t t l e b o d y , w h i c h w a s b o l t e d a t o p t h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d . E a c h v e n t u r i w a s p r o g r e s s i v e l y b o r e d a n d h a d a d i a m e t e r o f 5 0 m m . T o t h i s u n i t w e r e m o u n t e d t h e T h r o t t l e P o s i t i o n S e n s o r ( T P S ) , M a n i f o l d A b s o l u t e P r e s s u r e ( M A P ) s e n s o r a n d I d l e A i r C o n t r o l ( I A C ) v a l v e ( i n i t i a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e " A I S M o t o r " ) . A s t e e l c a b l e c o n n e c t e d t h e a c c e l e r a t o r p e d a l i n s i d e t h e v e h i c l e t o a m e c h a n i c a l l i n k a g e a t t h e s i d e o f t h e t h r o t t l e b o d y , w h i c h a c t e d t o o p e n t h e a i r i n t a k e b u t t e r f l y v a l v e s i n s i d e t h e v e n t u r i s . D u r i n g i d l e t h e s e b u t t e r f l y v a l v e s w e r e c l o s e d , s o a b y p a s s p o r t a n d t h e I A C v a l v e w e r e u s e d t o c o n t r o l t h e i n t a k e o f a i r . T h e c y l i n d e r h e a d s w e r e a n o t h e r f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e o f t h e M a g n u m e n g i n e , b e i n g d e s i g n e d t o m e e t s t r i c t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s i n b o t h p o w e r a n d e m i s s i o n s b y i n c r e a s i n g e f f i c i e n c y . T h e s e h e a d s w e r e c a s t i r o n u n i t s w i t h n e w w e d g e - s h a p e d c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r s a n d h i g h - s w i r l v a l v e s h r o u d i n g . C o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r d e s i g n w a s m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n t h e s e n e w h e a d s : L A e n g i n e c y l i n d e r h e a d s w e r e g i v e n a f u l l - r e l i e f o p e n - c h a m b e r d e s i g n , b u t t h e M a g n u m w a s e n g i n e e r e d w i t h a d o u b l e - q u e n c h c l o s e d - c h a m b e r t y p e . T h e h i g h e r - f l o w i n g i n t a k e p o r t s s t e p p e d u p i n t a k e f l o w d r a m a t i c a l l y i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e o r i g i n a l L A h e a d s , a n d t h e e x h a u s t p o r t s i m p r o v e d c y l i n d e r e v a c u a t i o n a s w e l l . T h e s h a p e a n d p o r t i n g o f t h e c h a m b e r s a l l o w e d f o r m o r e c o m p l e t e a t o m i z a t i o n o f t h e a i r / f u e l m i x t u r e , a s w e l l a s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o m o r e c o m p l e t e c o m b u s t i o n ; t h e s e v i r t u e s a l l o w e d f o r m u c h g r e a t e r e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e e n g i n e a s a w h o l e . T h e i n t a k e a n d e x h a u s t v a l v e s w e r e l o c a t e d a t t h e t o p o f e a c h c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r . T h e v a l v e s t h e m s e l v e s h a d s h o r t e r , 5 / 1 6 " d i a m e t e r s t e m s , t o a l l o w f o r t h e m o r e a g g r e s s i v e c a m s h a f t . I n t a k e v a l v e s h a d a p o r t d i a m e t e r o f 1 . 9 2 " , w h i l e e x h a u s t v a l v e s w e r e 1 . 6 0 0 " . w i t h 6 0 c c c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r s . S p a r k p l u g s w e r e l o c a t e d a t t h e p e a k o f t h e c o m b u s t i o n c h a m b e r s ' w e d g e , b e t w e e n t h e e x h a u s t p o r t s ; p r e s s - i n h e a t s h i e l d s p r o t e c t e d t h e m f r o m t h e h e a t o f t h e e x h a u s t m a n i f o l d s . C a s t i r o n e x h a u s t m a n i f o l d s , l e s s r e s t r i c t i v e t h a n u n i t s f o u n d o n p r e v i o u s e n g i n e s , w e r e b o l t e d t o t h e o u t b o a r d s i d e o f e a c h h e a d . T h e n e w c y l i n d e r h e a d s a l s o f e a t u r e d s t u d - m o u n t e d r o c k e r a r m s , a c h a n g e f r o m t h e s h a f t - m o u n t e d L A a r m s . T h i s l a s t c h a n g e w a s d u e t o t h e d i f f e r e n t o i l i n g s y s t e m o f t h e n e w e n g i n e , a s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e n e x t p a r a g r a p h . T h e v a l v e c o v e r s o n t h e M a g n u m h a v e 1 0 b o l t s r a t h e r t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s 5 , f o r i m p r o v e d o i l s e a l i n g . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e v a l v e c o v e r s w e r e m a d e o f t h i c k e r s t e e l t h a n e a r l i e r p a r t s , a n d w e r e i n s t a l l e d w i t h a s i l i c o n e g a s k e t . T h e v a l v e t r a i n w a s a l s o u p d a t e d , a l t h o u g h i t w a s s t i l l b a s e d o n a s i n g l e , c e n t e r - b l o c k - l o c a t e d c a m s h a f t p u s h i n g o n h y d r a u l i c l i f t e r s a n d p u s h r o d s , o n e f o r e a c h r o c k e r a r m . H o w e v e r , t h e c a s t n o d u l a r i r o n c a m s h a f t w a s o f t h e " r o l l e r " t y p e , w i t h e a c h l o b e a c t i n g u p o n a h y d r a u l i c l i f t e r w i t h a r o l l e r b e a r i n g o n t h e b o t t o m ; t h i s m a d e f o r a q u i e t e r , c o o l e r - r u n n i n g v a l v e t r a i n , b u t a l s o a l l o w e d f o r a m o r e a g g r e s s i v e v a l v e l i f t . E a c h o f t h e l i f t e r s a c t e d u p o n a s t e e l p u s h r o d , w h i c h w e r e o f t h e " o i l - t h r o u g h " t y p e . T h i s w a s a n o t h e r c h a n g e f o r t h e M a g n u m . B e c a u s e t h e n e w p u s h r o d s a l s o s e r v e d t o p r o v i d e o i l t o t h e t o p o f t h e c y l i n d e r h e a d , t h e r o c k e r s w e r e c h a n g e d t o t h e A M C - s t y l e , s c r e w - m o u n t e d , b r i d g e d h a l f - s h a f t t y p e . T h e n e w r o c k e r s a l s o h a d a h i g h e r r a t i o : 1 . 6 : 1 c o m p a r e d t o 1 . 5 : 1 i n t h e L A e n g i n e , w h i c h i n c r e a s e d l e v e r a g e o n t h e v a l v e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e o i l b o s s l o c a t e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e c y l i n d e r h e a d o n t h e L A e n g i n e w a s l e f t u n d r i l l e d , a s i t w a s n o l o n g e r n e e d e d . H o w e v e r , t h e b o s s i t s e l f w a s l e f t i n p l a c e , p e r h a p s t o c u t d o w n o n c a s t i n g a n d m a c h i n i n g c o s t s , a n d t o a l l o w t h e u s e o f e a r l i e r L A h e a d s . E n g i n e t i m i n g w a s c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e a l l - s t e e l , s i l e n t M o r s e t i m i n g c h a i n ( s o m e e a r l y p r o d u c t i o n e n g i n e s h a d d o u b l e - r o w r o l l e r t i m i n g s e t s ) , w h i c h w a s l o c a t e d b e n e a t h t h e a l u m i n u m t i m i n g c o v e r a t t h e f r o n t o f t h e e n g i n e b l o c k . T h e t i m i n g c h a i n s p r o c k e t s , o n e e a c h f o r t h e c a m s h a f t a n d c r a n k s h a f t , w e r e a l l - s t e e l ; f o r t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s t h e L A e n g i n e c a m e w i t h n y l o n t e e t h o n t h e s p r o c k e t s . A t t h e r e a r o f t h e c a m s h a f t w a s c u t a s e t o f h e l i c a l g e a r t e e t h , t h e s e b e i n g u s e d t o s p i n t h e d i s t r i b u t o r . M o u n t e d t o t h e f r o n t o f t h e t i m i n g c o v e r w a s a n e w - d e s i g n c o u n t e r - c l o c k w i s e - r o t a t i o n w a t e r p u m p , w i t h m u c h i m p r o v e d f l o w . E x t e r n a l l y , t h e a c c e s s o r y d r i v e b e l t w a s c h a n g e d t o a s e r p e n t i n e s y s t e m ; c o u p l e d w i t h a n a u t o m a t i c b e l t t e n s i o n e r t h i s i n c r e a s e d b e l t l i f e , r e d u c e d m a i n t e n a n c e a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o l o w e r n o i s e a n d v i b r a t i o n l e v e l s . T h e i g n i t i o n s y s t e m w a s a l s o a l l - n e w f o r t h e M a g n u m . C o n t r o l l e d b y a n e w m i c r o - p r o c e s s o r - e q u i p p e d S i n g l e - B o a r d E n g i n e C o n t r o l l e r ( S B E C , a l s o k n o w n a s t h e E C M , o r E n g i n e C o n t r o l M o d u l e ) , t h e i g n i t i o n s y s t e m i n c l u d e d a d i s t r i b u t o r m o u n t e d a t t h e r e a r o f t h e e n g i n e . A 3 6 , 0 0 0 - v o l t i g n i t i o n c o i l , u s u a l l y l o c a t e d a t t h e f r o n t r i g h t o f t h e e n g i n e , p r o v i d e d e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r t o t h e c e n t e r o f t h e d i s t r i b u t o r c a p , w h e r e a s p i n n i n g r o t o r d i r e c t e d t h e p o w e r t o e a c h o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l c y l i n d e r s ' s p a r k p l u g w i r e s . I g n i t i o n d w e l l , a d v a n c e a n d r e t a r d a t i o n w e r e e l e c t r o n i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e S B E C . T h e S B E C c o n t r o l l e d t h e i g n i t i o n , a s w e l l a s t h e o p e n i n g a n d c l o s i n g o f t h e f u e l i n j e c t o r s . D u r i n g c o l d s t a r t u p , w i d e - o p e n t h r o t t l e a n d d e c e l e r a t i o n , i t d i d t h i s b a s e d o n " o p e n - l o o p " , p r e - p r o g r a m m e d o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s . D u r i n g n o r m a l i d l e a n d c r u i s i n g , i t b e g a n " c l o s e d - l o o p " o p e r a t i o n , d u r i n g w h i c h t h e m o d u l e a c t e d b a s e d u p o n i n p u t s f r o m a v a r i e t y o f s e n s o r s . T h e b a s i c s e n s o r s t h a t p r o v i d e d i n p u t t o t h e S B E C i n c l u d e d t h e O x y g e n s e n s o r ( O 2 ) , M a n i f o l d A b s o l u t e P r e s s u r e ( M A P ) s e n s o r , T h r o t t l e P o s i t i o n S e n s o r ( T P S ) , I n t a k e A i r T e m p e r a t u r e ( I A T ) s e n s o r a n d C o o l a n t T e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r ( C T S ) . T h e b a s i c a c t u a t o r s c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e S B E C ' s o u t p u t s i n c l u d e d t h e f u e l i n j e c t o r s , i g n i t i o n c o i l a n d p i c k u p , a n d t h e I d l e A i r C o n t r o l ( I A C ) v a l v e . T h e l a t t e r c o n t r o l l e d i d l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . H o w e v e r , t h e S B E C a l s o c o n t r o l l e d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e c h a r g i n g s y s t e m , a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g s y s t e m , c r u i s e c o n t r o l a n d , i n s o m e v e h i c l e s , t r a n s m i s s i o n s h i f t i n g . B y c e n t r a l i z i n g c o n t r o l o f t h e s e s y s t e m s , t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e v e h i c l e w a s s i m p l i f i e d a n d s t r e a m l i n e d . E m i s s i o n s o u t p u t w a s c o n t r o l l e d b y s e v e r a l s y s t e m s . T h e E G R , o r E x h a u s t G a s R e c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m , b r o u g h t e x h a u s t g a s f r o m t h e e x h a u s t s t r e a m u p t o t h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d , l o w e r i n g p e a k c o m b u s t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e s , t h e g o a l b e i n g t h e r e d u c t i o n o f N O X e m i s s i o n s . A P C V , o r P o s i t i v e C r a n k c a s e V e n t i l a t i o n s y s t e m , i n t r o d u c e d o i l v a p o r a n d u n b u r n t f u e l v a p o r s f r o m t h e c r a n k c a s e t o t h e i n t a k e , a l l o w i n g t h e e n g i n e t o r e - u s e t h e s e a s w e l l . F u r t h e r m o r e , g a s o l i n e v a p o r s t h a t w o u l d n o r m a l l y b e r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e w e r e c a p t u r e d b y t h e E V A P s y s t e m , t o t h e n b e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e e n g i n e . I n 1 9 9 6 , t h e O B D - I I o n - b o a r d d i a g n o s t i c s s y s t e m w a s i n t r o d u c e d o n a l l p a s s e n g e r v e h i c l e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a s p e r U n i t e d S t a t e s E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y ( E P A ) r e g u l a t i o n . A s s u c h , a n e w e n g i n e c o n t r o l c o m p u t e r w a s d e v e l o p e d f o r v e h i c l e s p o w e r e d b y M a g n u m e n g i n e s , k n o w n a s t h e J T E C . T h e n e w P o w e r t r a i n C o n t r o l M o d u l e w a s m o r e c o m p l e x a n d m o r e i n t e l l i g e n t , a n d a d d e d p r o g r a m m i n g m e a n t i t c o u l d a l s o c o n t r o l a u t o m a t i c t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d o t h e r p o w e r t r a i n f u n c t i o n s ; i t s f i r m w a r e c o u l d a l s o b e r e p r o g r a m m e d ( " r e f l a s h e d " ) v i a t h e s a m e O B D - I I p o r t . W i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e J T E C , t h e E G R s y s t e m w a s d r o p p e d f r o m M a g n u m e n g i n e s . A s t h e 5 . 2 L V 8 w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n 1 9 9 2 , t h e o f t e n - f o r g o t t e n V 6 v e r s i o n o f t h e M a g n u m e n g i n e b e c a m e a v a i l a b l e i n t h e R a m p i c k u p a n d t h e m o r e c o m p a c t D o d g e D a k o t a . B a s e d o n t h e L A - s e r i e s V 6 , t h e 3 . 9 L f e a t u r e d t h e s a m e c h a n g e s a n d u p g r a d e s a s t h e o t h e r M a g n u m e n g i n e s . T h e 3 . 9 L c a n b e b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d b y i m a g i n i n g a 5 . 2 L V 8 w i t h t w o c y l i n d e r s r e m o v e d . P o w e r i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o a t 4 , 4 0 0   r p m a n d f r o m a t 3 , 2 0 0   r p m , a s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e p r e v i o u s T B I e n g i n e . F o r 1 9 9 4 , h o r s e p o w e r w a s r e d u c e d t o , m o s t l y d u e t o t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f s m a l l e r - v o l u m e e x h a u s t m a n i f o l d s ; t o r q u e r a t i n g s r e m a i n e d t h e s a m e . F o r 1 9 9 7 , t h e 3 . 9 L e n g i n e ' s t o r q u e o u t p u t w a s i n c r e a s e d t o , w i t h a c o m p r e s s i o n r a t i o o f 9 . 1 : 1 . F i r i n g o r d e r w a s 1 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 . T h i s e n g i n e w a s l a s t p r o d u c e d f o r t h e 2 0 0 3 D o d g e D a k o t a p i c k u p . S t a r t i n g i n t h e 2 0 0 4 m o d e l y e a r i t w a s e n t i r e l y w i t h d r a w n f r o m p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e p l a c e d w i t h t h e 3 . 7   L P o w e r T e c h V 6 e n g i n e . A p p l i c a t i o n s : T h e M a g n u m 5 . 2 L , r e l e a s e d i n 1 9 9 2 , w a s a n e v o l u t i o n a r y d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e ' L A ' e n g i n e w i t h t h e s a m e d i s p l a c e m e n t . T h e 5 . 2 L w a s t h e f i r s t o f t h e M a g n u m u p g r a d e d e n g i n e s , f o l l o w e d i n 1 9 9 3 b y t h e 5 . 9 L V 8 a n d t h e 3 . 9 L V 6 . A t t h e t i m e o f i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n , t h e 5 . 2 L M a g n u m c r e a t e d a t 4 , 1 0 0   r p m a n d a t 3 , 0 0 0   r p m . P r o d u c t i o n o f t h i s e n g i n e l a s t e d u n t i l 2 0 0 2 , w h e n i t w a s c o m p l e t e l y r e p l a c e d b y t h e n e w e r 4 . 7 L P o w e r T e c h S O H C V 8 e n g i n e . G e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : I n 1 9 9 3 , C h r y s l e r C o r p o r a t i o n r e l e a s e d t h e n e x t m e m b e r o f t h e M a g n u m f a m i l y : t h e 5 . 9 L V 8 . T h i s w a s b a s e d o n t h e L A - s e r i e s e n g i n e , a n d i n c l u d e d t h e s a m e u p g r a d e s a n d d e s i g n f e a t u r e s a s t h e 5 . 2 L . T h e s t a n d a r d 5 . 9 L c r e a t e d a t 4 , 0 0 0   r p m a n d a t 3 , 2 5 0   r p m . I t w a s u p g r a d e d i n 1 9 9 8 t o a t 4 , 0 0 0   r p m a n d a t 3 , 2 5 0   r p m . T h e 5 . 9 L c a m e f a c t o r y - i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 9 8 - 2 0 0 1 D o d g e D a k o t a R / T p i c k u p s a n d 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 3 D o d g e D u r a n g o R / T S U V s . I t w a s a l s o i n s t a l l e d i n t h e J e e p G r a n d C h e r o k e e L i m i t e d 5 . 9 , o n l y a v a i l a b l e i n 1 9 9 8 . T h e 5 . 9 L M a g n u m w a s a v a i l a b l e u n t i l t h e 2 0 0 3 m o d e l y e a r , w h e n i t w a s r e p l a c e d w i t h t h e 5 . 7 L H e m i V 8 e n g i n e . A l t h o u g h t h e p r e - M a g n u m ( ' 7 1 - ' 9 2 ) a n d M a g n u m v e r s i o n s o f t h e a r e b o t h e x t e r n a l l y b a l a n c e d , t h e t w o a r e b a l a n c e d d i f f e r e n t l y ( t h e 3 6 0 M a g n u m u s e s l i g h t e r p i s t o n s ) a n d e a c h r e q u i r e s a u n i q u e l y b a l a n c e d d a m p e r , f l y w h e e l , d r i v e p l a t e , o r t o r q u e c o n v e r t e r . B o r e a n d s t r o k e s i z e w a s ; c o m p r e s s i o n r a t i o w a s 9 . 1 : 1 . A s t h e d e s i g n f o r t h e 5 . 2 L M a g n u m V 8 w a s c o m i n g t o g e t h e r i n 1 9 8 8 , c o n s i d e r a t i o n w a s g i v e n t o t h e d e s i g n o f a l a r g e r V 1 0 i t e r a t i o n , m a i n l y i n t e n d e d f o r u s e i n D o d g e R a m 2 5 0 0 a n d 3 5 0 0 p i c k u p s . T h i s w a s t o b e C h r y s l e r ' s f i r s t 1 0 - c y l i n d e r e n g i n e ( b e f o r e t h e ' 9 2 V i p e r , s e e b e l o w ) , a n d c a n b e s t b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a 5 . 9 L V 8 w i t h t w o c y l i n d e r s a d d e d . T h i s e n g i n e w a s b a s e d o n a c a s t i r o n b l o c k , a n d w a s r a t e d f o r a t 4 , 1 0 0   r p m a n d a t 2 , 4 0 0   r p m . B o r e a n d s t r o k e w a s ; c o m p r e s s i o n r a t i o w a s 8 . 4 : 1 ; f i r i n g o r d e r w a s 1 - 1 0 - 9 - 4 - 3 - 6 - 5 - 8 - 7 - 2 . V a l v e c o v e r s w e r e d i e c a s t m a g n e s i u m ( A Z 9 1 D a l l o y ) , r a t h e r t h a n s t a m p e d s t e e l ; t h i s l o w e r e d n o i s e l e v e l s a n d m a d e f o r b e t t e r g a s k e t s e a l i n g . T h e 8 . 0 L M a g n u m V 1 0 f i r s t b e c a m e a v a i l a b l e i n t h e 1 9 9 4 m o d e l y e a r D o d g e R a m 2 5 0 0 a n d 3 5 0 0 p i c k u p s , a n d i t w a s t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l g a s o l i n e - b u r n i n g e n g i n e t h e n a v a i l a b l e i n a n y p a s s e n g e r p i c k u p t r u c k . T h e e n g i n e l a s t e d t h r o u g h t h e 2 0 0 3 m o d e l y e a r , a f t e r w h i c h i t w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d . A p p l i c a t i o n s : C h r y s l e r o f f e r s a l i n e o f c r a t e e n g i n e s b a s e d o n t h e M a g n u m d e s i g n e d t o b o l t i n t o o l d e r m u s c l e c a r s a n d s t r e e t r o d s w i t h l i t t l e m o d i f i c a t i o n . S o m e o f t h e c h a n g e s t o f a c i l i t a t e t h i s w e r e u s i n g a 1 9 7 0 - 9 3 w a t e r p u m p s o t h a t o l d e r p u l l e y s a n d b r a c k e t s c o u l d b e u s e d , a s w e l l a s a n i n t a k e m a n i f o l d t h a t u s e s a c a r b u r e t o r i n s t e a d o f e l e c t r o n i c f u e l i n j e c t i o n . W i t h a h i g h l i f t c a m a n d s i n g l e p l a n e i n t a k e , t h e c r a t e M a g n u m w a s r a t e d a t w i t h t h e M a g n u m h e a d s . L a t e r m o d e l s e q u i p p e d w i t h " R / T " o r a l u m i n u m c y l i n d e r h e a d s p r o d u c e d . A b o l t - i n f u e l i n j e c t i o n c o n v e r s i o n k i t i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e . T h e e a s i e s t w a y t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e a b a r e M a g n u m b l o c k f r o m a L A i s b y c h e c k i n g f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e t w o c r a n k s h a f t p o s i t i o n s e n s o r m o u n t i n g b o s s e s o n t h e r i g h t r e a r t o p o f t h e b l o c k , j u s t t o t h e r e a r o f t h e c y l i n d e r h e a d d e c k s u r f a c e . B o s s e s = M a g n u m . K e e p i n g i n m i n d t h a t t h e e a r l i e r T B I e n g i n e s a l s o h a v e c r a n k s e n s o r s i n t h i s p o s i t i o n . A l l M a g n u m e n g i n e s w e r e s t a m p e d w i t h a u n i q u e e n g i n e I D n u m b e r . T h i s w a s l o c a t e d o n a f l a t i m p r e s s i o n o n t h e c y l i n d e r b l o c k ' s r i g h t s i d e , n e a r t h e o i l p a n g a s k e t s u r f a c e . F r o m 1 9 9 2 t o 1 9 9 8 , t h e I D w a s 1 9 d i g i t s l o n g . A n e x a m p l e w o u l d b e : 4 M 5 . 2 L T 0 4 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 - T h e " 4 " i s t h e l a s t d i g i t o f t h e m o d e l y e a r o f t h e e n g i n e . T h i s e x a m p l e i s a 1 9 9 4 . - T h e " M " s t a n d s f o r " M o u n d R o a d " , t h e p l a n t w h e r e t h e e n g i n e w a s a s s e m b l e d . O t h e r c h a r a c t e r s f o u n d h e r e w o u l d b e " S " f o r S a l t i l l o , " T " f o r T r e n t o n a n d " K " f o r T o l u c a . - 5 . 2 L h a s a n o b v i o u s m e a n i n g h e r e : t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e e n g i n e i n l i t e r s . - T h e s e v e n t h c h a r a c t e r , h e r e a " T " , w a s t h e u s a g e o f t h e e n g i n e . " T " t r a n s l a t e s t o t r u c k u s a g e . - 0 4 2 3 w o u l d m e a n t h e e n g i n e w a s p r o d u c e d o n A p r i l 2 3 . - T h e f i n a l e i g h t d i g i t s , h e r e s h o w n a s " 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 " a r e t h e s e r i a l n u m b e r o f t h e e n g i n e . F r o m 1 9 9 8 t o 2 0 0 3 , t h e e n g i n e I D w a s s h o r t e n e d t o o n l y 1 3 c h a r a c t e r s . I t d i f f e r e d i n t h a t e n g i n e d i s p l a c e m e n t w a s g i v e n i n c u b i c i n c h e s r a t h e r t h a n i n l i t e r s , t h e u s a g e c h a r a c t e r w a s d r o p p e d a n d t h e s e r i a l n u m b e r w a s f o u r i n s t e a d o f e i g h t d i g i t s l o n g . T o a d d s o m e c o n f u s i o n , n o t o n l y w a s t h e n a m e M a g n u m u s e d o n D o d g e p a s s c a r h i - p o e n g i n e s 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 7 0 s , a n d v e h i c l e l i n e s i n t h e l a t e 1 9 7 0 s a n d 2 0 0 0 s , i t w a s a l s o a p p l i e d 4 . 7 L p o w e r t e c h v 8 ( 1 9 9 9 + ) a n d t o t h e 5 . 7 L " H e m i " V 8 i n p i c k u p t r u c k s ( 2 0 0 3 + ) .

Technical information

The 340 cu. in. V8 engine was a high-performance variant of the LA series, featuring a heavy-duty short block, special cylinder heads, and a triple-carb setup. It was used in the Challenger TA and Cuda AAR models. Later, the 5.9L V8 engine received improvements such as hydraulic roller lifters and updated cylinder heads. In 1992, Chrysler introduced the Magnum engine, which featured a new design with improved components, including a silent timing chain, serpentine belt drive, and electronic ignition control. The Magnum engine was used in various applications until 2003.

of the 340 with triple 2-barrel carburetors rated at gross that was specific to Challenger TA and Cuda AAR models. This version featured a heavy duty short block with additional webbing to allow for aftermarket installed 4 bolt main bearing caps. The application-specific cylinder heads featured relocated intake pushrod passages with offset rocker arms that allowed the pushrods to be moved away from the intake ports, which could improve airflow if the pushrod-clearance "hump" was ground away from the intake port by the end user. An aluminum intake manifold mounted three Holley carburetors, and a dual points ignition system was fitted. The combination of rising gasoline prices and insurance company crackdown on high-performance vehicles saw the relatively expensive 340 detuned and phased out. It remained a high performance upgraded to include hydraulic roller lifters, however cam specs remained essentially unchanged. The resulting engine was somewhat improved as to power and efficiency. The 5.9 L V8 engines followed suit in 1989, but also received the overall improved "308" cylinder heads (casting number 4448308) that featured significantly higher flowing exhaust ports and a return to the original 1971 (non fast burn) combustion chamber. However, with other manufacturers already introducing the superior multi-point fuel injection system, Chrysler Corporation considered a more drastic upgrade program. As the TBI engines were being introduced, the new upgrade program was initiated in the Chrysler engineering department. In 1992, with emissions standards becoming ever more stringent in the United States, Chrysler Corporation released the first of the upgraded engines. In 1992, Chrysler introduced the and to allow the use of earlier LA heads. Engine timing was controlled by the all-steel, silent Morse timing chain (some early production engines had double-row roller timing sets), which was located beneath the aluminum timing cover at the front of the engine block. The timing chain sprockets, one each for the camshaft and crankshaft, were all-steel; for the last few years the LA engine came with nylon teeth on the sprockets. At the rear of the camshaft was cut a set of helical gear teeth, these being used to spin the distributor. Mounted to the front of the timing cover was a new-design counter-clockwise-rotation water pump, with much improved flow. Externally, the accessory drive belt was changed to a serpentine system; coupled with an automatic belt tensioner this increased belt life, reduced maintenance and contributed to lower noise and vibration levels. The ignition system was also all-new for the Magnum. Controlled by a new micro-processor-equipped Single-Board Engine Controller (SBEC, also known as the ECM, or Engine Control Module), the ignition system included a distributor mounted at the rear of the engine. A 36,000-volt ignition coil, usually located at the front right of the engine, provided electrical power to the center of the distributor cap, where a spinning rotor directed the power to each of the individual cylinders' spark plug wires. Ignition dwell, advance and retardation were electronically controlled by the SBEC. The SBEC controlled the ignition, as well as the opening and closing of the fuel injectors. During cold startup, wide-open throttle and deceleration, it did this based on "open-loop", pre-programmed operating parameters. During normal idle and cruising, it began "closed-loop" operation, during which the module acted based upon inputs from a variety of sensors. The basic sensors that provided input to the SBEC included the Oxygen sensor (O2), Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) sensor, Throttle Position Sensor (TPS), Intake Air Temperature (IAT) sensor and Coolant Temperature sensor (CTS). The basic actuators controlled by the SBEC's outputs included the fuel injectors, ignition coil and pickup, and the Idle Air Control (IAC) valve. The latter controlled idle characteristics. However, the SBEC also controlled the operation of the charging system, air conditioning system, cruise control and, in some vehicles, transmission shifting. By centralizing control of these systems, the operation of the vehicle was simplified and streamlined. of the cylinder head deck surface. Bosses = Magnum. Keeping in mind that the earlier TBI engines also have crank sensors in this position. All Magnum engines were stamped with a unique engine ID number. This was located on a flat impression on the cylinder block's right side, near the oil pan gasket surface. From 1992 to 1998, the ID was 19 digits long. An example would be: 4M5.2LT042312345678 -The "4" is the last digit of the model year of the engine. This example is a 1994. -The "M" stands for "Mound Road", the plant where the engine was assembled. Other characters found here would be "S" for Saltillo, "T" for Trenton and "K" for Toluca. -5.2L has an obvious meaning here: the displacement of the engine in liters. -The seventh character, here a "T", was the usage of the engine. "T" translates to truck usage. -0423 would mean the engine was produced on April 23. -The final eight digits, here shown as "12345678" are the serial number of the engine. From 1998 to 2003, the engine ID was shortened to only 13 characters. It differed in that engine displacement was given in cubic inches rather than in liters, the usage character was dropped and the serial number was four instead of eight digits long. To add some confusion, not only was the name Magnum used on Dodge passcar hi-po engines 1967-1970s, and vehicle lines in the late 1970s and 2000s, it was also applied 4.7L power tech v8 (1999+) and to the 5.7L "Hemi" V8 in pickup trucks (2003+).

Intercultural communication

I n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s t h e i d e a o f k n o w i n g h o w t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . B y u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e t h e o r i e s , p e o p l e a r e a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w c e r t a i n n o r m s a r e p r e v a l e n t i n a d a p t i n g t o n e w c u l t u r e s . I n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n u s e s t h e o r i e s w i t h i n g r o u p s o f p e o p l e t o a c h i e v e a s e n s e o f c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y . T h i s i s i n t h e h o p e s o f p e o p l e b e i n g a b l e t o l e a r n n e w t h i n g s f r o m d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s . T h e t h e o r i e s u s e d g i v e p e o p l e a n e n h a n c e d p e r s p e c t i v e o n w h e n i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o a c t i n s i t u a t i o n s w i t h o u t d i s r e s p e c t i n g t h e p e o p l e w i t h i n t h e s e c u l t u r e s ; i t a l s o e n h a n c e s t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e o n a c h i e v i n g c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y t h r o u g h t h e i d e a s o f i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . M a n y p e o p l e i n i n t e r c u l t u r a l b u s i n e s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n a r g u e t h a t c u l t u r e d e t e r m i n e s h o w i n d i v i d u a l s e n c o d e m e s s a g e s , w h a t m e d i u m t h e y c h o o s e f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e m , a n d t h e w a y m e s s a g e s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d . W i t h r e g a r d t o i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o p e r , i t s t u d i e s s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e p e o p l e f r o m d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s " i n t e r a c t " . A s i d e f r o m l a n g u a g e , i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n f o c u s e s o n s o c i a l a t t r i b u t e s , t h o u g h t p a t t e r n s , a n d t h e c u l t u r e s o f d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s o f p e o p l e . I t a l s o i n v o l v e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s , l a n g u a g e s a n d c u s t o m s o f p e o p l e f r o m o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . L e a r n i n g t h e t o o l s t o f a c i l i t a t e c r o s s - c u l t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n i s t h e s u b j e c t o f c u l t u r a l a g i l i t y , a t e r m p r e s e n t l y u s e d t o d e s i g n a c o m p l e x s e t o f c o m p e t e n c i e s r e q u i r e d t o a l l o w a n i n d i v i d u a l o r a n o r g a n i z a t i o n t o p e r f o r m s u c c e s s f u l l y i n c r o s s - c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n s . I n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n p l a y s a r o l e i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e s s u c h a s a n t h r o p o l o g y , c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s , l i n g u i s t i c s , p s y c h o l o g y , a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t u d i e s . I n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s a l s o r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e b a s e f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l b u s i n e s s e s . S e v e r a l c r o s s - c u l t u r a l s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r s a s s i s t w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s k i l l s . R e s e a r c h i s a m a j o r p a r t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s k i l l s . " I n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n " i s i n a w a y t h e ' i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r l a n g u a g e s o n e q u a l t e r m s a n d r e s p e c t i n g t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s ' . I d e n t i t y a n d c u l t u r e a r e a l s o s t u d i e d w i t h i n t h e d i s c i p l i n e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o a n a l y z e h o w g l o b a l i z a t i o n i n f l u e n c e s w a y s o f t h i n k i n g , b e l i e f s , v a l u e s , a n d i d e n t i t y w i t h i n a n d b e t w e e n c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t s . I n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s a p p r o a c h t h e o r y w i t h a d y n a m i c o u t l o o k a n d d o n o t b e l i e v e c u l t u r e c a n b e m e a s u r e d n o r t h a t c u l t u r e s s h a r e u n i v e r s a l a t t r i b u t e s . S c h o l a r s a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t c u l t u r e a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s h i f t a l o n g w i t h s o c i e t a l c h a n g e s a n d t h e o r i e s s h o u l d c o n s i d e r t h e c o n s t a n t s h i f t i n g a n d n u a n c e s o f s o c i e t y . T h e s t u d y o f i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e q u i r e s i n t e r c u l t u r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I n t e r c u l t u r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s t h e a b i l i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d v a l u e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s . L a n g u a g e i s a n e x a m p l e o f a n i m p o r t a n t c u l t u r a l c o m p o n e n t t h a t i s l i n k e d t o i n t e r c u l t u r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e f o l l o w i n g t y p e s o f t h e o r i e s c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n d i f f e r e n t s t r a n d s : f o c u s o n e f f e c t i v e o u t c o m e s , o n a c c o m m o d a t i o n o r a d a p t i o n , o n i d e n t i t y n e g o t i a t i o n a n d m a n a g e m e n t , o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k s , o n a c c u l t u r a t i o n a n d a d j u s t m e n t . A c c u l t u r a t i o n c a n b e d e f i n e d a s t h e p r o c e s s o f a n i n d i v i d u a l o r i n d i v i d u a l s e x c h a n g i n g o r a d o p t i n g c e r t a i n c u l t u r e v a l u e s a n d p r a c t i c e s t h a t t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e o f t h e i r l o c a t i o n p o s s e s . A c c u l t u r a t i o n d i f f e r s f r o m a s s i m i l a t i o n b e c a u s e t h e p e o p l e w h o a r e a d o p t i n g n e w c u l t u r e h a b i t s a r e s t i l l p r o c e s s i n g s o m e o f t h e i r o r i g i n a l o w n c u l t u r e h a b i t s . Y o u n g Y u n K i m h a s i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s t h a t c o u l d a f f e c t s o m e o n e ' s c u l t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n . T h e s e p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s i n c l u d e o p e n n e s s , s t r e n g t h , a n d p o s i t i v e . W i t h t h e s e p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s , i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l b e m o r e s u c c e s s f u l i n a c c u l t u r a t i n g t h a n i n d i v i d u a l s w h o d o n o t p o s s e s s t h e s e t r a i t s . K i m p r o p o s e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o a c c u l t u r a t i o n i s c o m p l e t e a s s i m i l a t i o n . A s t u d y o n c u l t u r a l a n d i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a m e u p w i t h t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s , w h i c h a r e t h e i n d i g e n o u s a p p r o a c h , c u l t u r a l a p p r o a c h , a n d c r o s s - c u l t u r a l a p p r o a c h . W h i l e i n d i g e n o u s a n d c u l t u r a l a p p r o a c h e s f o c a l p o i n t i s e m i c s , c r o s s - c u l t u r a l a p p r o a c h e s a r e e t i c s . A u t h e n t i c i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e . A t h e o r y t h a t w a s f o u n d i n 1 9 8 4 a n d r e v i s i t e d o n 1 9 8 7 e x p l a i n s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t r u t h a n d i n t e n t i o n o f g e t t i n g a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , i f s t r a t e g i c i n t e n t i s h i d d e n , t h e r e c a n ' t b e a n y a u t h e n t i c i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . I n i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e r e c o u l d b e m i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d t h e t e r m i s c a l l e d " m i s f i r e . " L a t e r o n , a t h e o r y w a s f o u n d e d t h a t h a s t h r e e l a y e r s o f i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e f i r s t l e v e l i s e f f e c t i v e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , s e c o n d - l e v e l m i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d t h i r d - l e v e l s y s t e m i c a l l y d i s t o r t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o g o t o t h e f i r s t l e v e l d u e t o t h e s p e a k e r ' s p o s i t i o n a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e . F o r c e d a s s i m i l a t i o n w a s v e r y c o m m o n i n t h e E u r o p e a n c o l o n i a l e m p i r e s t h e 1 8 t h , 1 9 t h , a n d 2 0 t h c e n t u r i e s . C o l o n i a l p o l i c i e s r e g a r d i n g r e l i g i o n c o n v e r s i o n , t h e r e m o v a l o f c h i l d r e n , t h e d i v i s i o n o f c o m m u n i t y p r o p e r t y , a n d t h e s h i f t i n g o f g e n d e r r o l e s p r i m a r i l y i m p a c t e d N o r t h a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a , A u s t r a l i a , A f r i c a , a n d A s i a . V o l u n t a r y a s s i m i l a t i o n h a s a l s o b e e n a p a r t o f h i s t o r y d a t i n g b a c k t o t h e S p a n i s h I n q u i s i t i o n o f t h e l a t e 1 4 t h a n d 1 5 t h c e n t u r i e s , w h e n m a n y M u s l i m s a n d J e w s v o l u n t a r i l y c o n v e r t e d t o R o m a n C a t h o l i c i s m a s a r e s p o n s e t o r e l i g i o u s p r o s e c u t i o n w h i l e s e c r e t l y c o n t i n u i n g t h e i r o r i g i n a l p r a c t i c e s . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e i s w h e n t h e E u r o p e a n s m o v e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s c o m p e t e n t w h e n i t a c c o m p l i s h e s t h e o b j e c t i v e s i n a m a n n e r t h a t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e c o n t e x t a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h u s n e e d s t o b r i d g e t h e d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s a n d e f f e c t i v e n e s s : P r o p e r m e a n s o f i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n l e a d s t o a 1 5 % d e c r e a s e i n m i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n . C o m p e t e n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s a n i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t i s s e e n a s e f f e c t i v e i n a c h i e v i n g c e r t a i n r e w a r d i n g o b j e c t i v e s i n a w a y t h a t i s a l s o r e l a t e d t o t h e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e s i t u a t i o n o c c u r s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , i t i s a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h a n a c h i e v a b l e g o a l t h a t i s u s e d a t a n a p p r o p r i a t e t i m e / l o c a t i o n . I n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a n b e l i n k e d w i t h i d e n t i t y , w h i c h m e a n s t h e c o m p e t e n t c o m m u n i c a t o r i s t h e p e r s o n w h o c a n a f f i r m o t h e r s ' a v o w e d i d e n t i t i e s . A s w e l l a s g o a l a t t a i n m e n t i s a l s o a f o c u s w i t h i n i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m p e t e n c e a n d i t i n v o l v e s t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r t o c o n v e y a s e n s e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s a n d e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n d i v e r s e c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s . E t h n o c e n t r i s m p l a y s a r o l e i n i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e c a p a c i t y t o a v o i d e t h n o c e n t r i s m i s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o m p e t e n c e . E t h n o c e n t r i s m i s t h e i n c l i n a t i o n t o v i e w o n e ' s o w n g r o u p a s n a t u r a l a n d c o r r e c t , a n d a l l o t h e r s a s a b e r r a n t . P e o p l e m u s t b e a w a r e t h a t t o e n g a g e a n d f i x i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h e r e i s n o e a s y s o l u t i o n a n d t h e r e i s n o t o n l y o n e w a y t o d o s o . L i s t e d b e l o w a r e s o m e o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m p e t e n c e . T h e f o l l o w i n g a r e w a y s t o i m p r o v e c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o m p e t e n c e : E f f e c t i v e c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e p e n d s o n t h e i n f o r m a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a m o n g t h e p a r t i e s i n v o l v e d t h a t a r e b a s e d o n t h e t r u s t d e v e l o p e d b e t w e e n t h e m . W h e n t r u s t e x i s t s , t h e r e i s i m p l i c i t u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n , c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s m a y b e o v e r l o o k e d , a n d p r o b l e m s c a n b e d e a l t w i t h m o r e e a s i l y . T h e m e a n i n g o f t r u s t a n d h o w i t i s d e v e l o p e d a n d c o m m u n i c a t e d v a r i e s a c r o s s s o c i e t i e s . S i m i l a r l y , s o m e c u l t u r e s h a v e a g r e a t e r p r o p e n s i t y t o b e t r u s t i n g t h a n o t h e r s . T h e p r o b l e m s i n i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n u s u a l l y c o m e f r o m p r o b l e m s i n m e s s a g e t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d i n r e c e p t i o n . I n c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n p e o p l e o f t h e s a m e c u l t u r e , t h e p e r s o n w h o r e c e i v e s t h e m e s s a g e i n t e r p r e t s i t b a s e d o n v a l u e s , b e l i e f s , a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r b e h a v i o r s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f t h e p e r s o n w h o s e n t t h e m e s s a g e . W h e n t h i s h a p p e n s , t h e w a y t h e m e s s a g e i s i n t e r p r e t e d b y t h e r e c e i v e r i s l i k e l y t o b e f a i r l y s i m i l a r t o w h a t t h e s p e a k e r i n t e n d e d . H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e r e c e i v e r o f t h e m e s s a g e i s a p e r s o n f r o m a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e , t h e r e c e i v e r u s e s i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m h i s o r h e r c u l t u r e t o i n t e r p r e t t h e m e s s a g e . T h e m e s s a g e t h a t t h e r e c e i v e r i n t e r p r e t s m a y b e v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t t h e s p e a k e r i n t e n d e d . C r o s s - c u l t u r a l b u s i n e s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s v e r y h e l p f u l i n b u i l d i n g c u l t u r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e t h r o u g h c o a c h i n g a n d t r a i n i n g i n c r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t a n d f a c i l i t a t i o n , c r o s s - c u l t u r a l n e g o t i a t i o n , m u l t i c u l t u r a l c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n , c u s t o m e r s e r v i c e , b u s i n e s s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . C r o s s - c u l t u r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s n o t j u s t f o r i n c o m i n g e x p a t s . C r o s s - c u l t u r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e g i n s w i t h t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p r o j e c t a n d r e a c h e s t h o s e d e l i v e r i n g t h e s e r v i c e o r c o n t e n t . T h e a b i l i t y t o c o m m u n i c a t e , n e g o t i a t e a n d e f f e c t i v e l y w o r k w i t h p e o p l e f r o m o t h e r c u l t u r e s i s v i t a l t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l b u s i n e s s . I m p o r t a n t p o i n t s t o c o n s i d e r : T h e r e i s a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n a p e r s o n ' s p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s a n d t h e a b i l i t y t o a d a p t t o t h e h o s t - c o u n t r y ' s e n v i r o n m e n t — i n c l u d i n g t h e a b i l i t y t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h i n t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t . T w o k e y p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s a r e o p e n n e s s a n d r e s i l i e n c e . O p e n n e s s i n c l u d e s t r a i t s s u c h a s t o l e r a n c e f o r a m b i g u i t y , e x t r o v e r s i o n a n d i n t r o v e r s i o n , a n d o p e n - m i n d e d n e s s . R e s i l i e n c e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n c l u d e s h a v i n g a n i n t e r n a l l o c u s o f c o n t r o l , p e r s i s t e n c e , t o l e r a n c e f o r a m b i g u i t y , a n d r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s . T h e s e f a c t o r s , c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e p e r s o n ' s c u l t u r a l a n d r a c i a l i d e n t i t y a n d l e v e l o f l i b e r a l i s m , c o m p r i s e t h a t p e r s o n ' s p o t e n t i a l f o r a d a p t a t i o n . I n a b u s i n e s s e n v i r o n m e n t , c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s v i t a l , a n d t h e r e c o u l d b e m a n y i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e r e c o u l d b e m i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n . G l o b a l i z a t i o n i s a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i n i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d a f f e c t s b u s i n e s s e n v i r o n m e n t s . I n a b u s i n e s s s e t t i n g , i t c o u l d b e m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o c o m m u n i c a t e d u e t o d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f t h i n k i n g , f e e l i n g , a n d b e h a v i n g . D u e t o g l o b a l i z a t i o n , m o r e e m p l o y e e s h a v e n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n s i n a b u s i n e s s e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e r e a s o n w h y o n e g e t s n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s i s b e c a u s e o f m i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n . O n e s t u d y d o n e e n t a i l s t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n n o n - n a t i v e E n g l i s h s p e a k i n g a n d n a t i v e E n g l i s h s p e a k i n g p e o p l e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e s t u d y s h o w e d t h a t , i n a b u s i n e s s e n v i r o n m e n t , n o n - n a t i v e E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s a n d n a t i v e E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s h a d s i m i l a r e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e w o r k p l a c e . A l t h o u g h n a t i v e E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s t r i e d t o b r e a k d o w n t h e m i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n , n o n - n a t i v e E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s w e r e o f f e n d e d b y t h e t e r m s t h e y u s e d . T h e r e a r e c o m m o n c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s o f a t t r i b u t e s t h a t d e f i n e c o l l e c t i v i s t i c a n d i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c c u l t u r e s . O p e r a t i o n a l i z i n g t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s w o r k s u n d e r t h e g u i s e t h a t c u l t u r e s a r e s t a t i c a n d h o m o g e n e o u s , w h e n i n f a c t c u l t u r e s w i t h i n n a t i o n s a r e m u l t i - e t h n i c a n d i n d i v i d u a l s s h o w h i g h v a r i a t i o n i n h o w c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e i n t e r n a l i z e d a n d e x p r e s s e d . G l o b a l i z a t i o n p l a y s a c e n t r a l r o l e i n t h e o r i z i n g f o r m a s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n , m e d i a , a n d c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t u d i e s . I n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c h o l a r s e m p h a s i z e t h a t g l o b a l i z a t i o n e m e r g e d f r o m t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i v e r s i t y o f c u l t u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d a n d t h r i v e s w i t h t h e r e m o v a l o f c u l t u r a l b a r r i e r s . T h e n o t i o n o f n a t i o n a l i t y , o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f n a t i o n a l s p a c e , i s u n d e r s t o o d t o e m e r g e d i a l e c t i c a l l y t h r o u g h c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d g l o b a l i z a t i o n . T h e I n t e r c u l t u r a l P r a x i s M o d e l b y K a t h r y n S o r r e l l s , P h . D . s h o w s u s h o w t o n a v i g a t e t h r o u g h t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a l o n g w i t h p o w e r d i f f e r e n c e s . T h i s m o d e l w i l l h e l p y o u u n d e r s t a n d w h o y o u a r e a s a n i n d i v i d u a l , a n d h o w y o u c a n b e t t e r c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h o t h e r s t h a t m a y b e d i f f e r e n t f r o m y o u . I n o r d e r t o c o n t i n u e l i v i n g i n a g l o b a l i z e d s o c i e t y o n e c a n u s e t h i s P r a x i s m o d e l t o u n d e r s t a n d c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s ( b a s e d o n r a c e , e t h n i c i t y , g e n d e r , c l a s s , s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n , r e l i g i o n , n a t i o n a l i t y , e t c . ) w i t h i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l s y s t e m s o f p o w e r . I n t e r c u l t u r a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n P r a x i s M o d e l r e q u i r e s u s t o r e s p o n d t o s o m e o n e w h o c o m e s f r o m a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e t h a n u s , i n t h e m o s t o p e n w a y w e c a n . T h e m e d i a a r e i n f l u e n t i a l i n w h a t w e t h i n k o f o t h e r c u l t u r e s a n d w h a t w e t h i n k a b o u t o u r o w n s e l v e s . H o w e v e r i t i s i m p o r t a n t , w e e d u c a t e o u r s e l v e s , a n d l e a r n h o w t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h o t h e r s t h r o u g h S o r r e l l s ' P r a x i s M o d e l . S o r r e l l s ’ p r o c e s s i s m a d e u p o f s i x p o i n t s o f e n t r y i n n a v i g a t i n g i n t e r c u l t u r a l s p a c e s , i n c l u d i n g i n q u i r y , f r a m i n g , p o s i t i o n i n g , d i a l o g u e , r e f l e c t i o n , a n d a c t i o n . I n q u i r y , a s t h e f i r s t s t e p o f t h e I n t e r c u l t u r a l P r a x i s M o d e l , i s a n o v e r a l l i n t e r e s t i n l e a r n i n g a b o u t a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s a n d w o r l d - v i e w s , w h i l e c h a l l e n g i n g o n e ' s o w n p e r c e p t i o n s . F r a m i n g , t h e n , i s t h e a w a r e n e s s o f “ l o c a l a n d g l o b a l c o n t e x t s t h a t s h a p e i n t e r c u l t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n s ; ” t h u s , t h e a b i l i t y t o s h i f t b e t w e e n t h e m i c r o , m e s o , a n d m a c r o f r a m e s . P o s i t i o n i n g i s t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f o n e ' s p l a c e i n t h e w o r l d c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r s , a n d h o w t h i s p o s i t i o n m i g h t i n f l u e n c e b o t h w o r l d - v i e w s a n d c e r t a i n p r i v i l e g e s . D i a l o g u e i s t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t o f t h e p r o c e s s d u r i n g w h i c h f u r t h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d i f f e r e n c e s a n d p o s s i b l e t e n s i o n s d e v e l o p s t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e a n d e n g a g e m e n t w i t h c u l t u r e s o u t s i d e o f o n e ' s o w n . N e x t , r e f l e c t i o n a l l o w s f o r o n e t o l e a r n t h r o u g h i n t r o s p e c t i o n t h e v a l u e s o f t h o s e d i f f e r e n c e s , a s w e l l a s e n a b l e s a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e w o r l d “ i n m e a n i n g f u l , e f f e c t i v e , a n d r e s p o n s i b l e w a y s . " T h i s f i n a l l y l e a d s t o a c t i o n , w h i c h a i m s t o c r e a t e a m o r e c o n s c i o u s w o r l d b y w o r k i n g t o w a r d s o c i a l j u s t i c e a n d p e a c e a m o n g d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s . A s S o r r e l l s a r g u e s , “ I n t h e c o n t e x t o f g l o b a l i z a t i o n , [ i n t e r c u l t u r a l p r a x i s ] … o f f e r s u s a p r o c e s s o f c r i t i c a l , r e f l e c t i v e t h i n k i n g a n d a c t i n g t h a t e n a b l e s u s t o n a v i g a t e … i n t e r c u l t u r a l s p a c e s w e i n h a b i t i n t e r p e r s o n a l l y , c o m m u n a l l y , a n d g l o b a l l y . " C r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n e n d e a v o r s t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r s u c h r e l a t i v e l y u n r e l a t e d a r e a s a s c u l t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d e s t a b l i s h e d a r e a s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . I t s c o r e i s t o e s t a b l i s h a n d u n d e r s t a n d h o w p e o p l e f r o m d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h e a c h o t h e r . I t s c h a r g e i s t o a l s o p r o d u c e s o m e g u i d e l i n e s w i t h w h i c h p e o p l e f r o m d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s c a n b e t t e r c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h e a c h o t h e r . C r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a s w i t h m a n y s c h o l a r l y f i e l d s , i s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m a n y o t h e r f i e l d s . T h e s e f i e l d s i n c l u d e a n t h r o p o l o g y , c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s , p s y c h o l o g y a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e f i e l d h a s a l s o m o v e d b o t h t o w a r d t h e t r e a t m e n t o f i n t e r e t h n i c r e l a t i o n s , a n d t o w a r d t h e s t u d y o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s u s e d b y c o - c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s , i . e . , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s u s e d t o d e a l w i t h m a j o r i t y o r m a i n s t r e a m p o p u l a t i o n s . T h e s t u d y o f l a n g u a g e s o t h e r t h a n o n e ' s o w n c a n s e r v e n o t o n l y t o h e l p o n e u n d e r s t a n d w h a t w e a s h u m a n s h a v e i n c o m m o n , b u t a l s o t o a s s i s t i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d i v e r s i t y w h i c h u n d e r l i n e s o u r l a n g u a g e s ' m e t h o d s o f c o n s t r u c t i n g a n d o r g a n i z i n g k n o w l e d g e . S u c h u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a s p r o f o u n d i m p l i c a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o d e v e l o p i n g a c r i t i c a l a w a r e n e s s o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . U n d e r s t a n d i n g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d t h e w a y o t h e r c u l t u r e s w o r k i s t h e g r o u n d w o r k o f s u c c e s s f u l g l o b a l i z a t i o n b u s i n e s s a f f a i r s . L a n g u a g e s o c i a l i z a t i o n c a n b e b r o a d l y d e f i n e d a s “ a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f h o w l a n g u a g e b o t h p r e s u p p o s e s a n d c r e a t e s a n e w , s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t ” . I t i s i m p e r a t i v e t h a t t h e s p e a k e r u n d e r s t a n d s t h e g r a m m a r o f a l a n g u a g e , a s w e l l a s h o w e l e m e n t s o f l a n g u a g e a r e s o c i a l l y s i t u a t e d i n o r d e r t o r e a c h c o m m u n i c a t i v e c o m p e t e n c e . H u m a n e x p e r i e n c e i s c u l t u r a l l y r e l e v a n t , s o e l e m e n t s o f l a n g u a g e a r e a l s o c u l t u r a l l y r e l e v a n t . O n e m u s t c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r s e m i o t i c s a n d t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f s i g n s y s t e m s t o c o m p a r e c r o s s - c u l t u r a l n o r m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m s t h a t c o m e w i t h l a n g u a g e s o c i a l i z a t i o n , h o w e v e r . S o m e t i m e s p e o p l e c a n o v e r g e n e r a l i z e o r l a b e l c u l t u r e s w i t h s t e r e o t y p i c a l a n d s u b j e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s . A n o t h e r p r i m a r y c o n c e r n w i t h d o c u m e n t i n g a l t e r n a t i v e c u l t u r a l n o r m s r e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e f a c t t h a t n o s o c i a l a c t o r u s e s l a n g u a g e i n w a y s t h a t p e r f e c t l y m a t c h n o r m a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s . A m e t h o d o l o g y f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g h o w a n i n d i v i d u a l u s e s l a n g u a g e a n d o t h e r s e m i o t i c a c t i v i t y t o c r e a t e a n d u s e n e w m o d e l s o f c o n d u c t a n d h o w t h i s v a r i e s f r o m t h e c u l t u r a l n o r m s h o u l d b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e s t u d y o f l a n g u a g e s o c i a l i z a t i o n . V e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f m e s s a g e s b e i n g s e n t a n d r e c e i v e d c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h t h e s p e a k e r a n d t h e l i s t e n e r , i t i s f o c u s e d o n t h e w a y m e s s a g e s a r e p o r t r a y e d . V e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s b a s e d o n l a n g u a g e a n d u s e o f e x p r e s s i o n , t h e t o n e i n w h i c h t h e s e n d e r o f t h e m e s s a g e r e l a y s t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a n d e t e r m i n e h o w t h e m e s s a g e i s r e c e i v e d a n d i n w h a t c o n t e x t . F a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n : T h e w a y a m e s s a g e i s r e c e i v e d i s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e s e f a c t o r s a s t h e y g i v e a g r e a t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f o r t h e r e c e i v e r a s t o w h a t i s m e a n t b y t h e m e s s a g e . B y e m p h a s i z i n g a c e r t a i n p h r a s e w i t h t h e t o n e o f v o i c e , t h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t i s i m p o r t a n t a n d s h o u l d b e f o c u s e d m o r e o n . A l o n g w i t h t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s , v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s a l s o a c c o m p a n i e d w i t h n o n - v e r b a l c u e s . T h e s e c u e s m a k e t h e m e s s a g e c l e a r e r a n d g i v e t h e l i s t e n e r a n i n d i c a t i o n o f w h a t w a y t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d b e r e c e i v e d . E x a m p l e o f n o n - v e r b a l c u e s I n t e r m s o f i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h e r e a r e l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r s w h i c h a r e e f f e c t e d b y v e r b a l f o r m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . I n t h i s i n s t a n c e t h e r e i s o p p o r t u n i t y f o r m i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t w o o r m o r e p a r t i e s . O t h e r b a r r i e r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o m i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n w o u l d b e t h e t y p e o f w o r d s c h o s e n i n c o n v e r s a t i o n . D u e t o d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g i n v o c a b u l a r y c h o s e n , t h i s a l l o w s f o r a m e s s a g e b e t w e e n t h e s e n d e r a n d r e c e i v e r t o b e m i s c o n s t r u e d . N o n v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e f e r s t o g e s t u r e s , f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s , t o n e o f v o i c e , e y e c o n t a c t ( o r l a c k t h e r e o f ) , b o d y l a n g u a g e , p o s t u r e , a n d o t h e r w a y s p e o p l e c a n c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h o u t u s i n g l a n g u a g e . M i n o r v a r i a t i o n s i n b o d y l a n g u a g e , s p e e c h r h y t h m s , a n d p u n c t u a l i t y o f t e n c a u s e d i f f e r i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a m o n g c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p a r t i e s . K i n e s i c b e h a v i o r i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h r o u g h b o d y m o v e m e n t — e . g . , p o s t u r e , g e s t u r e s , f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s a n d e y e c o n t a c t . T h e m e a n i n g o f s u c h b e h a v i o r v a r i e s a c r o s s c o u n t r i e s . C l o t h i n g a n d t h e w a y p e o p l e d r e s s i s u s e d a s a f o r m o f n o n v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . O b j e c t l a n g u a g e o r m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e r e f e r s t o h o w p e o p l e c o m m u n i c a t e t h r o u g h m a t e r i a l a r t i f a c t s — e . g . , a r c h i t e c t u r e , o f f i c e d e s i g n a n d f u r n i t u r e , c l o t h i n g , c a r s , c o s m e t i c s , a n d t i m e . I n m o n o c h r o n i c c u l t u r e s , t i m e i s e x p e r i e n c e d l i n e a r l y a n d a s s o m e t h i n g t o b e s p e n t , s a v e d , m a d e u p , o r w a s t e d . T i m e o r d e r s l i f e , a n d p e o p l e t e n d t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n o n e t h i n g a t a t i m e . I n p o l y c h r o n i c c u l t u r e s , p e o p l e t o l e r a t e m a n y t h i n g s h a p p e n i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d e m p h a s i z e i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h p e o p l e . I n t h e s e c u l t u r e s , p e o p l e m a y b e h i g h l y d i s t r a c t i b l e , f o c u s o n s e v e r a l t h i n g s a t o n c e , a n d c h a n g e p l a n s o f t e n . O c c u l e s i c s a r e a f o r m o f k i n e s i c s t h a t i n c l u d e s e y e c o n t a c t a n d t h e u s e o f t h e e y e s t o c o n v e y m e s s a g e s . P r o x e m i c s c o n c e r n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p r o x i m i t y a n d s p a c e o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n ( e . g . , i n t e r m s o f p e r s o n a l s p a c e a n d i n t e r m s o f o f f i c e l a y o u t ) . F o r e x a m p l e , s p a c e c o m m u n i c a t e s p o w e r i n t h e U S a n d G e r m a n y . P a r a l a n g u a g e r e f e r s t o h o w s o m e t h i n g i s s a i d , r a t h e r t h a n t h e c o n t e n t o f w h a t i s s a i d — e . g . , r a t e o f s p e e c h , t o n e a n d i n f l e c t i o n o f v o i c e , o t h e r n o i s e s , l a u g h i n g , y a w n i n g , a n d s i l e n c e . N o n v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n h a s b e e n s h o w n t o a c c o u n t f o r b e t w e e n 6 5 % a n d 9 3 % o f i n t e r p r e t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . M i n o r v a r i a t i o n s i n b o d y l a n g u a g e , s p e e c h r h y t h m s , a n d p u n c t u a l i t y o f t e n c a u s e m i s t r u s t a n d m i s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a m o n g c r o s s - c u l t u r a l p a r t i e s . T h i s i s w h e r e n o n v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a n c a u s e p r o b l e m s w i t h i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . M i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s w i t h n o n v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a n l e a d t o m i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d i n s u l t s w i t h c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , a h a n d s h a k e i n o n e c u l t u r e m a y b e r e c o g n i z e d a s a p p r o p r i a t e , w h e r e a s a n o t h e r c u l t u r e m a y r e c o g n i z e i t a s r u d e o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e .

Description

Cultural differences play a crucial role in intercultural understanding, particularly when it comes to language and communication. Effective communication requires considering various aspects, including verbal and non-verbal cues, cultural norms, and individual personality traits. Understanding these differences is essential in today's globalized business environment to avoid miscommunication and promote social justice and peace among diverse cultures.

cultural differences. Language is an example of an important cultural component that is linked to intercultural understanding. The following types of theories can be distinguished in different strands: focus on effective outcomes, on accommodation or adaption, on identity negotiation and management, on communication networks,on acculturation and adjustment. Acculturation can be defined as the process of an individual or individuals exchanging or adopting certain culture values and practices that the dominant culture of their location posses. Acculturation differs from assimilation because the people who are adopting new culture habits are still processing some of their original own culture habits. Young Yun Kim has identified three personality traits that could affect someone's cultural adaptation. These personality traits include openness, strength, and positive. With these personality traits, individuals will be more successful in acculturating than individuals who do not possess these traits. Kim proposes an alternative to acculturation is complete assimilation. A study on cultural and intercultural communication came up with three perspectives, which are the indigenous approach, cultural approach, and cross-cultural approach. While indigenous and cultural approaches focal point is emics, cross-cultural approaches are etics. Authentic intercultural communication is possible. A theory that was found in 1984 and revisited on 1987 explains the importance of truth and intention of getting an understanding. Furthermore, if strategic intent is hidden, there can't be any authentic intercultural communication. In intercultural communication, there could be miscommunication, and the term is called "misfire." Later on, a theory was founded that has three layers of intercultural communication. The first level is effective communication, second-level resilience. Openness includes traits such as tolerance for ambiguity, extroversion and introversion, and open-mindedness. Resilience, on the other hand, includes having an internal locus of control, persistence, tolerance for ambiguity, and resourcefulness. These factors, combined with the person's cultural and racial identity and level of liberalism, comprise that person's potential for adaptation. In a business environment, communication is vital, and there could be many instances where there could be miscommunication. Globalization is a significant factor in intercultural communication and affects business environments. In a business setting, it could be more difficult to communicate due to different ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Due to globalization, more employees have negative emotions in a business environment. The reason why one gets negative feelings is because of miscommunication. One study done between the micro, meso, and macro frames. Positioning is the consideration of one's place in the world compared to others, and how this position might influence both world-views and certain privileges. Dialogue is the turning point of the process during which further understanding of differences and possible tensions develops through experience and engagement with cultures outside of one's own. Next, reflection allows for one to learn through introspection the values of those differences, as well as enables action within the world “in meaningful, effective, and responsible ways." This finally leads to action, which aims to create a more conscious world by working toward social justice and peace among different cultures. As Sorrells argues, “In the context of globalization, [intercultural praxis] … offers us a process of critical, reflective is culturally relevant, so elements of language are also culturally relevant. One must carefully consider semiotics and the evaluation of sign systems to compare cross-cultural norms of communication. There are several potential problems that come with language socialization, however. Sometimes people can overgeneralize or label cultures with stereotypical and subjective characterizations. Another primary concern with documenting alternative cultural norms revolves around the fact that no social actor uses language in ways that perfectly match normative characterizations. A methodology for investigating how an individual uses language and other semiotic activity to create and use new models of conduct and how this varies from the cultural norm should be incorporated into the study of language socialization. Verbal communication consists of messages being sent and received continuously with the speaker and the listener, it is focused on the way messages are portrayed. Verbal communication is based on language and use of expression, the tone in which the sender of the message relays the communication can determine how the message is received and in what context. Factors that affect verbal communication: The way a message is received is dependent on these factors as they give a greater interpretation for the receiver as to what is meant by the message. By emphasizing a certain phrase with the tone of voice, this indicates that it is important and should be focused more on. Along with these attributes, verbal communication is also accompanied with non-verbal cues. These cues make the message clearer and give the listener an indication of what way the information movement—e.g., posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye contact. The meaning of such behavior varies across countries. Clothing and the way people dress is used as a form of nonverbal communication. Object language or material culture refers to how people communicate through material artifacts—e.g., architecture, office design and furniture, clothing, cars, cosmetics, and time. In monochronic cultures, time is experienced linearly and as something to be spent, saved, made up, or wasted. Time orders life, and people tend to concentrate on one thing at a time. In polychronic cultures, people tolerate many things happening simultaneously and emphasize involvement with people. In these cultures, people may be highly distractible, focus on several things at once, and change plans often. Occulesics are a form of kinesics that includes eye contact and the use of the eyes to convey messages. Proxemics concern the influence of proximity and space on communication (e.g., in terms of personal space and in terms of office layout). For example, space communicates power in the US and Germany. Paralanguage refers to how something is said, rather than the content of what is said—e.g., rate of speech, tone and inflection of voice, other noises, laughing, yawning, and silence. Nonverbal communication has been shown to account for between 65% and 93% of interpreted communication. Minor variations in body language, speech rhythms, and punctuality often cause mistrust and misperception of the situation among cross-cultural parties. This is where nonverbal communication can cause problems with intercultural communication. Misunderstandings with nonverbal communication can lead to miscommunication and insults with cultural differences.

Geronimo Pratt

E l m e r P r a t t w a s b o r n i n M o r g a n C i t y , L o u i s i a n a , w h e r e h i s f a t h e r w a s i n t h e s c r a p m e t a l b u s i n e s s . P r a t t w a s a s t a r q u a r t e r b a c k a t S u m p t e r W i l l i a m s H i g h S c h o o l . H e s e r v e d t w o c o m b a t t o u r s a s a s o l d i e r i n t h e V i e t n a m W a r , r e a c h i n g t h e r a n k o f s e r g e a n t . H e w a s h i g h l y d e c o r a t e d , e a r n i n g t w o B r o n z e S t a r s , a S i l v e r S t a r , a n d t w o P u r p l e H e a r t s . H e l a t e r m o v e d t o L o s A n g e l e s . A f t e r l e a v i n g t h e A r m y , P r a t t s t u d i e d p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e a t U C L A , u s i n g a g r a n t p r o v i d e d b y t h e G I B i l l . P r a t t b e c a m e p o l i t i c a l l y a c t i v e a n d w a s r e c r u i t e d i n t o t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r s b y B u n c h y C a r t e r a n d J o h n H u g g i n s . W h e n P r a t t j o i n e d t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r s , h i s y e a r s i n t h e a r m y p r o v e d u s e f u l . H e r o s e t o b e c o m e D e p u t y M i n i s t e r o f D e f e n s e o f t h e l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a f t e r B u n c h y C a r t e r a n d J o h n H u g g i n s w e r e k i l l e d b y C O I N T E L P R O i n f i l t r a t o r s i n t h e U s O r g a n i z a t i o n . H e t o o k t h e n a m e " G e r o n i m o , " a f t e r a p r o m i n e n t A p a c h e c h i e f a n d l e a d e r o f r e s i s t a n c e t o U S d o m i n a t i o n , a n d " J i - J a g a , " a f t e r a C e n t r a l A f r i c a n t r i b e . I n 1 9 7 1 , h i s w i f e S a u n d r a w a s k i l l e d w h e n s h e w a s 8 m o n t h s p r e g n a n t a n d h e r b o d y w a s l e f t i n a d i t c h . T h e m u r d e r w a s a t t r i b u t e d a t t h e t i m e t o a B P P s c h i s m b e t w e e n s u p p o r t e r s o f H u e y N e w t o n a n d t h o s e o f E l d r i d g e C l e a v e r ; P r a t t a n d h i s w i f e b e l o n g e d t o t h e C l e a v e r f a c t i o n . P r a t t l a t e r b e l i e v e d t h i s a c c o u n t w a s a n F B I l i e , a n d t h a t S a u n d r a ' s m u r d e r w a s u n r e l a t e d t o h e r a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r P a r t y . B y J a n u a r y 1 9 7 0 , t h e L o s A n g e l e s F B I o f f i c e h a d s o u g h t p e r m i s s i o n f r o m n a t i o n a l h e a d q u a r t e r s f o r a c o u n t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e e f f o r t " d e s i g n e d t o c h a l l e n g e t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e a u t h o r i t y e x e r c i s e d " b y P r a t t i n t h e l o c a l P a n t h e r s . A n o t h e r F B I m e m o , d a t e d f i v e m o n t h s l a t e r , n o t e d t h a t t h e B u r e a u w a s c o n s t a n t l y c o n s i d e r i n g c o u n t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e m e a s u r e s d e s i g n e d t o n e u t r a l i z e P r a t t " a s a n e f f e c t i v e ( P a n t h e r ) f u n c t i o n a r y . " I n 1 9 6 8 , C a r o l i n e O l s e n , a 2 7 - y e a r - o l d e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r , w a s m u r d e r e d b y g u n s h o t d u r i n g a r o b b e r y o n a S a n t a M o n i c a t e n n i s c o u r t . O l s e n ' s h u s b a n d , K e n n e t h , w h o w a s a l s o s h o t b u t s u r v i v e d , i d e n t i f i e d P r a t t a s t h e k i l l e r i n a n e y e w i t n e s s l i n e - u p . J u l i u s B u t l e r , a p o l i c e i n f o r m a n t a n d i n f i l t r a t o r i n s i d e t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r P a r t y , t e s t i f i e d t h a t P r a t t h a d c o n f e s s e d t o h i m a n d d i s c u s s e d t h e m u r d e r w i t h h i m o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s . I n 1 9 7 0 , P r a t t w a s a r r e s t e d a n d c h a r g e d w i t h m u r d e r a n d k i d n a p p i n g . H i s a t t o r n e y , J o h n n i e C o c h r a n , a r g u e d t h a t t h e c h a r g e s s h o u l d b e d r o p p e d . H e c l a i m e d t h a t P r a t t h a d b e e n 3 5 0 m i l e s a w a y o n t h e n i g h t o f t h e m u r d e r . P r a t t w a s c o n v i c t e d i n 1 9 7 2 . J o u r n a l i s t a n d a u t h o r J a c k O l s e n r e p o r t e d t h a t F B I " m o l e s " h a d i n f i l t r a t e d d e f e n s e s e s s i o n s a n d m o n i t o r e d C o c h r a n ' s p h o n e c a l l s . W h i l e P r a t t w a s i n c a r c e r a t e d a t M u l e C r e e k S t a t e P r i s o n , h e s t u d i e d l a w a n d b u i l t a d e f e n s e . A t t o r n e y S t u a r t H a n l o n , w h o h a d h e l p e d r e p r e s e n t h i m i n h i s f i r s t t r i a l , a n d W i l l i a m P a p a r i a n w o r k e d o n t h e a p p e a l s t h a t r e s u l t e d i n P r a t t ' s c o n v i c t i o n b e i n g v a c a t e d . I n a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h R e u t e r s h e r e c a l l e d b e i n g h e l d i n s o l i t a r y c o n f i n e m e n t i n a c e l l n e a r c u l t l e a d e r C h a r l e s M a n s o n , w i t h o n l y a n t s t o k e e p h i m c o m p a n y . T h e c o n v i c t i o n w a s v a c a t e d o n J u n e 1 0 , 1 9 9 7 , o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e p r o s e c u t i o n h a d c o n c e a l e d e v i d e n c e t h a t m i g h t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e j u r y ' s v e r d i c t . P o l i c e w i r e t a p s s h o w e d t h a t h e w a s p r e s e n t a t a B l a c k P a n t h e r m e e t i n g i n O a k l a n d , 4 0 0 m i l e s a w a y f r o m t h e m u r d e r i n L . A . a t t h e t i m e o f t h e m u r d e r . T h e p r o s e c u t i o n h a d n o t d i s c l o s e d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h a k e y w i t n e s s a g a i n s t P r a t t , J u l i u s B u t l e r , w a s a n i n f o r m a n t t o t h e F B I a n d t h e L o s A n g e l e s P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t . T h e s t a t e a p p e a l e d t h e d e c i s i o n , b u t a n a p p e a l s c o u r t i n 1 9 9 9 r u l e d t h i s f a c t t o b e " ' f a v o r a b l e ' t o t h e d e f e n d a n t , ' s u p p r e s s e d ' b y a l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n c y , a n d ' m a t e r i a l ' t o t h e j u r y ' s d e c i s i o n t o c o n v i c t ; " i t u p h e l d t h e d e c i s i o n t o v a c a t e t h e c o n v i c t i o n , f r e e i n g h i m . O n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 9 7 , P r a t t r e t u r n e d t o h i s h o m e t o w n o f M o r g a n C i t y , L o u i s i a n a , t o s e e h i s a g e d m o t h e r , E u n i c e . H e h a d n o t s e e n h e r i n 2 3 y e a r s , s i n c e s h e r o d e a b u s t o v i s i t h i m a t F o l s o m P r i s o n . I n 1 9 9 8 , P r a t t ' s l o n g t i m e f r i e n d a n d a t t o r n e y J o h n n i e L . C o c h r a n , J r . , f i l e d a f e d e r a l c i v i l l a w s u i t a g a i n s t t h e F B I a n d t h e L A P D , a c c u s i n g t h e m o f m a l i c i o u s p r o s e c u t i o n a n d f a l s e i m p r i s o n m e n t . W i t h t h e h e l p o f B r i a n T . D u n n , a n o t h e r a t t o r n e y a t T h e C o c h r a n F i r m , t h e s u i t w a s s e t t l e d f o r $ 4 . 5 m i l l i o n . A f e d e r a l j u d g e a p p r o v e d t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e c i v i l s u i t : t h e C i t y o f L o s A n g e l e s p a i d $ 2 . 7 5 m i l l i o n o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t a n d t h e U S D e p a r t m e n t o f J u s t i c e p a i d t h e r e m a i n i n g $ 1 . 7 5 m i l l i o n . P r a t t c o n t i n u e d t o w o r k u n t i l h i s d e a t h o n b e h a l f o f m e n a n d w o m e n w r o n g f u l l y c o n v i c t e d . H e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n r a l l i e s i n s u p p o r t o f M u m i a A b u - J a m a l , w h o m h e h a d m e t w h e n b o t h w e r e a c t i v e a s B l a c k P a n t h e r s . I n h i s l a t e r y e a r s , h e m o v e d t o T a n z a n i a , w h e r e h e w a s l i v i n g a t t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h .

Early years and military service

Born in Morgan City, Louisiana, Elmer Pratt was a star quarterback in high school before serving two combat tours in the Vietnam War, earning multiple decorations including two Bronze Stars, a Silver Star, and two Purple Hearts. After the war, he attended UCLA on the GI Bill and became involved with the Black Panthers, rising to Deputy Minister of Defense.

Elmer Pratt was born in Morgan City, Louisiana, where his father was in the scrap metal business. Pratt was a star quarterback at Sumpter Williams High School. He served two combat tours as a soldier in the Vietnam War, reaching the rank of sergeant. He was highly decorated, earning two Bronze Stars, a Silver Star, and two Purple Hearts. He later moved to Los Angeles. After leaving the Army, Pratt studied political science at UCLA, using a grant provided by the GI Bill. Pratt became politically active and was recruited into the Black Panthers by Bunchy Carter and John Huggins. When Pratt joined the Black Panthers, his years in the army proved useful. He rose to become Deputy Minister of Defense of the local organization, after Bunchy Carter and John Huggins were killed by COINTELPRO infiltrators in the Us Organization. He took the name "Geronimo," after a prominent Apache chief and leader of resistance to US domination, and "Ji-Jaga," after a Central African tribe. In 1971, his wife Saundra was killed when she was 8 months pregnant and her body was left in a ditch. The murder was attributed at the time to a BPP schism between supporters of Huey Newton and those of Eldridge Cleaver; Pratt and his wife belonged to the Cleaver faction. Pratt later believed this account was an FBI lie, and that Saundra's murder was unrelated to her activities in the Black Panther Party. By January 1970, the Los Angeles FBI office had sought permission from national headquarters for a counterintelligence effort "designed to challenge the legitimacy of the authority exercised" by Pratt in the local Panthers. Another FBI memo, dated five months later, noted that the Bureau was constantly considering counterintelligence measures designed to neutralize Pratt "as an effective (Panther) functionary. " In 1968, Caroline Olsen, a 27-year-old elementary school teacher, was murdered by gunshot during a robbery on a Santa Monica tennis court. Olsen's husband, Kenneth, who was also shot but survived, identified Pratt as the killer in an eyewitness line-up. Julius Butler, a police informant and infiltrator inside the Black Panther Party, testified that Pratt had confessed to him and discussed the murder with him on several occasions. In 1970, Pratt was arrested and charged with murder and kidnapping. His attorney, Johnnie Cochran, argued that the charges should be dropped. He claimed that Pratt had been 350 miles away on the night of the murder. Pratt was convicted in 1972. Journalist and author Jack Olsen reported that FBI "moles" had infiltrated defense sessions and monitored Cochran's phone calls. While Pratt was incarcerated at Mule Creek State Prison, he studied law and built a defense. Attorney Stuart Hanlon, who had helped represent him in his first trial, and William Paparian worked on the appeals that resulted in Pratt's conviction being vacated. In an interview with Reuters he recalled being held in solitary confinement in a cell near cult leader Charles Manson, with only ants to keep him company. The conviction was vacated on June 10, 1997, on the grounds that the prosecution had concealed evidence that might have influenced the jury's verdict. Police wiretaps showed that he was present at a Black Panther meeting in Oakland, 400 miles away from the murder in L.A. at the time of the murder. The prosecution had not disclosed the extent to which a key witness against Pratt, Julius Butler, was an informant to the FBI and the Los Angeles Police Department. The state appealed the decision, but an appeals court in 1999 ruled this fact to be "'favorable' to the defendant, 'suppressed' by a law enforcement agency, and 'material' to the jury's decision to convict;" it upheld the decision to vacate the conviction, freeing him. On July 24, 1997, Pratt returned to his hometown of Morgan City, Louisiana, to see his aged mother, Eunice. He had not seen her in 23 years, since she rode a bus to visit him at Folsom Prison. In 1998, Pratt's long time friend and attorney Johnnie L. Cochran, Jr., filed a federal civil lawsuit against the FBI and the LAPD, accusing them of malicious prosecution and false imprisonment. With the help of Brian T. Dunn, another attorney at The Cochran Firm, the suit was settled for $4.5 million. A federal judge approved the settlement of the civil suit: the City of Los Angeles paid $2.75 million of the settlement and the US Department of Justice paid the remaining $1.75 million. Pratt continued to work until his death on behalf of men and women wrongfully convicted. He participated in rallies in support of Mumia Abu-Jamal, whom he had met when both were active as Black Panthers. In his later years, he moved to Tanzania, where he was living at the time of his death.

Geronimo Pratt

E l m e r P r a t t w a s b o r n i n M o r g a n C i t y , L o u i s i a n a , w h e r e h i s f a t h e r w a s i n t h e s c r a p m e t a l b u s i n e s s . P r a t t w a s a s t a r q u a r t e r b a c k a t S u m p t e r W i l l i a m s H i g h S c h o o l . H e s e r v e d t w o c o m b a t t o u r s a s a s o l d i e r i n t h e V i e t n a m W a r , r e a c h i n g t h e r a n k o f s e r g e a n t . H e w a s h i g h l y d e c o r a t e d , e a r n i n g t w o B r o n z e S t a r s , a S i l v e r S t a r , a n d t w o P u r p l e H e a r t s . H e l a t e r m o v e d t o L o s A n g e l e s . A f t e r l e a v i n g t h e A r m y , P r a t t s t u d i e d p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e a t U C L A , u s i n g a g r a n t p r o v i d e d b y t h e G I B i l l . P r a t t b e c a m e p o l i t i c a l l y a c t i v e a n d w a s r e c r u i t e d i n t o t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r s b y B u n c h y C a r t e r a n d J o h n H u g g i n s . W h e n P r a t t j o i n e d t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r s , h i s y e a r s i n t h e a r m y p r o v e d u s e f u l . H e r o s e t o b e c o m e D e p u t y M i n i s t e r o f D e f e n s e o f t h e l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a f t e r B u n c h y C a r t e r a n d J o h n H u g g i n s w e r e k i l l e d b y C O I N T E L P R O i n f i l t r a t o r s i n t h e U s O r g a n i z a t i o n . H e t o o k t h e n a m e " G e r o n i m o , " a f t e r a p r o m i n e n t A p a c h e c h i e f a n d l e a d e r o f r e s i s t a n c e t o U S d o m i n a t i o n , a n d " J i - J a g a , " a f t e r a C e n t r a l A f r i c a n t r i b e . I n 1 9 7 1 , h i s w i f e S a u n d r a w a s k i l l e d w h e n s h e w a s 8 m o n t h s p r e g n a n t a n d h e r b o d y w a s l e f t i n a d i t c h . T h e m u r d e r w a s a t t r i b u t e d a t t h e t i m e t o a B P P s c h i s m b e t w e e n s u p p o r t e r s o f H u e y N e w t o n a n d t h o s e o f E l d r i d g e C l e a v e r ; P r a t t a n d h i s w i f e b e l o n g e d t o t h e C l e a v e r f a c t i o n . P r a t t l a t e r b e l i e v e d t h i s a c c o u n t w a s a n F B I l i e , a n d t h a t S a u n d r a ' s m u r d e r w a s u n r e l a t e d t o h e r a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r P a r t y . B y J a n u a r y 1 9 7 0 , t h e L o s A n g e l e s F B I o f f i c e h a d s o u g h t p e r m i s s i o n f r o m n a t i o n a l h e a d q u a r t e r s f o r a c o u n t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e e f f o r t " d e s i g n e d t o c h a l l e n g e t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e a u t h o r i t y e x e r c i s e d " b y P r a t t i n t h e l o c a l P a n t h e r s . A n o t h e r F B I m e m o , d a t e d f i v e m o n t h s l a t e r , n o t e d t h a t t h e B u r e a u w a s c o n s t a n t l y c o n s i d e r i n g c o u n t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e m e a s u r e s d e s i g n e d t o n e u t r a l i z e P r a t t " a s a n e f f e c t i v e ( P a n t h e r ) f u n c t i o n a r y . " I n 1 9 6 8 , C a r o l i n e O l s e n , a 2 7 - y e a r - o l d e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r , w a s m u r d e r e d b y g u n s h o t d u r i n g a r o b b e r y o n a S a n t a M o n i c a t e n n i s c o u r t . O l s e n ' s h u s b a n d , K e n n e t h , w h o w a s a l s o s h o t b u t s u r v i v e d , i d e n t i f i e d P r a t t a s t h e k i l l e r i n a n e y e w i t n e s s l i n e - u p . J u l i u s B u t l e r , a p o l i c e i n f o r m a n t a n d i n f i l t r a t o r i n s i d e t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r P a r t y , t e s t i f i e d t h a t P r a t t h a d c o n f e s s e d t o h i m a n d d i s c u s s e d t h e m u r d e r w i t h h i m o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s . I n 1 9 7 0 , P r a t t w a s a r r e s t e d a n d c h a r g e d w i t h m u r d e r a n d k i d n a p p i n g . H i s a t t o r n e y , J o h n n i e C o c h r a n , a r g u e d t h a t t h e c h a r g e s s h o u l d b e d r o p p e d . H e c l a i m e d t h a t P r a t t h a d b e e n 3 5 0 m i l e s a w a y o n t h e n i g h t o f t h e m u r d e r . P r a t t w a s c o n v i c t e d i n 1 9 7 2 . J o u r n a l i s t a n d a u t h o r J a c k O l s e n r e p o r t e d t h a t F B I " m o l e s " h a d i n f i l t r a t e d d e f e n s e s e s s i o n s a n d m o n i t o r e d C o c h r a n ' s p h o n e c a l l s . W h i l e P r a t t w a s i n c a r c e r a t e d a t M u l e C r e e k S t a t e P r i s o n , h e s t u d i e d l a w a n d b u i l t a d e f e n s e . A t t o r n e y S t u a r t H a n l o n , w h o h a d h e l p e d r e p r e s e n t h i m i n h i s f i r s t t r i a l , a n d W i l l i a m P a p a r i a n w o r k e d o n t h e a p p e a l s t h a t r e s u l t e d i n P r a t t ' s c o n v i c t i o n b e i n g v a c a t e d . I n a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h R e u t e r s h e r e c a l l e d b e i n g h e l d i n s o l i t a r y c o n f i n e m e n t i n a c e l l n e a r c u l t l e a d e r C h a r l e s M a n s o n , w i t h o n l y a n t s t o k e e p h i m c o m p a n y . T h e c o n v i c t i o n w a s v a c a t e d o n J u n e 1 0 , 1 9 9 7 , o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e p r o s e c u t i o n h a d c o n c e a l e d e v i d e n c e t h a t m i g h t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e j u r y ' s v e r d i c t . P o l i c e w i r e t a p s s h o w e d t h a t h e w a s p r e s e n t a t a B l a c k P a n t h e r m e e t i n g i n O a k l a n d , 4 0 0 m i l e s a w a y f r o m t h e m u r d e r i n L . A . a t t h e t i m e o f t h e m u r d e r . T h e p r o s e c u t i o n h a d n o t d i s c l o s e d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h a k e y w i t n e s s a g a i n s t P r a t t , J u l i u s B u t l e r , w a s a n i n f o r m a n t t o t h e F B I a n d t h e L o s A n g e l e s P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t . T h e s t a t e a p p e a l e d t h e d e c i s i o n , b u t a n a p p e a l s c o u r t i n 1 9 9 9 r u l e d t h i s f a c t t o b e " ' f a v o r a b l e ' t o t h e d e f e n d a n t , ' s u p p r e s s e d ' b y a l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n c y , a n d ' m a t e r i a l ' t o t h e j u r y ' s d e c i s i o n t o c o n v i c t ; " i t u p h e l d t h e d e c i s i o n t o v a c a t e t h e c o n v i c t i o n , f r e e i n g h i m . O n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 9 7 , P r a t t r e t u r n e d t o h i s h o m e t o w n o f M o r g a n C i t y , L o u i s i a n a , t o s e e h i s a g e d m o t h e r , E u n i c e . H e h a d n o t s e e n h e r i n 2 3 y e a r s , s i n c e s h e r o d e a b u s t o v i s i t h i m a t F o l s o m P r i s o n . I n 1 9 9 8 , P r a t t ' s l o n g t i m e f r i e n d a n d a t t o r n e y J o h n n i e L . C o c h r a n , J r . , f i l e d a f e d e r a l c i v i l l a w s u i t a g a i n s t t h e F B I a n d t h e L A P D , a c c u s i n g t h e m o f m a l i c i o u s p r o s e c u t i o n a n d f a l s e i m p r i s o n m e n t . W i t h t h e h e l p o f B r i a n T . D u n n , a n o t h e r a t t o r n e y a t T h e C o c h r a n F i r m , t h e s u i t w a s s e t t l e d f o r $ 4 . 5 m i l l i o n . A f e d e r a l j u d g e a p p r o v e d t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e c i v i l s u i t : t h e C i t y o f L o s A n g e l e s p a i d $ 2 . 7 5 m i l l i o n o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t a n d t h e U S D e p a r t m e n t o f J u s t i c e p a i d t h e r e m a i n i n g $ 1 . 7 5 m i l l i o n . P r a t t c o n t i n u e d t o w o r k u n t i l h i s d e a t h o n b e h a l f o f m e n a n d w o m e n w r o n g f u l l y c o n v i c t e d . H e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n r a l l i e s i n s u p p o r t o f M u m i a A b u - J a m a l , w h o m h e h a d m e t w h e n b o t h w e r e a c t i v e a s B l a c k P a n t h e r s . I n h i s l a t e r y e a r s , h e m o v e d t o T a n z a n i a , w h e r e h e w a s l i v i n g a t t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h .

UCLA and Black Panther Party

Elmer Pratt, aka Geronimo Ji-Jaga, was a decorated Vietnam War veteran who attended UCLA on the GI Bill. He became involved with the Black Panther Party, rising to Deputy Minister of Defense after the deaths of Bunchy Carter and John Huggins. Pratt's life was marked by tragedy, including the murder of his pregnant wife Saundra, which he believed was orchestrated by the FBI. In 1972, he was wrongly convicted of murdering a schoolteacher, Caroline Olsen, based on testimony from an FBI informant. Pratt spent 27 years in prison before his conviction was vacated due to withheld evidence. He was freed in 1997 and went on to sue the FBI and LAPD for malicious prosecution and false imprisonment, settling for $4.5 million. Until his death, Pratt advocated for wrongfully convicted individuals, including Mumia Abu-Jamal.

Elmer Pratt was born in Morgan City, Louisiana, where his father was in the scrap metal business. Pratt was a star quarterback at Sumpter Williams High School. He served two combat tours as a soldier in the Vietnam War, reaching the rank of sergeant. He was highly decorated, earning two Bronze Stars, a Silver Star, and two Purple Hearts. He later moved to Los Angeles. After leaving the Army, Pratt studied political science at UCLA, using a grant provided by the GI Bill. Pratt became politically active and was recruited into the Black Panthers by Bunchy Carter and John Huggins. When Pratt joined the Black Panthers, his years in the army proved useful. He rose to become Deputy Minister of Defense of the local organization, after Bunchy Carter and John Huggins were killed by COINTELPRO infiltrators in the Us Organization. He took the name "Geronimo," after a prominent Apache chief and leader of resistance to US domination, and "Ji-Jaga," after a Central African tribe. In 1971, his wife Saundra was killed when she was 8 months pregnant and her body was left in a ditch. The murder was attributed at the time to a BPP schism between supporters of Huey Newton and those of Eldridge Cleaver; Pratt and his wife belonged to the Cleaver faction. Pratt later believed this account was an FBI lie, and that Saundra's murder was unrelated to her activities in the Black Panther Party. By January 1970, the Los Angeles FBI office had sought permission from national headquarters for a counterintelligence effort "designed to challenge the legitimacy of the authority exercised" by Pratt in the local Panthers. Another FBI memo, dated five months later, noted that the Bureau was constantly considering counterintelligence measures designed to neutralize Pratt "as an effective (Panther) functionary. " In 1968, Caroline Olsen, a 27-year-old elementary school teacher, was murdered by gunshot during a robbery on a Santa Monica tennis court. Olsen's husband, Kenneth, who was also shot but survived, identified Pratt as the killer in an eyewitness line-up. Julius Butler, a police informant and infiltrator inside the Black Panther Party, testified that Pratt had confessed to him and discussed the murder with him on several occasions. In 1970, Pratt was arrested and charged with murder and kidnapping. His attorney, Johnnie Cochran, argued that the charges should be dropped. He claimed that Pratt had been 350 miles away on the night of the murder. Pratt was convicted in 1972. Journalist and author Jack Olsen reported that FBI "moles" had infiltrated defense sessions and monitored Cochran's phone calls. While Pratt was incarcerated at Mule Creek State Prison, he studied law and built a defense. Attorney Stuart Hanlon, who had helped represent him in his first trial, and William Paparian worked on the appeals that resulted in Pratt's conviction being vacated. In an interview with Reuters he recalled being held in solitary confinement in a cell near cult leader Charles Manson, with only ants to keep him company. The conviction was vacated on June 10, 1997, on the grounds that the prosecution had concealed evidence that might have influenced the jury's verdict. Police wiretaps showed that he was present at a Black Panther meeting in Oakland, 400 miles away from the murder in L.A. at the time of the murder. The prosecution had not disclosed the extent to which a key witness against Pratt, Julius Butler, was an informant to the FBI and the Los Angeles Police Department. The state appealed the decision, but an appeals court in 1999 ruled this fact to be "'favorable' to the defendant, 'suppressed' by a law enforcement agency, and 'material' to the jury's decision to convict;" it upheld the decision to vacate the conviction, freeing him. On July 24, 1997, Pratt returned to his hometown of Morgan City, Louisiana, to see his aged mother, Eunice. He had not seen her in 23 years, since she rode a bus to visit him at Folsom Prison. In 1998, Pratt's long time friend and attorney Johnnie L. Cochran, Jr., filed a federal civil lawsuit against the FBI and the LAPD, accusing them of malicious prosecution and false imprisonment. With the help of Brian T. Dunn, another attorney at The Cochran Firm, the suit was settled for $4.5 million. A federal judge approved the settlement of the civil suit: the City of Los Angeles paid $2.75 million of the settlement and the US Department of Justice paid the remaining $1.75 million. Pratt continued to work until his death on behalf of men and women wrongfully convicted. He participated in rallies in support of Mumia Abu-Jamal, whom he had met when both were active as Black Panthers. In his later years, he moved to Tanzania, where he was living at the time of his death.

Geronimo Pratt

E l m e r P r a t t w a s b o r n i n M o r g a n C i t y , L o u i s i a n a , w h e r e h i s f a t h e r w a s i n t h e s c r a p m e t a l b u s i n e s s . P r a t t w a s a s t a r q u a r t e r b a c k a t S u m p t e r W i l l i a m s H i g h S c h o o l . H e s e r v e d t w o c o m b a t t o u r s a s a s o l d i e r i n t h e V i e t n a m W a r , r e a c h i n g t h e r a n k o f s e r g e a n t . H e w a s h i g h l y d e c o r a t e d , e a r n i n g t w o B r o n z e S t a r s , a S i l v e r S t a r , a n d t w o P u r p l e H e a r t s . H e l a t e r m o v e d t o L o s A n g e l e s . A f t e r l e a v i n g t h e A r m y , P r a t t s t u d i e d p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e a t U C L A , u s i n g a g r a n t p r o v i d e d b y t h e G I B i l l . P r a t t b e c a m e p o l i t i c a l l y a c t i v e a n d w a s r e c r u i t e d i n t o t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r s b y B u n c h y C a r t e r a n d J o h n H u g g i n s . W h e n P r a t t j o i n e d t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r s , h i s y e a r s i n t h e a r m y p r o v e d u s e f u l . H e r o s e t o b e c o m e D e p u t y M i n i s t e r o f D e f e n s e o f t h e l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a f t e r B u n c h y C a r t e r a n d J o h n H u g g i n s w e r e k i l l e d b y C O I N T E L P R O i n f i l t r a t o r s i n t h e U s O r g a n i z a t i o n . H e t o o k t h e n a m e " G e r o n i m o , " a f t e r a p r o m i n e n t A p a c h e c h i e f a n d l e a d e r o f r e s i s t a n c e t o U S d o m i n a t i o n , a n d " J i - J a g a , " a f t e r a C e n t r a l A f r i c a n t r i b e . I n 1 9 7 1 , h i s w i f e S a u n d r a w a s k i l l e d w h e n s h e w a s 8 m o n t h s p r e g n a n t a n d h e r b o d y w a s l e f t i n a d i t c h . T h e m u r d e r w a s a t t r i b u t e d a t t h e t i m e t o a B P P s c h i s m b e t w e e n s u p p o r t e r s o f H u e y N e w t o n a n d t h o s e o f E l d r i d g e C l e a v e r ; P r a t t a n d h i s w i f e b e l o n g e d t o t h e C l e a v e r f a c t i o n . P r a t t l a t e r b e l i e v e d t h i s a c c o u n t w a s a n F B I l i e , a n d t h a t S a u n d r a ' s m u r d e r w a s u n r e l a t e d t o h e r a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r P a r t y . B y J a n u a r y 1 9 7 0 , t h e L o s A n g e l e s F B I o f f i c e h a d s o u g h t p e r m i s s i o n f r o m n a t i o n a l h e a d q u a r t e r s f o r a c o u n t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e e f f o r t " d e s i g n e d t o c h a l l e n g e t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e a u t h o r i t y e x e r c i s e d " b y P r a t t i n t h e l o c a l P a n t h e r s . A n o t h e r F B I m e m o , d a t e d f i v e m o n t h s l a t e r , n o t e d t h a t t h e B u r e a u w a s c o n s t a n t l y c o n s i d e r i n g c o u n t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e m e a s u r e s d e s i g n e d t o n e u t r a l i z e P r a t t " a s a n e f f e c t i v e ( P a n t h e r ) f u n c t i o n a r y . " I n 1 9 6 8 , C a r o l i n e O l s e n , a 2 7 - y e a r - o l d e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r , w a s m u r d e r e d b y g u n s h o t d u r i n g a r o b b e r y o n a S a n t a M o n i c a t e n n i s c o u r t . O l s e n ' s h u s b a n d , K e n n e t h , w h o w a s a l s o s h o t b u t s u r v i v e d , i d e n t i f i e d P r a t t a s t h e k i l l e r i n a n e y e w i t n e s s l i n e - u p . J u l i u s B u t l e r , a p o l i c e i n f o r m a n t a n d i n f i l t r a t o r i n s i d e t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r P a r t y , t e s t i f i e d t h a t P r a t t h a d c o n f e s s e d t o h i m a n d d i s c u s s e d t h e m u r d e r w i t h h i m o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s . I n 1 9 7 0 , P r a t t w a s a r r e s t e d a n d c h a r g e d w i t h m u r d e r a n d k i d n a p p i n g . H i s a t t o r n e y , J o h n n i e C o c h r a n , a r g u e d t h a t t h e c h a r g e s s h o u l d b e d r o p p e d . H e c l a i m e d t h a t P r a t t h a d b e e n 3 5 0 m i l e s a w a y o n t h e n i g h t o f t h e m u r d e r . P r a t t w a s c o n v i c t e d i n 1 9 7 2 . J o u r n a l i s t a n d a u t h o r J a c k O l s e n r e p o r t e d t h a t F B I " m o l e s " h a d i n f i l t r a t e d d e f e n s e s e s s i o n s a n d m o n i t o r e d C o c h r a n ' s p h o n e c a l l s . W h i l e P r a t t w a s i n c a r c e r a t e d a t M u l e C r e e k S t a t e P r i s o n , h e s t u d i e d l a w a n d b u i l t a d e f e n s e . A t t o r n e y S t u a r t H a n l o n , w h o h a d h e l p e d r e p r e s e n t h i m i n h i s f i r s t t r i a l , a n d W i l l i a m P a p a r i a n w o r k e d o n t h e a p p e a l s t h a t r e s u l t e d i n P r a t t ' s c o n v i c t i o n b e i n g v a c a t e d . I n a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h R e u t e r s h e r e c a l l e d b e i n g h e l d i n s o l i t a r y c o n f i n e m e n t i n a c e l l n e a r c u l t l e a d e r C h a r l e s M a n s o n , w i t h o n l y a n t s t o k e e p h i m c o m p a n y . T h e c o n v i c t i o n w a s v a c a t e d o n J u n e 1 0 , 1 9 9 7 , o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e p r o s e c u t i o n h a d c o n c e a l e d e v i d e n c e t h a t m i g h t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e j u r y ' s v e r d i c t . P o l i c e w i r e t a p s s h o w e d t h a t h e w a s p r e s e n t a t a B l a c k P a n t h e r m e e t i n g i n O a k l a n d , 4 0 0 m i l e s a w a y f r o m t h e m u r d e r i n L . A . a t t h e t i m e o f t h e m u r d e r . T h e p r o s e c u t i o n h a d n o t d i s c l o s e d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h a k e y w i t n e s s a g a i n s t P r a t t , J u l i u s B u t l e r , w a s a n i n f o r m a n t t o t h e F B I a n d t h e L o s A n g e l e s P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t . T h e s t a t e a p p e a l e d t h e d e c i s i o n , b u t a n a p p e a l s c o u r t i n 1 9 9 9 r u l e d t h i s f a c t t o b e " ' f a v o r a b l e ' t o t h e d e f e n d a n t , ' s u p p r e s s e d ' b y a l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n c y , a n d ' m a t e r i a l ' t o t h e j u r y ' s d e c i s i o n t o c o n v i c t ; " i t u p h e l d t h e d e c i s i o n t o v a c a t e t h e c o n v i c t i o n , f r e e i n g h i m . O n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 9 7 , P r a t t r e t u r n e d t o h i s h o m e t o w n o f M o r g a n C i t y , L o u i s i a n a , t o s e e h i s a g e d m o t h e r , E u n i c e . H e h a d n o t s e e n h e r i n 2 3 y e a r s , s i n c e s h e r o d e a b u s t o v i s i t h i m a t F o l s o m P r i s o n . I n 1 9 9 8 , P r a t t ' s l o n g t i m e f r i e n d a n d a t t o r n e y J o h n n i e L . C o c h r a n , J r . , f i l e d a f e d e r a l c i v i l l a w s u i t a g a i n s t t h e F B I a n d t h e L A P D , a c c u s i n g t h e m o f m a l i c i o u s p r o s e c u t i o n a n d f a l s e i m p r i s o n m e n t . W i t h t h e h e l p o f B r i a n T . D u n n , a n o t h e r a t t o r n e y a t T h e C o c h r a n F i r m , t h e s u i t w a s s e t t l e d f o r $ 4 . 5 m i l l i o n . A f e d e r a l j u d g e a p p r o v e d t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e c i v i l s u i t : t h e C i t y o f L o s A n g e l e s p a i d $ 2 . 7 5 m i l l i o n o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t a n d t h e U S D e p a r t m e n t o f J u s t i c e p a i d t h e r e m a i n i n g $ 1 . 7 5 m i l l i o n . P r a t t c o n t i n u e d t o w o r k u n t i l h i s d e a t h o n b e h a l f o f m e n a n d w o m e n w r o n g f u l l y c o n v i c t e d . H e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n r a l l i e s i n s u p p o r t o f M u m i a A b u - J a m a l , w h o m h e h a d m e t w h e n b o t h w e r e a c t i v e a s B l a c k P a n t h e r s . I n h i s l a t e r y e a r s , h e m o v e d t o T a n z a n i a , w h e r e h e w a s l i v i n g a t t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h .

Murder charges

Elmer Pratt, aka Geronimo Ji-Jaga, was wrongly accused and convicted of murdering Caroline Olsen in 1968. Key witnesses included Julius Butler, an FBI informant, who falsely testified against Pratt. Pratt was arrested in 1970 and convicted in 1972. However, his conviction was vacated in 1997 due to withheld evidence, including police wiretaps showing Pratt's alibi. An appeals court upheld the decision, and Pratt was freed. He later sued the FBI and LAPD for malicious prosecution and false imprisonment, settling for $4.5 million.

Elmer Pratt was born in Morgan City, Louisiana, where his father was in the scrap metal business. Pratt was a star quarterback at Sumpter Williams High School. He served two combat tours as a soldier in the Vietnam War, reaching the rank of sergeant. He was highly decorated, earning two Bronze Stars, a Silver Star, and two Purple Hearts. He later moved to Los Angeles. After leaving the Army, Pratt studied political science at UCLA, using a grant provided by the GI Bill. Pratt became politically active and was recruited into the Black Panthers by Bunchy Carter and John Huggins. When Pratt joined the Black Panthers, his years in the army proved useful. He rose to become Deputy Minister of Defense of the local organization, after Bunchy Carter and John Huggins were killed by COINTELPRO infiltrators in the Us Organization. He took the name "Geronimo," after a prominent Apache chief and leader of resistance to US domination, and "Ji-Jaga," after a Central African tribe. In 1971, his wife Saundra was killed when she was 8 months pregnant and her body was left in a ditch. The murder was attributed at the time to a BPP schism between supporters of Huey Newton and those of Eldridge Cleaver; Pratt and his wife belonged to the Cleaver faction. Pratt later believed this account was an FBI lie, and that Saundra's murder was unrelated to her activities in the Black Panther Party. By January 1970, the Los Angeles FBI office had sought permission from national headquarters for a counterintelligence effort "designed to challenge the legitimacy of the authority exercised" by Pratt in the local Panthers. Another FBI memo, dated five months later, noted that the Bureau was constantly considering counterintelligence measures designed to neutralize Pratt "as an effective (Panther) functionary. " In 1968, Caroline Olsen, a 27-year-old elementary school teacher, was murdered by gunshot during a robbery on a Santa Monica tennis court. Olsen's husband, Kenneth, who was also shot but survived, identified Pratt as the killer in an eyewitness line-up. Julius Butler, a police informant and infiltrator inside the Black Panther Party, testified that Pratt had confessed to him and discussed the murder with him on several occasions. In 1970, Pratt was arrested and charged with murder and kidnapping. His attorney, Johnnie Cochran, argued that the charges should be dropped. He claimed that Pratt had been 350 miles away on the night of the murder. Pratt was convicted in 1972. Journalist and author Jack Olsen reported that FBI "moles" had infiltrated defense sessions and monitored Cochran's phone calls. While Pratt was incarcerated at Mule Creek State Prison, he studied law and built a defense. Attorney Stuart Hanlon, who had helped represent him in his first trial, and William Paparian worked on the appeals that resulted in Pratt's conviction being vacated. In an interview with Reuters he recalled being held in solitary confinement in a cell near cult leader Charles Manson, with only ants to keep him company. The conviction was vacated on June 10, 1997, on the grounds that the prosecution had concealed evidence that might have influenced the jury's verdict. Police wiretaps showed that he was present at a Black Panther meeting in Oakland, 400 miles away from the murder in L.A. at the time of the murder. The prosecution had not disclosed the extent to which a key witness against Pratt, Julius Butler, was an informant to the FBI and the Los Angeles Police Department. The state appealed the decision, but an appeals court in 1999 ruled this fact to be "'favorable' to the defendant, 'suppressed' by a law enforcement agency, and 'material' to the jury's decision to convict;" it upheld the decision to vacate the conviction, freeing him. On July 24, 1997, Pratt returned to his hometown of Morgan City, Louisiana, to see his aged mother, Eunice. He had not seen her in 23 years, since she rode a bus to visit him at Folsom Prison. In 1998, Pratt's long time friend and attorney Johnnie L. Cochran, Jr., filed a federal civil lawsuit against the FBI and the LAPD, accusing them of malicious prosecution and false imprisonment. With the help of Brian T. Dunn, another attorney at The Cochran Firm, the suit was settled for $4.5 million. A federal judge approved the settlement of the civil suit: the City of Los Angeles paid $2.75 million of the settlement and the US Department of Justice paid the remaining $1.75 million. Pratt continued to work until his death on behalf of men and women wrongfully convicted. He participated in rallies in support of Mumia Abu-Jamal, whom he had met when both were active as Black Panthers. In his later years, he moved to Tanzania, where he was living at the time of his death.

Geronimo Pratt

E l m e r P r a t t w a s b o r n i n M o r g a n C i t y , L o u i s i a n a , w h e r e h i s f a t h e r w a s i n t h e s c r a p m e t a l b u s i n e s s . P r a t t w a s a s t a r q u a r t e r b a c k a t S u m p t e r W i l l i a m s H i g h S c h o o l . H e s e r v e d t w o c o m b a t t o u r s a s a s o l d i e r i n t h e V i e t n a m W a r , r e a c h i n g t h e r a n k o f s e r g e a n t . H e w a s h i g h l y d e c o r a t e d , e a r n i n g t w o B r o n z e S t a r s , a S i l v e r S t a r , a n d t w o P u r p l e H e a r t s . H e l a t e r m o v e d t o L o s A n g e l e s . A f t e r l e a v i n g t h e A r m y , P r a t t s t u d i e d p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e a t U C L A , u s i n g a g r a n t p r o v i d e d b y t h e G I B i l l . P r a t t b e c a m e p o l i t i c a l l y a c t i v e a n d w a s r e c r u i t e d i n t o t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r s b y B u n c h y C a r t e r a n d J o h n H u g g i n s . W h e n P r a t t j o i n e d t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r s , h i s y e a r s i n t h e a r m y p r o v e d u s e f u l . H e r o s e t o b e c o m e D e p u t y M i n i s t e r o f D e f e n s e o f t h e l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a f t e r B u n c h y C a r t e r a n d J o h n H u g g i n s w e r e k i l l e d b y C O I N T E L P R O i n f i l t r a t o r s i n t h e U s O r g a n i z a t i o n . H e t o o k t h e n a m e " G e r o n i m o , " a f t e r a p r o m i n e n t A p a c h e c h i e f a n d l e a d e r o f r e s i s t a n c e t o U S d o m i n a t i o n , a n d " J i - J a g a , " a f t e r a C e n t r a l A f r i c a n t r i b e . I n 1 9 7 1 , h i s w i f e S a u n d r a w a s k i l l e d w h e n s h e w a s 8 m o n t h s p r e g n a n t a n d h e r b o d y w a s l e f t i n a d i t c h . T h e m u r d e r w a s a t t r i b u t e d a t t h e t i m e t o a B P P s c h i s m b e t w e e n s u p p o r t e r s o f H u e y N e w t o n a n d t h o s e o f E l d r i d g e C l e a v e r ; P r a t t a n d h i s w i f e b e l o n g e d t o t h e C l e a v e r f a c t i o n . P r a t t l a t e r b e l i e v e d t h i s a c c o u n t w a s a n F B I l i e , a n d t h a t S a u n d r a ' s m u r d e r w a s u n r e l a t e d t o h e r a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r P a r t y . B y J a n u a r y 1 9 7 0 , t h e L o s A n g e l e s F B I o f f i c e h a d s o u g h t p e r m i s s i o n f r o m n a t i o n a l h e a d q u a r t e r s f o r a c o u n t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e e f f o r t " d e s i g n e d t o c h a l l e n g e t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e a u t h o r i t y e x e r c i s e d " b y P r a t t i n t h e l o c a l P a n t h e r s . A n o t h e r F B I m e m o , d a t e d f i v e m o n t h s l a t e r , n o t e d t h a t t h e B u r e a u w a s c o n s t a n t l y c o n s i d e r i n g c o u n t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e m e a s u r e s d e s i g n e d t o n e u t r a l i z e P r a t t " a s a n e f f e c t i v e ( P a n t h e r ) f u n c t i o n a r y . " I n 1 9 6 8 , C a r o l i n e O l s e n , a 2 7 - y e a r - o l d e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r , w a s m u r d e r e d b y g u n s h o t d u r i n g a r o b b e r y o n a S a n t a M o n i c a t e n n i s c o u r t . O l s e n ' s h u s b a n d , K e n n e t h , w h o w a s a l s o s h o t b u t s u r v i v e d , i d e n t i f i e d P r a t t a s t h e k i l l e r i n a n e y e w i t n e s s l i n e - u p . J u l i u s B u t l e r , a p o l i c e i n f o r m a n t a n d i n f i l t r a t o r i n s i d e t h e B l a c k P a n t h e r P a r t y , t e s t i f i e d t h a t P r a t t h a d c o n f e s s e d t o h i m a n d d i s c u s s e d t h e m u r d e r w i t h h i m o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s . I n 1 9 7 0 , P r a t t w a s a r r e s t e d a n d c h a r g e d w i t h m u r d e r a n d k i d n a p p i n g . H i s a t t o r n e y , J o h n n i e C o c h r a n , a r g u e d t h a t t h e c h a r g e s s h o u l d b e d r o p p e d . H e c l a i m e d t h a t P r a t t h a d b e e n 3 5 0 m i l e s a w a y o n t h e n i g h t o f t h e m u r d e r . P r a t t w a s c o n v i c t e d i n 1 9 7 2 . J o u r n a l i s t a n d a u t h o r J a c k O l s e n r e p o r t e d t h a t F B I " m o l e s " h a d i n f i l t r a t e d d e f e n s e s e s s i o n s a n d m o n i t o r e d C o c h r a n ' s p h o n e c a l l s . W h i l e P r a t t w a s i n c a r c e r a t e d a t M u l e C r e e k S t a t e P r i s o n , h e s t u d i e d l a w a n d b u i l t a d e f e n s e . A t t o r n e y S t u a r t H a n l o n , w h o h a d h e l p e d r e p r e s e n t h i m i n h i s f i r s t t r i a l , a n d W i l l i a m P a p a r i a n w o r k e d o n t h e a p p e a l s t h a t r e s u l t e d i n P r a t t ' s c o n v i c t i o n b e i n g v a c a t e d . I n a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h R e u t e r s h e r e c a l l e d b e i n g h e l d i n s o l i t a r y c o n f i n e m e n t i n a c e l l n e a r c u l t l e a d e r C h a r l e s M a n s o n , w i t h o n l y a n t s t o k e e p h i m c o m p a n y . T h e c o n v i c t i o n w a s v a c a t e d o n J u n e 1 0 , 1 9 9 7 , o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e p r o s e c u t i o n h a d c o n c e a l e d e v i d e n c e t h a t m i g h t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e j u r y ' s v e r d i c t . P o l i c e w i r e t a p s s h o w e d t h a t h e w a s p r e s e n t a t a B l a c k P a n t h e r m e e t i n g i n O a k l a n d , 4 0 0 m i l e s a w a y f r o m t h e m u r d e r i n L . A . a t t h e t i m e o f t h e m u r d e r . T h e p r o s e c u t i o n h a d n o t d i s c l o s e d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h a k e y w i t n e s s a g a i n s t P r a t t , J u l i u s B u t l e r , w a s a n i n f o r m a n t t o t h e F B I a n d t h e L o s A n g e l e s P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t . T h e s t a t e a p p e a l e d t h e d e c i s i o n , b u t a n a p p e a l s c o u r t i n 1 9 9 9 r u l e d t h i s f a c t t o b e " ' f a v o r a b l e ' t o t h e d e f e n d a n t , ' s u p p r e s s e d ' b y a l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n c y , a n d ' m a t e r i a l ' t o t h e j u r y ' s d e c i s i o n t o c o n v i c t ; " i t u p h e l d t h e d e c i s i o n t o v a c a t e t h e c o n v i c t i o n , f r e e i n g h i m . O n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 9 7 , P r a t t r e t u r n e d t o h i s h o m e t o w n o f M o r g a n C i t y , L o u i s i a n a , t o s e e h i s a g e d m o t h e r , E u n i c e . H e h a d n o t s e e n h e r i n 2 3 y e a r s , s i n c e s h e r o d e a b u s t o v i s i t h i m a t F o l s o m P r i s o n . I n 1 9 9 8 , P r a t t ' s l o n g t i m e f r i e n d a n d a t t o r n e y J o h n n i e L . C o c h r a n , J r . , f i l e d a f e d e r a l c i v i l l a w s u i t a g a i n s t t h e F B I a n d t h e L A P D , a c c u s i n g t h e m o f m a l i c i o u s p r o s e c u t i o n a n d f a l s e i m p r i s o n m e n t . W i t h t h e h e l p o f B r i a n T . D u n n , a n o t h e r a t t o r n e y a t T h e C o c h r a n F i r m , t h e s u i t w a s s e t t l e d f o r $ 4 . 5 m i l l i o n . A f e d e r a l j u d g e a p p r o v e d t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e c i v i l s u i t : t h e C i t y o f L o s A n g e l e s p a i d $ 2 . 7 5 m i l l i o n o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t a n d t h e U S D e p a r t m e n t o f J u s t i c e p a i d t h e r e m a i n i n g $ 1 . 7 5 m i l l i o n . P r a t t c o n t i n u e d t o w o r k u n t i l h i s d e a t h o n b e h a l f o f m e n a n d w o m e n w r o n g f u l l y c o n v i c t e d . H e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n r a l l i e s i n s u p p o r t o f M u m i a A b u - J a m a l , w h o m h e h a d m e t w h e n b o t h w e r e a c t i v e a s B l a c k P a n t h e r s . I n h i s l a t e r y e a r s , h e m o v e d t o T a n z a n i a , w h e r e h e w a s l i v i n g a t t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h .

Murder conviction vacated

Elmer "Geronimo" Pratt, a decorated Vietnam War veteran and former Black Panther, was wrongly convicted of murder in 1972. The conviction was vacated in 1997 due to withheld evidence, including police wiretaps showing Pratt's alibi and the fact that a key witness was an FBI informant. Pratt was freed after 27 years in prison and went on to settle a civil lawsuit against the FBI and LAPD for $4.5 million. He spent his later years advocating for wrongful convictions and supporting causes like Mumia Abu-Jamal before passing away in Tanzania.

Elmer Pratt was born in Morgan City, Louisiana, where his father was in the scrap metal business. Pratt was a star quarterback at Sumpter Williams High School. He served two combat tours as a soldier in the Vietnam War, reaching the rank of sergeant. He was highly decorated, earning two Bronze Stars, a Silver Star, and two Purple Hearts. He later moved to Los Angeles. After leaving the Army, Pratt studied political science at UCLA, using a grant provided by the GI Bill. Pratt became politically active and was recruited into the Black Panthers by Bunchy Carter and John Huggins. When Pratt joined the Black Panthers, his years in the army proved useful. He rose to become Deputy Minister of Defense of the local organization, after Bunchy Carter and John Huggins were killed by COINTELPRO infiltrators in the Us Organization. He took the name "Geronimo," after a prominent Apache chief and leader of resistance to US domination, and "Ji-Jaga," after a Central African tribe. In 1971, his wife Saundra was killed when she was 8 months pregnant and her body was left in a ditch. The murder was attributed at the time to a BPP schism between supporters of Huey Newton and those of Eldridge Cleaver; Pratt and his wife belonged to the Cleaver faction. Pratt later believed this account was an FBI lie, and that Saundra's murder was unrelated to her activities in the Black Panther Party. By January 1970, the Los Angeles FBI office had sought permission from national headquarters for a counterintelligence effort "designed to challenge the legitimacy of the authority exercised" by Pratt in the local Panthers. Another FBI memo, dated five months later, noted that the Bureau was constantly considering counterintelligence measures designed to neutralize Pratt "as an effective (Panther) functionary. " In 1968, Caroline Olsen, a 27-year-old elementary school teacher, was murdered by gunshot during a robbery on a Santa Monica tennis court. Olsen's husband, Kenneth, who was also shot but survived, identified Pratt as the killer in an eyewitness line-up. Julius Butler, a police informant and infiltrator inside the Black Panther Party, testified that Pratt had confessed to him and discussed the murder with him on several occasions. In 1970, Pratt was arrested and charged with murder and kidnapping. His attorney, Johnnie Cochran, argued that the charges should be dropped. He claimed that Pratt had been 350 miles away on the night of the murder. Pratt was convicted in 1972. Journalist and author Jack Olsen reported that FBI "moles" had infiltrated defense sessions and monitored Cochran's phone calls. While Pratt was incarcerated at Mule Creek State Prison, he studied law and built a defense. Attorney Stuart Hanlon, who had helped represent him in his first trial, and William Paparian worked on the appeals that resulted in Pratt's conviction being vacated. In an interview with Reuters he recalled being held in solitary confinement in a cell near cult leader Charles Manson, with only ants to keep him company. The conviction was vacated on June 10, 1997, on the grounds that the prosecution had concealed evidence that might have influenced the jury's verdict. Police wiretaps showed that he was present at a Black Panther meeting in Oakland, 400 miles away from the murder in L.A. at the time of the murder. The prosecution had not disclosed the extent to which a key witness against Pratt, Julius Butler, was an informant to the FBI and the Los Angeles Police Department. The state appealed the decision, but an appeals court in 1999 ruled this fact to be "'favorable' to the defendant, 'suppressed' by a law enforcement agency, and 'material' to the jury's decision to convict;" it upheld the decision to vacate the conviction, freeing him. On July 24, 1997, Pratt returned to his hometown of Morgan City, Louisiana, to see his aged mother, Eunice. He had not seen her in 23 years, since she rode a bus to visit him at Folsom Prison. In 1998, Pratt's long time friend and attorney Johnnie L. Cochran, Jr., filed a federal civil lawsuit against the FBI and the LAPD, accusing them of malicious prosecution and false imprisonment. With the help of Brian T. Dunn, another attorney at The Cochran Firm, the suit was settled for $4.5 million. A federal judge approved the settlement of the civil suit: the City of Los Angeles paid $2.75 million of the settlement and the US Department of Justice paid the remaining $1.75 million. Pratt continued to work until his death on behalf of men and women wrongfully convicted. He participated in rallies in support of Mumia Abu-Jamal, whom he had met when both were active as Black Panthers. In his later years, he moved to Tanzania, where he was living at the time of his death.

Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids

T h e c h a r a c t e r F a t A l b e r t f i r s t a p p e a r e d i n B i l l C o s b y ' s s t a n d - u p c o m e d y r o u t i n e " B u c k B u c k , " a s r e c o r d e d o n h i s 1 9 6 7 a l b u m " R e v e n g e " . T h e s t o r i e s w e r e b a s e d u p o n C o s b y ' s t a l e s a b o u t g r o w i n g u p i n i n n e r c i t y N o r t h P h i l a d e l p h i a . I n 1 9 6 9 , C o s b y a n d v e t e r a n a n i m a t o r K e n M u n d i e b r o u g h t F a t A l b e r t t o a n i m a t i o n i n a p r i m e - t i m e s p e c i a l e n t i t l e d " H e y , H e y , H e y , I t ' s F a t A l b e r t " . T h e s p e c i a l , w h i c h a i r e d o n N B C , w a s a h y b r i d o f l i v e a c t i o n a n d a n i m a t i o n . T h e m u s i c f o r t h e s p e c i a l w a s w r i t t e n a n d p e r f o r m e d b y j a z z p i a n i s t / k e y b o a r d i s t H e r b i e H a n c o c k i n 1 9 6 9 a n d w a s r e l e a s e d o n t h e W a r n e r B r o s . a l b u m " F a t A l b e r t R o t u n d a " . F o r t h e a n i m a t e d p o r t i o n o f t h e s p e c i a l , i t w a s n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p t h e a c t u a l a p p e a r a n c e o f e a c h o f t h e F a t A l b e r t G a n g ' s c h a r a c t e r s . F o r t h i s , K e n M u n d i e r e l i e d o n a n i m a t o r A m b y P a l i w o d a , a f o r m e r D i s n e y a r t i s t . P a l i w o d a n o t o n l y c r e a t e d a l l t h e G a n g ' s c h a r a c t e r s , b u t p a i n t e d a " g r o u p p o r t r a i t " w h i c h w a s e v e n t u a l l y s h o w n o n t h e f r o n t p a g e o f " T V G u i d e " m a g a z i n e s h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e s h o w i n g o f t h e s p e c i a l . T h e p r o d u c e r s w a n t e d N B C t o b r i n g F a t A l b e r t t o S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g s , b u t t h e n e t w o r k p r o g r a m m i n g m a n a g e r s r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e s e r i e s w a s t o o e d u c a t i o n a l . B i l l C o s b y a n d a n e w p r o d u c t i o n c o m p a n y , F i l m a t i o n A s s o c i a t e s , t h e n t o o k t h e p r o p e r t y t o C B S . T h e F a t A l b e r t g a n g ' s c h a r a c t e r i m a g e s w e r e p r i m a r i l y c r e a t e d b y t h e a r t i s t R a n d y H o l l a r , w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f o n e - t i m e D i s n e y a n i m a t o r M i c h e l l e M c K i n n e y , u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f K e n B r o w n . R e t i t l e d " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " , t h e s e r i e s p r e m i e r e d o n S e p t e m b e r 9 , 1 9 7 2 , o n C B S . P r o d u c t i o n l a s t e d f o r 1 2 y e a r s , t h o u g h p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s w a s n o t c o n t i n u o u s . I t a l s o s p e n t a n o t h e r s e a s o n i n f i r s t - r u n s y n d i c a t i o n ( 1 9 8 4 – 8 5 ) . T h r e e p r i m e - t i m e h o l i d a y s p e c i a l s ( H a l l o w e e n , C h r i s t m a s , a n d E a s t e r ) f e a t u r i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r s w e r e a l s o p r o d u c e d . L i k e m o s t S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g c a r t o o n s o f t h e e r a , " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " c o n t a i n e d a n a d u l t l a u g h t r a c k , w h i c h w a s e l i m i n a t e d d u r i n g t h e f i n a l s e a s o n . T h e s e r i e s w a s r e r u n o n N B C S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g s a n d o n t h e U S A N e t w o r k i n 1 9 8 9 . O n J a n u a r y 1 5 , 2 0 1 3 , B i l l C o s b y p o s t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g o n h i s F a c e b o o k p a g e : " I ' m t e l l i n g y o u t h e r e a r e p e o p l e a t w o r k w h o , I t h i n k , w i l l m a k e F a t A l b e r t h a p p e n a g a i n . A n d i t w i l l b e l o v e d b y a l l g e n e r a t i o n s t o c o m e " , h i n t i n g t h a t t h e s e r i e s m i g h t b e b r o u g h t b a c k o n c e a g a i n . N o f u r t h e r w o r d h a s b e e n g i v e n y e t . L o u S c h e i m e r , E r i k a S c h e i m e r , K e i t h A l l e n , L a n e V a u x , P e p e B r o w n , D e m e n t r a M c H e n r y , E r i c S u t e r , a n d G e r a l d E d w a r d s p r o v i d e d a d d i t i o n a l v o i c e s . " F a t A l b e r t " w a s h o n o r e d a n d n o t e d f o r i t s e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t e n t , w h i c h i n c l u d e d C o s b y e a r n i n g a D o c t o r a t e i n E d u c a t i o n . I n e v e r y s h o w ' s o p e n i n g C o s b y w o u l d p l a y f u l l y w a r n : D u r i n g e a c h e p i s o d e , F a t A l b e r t a n d h i s f r i e n d s ( a k a T h e J u n k y a r d G a n g ) , d e a l t w i t h a n i s s u e o r p r o b l e m c o m m o n l y f a c e d b y c h i l d r e n , r a n g i n g f r o m s t a g e f r i g h t , f i r s t l o v e s , m e d i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , a n d p e r s o n a l h y g i e n e t o m o r e s e r i o u s t h e m e s ( t h o u g h t o n e d d o w n f o r y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n ) i n c l u d i n g v a n d a l i s m , s t e a l i n g , r a c i s m , r a p e , s m o k i n g , b e i n g s c a m m e d b y c o n a r t i s t s , s e x u a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d d i s e a s e s , c h i l d a b u s e , k i d n a p p i n g , d r u g u s e , g u n v i o l e n c e , a n d d e a t h . A t t h e e n d o f m o s t e p i s o d e s ( w i t h s o m e e x c e p t i o n s i n t h e c a s e o f p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s t h e m e s ) , t h e g a n g w o u l d s i n g a s o n g a b o u t t h e t h e m e o f t h e d a y . T h i s s e q u e n c e , s i m i l a r t o t h o s e s e e n i n o t h e r F i l m a t i o n s h o w s i n c l u d i n g " T h e A r c h i e S h o w " , h a s o f t e n b e e n p a r o d i e d . T h e m u s i c a l s e q u e n c e w a s d r o p p e d d u r i n g t h e " B r o w n H o r n e t " / " L e g a l E a g l e " y e a r s . T h e s e r i e s e n j o y e d o n e o f t h e l o n g e s t r u n s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g c a r t o o n s . I n 1 9 7 9 , t h e s h o w w a s r e - t i t l e d T h e N e w F a t A l b e r t S h o w a n d f e a t u r e d a n e w s e g m e n t t i t l e d " T h e B r o w n H o r n e t " d e t a i l i n g t h e a d v e n t u r e s o f a b l a c k c r i m e f i g h t e r i n o u t e r s p a c e w h o s e d e s i g n r e s e m b l e d a c a r i c a t u r e o f B i l l C o s b y , w h o a l s o p e r f o r m e d v o c a l t a l e n t s o n t h e c h a r a c t e r . I n 1 9 8 4 , t h e s h o w w a s s y n d i c a t e d a n d r e n a m e d T h e A d v e n t u r e s o f F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s . T h e l a c k o f n e t w o r k r e s t r i c t i o n s a l l o w e d t h e p r o d u c e r t o d e l v e i n t o m o r e m a t u r e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . A n o t a b l e e p i s o d e ( " B u s t e d " ) f e a t u r e d t h e k i d s h a v i n g a n i n a d v e r t e n t b r u s h w i t h t h e l a w a n d g i v e n a " S c a r e d S t r a i g h t ! " - s t y l e t o u r o f a n o c c u p i e d m a x i m u m s e c u r i t y p r i s o n ; i t e v e n c o n t a i n e d u t t e r a n c e s ( b y t h e j a i l ' s i n m a t e s ) o f t h e w o r d s " d a m n " a n d " b a s t a r d " ( C o s b y h a d a p p e a r e d i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e p i s o d e a d v i s i n g v i e w e r s t h a t t h o s e w o r d s w o u l d b e u s e d a s p a r t o f t h e s t o r y ' s d i a l o g u e t o r e a l i s t i c a l l y d e p i c t j a i l l i f e ) . A n o t h e r n o t a b l e e p i s o d e , " G a n g W a r s " , f e a t u r e d a c h i l d b e i n g s h o t a n d k i l l e d . A n o t h e r s e g m e n t w a s a d d e d : " L e g a l E a g l e " , a c r i m e - f i g h t i n g e a g l e w i t h a p a i r o f b u m b l i n g p o l i c e d e p u t y s q u i r r e l s . P r o d u c t i o n o f n e w e p i s o d e s c e a s e d i n 1 9 8 5 . T h e t h e m e s o n g , " G o n n a H a v e a G o o d T i m e " , w a s c o m p o s e d b y R i c k y S h e l d o n a n d E d w a r d F o u r n i e r , a n d p e r f o r m e d b y M i c h a e l G r a y ( v o c a l s ) , K i m C a r n e s ( b a c k g r o u n d v o c a l s ) a n d E d w a r d F o u r n i e r ( b a c k g r o u n d v o c a l s ) . A c o v e r o f t h e s h o w ' s t h e m e s o n g , p e r f o r m e d b y D i g , i s i n c l u d e d o n t h e 1 9 9 5 t r i b u t e a l b u m " S a t u r d a y M o r n i n g : C a r t o o n s ' G r e a t e s t H i t s " , p r o d u c e d b y R a l p h S a l l a n d r e l e a s e d o n M C A R e c o r d s . T h e s o n g ' s c h o r u s ( " N a - n a - n a , g o n n a h a v e a g o o d t i m e ! " ) w a s a l s o s a m p l e d i n F a t b o y S l i m ' s 1 9 9 8 h i t s i n g l e " P r a i s e Y o u " . " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " w a s n a m e d t h e 8 2 n d b e s t a n i m a t e d s e r i e s b y I G N . " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " r e c e i v e d a n E m m y n o m i n a t i o n i n 1 9 7 4 . P r o d u c t i o n o f t h e f i n a l s e a s o n o f t h e s e r i e s o v e r l a p p e d w i t h t h e s t a r t o f p r o d u c t i o n o f B i l l C o s b y ' s l i v e - a c t i o n s i t c o m , " T h e C o s b y S h o w " , w h i c h b e g a n a i r i n g o n N B C i n f a l l 1 9 8 4 . I n 1 9 9 3 , " T V G u i d e " m a g a z i n e n a m e d " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " t h e b e s t c a r t o o n s e r i e s o f t h e 1 9 7 0 s i n i t s i s s u e c e l e b r a t i n g 4 0 y e a r s o f t e l e v i s i o n . I n 2 0 0 2 , F a t A l b e r t w a s p l a c e d a t n u m b e r 1 2 o n T V G u i d e ' s l i s t o f t h e 5 0 G r e a t e s t C a r t o o n C h a r a c t e r s o f A l l T i m e . I n 2 0 2 0 , J o y c e S l a t o n o f C o m m o n S e n s e M e d i a a r g u e d t h a t t h e s e r i e s i s a n " o l d - s c h o o l c a r t o o n . . . [ w i t h ] s t r o n g p o s i t i v e m e s s a g e s . " S h e n o t e d t h a t w h i l e t h e s h o w ' s t h e m e s l i k e k i d n a p p i n g , r a c i s m , a n d c h i l d a b u s e m a y c a u s e p a r e n t s t o b e c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e i s " f r e s h h u m o r , f u n k y m u s i c , a n d t h e s t r o n g p o s i t i v e m e s s a g e s " . A s o f 2 0 1 3 , " F a t A l b e r t " w a s s e e n S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g s o n R e t r o T e l e v i s i o n N e t w o r k ( R T V ) , T h e C o o l T V , a n d w e e k d a y s a n d w e e k e n d s o n B o u n c e T V , b o t h o f w h i c h a r e d i g i t a l n e t w o r k s . I t w a s a l s o s e e n w e e k d a y s o n t h e n o w - d e f u n c t S k y A n g e l s e r v i c e s A n g e l T w o a n d K i d s & T e e n s T V , a s w e l l a s W o r l d H a r v e s t T e l e v i s i o n . " F a t A l b e r t " w a s a l s o a v a i l a b l e s t r e a m i n g o n l i n e f r o m H a l l m a r k S p i r i t C l i p s . c o m . A s o f J u l y 2 0 1 5 , " F a t A l b e r t " w a s n o l o n g e r o n B o u n c e T V ' s l i n e u p . B o u n c e T V h a d p r e v i o u s l y p u l l e d t h e c o m e d y s e r i e s " C o s b y " f r o m t h e i r l i n e u p i n t h e w a k e o f t h e B i l l C o s b y s e x u a l a s s a u l t a l l e g a t i o n s , b u t i t i s u n c l e a r i f t h e c a n c e l a t i o n s o f t h e " F a t A l b e r t " e p i s o d e s w a s r e l a t e d t o t h e s e a l l e g a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , s e v e r a l m o n t h s a f t e r r e t u r n i n g r e r u n s o f " T h e C o s b y S h o w " i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , B o u n c e T V q u i e t l y r e - a d d e d " F a t A l b e r t " t o i t s s c h e d u l e i n M a r c h 2 0 1 7 , u n t i l i t w a s e v e n t u a l l y r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s c h e d u l e a g a i n i n l a t e A p r i l 2 0 1 8 . D u r i n g t h e m i d - 1 9 8 0 s , T h o r n E M I V i d e o r e l e a s e d s e v e r a l v o l u m e s o f " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " o n V H S a s p a r t o f t h e i r " C h i l d r e n ' s M a t i n e e " l i n e o f a n i m a t e d p r o g r a m s , w i t h e a c h c a s s e t t e t y p i c a l l y c o n t a i n i n g t h r e e e p i s o d e s . A d d i t i o n a l v o l u m e s w e r e r e l e a s e d l a t e r i n t h e d e c a d e b y V i d e o T r e a s u r e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e t h r e e h o l i d a y s p e c i a l s . I n 2 0 0 4 , U r b a n W o r k s E n t e r t a i n m e n t a c q u i r e d t h e r i g h t s t o t h e s e r i e s , s u b s e q u e n t l y r e l e a s i n g s e v e r a l " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " D V D s i n c l u d i n g a t w o - v o l u m e c o l l e c t i o n f e a t u r i n g 2 4 e p i s o d e s , a s w e l l a s a l l s p e c i a l s t o c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e t h e a t r i c a l r e l e a s e o f t h e f e a t u r e f i l m a d a p t a t i o n . V o l u m e 1 c o n t a i n s t w o D V D s w i t h e p i s o d e s 1 – 1 2 ( a i r d a t e s 9 / 9 – 1 1 / 2 5 / 1 9 7 2 ) , a l o n g w i t h a C D c o n t a i n i n g t h e o p e n i n g t h e m e , t h e c l o s i n g t h e m e , a n d 1 2 s o n g s f r o m e a c h o f t h e 1 2 e p i s o d e s s h o w n i n v o l . 1 V o l u m e 2 c o n t a i n s t w o d i s c s w i t h e p i s o d e s 1 3 – 2 4 ( a i r d a t e s 1 2 / 2 / 1 9 7 2 – 9 / 1 3 / 1 9 7 5 ) , a l o n g w i t h a C D c o n t a i n i n g t h e o p e n i n g t h e m e , t h e c l o s i n g t h e m e , a n d 1 2 s o n g s f r o m e a c h o f t h e 1 2 e p i s o d e s s h o w n i n v o l . 2 . I n a d d i t i o n , U r b a n W o r k s E n t e r t a i n m e n t r e l e a s e d a G r e a t e s t H i t s f o u r - d i s c D V D b o x s e t , c o n t a i n i n g 2 0 u n c u t e p i s o d e s i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l b r o a d c a s t p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d o r i g i n a l a i r d a t e o r d e r , a s w e l l a s a f i v e - b e s t e p i s o d e s s e t v i a " V e n t u r a D i s t r i b u t i o n " . I n 2 0 0 8 , C l a s s i c M e d i a a c q u i r e d t h e r i g h t s t o t h e s e r i e s a n d s t a t e d a t t h e t i m e t h a t t h e y i n t e n d e d t o r e l e a s e t h e e n t i r e s e r i e s o n D V D . T h i s n e v e r h a p p e n e d a s t h e y o n l y r e - r e l e a s e d " T h e F a t A l b e r t H a l l o w e e n S p e c i a l " a n d " T h e F a t A l b e r t E a s t e r S p e c i a l " o n D V D v i a d i s t r i b u t i o n p a r t n e r G e n i u s P r o d u c t s . O n A p r i l 6 , 2 0 1 2 , i t w a s a n n o u n c e d t h a t S h o u t ! F a c t o r y h a d a c q u i r e d t h e r i g h t s t o t h e s e r i e s ( u n d e r l i c e n s e f r o m C l a s s i c M e d i a ) a n d p l a n n e d t o r e l e a s e a c o m p l e t e s e r i e s b o x s e t o n D V D . T h e D V D s e t w a s r e l e a s e d o n J u n e 2 5 , 2 0 1 3 . O n S e p t e m b e r 4 , 2 0 1 2 , C l a s s i c M e d i a r e - r e l e a s e d a l l t h r e e h o l i d a y s p e c i a l s t o g e t h e r i n o n e c o l l e c t i o n e n t i t l e d " T h e H e y H e y H e y H o l i d a y C o l l e c t i o n " o n D V D i n R e g i o n 1 . G o l d K e y C o m i c s d i d a c o m i c b o o k a d a p t a t i o n o f F a t A l b e r t , w h i c h r a n f o r 2 9 i s s u e s , f r o m 1 9 7 4 t o 1 9 7 9 . I n 2 0 0 4 , 2 0 t h C e n t u r y F o x r e l e a s e d a f i l m a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s t i t l e d " F a t A l b e r t " . T h e f i l m s t a r s K e n a n T h o m p s o n a s F a t A l b e r t , K y l a P r a t t , a n d B i l l C o s b y . T h e f i l m a c t s a s a s e q u e l t o t h e s e r i e s w h e r e F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e b o y s j o u r n e y i n t o t h e r e a l w o r l d a f t e r j u m p i n g o u t o f a t e l e v i s i o n i n o r d e r t o h e l p a l o n e l y g i r l n a m e d D o r i s ( K y l a P r a t t ) w i t h h e r s o c i a l a n x i e t y . T h e b o y s e n j o y b e i n g i n t h e r e a l w o r l d b u t a f t e r a m e e t i n g w i t h t h e i r c r e a t o r , B i l l C o s b y , F a t A l b e r t i s i n f o r m e d t h a t i f h e a n d t h e o t h e r s d o n o t r e t u r n t o t h e t e l e v i s i o n w o r l d i m m e d i a t e l y , t h e y w i l l t u r n i n t o c e l l u l o i d d u s t .

Origins and history

Fat Albert is a beloved cartoon character created by comedian Bill Cosby. The character originated in Cosby's stand-up comedy routine "Buck Buck" in 1967 and was developed into an animated special in 1969. The special was a hybrid of live-action and animation, featuring a group of kids from North Philadelphia, led by Fat Albert, who get into humorous misadventures. The success of the special led to a long-running animated series, "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids," which aired on CBS from 1972 to 1985. The show was known for its positive messages, funky music, and humor. Over the years, the show has been praised for its impact on children's television and has been recognized as one of the greatest cartoon characters of all time.

The character Fat Albert first appeared in Bill Cosby's stand-up comedy routine "Buck Buck," as recorded on his 1967 album "Revenge". The stories were based upon Cosby's tales about growing up in inner city North Philadelphia. In 1969, Cosby and veteran animator Ken Mundie brought Fat Albert to animation in a prime-time special entitled "Hey, Hey, Hey, It's Fat Albert". The special, which aired on NBC, was a hybrid of live action and animation. The music for the special was written and performed by jazz pianist/keyboardist Herbie Hancock in 1969 and was released on the Warner Bros. album "Fat Albert Rotunda". For the animated portion of the special, it was necessary to develop the actual appearance of each of the Fat Albert Gang's characters. For this, Ken Mundie relied on animator Amby Paliwoda, a former Disney artist. Paliwoda not only created all the Gang's characters, but painted a "group portrait" which was eventually shown on the front page of "TV Guide" magazine shortly before the showing of the special. The producers wanted NBC to bring Fat Albert to Saturday mornings, but the network programming managers rejected because the series was too educational. Bill Cosby and a new production company, Filmation Associates, then took the property to CBS. The Fat Albert gang's character images were primarily created by the artist Randy Hollar, with the assistance of one-time Disney animator Michelle McKinney, under the direction of Ken Brown. Retitled "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids", the series premiered on September 9, 1972, on CBS. Production lasted for 12 years, though production of the series was not continuous. It also spent another season in first-run syndication (1984–85). Three prime-time holiday specials (Halloween, Christmas, and Easter) featuring the characters were also produced. Like most Saturday morning cartoons of the era, "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids" contained an adult laugh track, which was eliminated during the final season. The series was rerun on NBC Saturday mornings and on the USA Network in 1989. On January 15, 2013, Bill Cosby posted the following on his Facebook page: "I'm telling you there are people at work who, I think, will make Fat Albert happen again. And it will be loved by all generations to come", hinting that the series might be brought back once again. No further word has been magazine named "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids" the best cartoon series of the 1970s in its issue celebrating 40 years of television. In 2002, Fat Albert was placed at number 12 on TV Guide's list of the 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time. In 2020, Joyce Slaton of Common Sense Media argued that the series is an "old-school cartoon... [with] strong positive messages." She noted that while the show's themes like kidnapping, racism, and child abuse may cause parents to be concerned, there is "fresh humor, funky music, and the strong positive messages". As of 2013, "Fat Albert" was seen Saturday mornings on Retro Television Network (RTV), TheCoolTV, and weekdays and weekends on Bounce TV, both of which are digital networks. It was also seen weekdays on the now-defunct Sky Angel services Angel Two and Kids & Teens TV, as well as World Harvest Television. "Fat Albert" was also available streaming online from HallmarkSpiritClips.com. As of July 2015, "Fat Albert" was no longer on Bounce TV's lineup. Bounce TV had previously pulled the comedy series "Cosby" from their lineup in the wake of the Bill Cosby sexual assault allegations, but it is unclear if the cancelations of the "Fat Albert" episodes was related to these allegations. However, several months after returning reruns of "The Cosby Show" in December 2016, Bounce TV quietly re-added "Fat Albert" to its schedule in March 2017, until it was eventually removed from the schedule again in late April 2018. During the mid-1980s, Thorn EMI Video released several volumes of "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids" on VHS as part of their "Children's Matinee" line of animated programs, with each cassette typically containing three episodes. Additional volumes were released later in the decade by Video Treasures, including the three holiday specials. In 2004, UrbanWorks Entertainment acquired the rights to the series, subsequently releasing several "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids" DVDs including a two-volume collection featuring 24 episodes, as well as all specials to coincide with the theatrical release of the feature film adaptation. Volume 1 contains two DVDs with episodes 1–12 (airdates 9/9–11/25/1972), along with a CD containing the opening theme, the closing theme, and 12 songs from each of the 12 episodes shown in vol. 1 Volume 2 contains two discs with episodes 13–24 (airdates 12/2/1972–9/13/1975), along with a CD containing the opening theme, the closing theme, and 12 songs from each of the 12 episodes shown in vol. 2. In addition, UrbanWorks Entertainment released a Greatest Hits four-disc DVD box set, containing 20 uncut episodes in their original broadcast presentation and original airdate order, as well as a five-best episodes set via "Ventura Distribution". In 2008, Classic Media acquired the rights to the series and stated at the time that they intended to release the entire series on DVD. This never happened as they only re-released "The Fat Albert Halloween Special" and "The Fat Albert Easter Special" on DVD via distribution partner Genius Products. On April 6, 2012, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series (under license a lonely girl named Doris (Kyla Pratt) with her social anxiety. The boys enjoy being in the real world but after a meeting with their creator, Bill Cosby, Fat Albert is informed that if he and the others do not return to the television world immediately, they will turn into celluloid dust.

Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids

T h e c h a r a c t e r F a t A l b e r t f i r s t a p p e a r e d i n B i l l C o s b y ' s s t a n d - u p c o m e d y r o u t i n e " B u c k B u c k , " a s r e c o r d e d o n h i s 1 9 6 7 a l b u m " R e v e n g e " . T h e s t o r i e s w e r e b a s e d u p o n C o s b y ' s t a l e s a b o u t g r o w i n g u p i n i n n e r c i t y N o r t h P h i l a d e l p h i a . I n 1 9 6 9 , C o s b y a n d v e t e r a n a n i m a t o r K e n M u n d i e b r o u g h t F a t A l b e r t t o a n i m a t i o n i n a p r i m e - t i m e s p e c i a l e n t i t l e d " H e y , H e y , H e y , I t ' s F a t A l b e r t " . T h e s p e c i a l , w h i c h a i r e d o n N B C , w a s a h y b r i d o f l i v e a c t i o n a n d a n i m a t i o n . T h e m u s i c f o r t h e s p e c i a l w a s w r i t t e n a n d p e r f o r m e d b y j a z z p i a n i s t / k e y b o a r d i s t H e r b i e H a n c o c k i n 1 9 6 9 a n d w a s r e l e a s e d o n t h e W a r n e r B r o s . a l b u m " F a t A l b e r t R o t u n d a " . F o r t h e a n i m a t e d p o r t i o n o f t h e s p e c i a l , i t w a s n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p t h e a c t u a l a p p e a r a n c e o f e a c h o f t h e F a t A l b e r t G a n g ' s c h a r a c t e r s . F o r t h i s , K e n M u n d i e r e l i e d o n a n i m a t o r A m b y P a l i w o d a , a f o r m e r D i s n e y a r t i s t . P a l i w o d a n o t o n l y c r e a t e d a l l t h e G a n g ' s c h a r a c t e r s , b u t p a i n t e d a " g r o u p p o r t r a i t " w h i c h w a s e v e n t u a l l y s h o w n o n t h e f r o n t p a g e o f " T V G u i d e " m a g a z i n e s h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e s h o w i n g o f t h e s p e c i a l . T h e p r o d u c e r s w a n t e d N B C t o b r i n g F a t A l b e r t t o S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g s , b u t t h e n e t w o r k p r o g r a m m i n g m a n a g e r s r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e s e r i e s w a s t o o e d u c a t i o n a l . B i l l C o s b y a n d a n e w p r o d u c t i o n c o m p a n y , F i l m a t i o n A s s o c i a t e s , t h e n t o o k t h e p r o p e r t y t o C B S . T h e F a t A l b e r t g a n g ' s c h a r a c t e r i m a g e s w e r e p r i m a r i l y c r e a t e d b y t h e a r t i s t R a n d y H o l l a r , w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f o n e - t i m e D i s n e y a n i m a t o r M i c h e l l e M c K i n n e y , u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f K e n B r o w n . R e t i t l e d " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " , t h e s e r i e s p r e m i e r e d o n S e p t e m b e r 9 , 1 9 7 2 , o n C B S . P r o d u c t i o n l a s t e d f o r 1 2 y e a r s , t h o u g h p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s w a s n o t c o n t i n u o u s . I t a l s o s p e n t a n o t h e r s e a s o n i n f i r s t - r u n s y n d i c a t i o n ( 1 9 8 4 – 8 5 ) . T h r e e p r i m e - t i m e h o l i d a y s p e c i a l s ( H a l l o w e e n , C h r i s t m a s , a n d E a s t e r ) f e a t u r i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r s w e r e a l s o p r o d u c e d . L i k e m o s t S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g c a r t o o n s o f t h e e r a , " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " c o n t a i n e d a n a d u l t l a u g h t r a c k , w h i c h w a s e l i m i n a t e d d u r i n g t h e f i n a l s e a s o n . T h e s e r i e s w a s r e r u n o n N B C S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g s a n d o n t h e U S A N e t w o r k i n 1 9 8 9 . O n J a n u a r y 1 5 , 2 0 1 3 , B i l l C o s b y p o s t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g o n h i s F a c e b o o k p a g e : " I ' m t e l l i n g y o u t h e r e a r e p e o p l e a t w o r k w h o , I t h i n k , w i l l m a k e F a t A l b e r t h a p p e n a g a i n . A n d i t w i l l b e l o v e d b y a l l g e n e r a t i o n s t o c o m e " , h i n t i n g t h a t t h e s e r i e s m i g h t b e b r o u g h t b a c k o n c e a g a i n . N o f u r t h e r w o r d h a s b e e n g i v e n y e t . L o u S c h e i m e r , E r i k a S c h e i m e r , K e i t h A l l e n , L a n e V a u x , P e p e B r o w n , D e m e n t r a M c H e n r y , E r i c S u t e r , a n d G e r a l d E d w a r d s p r o v i d e d a d d i t i o n a l v o i c e s . " F a t A l b e r t " w a s h o n o r e d a n d n o t e d f o r i t s e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t e n t , w h i c h i n c l u d e d C o s b y e a r n i n g a D o c t o r a t e i n E d u c a t i o n . I n e v e r y s h o w ' s o p e n i n g C o s b y w o u l d p l a y f u l l y w a r n : D u r i n g e a c h e p i s o d e , F a t A l b e r t a n d h i s f r i e n d s ( a k a T h e J u n k y a r d G a n g ) , d e a l t w i t h a n i s s u e o r p r o b l e m c o m m o n l y f a c e d b y c h i l d r e n , r a n g i n g f r o m s t a g e f r i g h t , f i r s t l o v e s , m e d i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , a n d p e r s o n a l h y g i e n e t o m o r e s e r i o u s t h e m e s ( t h o u g h t o n e d d o w n f o r y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n ) i n c l u d i n g v a n d a l i s m , s t e a l i n g , r a c i s m , r a p e , s m o k i n g , b e i n g s c a m m e d b y c o n a r t i s t s , s e x u a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d d i s e a s e s , c h i l d a b u s e , k i d n a p p i n g , d r u g u s e , g u n v i o l e n c e , a n d d e a t h . A t t h e e n d o f m o s t e p i s o d e s ( w i t h s o m e e x c e p t i o n s i n t h e c a s e o f p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s t h e m e s ) , t h e g a n g w o u l d s i n g a s o n g a b o u t t h e t h e m e o f t h e d a y . T h i s s e q u e n c e , s i m i l a r t o t h o s e s e e n i n o t h e r F i l m a t i o n s h o w s i n c l u d i n g " T h e A r c h i e S h o w " , h a s o f t e n b e e n p a r o d i e d . T h e m u s i c a l s e q u e n c e w a s d r o p p e d d u r i n g t h e " B r o w n H o r n e t " / " L e g a l E a g l e " y e a r s . T h e s e r i e s e n j o y e d o n e o f t h e l o n g e s t r u n s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g c a r t o o n s . I n 1 9 7 9 , t h e s h o w w a s r e - t i t l e d T h e N e w F a t A l b e r t S h o w a n d f e a t u r e d a n e w s e g m e n t t i t l e d " T h e B r o w n H o r n e t " d e t a i l i n g t h e a d v e n t u r e s o f a b l a c k c r i m e f i g h t e r i n o u t e r s p a c e w h o s e d e s i g n r e s e m b l e d a c a r i c a t u r e o f B i l l C o s b y , w h o a l s o p e r f o r m e d v o c a l t a l e n t s o n t h e c h a r a c t e r . I n 1 9 8 4 , t h e s h o w w a s s y n d i c a t e d a n d r e n a m e d T h e A d v e n t u r e s o f F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s . T h e l a c k o f n e t w o r k r e s t r i c t i o n s a l l o w e d t h e p r o d u c e r t o d e l v e i n t o m o r e m a t u r e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . A n o t a b l e e p i s o d e ( " B u s t e d " ) f e a t u r e d t h e k i d s h a v i n g a n i n a d v e r t e n t b r u s h w i t h t h e l a w a n d g i v e n a " S c a r e d S t r a i g h t ! " - s t y l e t o u r o f a n o c c u p i e d m a x i m u m s e c u r i t y p r i s o n ; i t e v e n c o n t a i n e d u t t e r a n c e s ( b y t h e j a i l ' s i n m a t e s ) o f t h e w o r d s " d a m n " a n d " b a s t a r d " ( C o s b y h a d a p p e a r e d i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e p i s o d e a d v i s i n g v i e w e r s t h a t t h o s e w o r d s w o u l d b e u s e d a s p a r t o f t h e s t o r y ' s d i a l o g u e t o r e a l i s t i c a l l y d e p i c t j a i l l i f e ) . A n o t h e r n o t a b l e e p i s o d e , " G a n g W a r s " , f e a t u r e d a c h i l d b e i n g s h o t a n d k i l l e d . A n o t h e r s e g m e n t w a s a d d e d : " L e g a l E a g l e " , a c r i m e - f i g h t i n g e a g l e w i t h a p a i r o f b u m b l i n g p o l i c e d e p u t y s q u i r r e l s . P r o d u c t i o n o f n e w e p i s o d e s c e a s e d i n 1 9 8 5 . T h e t h e m e s o n g , " G o n n a H a v e a G o o d T i m e " , w a s c o m p o s e d b y R i c k y S h e l d o n a n d E d w a r d F o u r n i e r , a n d p e r f o r m e d b y M i c h a e l G r a y ( v o c a l s ) , K i m C a r n e s ( b a c k g r o u n d v o c a l s ) a n d E d w a r d F o u r n i e r ( b a c k g r o u n d v o c a l s ) . A c o v e r o f t h e s h o w ' s t h e m e s o n g , p e r f o r m e d b y D i g , i s i n c l u d e d o n t h e 1 9 9 5 t r i b u t e a l b u m " S a t u r d a y M o r n i n g : C a r t o o n s ' G r e a t e s t H i t s " , p r o d u c e d b y R a l p h S a l l a n d r e l e a s e d o n M C A R e c o r d s . T h e s o n g ' s c h o r u s ( " N a - n a - n a , g o n n a h a v e a g o o d t i m e ! " ) w a s a l s o s a m p l e d i n F a t b o y S l i m ' s 1 9 9 8 h i t s i n g l e " P r a i s e Y o u " . " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " w a s n a m e d t h e 8 2 n d b e s t a n i m a t e d s e r i e s b y I G N . " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " r e c e i v e d a n E m m y n o m i n a t i o n i n 1 9 7 4 . P r o d u c t i o n o f t h e f i n a l s e a s o n o f t h e s e r i e s o v e r l a p p e d w i t h t h e s t a r t o f p r o d u c t i o n o f B i l l C o s b y ' s l i v e - a c t i o n s i t c o m , " T h e C o s b y S h o w " , w h i c h b e g a n a i r i n g o n N B C i n f a l l 1 9 8 4 . I n 1 9 9 3 , " T V G u i d e " m a g a z i n e n a m e d " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " t h e b e s t c a r t o o n s e r i e s o f t h e 1 9 7 0 s i n i t s i s s u e c e l e b r a t i n g 4 0 y e a r s o f t e l e v i s i o n . I n 2 0 0 2 , F a t A l b e r t w a s p l a c e d a t n u m b e r 1 2 o n T V G u i d e ' s l i s t o f t h e 5 0 G r e a t e s t C a r t o o n C h a r a c t e r s o f A l l T i m e . I n 2 0 2 0 , J o y c e S l a t o n o f C o m m o n S e n s e M e d i a a r g u e d t h a t t h e s e r i e s i s a n " o l d - s c h o o l c a r t o o n . . . [ w i t h ] s t r o n g p o s i t i v e m e s s a g e s . " S h e n o t e d t h a t w h i l e t h e s h o w ' s t h e m e s l i k e k i d n a p p i n g , r a c i s m , a n d c h i l d a b u s e m a y c a u s e p a r e n t s t o b e c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e i s " f r e s h h u m o r , f u n k y m u s i c , a n d t h e s t r o n g p o s i t i v e m e s s a g e s " . A s o f 2 0 1 3 , " F a t A l b e r t " w a s s e e n S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g s o n R e t r o T e l e v i s i o n N e t w o r k ( R T V ) , T h e C o o l T V , a n d w e e k d a y s a n d w e e k e n d s o n B o u n c e T V , b o t h o f w h i c h a r e d i g i t a l n e t w o r k s . I t w a s a l s o s e e n w e e k d a y s o n t h e n o w - d e f u n c t S k y A n g e l s e r v i c e s A n g e l T w o a n d K i d s & T e e n s T V , a s w e l l a s W o r l d H a r v e s t T e l e v i s i o n . " F a t A l b e r t " w a s a l s o a v a i l a b l e s t r e a m i n g o n l i n e f r o m H a l l m a r k S p i r i t C l i p s . c o m . A s o f J u l y 2 0 1 5 , " F a t A l b e r t " w a s n o l o n g e r o n B o u n c e T V ' s l i n e u p . B o u n c e T V h a d p r e v i o u s l y p u l l e d t h e c o m e d y s e r i e s " C o s b y " f r o m t h e i r l i n e u p i n t h e w a k e o f t h e B i l l C o s b y s e x u a l a s s a u l t a l l e g a t i o n s , b u t i t i s u n c l e a r i f t h e c a n c e l a t i o n s o f t h e " F a t A l b e r t " e p i s o d e s w a s r e l a t e d t o t h e s e a l l e g a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , s e v e r a l m o n t h s a f t e r r e t u r n i n g r e r u n s o f " T h e C o s b y S h o w " i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , B o u n c e T V q u i e t l y r e - a d d e d " F a t A l b e r t " t o i t s s c h e d u l e i n M a r c h 2 0 1 7 , u n t i l i t w a s e v e n t u a l l y r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s c h e d u l e a g a i n i n l a t e A p r i l 2 0 1 8 . D u r i n g t h e m i d - 1 9 8 0 s , T h o r n E M I V i d e o r e l e a s e d s e v e r a l v o l u m e s o f " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " o n V H S a s p a r t o f t h e i r " C h i l d r e n ' s M a t i n e e " l i n e o f a n i m a t e d p r o g r a m s , w i t h e a c h c a s s e t t e t y p i c a l l y c o n t a i n i n g t h r e e e p i s o d e s . A d d i t i o n a l v o l u m e s w e r e r e l e a s e d l a t e r i n t h e d e c a d e b y V i d e o T r e a s u r e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e t h r e e h o l i d a y s p e c i a l s . I n 2 0 0 4 , U r b a n W o r k s E n t e r t a i n m e n t a c q u i r e d t h e r i g h t s t o t h e s e r i e s , s u b s e q u e n t l y r e l e a s i n g s e v e r a l " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " D V D s i n c l u d i n g a t w o - v o l u m e c o l l e c t i o n f e a t u r i n g 2 4 e p i s o d e s , a s w e l l a s a l l s p e c i a l s t o c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e t h e a t r i c a l r e l e a s e o f t h e f e a t u r e f i l m a d a p t a t i o n . V o l u m e 1 c o n t a i n s t w o D V D s w i t h e p i s o d e s 1 – 1 2 ( a i r d a t e s 9 / 9 – 1 1 / 2 5 / 1 9 7 2 ) , a l o n g w i t h a C D c o n t a i n i n g t h e o p e n i n g t h e m e , t h e c l o s i n g t h e m e , a n d 1 2 s o n g s f r o m e a c h o f t h e 1 2 e p i s o d e s s h o w n i n v o l . 1 V o l u m e 2 c o n t a i n s t w o d i s c s w i t h e p i s o d e s 1 3 – 2 4 ( a i r d a t e s 1 2 / 2 / 1 9 7 2 – 9 / 1 3 / 1 9 7 5 ) , a l o n g w i t h a C D c o n t a i n i n g t h e o p e n i n g t h e m e , t h e c l o s i n g t h e m e , a n d 1 2 s o n g s f r o m e a c h o f t h e 1 2 e p i s o d e s s h o w n i n v o l . 2 . I n a d d i t i o n , U r b a n W o r k s E n t e r t a i n m e n t r e l e a s e d a G r e a t e s t H i t s f o u r - d i s c D V D b o x s e t , c o n t a i n i n g 2 0 u n c u t e p i s o d e s i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l b r o a d c a s t p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d o r i g i n a l a i r d a t e o r d e r , a s w e l l a s a f i v e - b e s t e p i s o d e s s e t v i a " V e n t u r a D i s t r i b u t i o n " . I n 2 0 0 8 , C l a s s i c M e d i a a c q u i r e d t h e r i g h t s t o t h e s e r i e s a n d s t a t e d a t t h e t i m e t h a t t h e y i n t e n d e d t o r e l e a s e t h e e n t i r e s e r i e s o n D V D . T h i s n e v e r h a p p e n e d a s t h e y o n l y r e - r e l e a s e d " T h e F a t A l b e r t H a l l o w e e n S p e c i a l " a n d " T h e F a t A l b e r t E a s t e r S p e c i a l " o n D V D v i a d i s t r i b u t i o n p a r t n e r G e n i u s P r o d u c t s . O n A p r i l 6 , 2 0 1 2 , i t w a s a n n o u n c e d t h a t S h o u t ! F a c t o r y h a d a c q u i r e d t h e r i g h t s t o t h e s e r i e s ( u n d e r l i c e n s e f r o m C l a s s i c M e d i a ) a n d p l a n n e d t o r e l e a s e a c o m p l e t e s e r i e s b o x s e t o n D V D . T h e D V D s e t w a s r e l e a s e d o n J u n e 2 5 , 2 0 1 3 . O n S e p t e m b e r 4 , 2 0 1 2 , C l a s s i c M e d i a r e - r e l e a s e d a l l t h r e e h o l i d a y s p e c i a l s t o g e t h e r i n o n e c o l l e c t i o n e n t i t l e d " T h e H e y H e y H e y H o l i d a y C o l l e c t i o n " o n D V D i n R e g i o n 1 . G o l d K e y C o m i c s d i d a c o m i c b o o k a d a p t a t i o n o f F a t A l b e r t , w h i c h r a n f o r 2 9 i s s u e s , f r o m 1 9 7 4 t o 1 9 7 9 . I n 2 0 0 4 , 2 0 t h C e n t u r y F o x r e l e a s e d a f i l m a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s t i t l e d " F a t A l b e r t " . T h e f i l m s t a r s K e n a n T h o m p s o n a s F a t A l b e r t , K y l a P r a t t , a n d B i l l C o s b y . T h e f i l m a c t s a s a s e q u e l t o t h e s e r i e s w h e r e F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e b o y s j o u r n e y i n t o t h e r e a l w o r l d a f t e r j u m p i n g o u t o f a t e l e v i s i o n i n o r d e r t o h e l p a l o n e l y g i r l n a m e d D o r i s ( K y l a P r a t t ) w i t h h e r s o c i a l a n x i e t y . T h e b o y s e n j o y b e i n g i n t h e r e a l w o r l d b u t a f t e r a m e e t i n g w i t h t h e i r c r e a t o r , B i l l C o s b y , F a t A l b e r t i s i n f o r m e d t h a t i f h e a n d t h e o t h e r s d o n o t r e t u r n t o t h e t e l e v i s i o n w o r l d i m m e d i a t e l y , t h e y w i l l t u r n i n t o c e l l u l o i d d u s t .

Revamps and renames

Here is a concise summary focusing on the revamps and renames for "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids": * 1979: Renamed "The New Fat Albert Show" with the addition of "The Brown Hornet" segment. * 1984: Syndicated and renamed "The Adventures of Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids", allowing for more mature subject matter.

years, though production of the series was not continuous. It also spent another season in first-run syndication (1984–85). Three prime-time holiday specials (Halloween, Christmas, and Easter) featuring the characters were also produced. Like most Saturday morning cartoons of the era, "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids" contained an adult laugh track, which was eliminated during the final season. The series was rerun on NBC Saturday mornings and on the USA Network in 1989. On January 15, 2013, Bill Cosby posted the following on his Facebook page: "I'm telling you there are people at work who, I think, will make Fat Albert happen again. And it will be loved by all generations to come", hinting that the series might be brought back once again. No further word has been given yet. Lou Scheimer, Erika Scheimer, Keith Allen, Lane Vaux, Pepe Brown, Dementra McHenry, Eric Suter, and Gerald Edwards provided additional voices. "Fat Albert" was honored and noted for its educational content, which included Cosby earning a Doctorate in Education. In every show's opening Cosby would playfully warn: During each episode, Fat Albert and his friends (aka The Junkyard Gang), dealt with an issue or problem commonly faced by children, ranging from stage fright, first loves, medical operations, and personal hygiene to more serious themes (though toned down for younger children) including vandalism, stealing, racism, rape, smoking, being scammed by con artists, sexually transmitted diseases, child abuse, kidnapping, drug use, gun violence, and death. At the end of most episodes (with some exceptions in the case of particularly serious themes), the gang would sing a song about the theme of the day. This sequence, similar to those seen in other Filmation shows including "The Archie Show", has often been parodied. The musical sequence was dropped during the "Brown Hornet"/"Legal Eagle" years. The series enjoyed one of the longest runs in the history of Saturday morning cartoons. In 1979, the show was re-titled The New Fat Albert Show and featured a new segment titled "The Brown Hornet" detailing the adventures of a black crime fighter in outer space whose design resembled a caricature of Bill Cosby, who also performed vocal talents on the character. In 1984, the show was syndicated and renamed The Adventures of Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids. The lack of network restrictions allowed the producer to delve into more mature subject matter. A notable episode ("Busted") featured the kids having an inadvertent brush with the law and given a "Scared Straight!"-style tour of an occupied maximum security prison; it even contained utterances (by the jail's inmates) of the words "damn" and "bastard" (Cosby had appeared in the beginning of the episode advising viewers that those words would be used as part of the story's dialogue to realistically depict jail life). Another notable episode, "Gang Wars", featured a child being shot and killed. Another segment was added: "Legal Eagle", a crime-fighting eagle with a pair of bumbling police deputy squirrels. Production of new episodes ceased in 1985. The theme song, "Gonna Have a Good Time", was composed by Ricky Sheldon and Edward magazine named "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids" the best cartoon series of the 1970s in its issue celebrating 40 years of television. In 2002, Fat Albert was placed at number 12 on TV Guide's list of the 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time. In 2020, Joyce Slaton of Common Sense Media argued that the series is an "old-school cartoon... [with] strong positive messages." She noted that while the show's themes like kidnapping, racism, and child abuse may cause parents to be concerned, there is "fresh humor, funky music, and the strong positive messages". As of 2013, "Fat Albert" was seen Saturday mornings on Retro Television Network (RTV), TheCoolTV, and weekdays and weekends on Bounce TV, both of which are digital networks. It was also seen weekdays on the now-defunct Sky Angel services Angel Two and Kids & Teens TV, as well as World Harvest Television. "Fat Albert" was also available streaming online from HallmarkSpiritClips.com. As of July 2015, "Fat Albert" was no longer on Bounce TV's lineup. Bounce TV had previously pulled the comedy series "Cosby" from their lineup in the wake of the Bill Cosby sexual assault allegations, but it is unclear if the cancelations of the "Fat Albert" episodes was related to these allegations. However, several months after returning reruns of "The Cosby Show" in December 2016, Bounce TV quietly re-added "Fat Albert" to its schedule in March 2017, until it was eventually removed from the schedule again in late April 2018. During the mid-1980s, Thorn EMI Video released several volumes of along with a CD containing the opening theme, the closing theme, and 12 songs from each of the 12 episodes shown in vol. 2. In addition, UrbanWorks Entertainment released a Greatest Hits four-disc DVD box set, containing 20 uncut episodes in their original broadcast presentation and original airdate order, as well as a five-best episodes set via "Ventura Distribution". In 2008, Classic Media acquired the rights to the series and stated at the time that they intended to release the entire series on DVD. This never happened as they only re-released "The Fat Albert Halloween Special" and "The Fat Albert Easter Special" on DVD via distribution partner Genius Products. On April 6, 2012, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series (under license a lonely girl named Doris (Kyla Pratt) with her social anxiety. The boys enjoy being in the real world but after a meeting with their creator, Bill Cosby, Fat Albert is informed that if he and the others do not return to the television world immediately, they will turn into celluloid dust.

Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids

T h e c h a r a c t e r F a t A l b e r t f i r s t a p p e a r e d i n B i l l C o s b y ' s s t a n d - u p c o m e d y r o u t i n e " B u c k B u c k , " a s r e c o r d e d o n h i s 1 9 6 7 a l b u m " R e v e n g e " . T h e s t o r i e s w e r e b a s e d u p o n C o s b y ' s t a l e s a b o u t g r o w i n g u p i n i n n e r c i t y N o r t h P h i l a d e l p h i a . I n 1 9 6 9 , C o s b y a n d v e t e r a n a n i m a t o r K e n M u n d i e b r o u g h t F a t A l b e r t t o a n i m a t i o n i n a p r i m e - t i m e s p e c i a l e n t i t l e d " H e y , H e y , H e y , I t ' s F a t A l b e r t " . T h e s p e c i a l , w h i c h a i r e d o n N B C , w a s a h y b r i d o f l i v e a c t i o n a n d a n i m a t i o n . T h e m u s i c f o r t h e s p e c i a l w a s w r i t t e n a n d p e r f o r m e d b y j a z z p i a n i s t / k e y b o a r d i s t H e r b i e H a n c o c k i n 1 9 6 9 a n d w a s r e l e a s e d o n t h e W a r n e r B r o s . a l b u m " F a t A l b e r t R o t u n d a " . F o r t h e a n i m a t e d p o r t i o n o f t h e s p e c i a l , i t w a s n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p t h e a c t u a l a p p e a r a n c e o f e a c h o f t h e F a t A l b e r t G a n g ' s c h a r a c t e r s . F o r t h i s , K e n M u n d i e r e l i e d o n a n i m a t o r A m b y P a l i w o d a , a f o r m e r D i s n e y a r t i s t . P a l i w o d a n o t o n l y c r e a t e d a l l t h e G a n g ' s c h a r a c t e r s , b u t p a i n t e d a " g r o u p p o r t r a i t " w h i c h w a s e v e n t u a l l y s h o w n o n t h e f r o n t p a g e o f " T V G u i d e " m a g a z i n e s h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e s h o w i n g o f t h e s p e c i a l . T h e p r o d u c e r s w a n t e d N B C t o b r i n g F a t A l b e r t t o S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g s , b u t t h e n e t w o r k p r o g r a m m i n g m a n a g e r s r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e s e r i e s w a s t o o e d u c a t i o n a l . B i l l C o s b y a n d a n e w p r o d u c t i o n c o m p a n y , F i l m a t i o n A s s o c i a t e s , t h e n t o o k t h e p r o p e r t y t o C B S . T h e F a t A l b e r t g a n g ' s c h a r a c t e r i m a g e s w e r e p r i m a r i l y c r e a t e d b y t h e a r t i s t R a n d y H o l l a r , w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f o n e - t i m e D i s n e y a n i m a t o r M i c h e l l e M c K i n n e y , u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f K e n B r o w n . R e t i t l e d " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " , t h e s e r i e s p r e m i e r e d o n S e p t e m b e r 9 , 1 9 7 2 , o n C B S . P r o d u c t i o n l a s t e d f o r 1 2 y e a r s , t h o u g h p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s w a s n o t c o n t i n u o u s . I t a l s o s p e n t a n o t h e r s e a s o n i n f i r s t - r u n s y n d i c a t i o n ( 1 9 8 4 – 8 5 ) . T h r e e p r i m e - t i m e h o l i d a y s p e c i a l s ( H a l l o w e e n , C h r i s t m a s , a n d E a s t e r ) f e a t u r i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r s w e r e a l s o p r o d u c e d . L i k e m o s t S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g c a r t o o n s o f t h e e r a , " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " c o n t a i n e d a n a d u l t l a u g h t r a c k , w h i c h w a s e l i m i n a t e d d u r i n g t h e f i n a l s e a s o n . T h e s e r i e s w a s r e r u n o n N B C S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g s a n d o n t h e U S A N e t w o r k i n 1 9 8 9 . O n J a n u a r y 1 5 , 2 0 1 3 , B i l l C o s b y p o s t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g o n h i s F a c e b o o k p a g e : " I ' m t e l l i n g y o u t h e r e a r e p e o p l e a t w o r k w h o , I t h i n k , w i l l m a k e F a t A l b e r t h a p p e n a g a i n . A n d i t w i l l b e l o v e d b y a l l g e n e r a t i o n s t o c o m e " , h i n t i n g t h a t t h e s e r i e s m i g h t b e b r o u g h t b a c k o n c e a g a i n . N o f u r t h e r w o r d h a s b e e n g i v e n y e t . L o u S c h e i m e r , E r i k a S c h e i m e r , K e i t h A l l e n , L a n e V a u x , P e p e B r o w n , D e m e n t r a M c H e n r y , E r i c S u t e r , a n d G e r a l d E d w a r d s p r o v i d e d a d d i t i o n a l v o i c e s . " F a t A l b e r t " w a s h o n o r e d a n d n o t e d f o r i t s e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t e n t , w h i c h i n c l u d e d C o s b y e a r n i n g a D o c t o r a t e i n E d u c a t i o n . I n e v e r y s h o w ' s o p e n i n g C o s b y w o u l d p l a y f u l l y w a r n : D u r i n g e a c h e p i s o d e , F a t A l b e r t a n d h i s f r i e n d s ( a k a T h e J u n k y a r d G a n g ) , d e a l t w i t h a n i s s u e o r p r o b l e m c o m m o n l y f a c e d b y c h i l d r e n , r a n g i n g f r o m s t a g e f r i g h t , f i r s t l o v e s , m e d i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , a n d p e r s o n a l h y g i e n e t o m o r e s e r i o u s t h e m e s ( t h o u g h t o n e d d o w n f o r y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n ) i n c l u d i n g v a n d a l i s m , s t e a l i n g , r a c i s m , r a p e , s m o k i n g , b e i n g s c a m m e d b y c o n a r t i s t s , s e x u a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d d i s e a s e s , c h i l d a b u s e , k i d n a p p i n g , d r u g u s e , g u n v i o l e n c e , a n d d e a t h . A t t h e e n d o f m o s t e p i s o d e s ( w i t h s o m e e x c e p t i o n s i n t h e c a s e o f p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s t h e m e s ) , t h e g a n g w o u l d s i n g a s o n g a b o u t t h e t h e m e o f t h e d a y . T h i s s e q u e n c e , s i m i l a r t o t h o s e s e e n i n o t h e r F i l m a t i o n s h o w s i n c l u d i n g " T h e A r c h i e S h o w " , h a s o f t e n b e e n p a r o d i e d . T h e m u s i c a l s e q u e n c e w a s d r o p p e d d u r i n g t h e " B r o w n H o r n e t " / " L e g a l E a g l e " y e a r s . T h e s e r i e s e n j o y e d o n e o f t h e l o n g e s t r u n s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g c a r t o o n s . I n 1 9 7 9 , t h e s h o w w a s r e - t i t l e d T h e N e w F a t A l b e r t S h o w a n d f e a t u r e d a n e w s e g m e n t t i t l e d " T h e B r o w n H o r n e t " d e t a i l i n g t h e a d v e n t u r e s o f a b l a c k c r i m e f i g h t e r i n o u t e r s p a c e w h o s e d e s i g n r e s e m b l e d a c a r i c a t u r e o f B i l l C o s b y , w h o a l s o p e r f o r m e d v o c a l t a l e n t s o n t h e c h a r a c t e r . I n 1 9 8 4 , t h e s h o w w a s s y n d i c a t e d a n d r e n a m e d T h e A d v e n t u r e s o f F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s . T h e l a c k o f n e t w o r k r e s t r i c t i o n s a l l o w e d t h e p r o d u c e r t o d e l v e i n t o m o r e m a t u r e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . A n o t a b l e e p i s o d e ( " B u s t e d " ) f e a t u r e d t h e k i d s h a v i n g a n i n a d v e r t e n t b r u s h w i t h t h e l a w a n d g i v e n a " S c a r e d S t r a i g h t ! " - s t y l e t o u r o f a n o c c u p i e d m a x i m u m s e c u r i t y p r i s o n ; i t e v e n c o n t a i n e d u t t e r a n c e s ( b y t h e j a i l ' s i n m a t e s ) o f t h e w o r d s " d a m n " a n d " b a s t a r d " ( C o s b y h a d a p p e a r e d i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e p i s o d e a d v i s i n g v i e w e r s t h a t t h o s e w o r d s w o u l d b e u s e d a s p a r t o f t h e s t o r y ' s d i a l o g u e t o r e a l i s t i c a l l y d e p i c t j a i l l i f e ) . A n o t h e r n o t a b l e e p i s o d e , " G a n g W a r s " , f e a t u r e d a c h i l d b e i n g s h o t a n d k i l l e d . A n o t h e r s e g m e n t w a s a d d e d : " L e g a l E a g l e " , a c r i m e - f i g h t i n g e a g l e w i t h a p a i r o f b u m b l i n g p o l i c e d e p u t y s q u i r r e l s . P r o d u c t i o n o f n e w e p i s o d e s c e a s e d i n 1 9 8 5 . T h e t h e m e s o n g , " G o n n a H a v e a G o o d T i m e " , w a s c o m p o s e d b y R i c k y S h e l d o n a n d E d w a r d F o u r n i e r , a n d p e r f o r m e d b y M i c h a e l G r a y ( v o c a l s ) , K i m C a r n e s ( b a c k g r o u n d v o c a l s ) a n d E d w a r d F o u r n i e r ( b a c k g r o u n d v o c a l s ) . A c o v e r o f t h e s h o w ' s t h e m e s o n g , p e r f o r m e d b y D i g , i s i n c l u d e d o n t h e 1 9 9 5 t r i b u t e a l b u m " S a t u r d a y M o r n i n g : C a r t o o n s ' G r e a t e s t H i t s " , p r o d u c e d b y R a l p h S a l l a n d r e l e a s e d o n M C A R e c o r d s . T h e s o n g ' s c h o r u s ( " N a - n a - n a , g o n n a h a v e a g o o d t i m e ! " ) w a s a l s o s a m p l e d i n F a t b o y S l i m ' s 1 9 9 8 h i t s i n g l e " P r a i s e Y o u " . " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " w a s n a m e d t h e 8 2 n d b e s t a n i m a t e d s e r i e s b y I G N . " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " r e c e i v e d a n E m m y n o m i n a t i o n i n 1 9 7 4 . P r o d u c t i o n o f t h e f i n a l s e a s o n o f t h e s e r i e s o v e r l a p p e d w i t h t h e s t a r t o f p r o d u c t i o n o f B i l l C o s b y ' s l i v e - a c t i o n s i t c o m , " T h e C o s b y S h o w " , w h i c h b e g a n a i r i n g o n N B C i n f a l l 1 9 8 4 . I n 1 9 9 3 , " T V G u i d e " m a g a z i n e n a m e d " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " t h e b e s t c a r t o o n s e r i e s o f t h e 1 9 7 0 s i n i t s i s s u e c e l e b r a t i n g 4 0 y e a r s o f t e l e v i s i o n . I n 2 0 0 2 , F a t A l b e r t w a s p l a c e d a t n u m b e r 1 2 o n T V G u i d e ' s l i s t o f t h e 5 0 G r e a t e s t C a r t o o n C h a r a c t e r s o f A l l T i m e . I n 2 0 2 0 , J o y c e S l a t o n o f C o m m o n S e n s e M e d i a a r g u e d t h a t t h e s e r i e s i s a n " o l d - s c h o o l c a r t o o n . . . [ w i t h ] s t r o n g p o s i t i v e m e s s a g e s . " S h e n o t e d t h a t w h i l e t h e s h o w ' s t h e m e s l i k e k i d n a p p i n g , r a c i s m , a n d c h i l d a b u s e m a y c a u s e p a r e n t s t o b e c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e i s " f r e s h h u m o r , f u n k y m u s i c , a n d t h e s t r o n g p o s i t i v e m e s s a g e s " . A s o f 2 0 1 3 , " F a t A l b e r t " w a s s e e n S a t u r d a y m o r n i n g s o n R e t r o T e l e v i s i o n N e t w o r k ( R T V ) , T h e C o o l T V , a n d w e e k d a y s a n d w e e k e n d s o n B o u n c e T V , b o t h o f w h i c h a r e d i g i t a l n e t w o r k s . I t w a s a l s o s e e n w e e k d a y s o n t h e n o w - d e f u n c t S k y A n g e l s e r v i c e s A n g e l T w o a n d K i d s & T e e n s T V , a s w e l l a s W o r l d H a r v e s t T e l e v i s i o n . " F a t A l b e r t " w a s a l s o a v a i l a b l e s t r e a m i n g o n l i n e f r o m H a l l m a r k S p i r i t C l i p s . c o m . A s o f J u l y 2 0 1 5 , " F a t A l b e r t " w a s n o l o n g e r o n B o u n c e T V ' s l i n e u p . B o u n c e T V h a d p r e v i o u s l y p u l l e d t h e c o m e d y s e r i e s " C o s b y " f r o m t h e i r l i n e u p i n t h e w a k e o f t h e B i l l C o s b y s e x u a l a s s a u l t a l l e g a t i o n s , b u t i t i s u n c l e a r i f t h e c a n c e l a t i o n s o f t h e " F a t A l b e r t " e p i s o d e s w a s r e l a t e d t o t h e s e a l l e g a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , s e v e r a l m o n t h s a f t e r r e t u r n i n g r e r u n s o f " T h e C o s b y S h o w " i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 1 6 , B o u n c e T V q u i e t l y r e - a d d e d " F a t A l b e r t " t o i t s s c h e d u l e i n M a r c h 2 0 1 7 , u n t i l i t w a s e v e n t u a l l y r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s c h e d u l e a g a i n i n l a t e A p r i l 2 0 1 8 . D u r i n g t h e m i d - 1 9 8 0 s , T h o r n E M I V i d e o r e l e a s e d s e v e r a l v o l u m e s o f " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " o n V H S a s p a r t o f t h e i r " C h i l d r e n ' s M a t i n e e " l i n e o f a n i m a t e d p r o g r a m s , w i t h e a c h c a s s e t t e t y p i c a l l y c o n t a i n i n g t h r e e e p i s o d e s . A d d i t i o n a l v o l u m e s w e r e r e l e a s e d l a t e r i n t h e d e c a d e b y V i d e o T r e a s u r e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e t h r e e h o l i d a y s p e c i a l s . I n 2 0 0 4 , U r b a n W o r k s E n t e r t a i n m e n t a c q u i r e d t h e r i g h t s t o t h e s e r i e s , s u b s e q u e n t l y r e l e a s i n g s e v e r a l " F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e C o s b y K i d s " D V D s i n c l u d i n g a t w o - v o l u m e c o l l e c t i o n f e a t u r i n g 2 4 e p i s o d e s , a s w e l l a s a l l s p e c i a l s t o c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e t h e a t r i c a l r e l e a s e o f t h e f e a t u r e f i l m a d a p t a t i o n . V o l u m e 1 c o n t a i n s t w o D V D s w i t h e p i s o d e s 1 – 1 2 ( a i r d a t e s 9 / 9 – 1 1 / 2 5 / 1 9 7 2 ) , a l o n g w i t h a C D c o n t a i n i n g t h e o p e n i n g t h e m e , t h e c l o s i n g t h e m e , a n d 1 2 s o n g s f r o m e a c h o f t h e 1 2 e p i s o d e s s h o w n i n v o l . 1 V o l u m e 2 c o n t a i n s t w o d i s c s w i t h e p i s o d e s 1 3 – 2 4 ( a i r d a t e s 1 2 / 2 / 1 9 7 2 – 9 / 1 3 / 1 9 7 5 ) , a l o n g w i t h a C D c o n t a i n i n g t h e o p e n i n g t h e m e , t h e c l o s i n g t h e m e , a n d 1 2 s o n g s f r o m e a c h o f t h e 1 2 e p i s o d e s s h o w n i n v o l . 2 . I n a d d i t i o n , U r b a n W o r k s E n t e r t a i n m e n t r e l e a s e d a G r e a t e s t H i t s f o u r - d i s c D V D b o x s e t , c o n t a i n i n g 2 0 u n c u t e p i s o d e s i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l b r o a d c a s t p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d o r i g i n a l a i r d a t e o r d e r , a s w e l l a s a f i v e - b e s t e p i s o d e s s e t v i a " V e n t u r a D i s t r i b u t i o n " . I n 2 0 0 8 , C l a s s i c M e d i a a c q u i r e d t h e r i g h t s t o t h e s e r i e s a n d s t a t e d a t t h e t i m e t h a t t h e y i n t e n d e d t o r e l e a s e t h e e n t i r e s e r i e s o n D V D . T h i s n e v e r h a p p e n e d a s t h e y o n l y r e - r e l e a s e d " T h e F a t A l b e r t H a l l o w e e n S p e c i a l " a n d " T h e F a t A l b e r t E a s t e r S p e c i a l " o n D V D v i a d i s t r i b u t i o n p a r t n e r G e n i u s P r o d u c t s . O n A p r i l 6 , 2 0 1 2 , i t w a s a n n o u n c e d t h a t S h o u t ! F a c t o r y h a d a c q u i r e d t h e r i g h t s t o t h e s e r i e s ( u n d e r l i c e n s e f r o m C l a s s i c M e d i a ) a n d p l a n n e d t o r e l e a s e a c o m p l e t e s e r i e s b o x s e t o n D V D . T h e D V D s e t w a s r e l e a s e d o n J u n e 2 5 , 2 0 1 3 . O n S e p t e m b e r 4 , 2 0 1 2 , C l a s s i c M e d i a r e - r e l e a s e d a l l t h r e e h o l i d a y s p e c i a l s t o g e t h e r i n o n e c o l l e c t i o n e n t i t l e d " T h e H e y H e y H e y H o l i d a y C o l l e c t i o n " o n D V D i n R e g i o n 1 . G o l d K e y C o m i c s d i d a c o m i c b o o k a d a p t a t i o n o f F a t A l b e r t , w h i c h r a n f o r 2 9 i s s u e s , f r o m 1 9 7 4 t o 1 9 7 9 . I n 2 0 0 4 , 2 0 t h C e n t u r y F o x r e l e a s e d a f i l m a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s t i t l e d " F a t A l b e r t " . T h e f i l m s t a r s K e n a n T h o m p s o n a s F a t A l b e r t , K y l a P r a t t , a n d B i l l C o s b y . T h e f i l m a c t s a s a s e q u e l t o t h e s e r i e s w h e r e F a t A l b e r t a n d t h e b o y s j o u r n e y i n t o t h e r e a l w o r l d a f t e r j u m p i n g o u t o f a t e l e v i s i o n i n o r d e r t o h e l p a l o n e l y g i r l n a m e d D o r i s ( K y l a P r a t t ) w i t h h e r s o c i a l a n x i e t y . T h e b o y s e n j o y b e i n g i n t h e r e a l w o r l d b u t a f t e r a m e e t i n g w i t h t h e i r c r e a t o r , B i l l C o s b y , F a t A l b e r t i s i n f o r m e d t h a t i f h e a n d t h e o t h e r s d o n o t r e t u r n t o t h e t e l e v i s i o n w o r l d i m m e d i a t e l y , t h e y w i l l t u r n i n t o c e l l u l o i d d u s t .

Reception

Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids is an American animated television series created, produced, and hosted by comedian Bill Cosby. The show follows the adventures of a group of young friends growing up in Philadelphia, led by the charismatic and confident Fat Albert. The show focuses on teaching moral lessons and promoting social responsibility, often tackling tough issues such as racism, sexism, and gang violence. The show features a mix of humor, music, and education, making it a beloved classic among many who grew up watching it.

years, though production of the series was not continuous. It also spent another season in first-run syndication (1984–85). Three prime-time holiday specials (Halloween, Christmas, and Easter) featuring the characters were also produced. Like most Saturday morning cartoons of the era, "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids" contained an adult laugh track, which was eliminated during the final season. The series was rerun on NBC Saturday mornings and on the USA Network in 1989. On January 15, 2013, Bill Cosby posted the following on his Facebook page: "I'm telling you there are people at work who, I think, will make Fat Albert happen again. And it will be loved by all generations to come", hinting that the series might be brought back once again. No further word has been given yet. Lou Scheimer, Erika Scheimer, Keith Allen, Lane Vaux, Pepe Brown, Dementra McHenry, Eric Suter, and Gerald Edwards provided additional voices. "Fat Albert" was honored and noted for its educational content, which included Cosby earning a Doctorate in Education. In every show's opening Cosby would playfully warn: During each episode, Fat Albert and his friends (aka The Junkyard Gang), dealt with an issue or problem commonly faced by children, ranging from stage fright, first loves, medical operations, and personal hygiene to more serious themes (though toned down for younger children) including vandalism, stealing, racism, rape, smoking, being scammed by con artists, sexually transmitted diseases, child abuse, kidnapping, drug use, gun violence, and death. At the end of most episodes (with some exceptions in the case of particularly the producer to delve into more mature subject matter. A notable episode ("Busted") featured the kids having an inadvertent brush with the law and given a "Scared Straight!"-style tour of an occupied maximum security prison; it even contained utterances (by the jail's inmates) of the words "damn" and "bastard" (Cosby had appeared in the beginning of the episode advising viewers that those words would be used as part of the story's dialogue to realistically depict jail life). Another notable episode, "Gang Wars", featured a child being shot and killed. Another segment was added: "Legal Eagle", a crime-fighting eagle with a pair of bumbling police deputy squirrels. Production of new episodes ceased in 1985. The theme song, "Gonna Have a Good Time", was composed by Ricky Sheldon and Edward Fournier, and performed by Michael Gray (vocals), Kim Carnes (background vocals) and Edward Fournier (background vocals). A cover of the show's theme song, performed by Dig, is included on the 1995 tribute album "Saturday Morning: Cartoons' Greatest Hits", produced by Ralph Sall and released on MCA Records. The song's chorus ("Na-na-na, gonna have a good time!") was also sampled in Fatboy Slim's 1998 hit single "Praise You". "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids" was named the 82nd best animated series by IGN. "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids" received an Emmy nomination in 1974. Production of the final season of the series overlapped with the start of production of Bill Cosby's live-action sitcom, "The Cosby Show", which began airing on NBC in fall 1984. In 1993, "TV Guide" magazine named "Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids" the best cartoon series of the 1970s in its issue celebrating 40 years of television. In 2002, Fat Albert was placed at number 12 on TV Guide's list of the 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time. In 2020, Joyce Slaton of Common Sense Media argued that the series is an "old-school cartoon... [with] strong positive messages." She noted that while the show's themes like kidnapping, racism, and child abuse may cause parents to be concerned, there is "fresh humor, funky music, and the strong positive messages". As of 2013, "Fat Albert" was seen Saturday mornings on Retro Television Network (RTV), TheCoolTV, and weekdays and weekends on Bounce TV, both of which are digital networks. It was also seen weekdays on the now-defunct Sky Angel services Angel Two and Kids & Teens TV, as well as World Harvest Television. "Fat Albert" was also available streaming online from HallmarkSpiritClips.com. As of July 2015, "Fat Albert" was no longer on Bounce TV's lineup. Bounce TV had previously pulled the comedy series "Cosby" from their lineup in the wake of the Bill Cosby sexual assault allegations, but it is unclear if the cancelations of the "Fat Albert" episodes was related to these allegations. However, several months after returning reruns of "The Cosby Show" in December 2016, Bounce TV quietly re-added "Fat Albert" to its schedule in March 2017, until it was eventually removed from the schedule again in late April 2018. During the mid-1980s, Thorn EMI Video released several volumes of along with a CD containing the opening theme, the closing theme, and 12 songs from each of the 12 episodes shown in vol. 2. In addition, UrbanWorks Entertainment released a Greatest Hits four-disc DVD box set, containing 20 uncut episodes in their original broadcast presentation and original airdate order, as well as a five-best episodes set via "Ventura Distribution". In 2008, Classic Media acquired the rights to the series and stated at the time that they intended to release the entire series on DVD. This never happened as they only re-released "The Fat Albert Halloween Special" and "The Fat Albert Easter Special" on DVD via distribution partner Genius Products. On April 6, 2012, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series (under license a lonely girl named Doris (Kyla Pratt) with her social anxiety. The boys enjoy being in the real world but after a meeting with their creator, Bill Cosby, Fat Albert is informed that if he and the others do not return to the television world immediately, they will turn into celluloid dust.

Popular Movement (Morocco)

T h e P o p u l a r M o v e m e n t w a s f o u n d e d i n 1 9 5 7 b y t h e B e r b e r t r i b a l c h i e f M a h j o u b i A h e r d a n e w i t h h e l p f r o m A b d e l k r i m a l - K h a t i b w h o f o u n d e d l a t e r a s p l i n t e r p a r t y ( " M o u v e m e n t p o p u l a i r e d é m o c r a t i q u e e t c o n s t i t u t i o n n e l " ) t h a t b e c a m e t h e J u s t i c e a n d D e v e l o p m e n t P a r t y . I t w a s i n i t i a l l y a r u r a l p a r t y w i t h c o n s e r v a t i v e a n d t r i b a l o r i e n t a t i o n , t h a t u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y s u p p o r t e d t h e m o n a r c h y a n d a i m e d a t c o u n t e r i n g n a t i o n a l i s t I s t i q l a l P a r t y . A l t h o u g h t h e p a r t y h a s b e e n d o m i n a t e d b y B e r b e r s p e a k e r s , i t h a s n o t d e v e l o p e d a d i s t i n c t B e r b e r a g e n d a . T h e p r e s e n t p a r t y r e s u l t s f r o m a 2 5 M a r c h 2 0 0 6 m e r g e r b e t w e e n t h e m a i n p a r t y w h i c h h a d k e p t t h e o r i g i n a l n a m e a n d t w o s p l i n t e r p a r t i e s , t h e N a t i o n a l P o p u l a r M o v e m e n t ( " M o u v e m e n t N a t i o n a l P o p u l a i r e " ) a n d t h e D e m o c r a t i c U n i o n ( U n i o n d é m o c r a t i q u e ) . T h e p a r t y i s a f u l l m e m b e r o f L i b e r a l I n t e r n a t i o n a l , w h i c h i t j o i n e d a t t h e l a t t e r ' s D a k a r C o n g r e s s i n 2 0 0 3 . I n t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n h e l d o n 2 7 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 2 , t h e p a r t y w o n 2 7 o u t o f t h e t o t a l 3 2 5 s e a t s . I t i m p r o v e d i t s s t a n d i n g i n t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n h e l d o n 7 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 7 , w i n n i n g 4 1 o u t o f 3 2 5 s e a t s . T h e p a r t y w o n 3 2 o u t o f 3 2 5 s e a t s i n t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t i o n h e l d i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 1 , b e i n g t h e s i x t h p a r t y i n t h e p a r l i a m e n t . N o t e s

History

The Popular Movement was established in 1957 by Mahjoubi Aherdane and Abdelkrim al-Khatib, initially as a rural, conservative, and pro-monarchy party to counter the Istiqlal Party. Over time, the party merged with other groups, including the National Popular Movement and the Democratic Union, becoming a full member of Liberal International. In elections, the party has consistently secured seats, with its best performance in 2007 when it won 41 out of 325 seats.

The Popular Movement was founded in 1957 by the Berber tribal chief Mahjoubi Aherdane with help from Abdelkrim al-Khatib who founded later a splinter party ("Mouvement populaire démocratique et constitutionnel") that became the Justice and Development Party. It was initially a rural party with conservative and tribal orientation, that unconditionally supported the monarchy and aimed at countering nationalist Istiqlal Party. Although the party has been dominated by Berber speakers, it has not developed a distinct Berber agenda. The present party results from a 25 March 2006 merger between the main party which had kept the original name and two splinter parties, the National Popular Movement ("Mouvement National Populaire") and the Democratic Union (Union démocratique). The party is a full member of Liberal International, which it joined at the latter's Dakar Congress in 2003. In the parliamentary election held on 27 September 2002, the party won 27 out of the total 325 seats. It improved its standing in the parliamentary election held on 7 September 2007, winning 41 out of 325 seats. The party won 32 out of 325 seats in the parliamentary election held in November 2011, being the sixth party in the parliament. Notes

Hermenegild

H e r m e n e g i l d w a s t h e e l d e s t s o n o f L i u v i g i l d a n d h i s f i r s t w i f e . H e w a s a b r o t h e r o f R e c c a r e d I a n d b r o u g h t u p a n A r i a n . L i u v i g i l d m a d e h i s s o n s c o - r e g e n t s . I n 5 7 9 , h e m a r r i e d I n g u n d , t h e d a u g h t e r o f t h e F r a n k i s h K i n g S i g e b e r t I o f A u s t r a s i a w h o w a s a C h a l c e d o n i a n C h r i s t i a n . H e r m o t h e r w a s t h e V i s i g o t h p r i n c e s s B r u n h i l d a o f A u s t r a s i a . T h e t w e l v e - y e a r - o l d I n g u n d w a s p r e s s u r e d b y H e r m e n e g i l d ' s s t e p m o t h e r G o i s w i n t h a t o a b j u r e h e r b e l i e f s , b u t s h e s t a y e d f i r m i n h e r f a i t h . L i u v i g i l d s e n t H e r m e n e g i l d t o t h e s o u t h t o g o v e r n o n h i s b e h a l f . T h e r e , h e c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f L e a n d e r o f S e v i l l e , t h e o l d e r b r o t h e r o f I s i d o r e o f S e v i l l e . H e r m e n e g i l d w a s c o n v e r t e d t o C h a l c e d o n i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y . H i s f a m i l y d e m a n d e d f o r h i m t o r e t u r n t o A r i a n i s m , b u t h e r e f u s e d . A r o u n d t h e n , h e l e d a r e v o l t a g a i n s t L i u v i g i l d . C o n t e m p o r a r y a c c o u n t s a t t r i b u t e t h a t t o p o l i t i c s , r a t h e r t h a n p r i m a r i l y r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s . H e a s k e d f o r t h e a i d o f t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , b u t i t w a s o c c u p i e d w i t h d e f e n d i n g i t s e l f f r o m t e r r i t o r i a l i n c u r s i o n s b y t h e S a s a n i a n E m p i r e . F o r a t i m e , H e r m e n e g i l d h a d t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e S u e b i , w h o h a d b e e n d e f e a t e d b y L i u v i g i l d i n 5 7 9 , b u t h e f o r c e d t h e m t o c a p i t u l a t e o n c e a g a i n i n 5 8 3 . H e r m e n e g i l d f l e d t o S e v i l l e a n d w h e n i t f e l l t o a s i e g e i n 5 8 4 , h e w e n t t o C ó r d o b a . A f t e r L i u v i g i l d p a i d 3 0 , 0 0 0 p i e c e s o f g o l d , t h e B y z a n t i n e s w i t h d r e w a n d t o o k I n g u n d a n d h e r s o n w i t h t h e m . H e r m e n e g i l d s o u g h t s a n c t u a r y i n a c h u r c h . L i u v i g i l d w o u l d n o t v i o l a t e t h e s a n c t u a r y . H e s e n t R e c c a r e d i n s i d e t o s p e a k w i t h H e r m e n e g i l d a n d t o o f f e r p e a c e . T h a t w a s a c c e p t e d , a n d p e a c e w a s m a d e f o r s o m e t i m e . G o i s w i n t h a , h o w e v e r , b r o u g h t a b o u t a n o t h e r a l i e n a t i o n w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y . H e r m e n e g i l d w a s i m p r i s o n e d i n T a r r a g o n a o r T o l e d o . D u r i n g h i s c a p t i v i t y i n t h e t o w e r o f S e v i l l e , a n A r i a n b i s h o p w a s s e n t t o H e r m e n e g i l d f o r E a s t e r b u t h e w o u l d n o t a c c e p t t h e E u c h a r i s t f r o m h i m . K i n g L i u v i g i l d o r d e r e d h i m b e h e a d e d ; h e w a s e x e c u t e d o n 1 3 A p r i l 5 8 5 . H e h a d o n e s o n b y h i s w i f e n a m e d A t h a n a g i l d a f t e r h i s m a t r i l i n e a l g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r k i n g A t h a n a g i l d . T h e y b o t h t r i e d t o s e e k r e f u g e i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e a f t e r h i s e x e c u t i o n , b u t i t w a s r e f u s e d w h i l e t h e y w e r e a l r e a d y i n S i c i l y . S h e t h e n r e t u r n e d t o t h e F r a n k i s h K i n g d o m , w h e r e h e r s o n r e m a i n e d u n d e r h e r a n d h e r m o t h e r ' s c u s t o d y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e 9 t h - c e n t u r y " C h r o n i c l e o f A l f o n s o I I I " , E r w i g w a s t h e s o n o f A r d a b a s t , w h o h a d j o u r n e y e d f r o m t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e t o H i s p a n i a d u r i n g t h e t i m e o f C h i n d a s u i n t h , a n d m a r r i e d C h i n d a s u i n t h ' s n i e c e G o d a . A r d a b a s t ( o r A r t a v a s d o s ) , w a s p r o b a b l y a n A r m e n i a n o r P e r s i a n C h r i s t i a n e x i l e i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e o r i n B y z a n t i n e A f r i c a . I n H i s p a n i a h e w a s m a d e a c o u n t . 1 7 t h - c e n t u r y S p a n i s h g e n e a l o g i s t L u i s B a r t o l o m é d e S a l a z a r y C a s t r o g a v e A r d a b a s t ' s f a t h e r a s A t h a n a g i l d , t h e s o n o f S a i n t H e r m e n e g i l d a n d I n g u n d , a n d h i s m o t h e r a s F l a v i a J u l i a n a , a d a u g h t e r o f P e t e r A u g u s t u s a n d n i e c e o f t h e E m p e r o r M a u r i c e . T h i s i m p e r i a l c o n n e c t i o n i s d i s p u t e d b y C h r i s t i a n S e t t i p a n i , w h o s a y s t h a t t h e o n l y s o u r c e f o r A t h a n a g i l d ' s m a r r i a g e t o F l a v i a J u l i a i s J o s é P e l l i c e r , w h o h e c l a i m s t o b e a f o r g e r .

Marriage to Ingund

Hermenegild, the son of Liuvigild, married Ingund, the daughter of Frankish King Sigebert I of Austrasia, in 579. Despite being raised an Arian, Hermenegild converted to Chalcedonian Christianity under the influence of Leander of Seville. He led a revolt against his father, seeking aid from the Byzantine Empire, but was eventually captured and executed in 585. His wife Ingund and their son Athanagild attempted to flee to Constantinople but were refused and instead returned to the Frankish Kingdom, where Athanagild was raised by his mother and grandmother.

Hermenegild was the eldest son of Liuvigild and his first wife. He was a brother of Reccared I and brought up an Arian. Liuvigild made his sons co-regents. In 579, he married Ingund, the daughter of the Frankish King Sigebert I of Austrasia who was a Chalcedonian Christian. Her mother was the Visigoth princess Brunhilda of Austrasia. The twelve-year-old Ingund was pressured by Hermenegild's stepmother Goiswintha to abjure her beliefs, but she stayed firm in her faith. Liuvigild sent Hermenegild to the south to govern on his behalf. There, he came under the influence of Leander of Seville, the older brother of Isidore of Seville. Hermenegild was converted to Chalcedonian Christianity. His family demanded for him to return to Arianism, but he refused. Around then, he led a revolt against Liuvigild. Contemporary accounts attribute that to politics, rather than primarily religious differences. He asked for the aid of the Byzantine Empire, but it was occupied with defending itself from territorial incursions by the Sasanian Empire. For a time, Hermenegild had the support of the Suebi, who had been defeated by Liuvigild in 579, but he forced them to capitulate once again in 583. Hermenegild fled to Seville and when it fell to a siege in 584, he went to Córdoba. After Liuvigild paid 30,000 pieces of gold, the Byzantines withdrew and took Ingund and her son with them. Hermenegild sought sanctuary in a church. Liuvigild would not violate the sanctuary. He sent Reccared inside to speak with Hermenegild and to offer peace. That was accepted, and peace was made for some time. Goiswintha, however, brought about another alienation within the family. Hermenegild was imprisoned in Tarragona or Toledo. During his captivity in the tower of Seville, an Arian bishop was sent to Hermenegild for Easter but he would not accept the Eucharist from him. King Liuvigild ordered him beheaded; he was executed on 13 April 585. He had one son by his wife named Athanagild after his matrilineal great-grandfather king Athanagild. They both tried to seek refuge in Constantinople after his execution, but it was refused while they were already in Sicily. She then returned to the Frankish Kingdom, where her son remained under her and her mother's custody. According to the 9th-century "Chronicle of Alfonso III", Erwig was the son of Ardabast, who had journeyed from the Byzantine Empire to Hispania during the time of Chindasuinth, and married Chindasuinth's niece Goda. Ardabast (or Artavasdos), was probably an Armenian or Persian Christian exile in Constantinople or in Byzantine Africa. In Hispania he was made a count. 17th-century Spanish genealogist Luis Bartolomé de Salazar y Castro gave Ardabast's father as Athanagild, the son of Saint Hermenegild and Ingund, and his mother as Flavia Juliana, a daughter of Peter Augustus and niece of the Emperor Maurice. This imperial connection is disputed by Christian Settipani, who says that the only source for Athanagild's marriage to Flavia Julia is José Pellicer, who he claims to be a forger.

Chrysler E-Class

T h e C h r y s l e r E - C l a s s w a s t a r g e t e d a t t h o s e w h o w a n t e d C h r y s l e r l u x u r y a t a m o r e a f f o r d a b l e p r i c e t h a n t h e f l a g s h i p N e w Y o r k e r . D u e t o t h i s r e a s o n , t h e E - C l a s s i s t h e " d e f a c t o " r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e 1 9 8 1 N e w p o r t , w h i c h h a d b e e n C h r y s l e r ' s c h e a p e r , m o r e b a s i c v e r s i o n o f t h e N e w Y o r k e r . T h e E - C l a s s w a s o r i g i n a l l y t o b e c a l l e d t h e " G r a n d L e B a r o n " , h o w e v e r C h r y s l e r d e c i d e d t o n a m e i t " E - C l a s s " i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e n e w E - p l a t f o r m . T h e E - C l a s s c a m e w i t h a n u m b e r o f f e a t u r e s a n d o p t i o n s i n c l u d i n g a c a s s e t t e p l a y e r , s p l i t 5 0 / 5 0 f r o n t b e n c h w i t h m i d d l e s e a t m o u n t e d c o n s o l e , w o o d g r a i n i n t e r i o r t r i m , t w o - t o n e e x t e r i o r p a i n t , p o w e r w i n d o w & d o o r l o c k s , a n d a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g . E n g i n e s w e r e t h e 2 . 2   L n a t u r a l l y a s p i r a t e d I 4 a n d t h e M i t s u b i s h i 2 . 6   L I 4 . 1 9 8 4 s a w t h e d e b u t o f f u e l i n j e c t i o n o n t h e 2 . 2   L e n g i n e a n d a n o p t i o n a l G a r r e t t A i R e s e a r c h T - 0 3 t u r b o c h a r g e r . L a r g e r , w r a p a r o u n d t a i l l i g h t s w e r e a l s o a d d e d f o r 1 9 8 4 . T h e E - C l a s s h o w e v e r , w a s n o t a s a l e s s u c c e s s . S a l e s o f t h e m o r e e x p e n s i v e N e w Y o r k e r w e r e n e a r l y d o u b l e t h e E - C l a s s ' s s a l e s f o r 1 9 8 4 . I t s s l o w s a l e s c a u s e d i t t o b e d r o p p e d f r o m C h r y s l e r ' s l i n e u p a f t e r o n l y t w o y e a r s o n t h e m a r k e t . R a t h e r t h a n d i s c o n t i n u e a l o w e r - p r i c e d m o d e l t o b e s o l d o n C h r y s l e r - P l y m o u t h l o t s , C h r y s l e r g a v e t h e c a r a m i n o r r e f r e s h m e n t ( i t l o s t t h e w a t e r f a l l g r i l l e a n d c r y s t a l p e n t a s t a r h o o d o r n a m e n t ) a n d t r a n s f e r r e d i t t o P l y m o u t h ' s l i n e u p , w h e r e i t b e c a m e t h e C a r a v e l l e f o r 1 9 8 5 .

History

The Chrysler E-Class was introduced as a more affordable luxury option, replacing the Newport. It featured various amenities like a cassette player, woodgrain trim, and power windows. Despite its offerings, the E-Class struggled with sales, leading to its discontinuation after two years. Instead, it was rebranded as the Plymouth Caravelle for 1985.

The Chrysler E-Class was targeted at those who wanted Chrysler luxury at a more affordable price than the flagship New Yorker. Due to this reason, the E-Class is the "de facto" replacement for the 1981 Newport, which had been Chrysler's cheaper, more basic version of the New Yorker. The E-Class was originally to be called the "Grand LeBaron", however Chrysler decided to name it "E-Class" in reference to the new E-platform. The E-Class came with a number of features and options including a cassette player, split 50/50 front bench with middle seat mounted console, woodgrain interior trim, two-tone exterior paint, power window & door locks, and air conditioning. Engines were the 2.2 L naturally aspirated I4 and the Mitsubishi 2.6 L I4. 1984 saw the debut of fuel injection on the 2.2 L engine and an optional Garrett AiResearch T-03 turbocharger. Larger, wraparound tail lights were also added for 1984. The E-Class however, was not a sales success. Sales of the more expensive New Yorker were nearly double the E-Class's sales for 1984. Its slow sales caused it to be dropped from Chrysler's lineup after only two years on the market. Rather than discontinue a lower-priced model to be sold on Chrysler-Plymouth lots, Chrysler gave the car a minor refreshment (it lost the waterfall grille and crystal pentastar hood ornament) and transferred it to Plymouth's lineup, where it became the Caravelle for 1985.

University of Alabama in Huntsville

T h e g e n e s i s f o r a p u b l i c l y f u n d e d i n s t i t u t i o n o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n H u n t s v i l l e w a s y e a r s i n t h e m a k i n g . B e g i n n i n g i n J a n u a r y 1 9 5 0 a s a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l a b a m a a n d k n o w n a s t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l a b a m a H u n t s v i l l e C e n t e r , c l a s s e s w e r e f i r s t t a u g h t a t W e s t H u n t s v i l l e H i g h S c h o o l . H o w e v e r , t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s d i r e c t i o n c h a n g e d i n 1 9 6 1 , w h e n W e r n h e r v o n B r a u n , a G e r m a n r o c k e t s c i e n t i s t b r o u g h t t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s u n d e r O p e r a t i o n P a p e r c l i p a f t e r w o r k i n g f o r t h e N a z i r e g i m e , h e l p e d c r e a t e a r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e t o p r o v i d e a d v a n c e d e n g i n e e r i n g a n d s c i e n c e c u r r i c u l a t o N A S A s c i e n t i s t s a n d e n g i n e e r s . T h i s i n s t i t u t e w a s b u i l t r i g h t o f f o f U S 7 2 w h i c h w a s r e n a m e d t o U n i v e r s i t y D r i v e q u i c k l y a f t e r . T h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r s , t h e c a m p u s e x p a n d e d s o u t h a l o n g S p a r k m a n D r i v e t o r e a c h I n t e r s t a t e 5 6 5 . U A H ' s f i r s t u n d e r g r a d u a t e d e g r e e s w e r e a w a r d e d i n M a y 1 9 6 8 a s p a r t o f t h e s p r i n g c o m m e n c e m e n t c e r e m o n y a t T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l a b a m a , T u s c a l o o s a , ( a l t h o u g h a " c a p a n d g o w n " c e r e m o n y w a s h e l d i n H u n t s v i l l e ) . O n e y e a r l a t e r , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l a b a m a S y s t e m B o a r d o f T r u s t e e s v o t e d t o m a k e U A H a n i n d e p e n d e n t a n d a u t o n o m o u s c a m p u s . D r . B e n j a m i n G r a v e s , a 1 9 4 2 g r a d u a t e o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s i s s i p p i a n d p r e s i d e n t o f M i l l s a p s C o l l e g e i n J a c k s o n , M i s s i s s i p p i , w a s t a p p e d a s U A H ' s f i r s t p r e s i d e n t i n 1 9 7 0 . H e r e t u r n e d t o f a c u l t y s t a t u s i n 1 9 7 9 a n d r e t i r e d i n 1 9 8 9 . T h e f i r s t d e g r e e a w a r d e d f o r w o r k c o m p l e t e d e n t i r e l y o n t h e U A H c a m p u s w a s a w a r d e d t o J u l i a n P a l m o r e i n 1 9 6 4 . M r . P a l m o r e w a s a t t h e t i m e a U n i t e d S t a t e s N a v y e n s i g n a s s i g n e d t o N A S A ' s R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t s D i v i s i o n . T h e f i r s t o f f i c i a l o n - c a m p u s g r a d u a t i o n c e r e m o n y a t U A H w a s i n J u n e 1 9 7 0 . T h e f i r s t w o m a n t o e a r n a P h . D . f r o m U A H w a s V i r g i n i a K o b l e r i n 1 9 7 9 , i n I n d u s t r i a l E n g i n e e r i n g . U A H ' s s e c o n d p r e s i d e n t , D r . J o h n W r i g h t , f o r m e r V i c e C h a n c e l l o r o f t h e W e s t V i r g i n i a U n i v e r s i t y , s e r v e d f r o m 1 9 7 9 t o 1 9 8 8 . U A H ' s t h i r d p r e s i d e n t w a s D r . L o u i s P a d u l o , f o r m e r S t a n f o r d p r o f e s s o r a n d d e a n o f e n g i n e e r i n g o f B o s t o n U n i v e r s i t y . H u n t s v i l l e l e a d e r J o s e p h M o q u i n t o o k o v e r t h e U A H p r e s i d e n c y o n a n i n t e r i m b a s i s i n 1 9 9 0 . D r . F r a n k F r a n z , w h o w a s t h e n p r o v o s t a t W e s t V i r g i n i a U n i v e r s i t y , w a s c h o s e n a s U A H ' s f o u r t h p r e s i d e n t . H i s w i f e , D r . J u d y F r a n z , a c c o m p a n i e d h i m a n d w a s g r a n t e d f u l l p r o f e s s o r s h i p i n t h e p h y s i c s f a c u l t y . H e r r e n o w n i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c c o m m u n i t y w a s r e a f f i r m e d w h e n s h e w a s n a m e d e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r o f t h e A m e r i c a n P h y s i c a l S o c i e t y i n 1 9 9 4 . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 2 0 0 6 – 2 0 0 7 a c a d e m i c y e a r , D r . F r a n z a n n o u n c e d h i s p l a n t o s t e p d o w n a s p r e s i d e n t a f t e r t h a t y e a r . O n J u l y 1 , 2 0 0 7 , D r . D a v i d B . W i l l i a m s , f o r m e r l y a p r o f e s s o r o f m a t e r i a l s s c i e n c e a n d e n g i n e e r i n g a n d t h e v i c e p r o v o s t f o r r e s e a r c h a t L e h i g h U n i v e r s i t y , b e g a n s e r v i n g a s U A H ' s f i f t h p r e s i d e n t . H e l e f t i n 2 0 1 1 t o j o i n O h i o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y a s d e a n o f e n g i n e e r i n g . T h e u n i v e r s i t y b r i e f l y g a i n e d n a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n i n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 0 w h e n a p r o f e s s o r k i l l e d t h r e e p e o p l e a n d w o u n d e d t h r e e o t h e r s d u r i n g a f a c u l t y m e e t i n g . D r . R o b e r t A l t e n k i r c h w a s h i r e d a s t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s s i x t h p r e s i d e n t i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . D r . A l t e n k i r c h s e r v e d a s p r e s i d e n t o f t h e N e w J e r s e y I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y f o r n i n e y e a r s b e f o r e j o i n i n g U A H . I n 2 0 1 9 , D r . D a r r e n D a w s o n , f o r m e r d e a n o f t h e C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g a t K a n s a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , b e c a m e U A H ' s s e v e n t h p r e s i d e n t . D r . D a w s o n a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 2 1 , a n d D r . C h a r l e s L . K a r r , f o r m e r d e a n o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l a b a m a ' s C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , w a s n a m e d i n t e r i m p r e s i d e n t . U A H o f f e r s 8 9 d e g r e e - g r a n t i n g p r o g r a m s , i n c l u d i n g 4 4 b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e p r o g r a m s , 3 0 m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e p r o g r a m s , a n d 1 5 P h D p r o g r a m s t h r o u g h i t s n i n e c o l l e g e s : a r t s , h u m a n i t i e s & s o c i a l s c i e n c e s ; b u s i n e s s ; e d u c a t i o n ; e n g i n e e r i n g ; h o n o r s ; n u r s i n g ; p r o f e s s i o n a l & c o n t i n u i n g s t u d i e s ; s c i e n c e ; a n d g r a d u a t e . N u r s i n g i s U A H ' s l a r g e s t s i n g l e m a j o r , a l t h o u g h E n g i n e e r i n g i s t h e l a r g e s t c o l l e g e . T h e r e i s a l s o a n H o n o r s C o l l e g e t h a t o f f e r s a n e n r i c h e d a c a d e m i c a n d c o m m u n i t y e x p e r i e n c e f o r u n d e r g r a d u a t e s i n a l l d i s c i p l i n e s . N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y g i v e n H u n t s v i l l e ' s t e c h n o l o g y - b a s e d e c o n o m y , U A H i s k n o w n f o r e n g i n e e r i n g a n d s c i e n c e p r o g r a m s , i n c l u d i n g a s t r o p h y s i c s , a t m o s p h e r i c s c i e n c e , a e r o s p a c e e n g i n e e r i n g , c y b e r s e c u r i t y , a n d d i g i t a l a n i m a t i o n . T h e f i r s t " c o m m e r c i a l " n o n - r o c k e t r y p r o g r a m s ( C o n s o r t a n d J o u s t ) i n t h e U . S . w e r e m a n a g e d b y U A H s c i e n t i s t s , t h e f i r s t " h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e " s u p e r c o n d u c t o r w a s d i s c o v e r e d a t U A H , a n d t h e f i r s t U . S . e x p e r i m e n t f l o w n a b o a r d t h e S o v i e t M i r S p a c e S t a t i o n w a s f r o m U A H . U A H i s a S p a c e G r a n t u n i v e r s i t y a n d h a s a h i s t o r y o f c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h N A S A ' s M a r s h a l l S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r a n d t h e U . S . A r m y A v i a t i o n a n d M i s s i l e C o m m a n d a t R e d s t o n e A r s e n a l . I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h h e l p i n g N A S A r e a c h i t s g o a l s , U A H m a k e s N A S A ' s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y a v a i l a b l e t o a l l o f A l a b a m a ' s c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h e N a t i o n a l S p a c e S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y C e n t e r i s o n e o f 1 7 h i g h - t e c h r e s e a r c h c e n t e r s o n U A H 5 0 5 - a c r e c a m p u s . T h e U A H P r o p u l s i o n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r ( P R C ) p r o m o t e s i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y r e s e a r c h o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r g r a d u a t e a n d u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s . T h e P R C w a s f o u n d e d b y D r . C l a r k W . H a w k i n 1 9 9 1 a n d h a s s i n c e p r o v i d e d s u p p o r t f o r N A S A , t h e U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e ( D o D ) , a n d t h e U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y . R e s e a r c h t o p i c s i n c l u d e a i r - b r e a t h i n g a n d e l e c t r i c p r o p u l s i o n ; s o l i d , l i q u i d & h y b r i d p r o p e l l a n t c o m b u s t i o n ; m a g n e t o i n e r t i a l f u s i o n ; h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e m a t e r i a l s ; a n d s p a c e a n d t e r r e s t r i a l p o w e r s y s t e m s . R e s e a r c h i n n a n o t e c h n o l o g y a n d m i c r o f a b r i c a t i o n i s c o n d u c t e d b y t h e N a n o a n d M i c r o D e v i c e s C e n t e r . A t m o s p h e r i c S c i e n c e s a n d r e l a t e d r e s e a r c h a r e a s a r e h e a d q u a r t e r e d i n t h e N S S T C a n d S W I R L L b u i l d i n g s . A t l e a s t n i n e d e p a r t m e n t s o r p r o g r a m s a l s o h o l d a c c r e d i t a t i o n f r o m p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e A c c r e d i t a t i o n B o a r d f o r E n g i n e e r i n g a n d T e c h n o l o g y , t h e A m e r i c a n A s s e m b l y o f C o l l e g i a t e S c h o o l s o f B u s i n e s s , t h e A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y , t h e C o m m i s s i o n o n C o l l e g i a t e N u r s i n g E d u c a t i o n , t h e C o m p u t i n g S c i e n c e s A c c r e d i t a t i o n B o a r d , T h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f S c h o o l s o f A r t a n d D e s i g n , a n d t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f S c h o o l s o f M u s i c . U A H r a n k s 2 6 3 r d a m o n g " N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t i e s " a n d N o . 1 2 8 f o r " T o p P u b l i c S c h o o l s " i n t h e 2 0 2 0 " U . S . N e w s & W o r l d R e p o r t " " B e s t C o l l e g e s " r e p o r t . U A H s p o n s o r s s i x m e n ' s a n d s e v e n w o m e n ' s v a r s i t y a t h l e t i c s p r o g r a m s . I n 2 0 1 6 , U A H a d d e d m e n ' s a n d w o m e n ' s l a c r o s s e t o i t s v a r s i t y a t h l e t i c p r o g r a m s . U A H i s a m e m b e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o l l e g i a t e A t h l e t i c s A s s o c i a t i o n ( N C A A ) , c o m p e t i n g i n D i v i s i o n I I i n 1 5 s p o r t s a n d D i v i s i o n I i n m e n ' s i c e h o c k e y . U A H i s a m e m b e r o f t h e G u l f S o u t h C o n f e r e n c e i n a l l s p o r t s e x c e p t h o c k e y , w h i c h p l a y e d i n t h e W e s t e r n C o l l e g i a t e H o c k e y A s s o c i a t i o n , a n d m e n ' s l a c r o s s e ( P e a c h B e l t C o n f e r e n c e ) . B o t h m e n ' s a n d w o m e n ' s t e n n i s p r o g r a m s w e r e d i s c o n t i n u e d i n J u n e 2 0 2 0 d u e t o f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s f r o m C O V I D - 1 9 . A f t e r a p r i v a t e l y f u n d e d 2 0 2 0 - 2 0 2 1 s e a s o n , t h e m e n ' s h o c k e y p r o g r a m w a s a l s o d i s c o n t i n u e d i n M a y 2 0 2 1 . T h e U A H S t u d e n t G o v e r n m e n t A s s o c i a t i o n i s t h e p r i m a r y r e c i p i e n t o f s t u d e n t - a c t i v i t y f u n d i n g f r o m U A H ' s O f f i c e o f S t u d e n t L i f e ; t h e S p a c e H a r d w a r e C l u b , a r e g i s t e r e d s t u d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h e C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g i s t h e s e c o n d a r y r e c i p i e n t . T h e S G A h o l d s a n a d v i s o r y r o l e w i t h c a m p u s a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o n a c t i v i t i e s i n v o l v i n g s t u d e n t s . T h e S G A h o s t s a n u m b e r o f e v e n t s i n c l u d i n g W e e k o f W e l c o m e , a b i - a n n u a l e v e n t w e l c o m i n g s t u d e n t s b a c k t o c a m p u s t h a t b e g i n s t h e w e e k e n d t h e y a r r i v e o n c a m p u s a n d r u n s t h r o u g h t h e f i r s t w e e k o f e a c h s e m e s t e r . U A H h a s s e v e n r e s i d e n c e h a l l s : B e v i l l C e n t e r , C e n t r a l C a m p u s , C h a r g e r V i l l a g e A d d i t i o n , C h a r g e r V i l l a g e O r i g i n a l , F r a n k F r a n z , N o r t h C a m p u s , a n d S o u t h e a s t . C e n t r a l C a m p u s , F r a n k F r a n z , a n d N o r t h a r e r e s e r v e d f o r f i r s t - t i m e f r e s h m e n . F r a n k F r a n z H a l l i s r e s e r v e d f o r F i r s t t i m e H o n o r s C o l l e g e s t u d e n t s . C h a r g e r V i l l a g e A d d i t i o n a n d C h a r g e r V i l l a g e O r i g i n a l a r e r e s e r v e d f o r s o p h o m o r e s , w h e r e a s u p p e r c l a s s s t u d e n t s h a v e t h e o p t i o n o f l i v i n g a t t h e o t h e r r e s i d e n c e h a l l s . C a m p u s h o u s i n g o r i g i n a t e d w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f S o u t h e a s t C a m p u s H o u s i n g . T h e s e s u i t e s w e r e o r i g i n a l l y b u i l t u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e l a t e D r . B e n j a m i n G r a v e s , t h e f i r s t P r e s i d e n t o f U A H , w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e l a t e A l a b a m a S e n a t o r J o h n S p a r k m a n . U A H i s h o m e t o t h e f o l l o w i n g f r a t e r n i t i e s a n d s o r o r i t i e s . M o s t G r e e k o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e n t a f r a t e r n i t y o r s o r o r i t y h o u s e f r o m t h e u n i v e r s i t y . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l h o u s e s w a s m a d e p o s s i b l e b y d o n a t i o n s f r o m M a r k a n d L i n d a S m i t h a n d J i m a n d S u s i e H u d s o n . T h e A s s o c i a t i o n f o r C a m p u s E n t e r t a i n m e n t ( A C E ) i s a s t u d e n t r u n a n d o p e r a t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t h o s t s w e e k l y e v e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e a c a d e m i c y e a r a s w e l l a s s t a n d i n g p r o g r a m s s u c h a s F r i d a y N i g h t F l i c k s , S u n d a y C i n e m a , L a t e - N i g h t B r e a k f a s t , a n d A C E W e d n e s d a y . N o t a b l e g u e s t s i n c l u d e D a n i e l T o s h a n d R e c y c l e d P e r c u s s i o n . U A H h a s m o r e t h a n 1 5 0 s t u d e n t - r u n o r g a n i z a t i o n s o n c a m p u s . T e a m U A H i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y r e n o w n e d f o r i t s a w a r d - w i n n i n g c o n c r e t e c a n o e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p e t i t i o n t e a m a n d i s t h e c u r r e n t r e c o r d h o l d e r w i t h f i v e n a t i o n a l t i t l e s i n 1 9 9 3 , 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 6 , 1 9 9 8 , a n d 2 0 0 1 . T h e N a t i o n a l C o n c r e t e C a n o e C o m p e t i t i o n i s s p o n s o r e d a n n u a l l y b y t h e A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s . T h e U A H A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r s s t u d e n t c h a p t e r a l s o c o m p e t e s i n t h e a n n u a l N A S A H u m a n E x p l o r a t i o n R o v e r C h a l l e n g e . I t c u r r e n t l y h o l d s t w o c h a m p i o n s h i p t i t l e s . T h e U A H S p a c e H a r d w a r e C l u b c o n c e p t u a l i z e s , d e s i g n s , b u i l d s , t e s t s , a n d f l i e s h a r d w a r e f o r h i g h - a l t i t u d e b a l l o o n s , s a t e l l i t e s ( C h a r g e r S a t P r o g r a m ) , t h e C a n S a t c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d h i g h - p o w e r e d r o c k e t r y . M e m b e r s m u s t m a i n t a i n a G P A o f 3 . 0 t o p a r t i c i p a t e . T h e S t u d e n t S u c c e s s C e n t e r ( S S C ) o f f e r s t u t o r i n g f o r n e a r l y a l l f r e s h m a n - a n d s o p h o m o r e - l e v e l c o u r s e s o f f e r e d a t U A H . A d d i t i o n a l t u t o r i n g i s a v a i l a b l e f o r m a t h c o u r s e s o n l i n e a n d i n p e r s o n . T h e S S C r e c r u i t s u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s f o r i t s P A S S ( P e e r A s s i s t e d S t u d y S e s s i o n s ) p r o g r a m , i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s s i t i n o n c o u r s e s t h a t t h e y h a v e a l r e a d y s u c c e e d e d i n , a n d o f f e r s c l a s s - s p e c i f i c s t u d y s e s s i o n s o u t s i d e o f c l a s s , u s u a l l y 3 h o u r s p e r w e e k . H i s t o r i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t f r e s h m a n c o u r s e s a r e t a r g e t e d f o r P A S S , i n c l u d i n g c a l c u l u s , c h e m i s t r y , a n d e c o n o m i c s . T h e C o l l e g e o f S c i e n c e h o u s e s t h e A l a b a m a H i g h F i e l d N u c l e a r M a g n e t i c R e s o n a n c e ( N M R ) C e n t e r , w h i c h i s d e d i c a t e d t o p r o v i d i n g m o d e r n h i g h f i e l d N M R c a p a b i l i t i e s t o a c a d e m i c a n d c o r p o r a t e r e s e a r c h e r s i n t h e s t a t e o f A l a b a m a a n d s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s . U A H ' s E a r t h S y s t e m S c i e n c e C e n t e r i s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y s t u d y o f t h e E a r t h a s a n i n t e g r a t e d s y s t e m w i t h a n e m p h a s i s o n s p a c e - a n d g r o u n d - b a s e d r e m o t e s e n s i n g d a t a . U A H ' s D e p a r t m e n t o f B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s p a r t n e r s w i t h t h e D a u p h i n I s l a n d S e a L a b t o o f f e r r e s e a r c h o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o U A H s t u d e n t s t h r o u g h t h e M a r i n e E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e s C o n s o r t i u m . U A H ' s P s y c h o l o g y D e p a r t m e n t h a s e i g h t r e s e a r c h l a b s : L i f e l o n g L e a r n i n g , M e m o r y a n d C o g n i t i o n , P e r s o n a l i t y T e s t i n g a n d A s s e s s m e n t , P r i v a c y i n C y b e r s p a c e , P s y c h o b i o l o g y , T e a m w o r k a n d S o c i a l C o g n i t i o n , E m p l o y e e E n g a g e m e n t a n d P r o d u c t i v i t y , a n d L e a d e r s h i p a n d O r g a n i z a t i o n a l B e h a v i o r . U A H ' s P r o p u l s i o n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r c o n n e c t s t h e a c a d e m i c r e s e a r c h c o m m u n i t y a n d t h e p r o p u l s i o n c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s : a e r o s p a c e m a t e r i a l s a n d s t r u c t u r e s , c o m p u t a t i o n a l m o d e l i n g , e n e r g y a n d p o w e r s y s t e m s , f u s i o n p r o p u l s i o n a n d p o w e r , p l a s m a s a n d c o m b u s t i o n , p r o p e l l a n t s a n d e n e r g e t i c s , a n d p r o p u l s i o n s y s t e m s i n t e g r a t i o n . U A H ' s C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g i s h o m e t o t h e f o l l o w i n g l a b s : U A H ' s K i n e s i o l o g y R e s e a r c h L a b , l o c a t e d i n t h e C o l l e g e o f E d u c a t i o n , h a s a n u n d e r w a t e r t r e a d m i l l t h a t e n a b l e s s t u d e n t s t o c o n d u c t a q u a t i c e x e r c i s e r e s e a r c h o n a d u l t s w i t h t y p e 2 d i a b e t e s a n d l o w e r - l i m b a m p u t a t i o n . S W I R L L ( S e v e r e W e a t h e r I n s t i t u t e – R a d a r a n d L i g h t n i n g L a b o r a t o r i e s ) i s a c o r e r e s e a r c h f a c i l i t y d e d i c a t e d t o r e s e a r c h o n s e v e r e a n d h a z a r d o u s w e a t h e r , r a d a r m e t e o r o l o g y , l i g h t n i n g m e t e o r o l o g y , l i g h t n i n g p h y s i c s , a n d a i r q u a l i t y . I t c o m p r i s e s a r e s e a r c h o p e r a t i o n s c e n t e r w i t h m u l t i p l e w o r k s t a t i o n s , a h i g h b a y u s e d f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e a n d f a b r i c a t i o n o f c o m p r e h e n s i v e m o b i l e p l a t f o r m s a n d o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t s , a s o u n d i n g p r e p a r a t i o n l a b , a n d f i v e r o o f p l a t f o r m s t o s u p p o r t i n s t r u m e n t t e s t i n g a n d d a t a c o l l e c t i o n . U A H ' s L e a r n i n g a n d T e c h n o l o g y R e s o u r c e C e n t e r , l o c a t e d i n t h e C o l l e g e o f N u r s i n g , o f f e r s h i g h - t e c h , h a n d s - o n c l i n i c a l e x p e r i e n c e t h a n k s t o i t s h i g h - f i d e l i t y s i m u l a t o r s , t e l e h e a l t h r o b o t s , a n d l a b o r a t o r y s p a c e s . U A H ' s E a r l y L e a r n i n g C e n t e r , a n o u t r e a c h a n d s e r v i c e u n i t o f t h e C o l l e g e o f E d u c a t i o n , p r o v i d e s i n c l u s i v e e a r l y c h i l d h o o d e d u c a t i o n f o r c h i l d r e n i n d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e c l a s s r o o m s .

History

The University of Alabama in Huntsville (UAH) has a rich history dating back to 1968 when it was established as a branch of the University of Alabama. Over the years, UAH has grown into an independent and autonomous campus, with notable achievements in various fields such as space exploration, cybersecurity, and digital animation. The university has a strong focus on STEM education and research, with partnerships with NASA and the US Army Aviation and Missile Command. UAH has a diverse range of student organizations, clubs, and sports teams, offering a vibrant campus life. The university is known for its academic excellence, with many of its programs ranking highly nationally.

were awarded in May 1968 as part of the spring commencement ceremony at The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, (although a "cap and gown" ceremony was held in Huntsville). One year later, the University of Alabama System Board of Trustees voted to make UAH an independent and autonomous campus. Dr. Benjamin Graves, a 1942 graduate of the University of Mississippi and president of Millsaps College in Jackson, Mississippi, was tapped as UAH's first president in 1970. He returned to faculty status in 1979 and retired in 1989. The first degree awarded for work completed entirely on the UAH campus was awarded to Julian Palmore in 1964. Mr. Palmore was at the time a United States Navy ensign assigned to NASA's Research Projects Division. The first official on-campus graduation ceremony at UAH was in June 1970. The first woman to earn a Ph.D. from UAH was Virginia Kobler in 1979, in Industrial Engineering. UAH's second president, Dr. John Wright, former Vice Chancellor of the West Virginia University, served from 1979 to 1988. UAH's third president was Dr. Louis Padulo, former Stanford professor and dean of engineering of Boston University. Huntsville leader Joseph Moquin took over the UAH presidency on an interim basis in 1990. Dr. Frank Franz, who was then provost at West Virginia University, was chosen as UAH's fourth president. His wife, Dr. Judy Franz, accompanied him and was granted full professorship in the physics faculty. Her renown in the scientific community was reaffirmed when she was named executive officer of the American Physical Society in 1994. cybersecurity, and digital animation. The first "commercial" non-rocketry programs (Consort and Joust) in the U.S. were managed by UAH scientists, the first "high-temperature" superconductor was discovered at UAH, and the first U.S. experiment flown aboard the Soviet Mir Space Station was from UAH. UAH is a Space Grant university and has a history of cooperation with NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center and the U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command at Redstone Arsenal. In conjunction with helping NASA reach its goals, UAH makes NASA's research and technology available to all of Alabama's colleges and universities. The National Space Science and Technology Center is one of 17 high-tech research centers on UAH 505-acre campus. The UAH Propulsion Research Center (PRC) promotes interdisciplinary research opportunities for graduate and undergraduate students. The COVID-19. After a privately funded 2020-2021 season, the men's hockey program was also discontinued in May 2021. The UAH Student Government Association is the primary recipient of student-activity funding from UAH's Office of Student Life; the Space Hardware Club, a registered student organization in the College of Engineering is the secondary recipient. The SGA holds an advisory role with campus administrators on activities involving students. The SGA hosts a number of events including Week of Welcome, a bi-annual event welcoming students back to campus that begins the weekend they arrive on campus and runs through the first week of each semester. UAH has seven residence halls: Bevill Center, Central Campus, Charger Village Addition, Charger Village Original, Frank Franz, North Campus, and Southeast. Central Campus, Frank Franz, and North are reserved for first-time freshmen. Frank Franz Hall is reserved for First time Honors College students. Charger Village Addition and Charger Village Original are reserved for sophomores, whereas upperclass students have the option of living at the other residence halls. Campus housing originated with the construction of Southeast Campus Housing. These suites were originally built under the auspices of the late Dr. Benjamin Graves, the first President of UAH, with the assistance of the late Alabama Senator John Sparkman. UAH is home to the following fraternities and sororities. Most Greek organizations rent a fraternity or sorority house from the university. Construction of the original houses was made possible by donations from Mark and Linda Smith and Jim and Susie Hudson. The Association for Campus Entertainment (ACE) is a student run and operated organization that hosts weekly events throughout the academic year as well as standing programs such as Friday Night Flicks, Sunday Cinema, Late-Night Breakfast, and ACE Wednesday. Notable guests include Daniel Tosh and Recycled Percussion. UAH has more than 150 student-run organizations on campus. Team UAH is internationally renowned for its award-winning concrete canoe construction competition team and is the current record holder with five national titles in 1993, 1994, 1996, 1998, and 2001. The National Concrete Canoe Competition is sponsored annually by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The UAH American Society of Mechanical Engineers student chapter also competes in the annual NASA Human Exploration Rover Challenge. It currently holds two championship titles. The UAH Space Hardware Club conceptualizes, designs, builds, tests, and flies hardware for high-altitude balloons, satellites (ChargerSat Program), the CanSat competition, and high-powered rocketry. Members must maintain a GPA of 3.0 to participate. The Student Success Center (SSC) offers tutoring for nearly all freshman- and sophomore-level courses offered at UAH. Additional tutoring is available for math courses online and in person. The SSC recruits university students for its PASS (Peer Assisted Study Sessions) program, in which students sit in on courses that they have already succeeded in, and offers class-specific study sessions outside of class, usually 3 hours per week. Historically difficult freshman courses are targeted for PASS, including calculus, chemistry, and economics. The College of Science houses the Alabama High Field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Center, which is dedicated to providing modern high field NMR capabilities to academic and corporate researchers in the state of Alabama and surrounding areas. UAH's Earth System Science Center is dedicated to the interdisciplinary study of the Earth as an integrated system with an emphasis on space- and ground-based remote sensing data. UAH's Department of Biological Sciences partners with the Dauphin Island Sea Lab to offer research opportunities to UAH students through the Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium. UAH's Psychology Department has eight research labs: Lifelong Learning, Memory and Cognition, Personality Testing and Assessment, Privacy in Cyberspace, Psychobiology, Teamwork and Social Cognition, Employee Engagement and Productivity, and Leadership and Organizational Behavior. UAH's Propulsion Research Center connects the academic research community and the propulsion community through interdisciplinary collaboration in the following areas: aerospace materials and structures, computational modeling, energy and power systems, fusion

University of Alabama in Huntsville

T h e g e n e s i s f o r a p u b l i c l y f u n d e d i n s t i t u t i o n o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n H u n t s v i l l e w a s y e a r s i n t h e m a k i n g . B e g i n n i n g i n J a n u a r y 1 9 5 0 a s a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l a b a m a a n d k n o w n a s t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l a b a m a H u n t s v i l l e C e n t e r , c l a s s e s w e r e f i r s t t a u g h t a t W e s t H u n t s v i l l e H i g h S c h o o l . H o w e v e r , t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s d i r e c t i o n c h a n g e d i n 1 9 6 1 , w h e n W e r n h e r v o n B r a u n , a G e r m a n r o c k e t s c i e n t i s t b r o u g h t t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s u n d e r O p e r a t i o n P a p e r c l i p a f t e r w o r k i n g f o r t h e N a z i r e g i m e , h e l p e d c r e a t e a r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e t o p r o v i d e a d v a n c e d e n g i n e e r i n g a n d s c i e n c e c u r r i c u l a t o N A S A s c i e n t i s t s a n d e n g i n e e r s . T h i s i n s t i t u t e w a s b u i l t r i g h t o f f o f U S 7 2 w h i c h w a s r e n a m e d t o U n i v e r s i t y D r i v e q u i c k l y a f t e r . T h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r s , t h e c a m p u s e x p a n d e d s o u t h a l o n g S p a r k m a n D r i v e t o r e a c h I n t e r s t a t e 5 6 5 . U A H ' s f i r s t u n d e r g r a d u a t e d e g r e e s w e r e a w a r d e d i n M a y 1 9 6 8 a s p a r t o f t h e s p r i n g c o m m e n c e m e n t c e r e m o n y a t T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l a b a m a , T u s c a l o o s a , ( a l t h o u g h a " c a p a n d g o w n " c e r e m o n y w a s h e l d i n H u n t s v i l l e ) . O n e y e a r l a t e r , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l a b a m a S y s t e m B o a r d o f T r u s t e e s v o t e d t o m a k e U A H a n i n d e p e n d e n t a n d a u t o n o m o u s c a m p u s . D r . B e n j a m i n G r a v e s , a 1 9 4 2 g r a d u a t e o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s i s s i p p i a n d p r e s i d e n t o f M i l l s a p s C o l l e g e i n J a c k s o n , M i s s i s s i p p i , w a s t a p p e d a s U A H ' s f i r s t p r e s i d e n t i n 1 9 7 0 . H e r e t u r n e d t o f a c u l t y s t a t u s i n 1 9 7 9 a n d r e t i r e d i n 1 9 8 9 . T h e f i r s t d e g r e e a w a r d e d f o r w o r k c o m p l e t e d e n t i r e l y o n t h e U A H c a m p u s w a s a w a r d e d t o J u l i a n P a l m o r e i n 1 9 6 4 . M r . P a l m o r e w a s a t t h e t i m e a U n i t e d S t a t e s N a v y e n s i g n a s s i g n e d t o N A S A ' s R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t s D i v i s i o n . T h e f i r s t o f f i c i a l o n - c a m p u s g r a d u a t i o n c e r e m o n y a t U A H w a s i n J u n e 1 9 7 0 . T h e f i r s t w o m a n t o e a r n a P h . D . f r o m U A H w a s V i r g i n i a K o b l e r i n 1 9 7 9 , i n I n d u s t r i a l E n g i n e e r i n g . U A H ' s s e c o n d p r e s i d e n t , D r . J o h n W r i g h t , f o r m e r V i c e C h a n c e l l o r o f t h e W e s t V i r g i n i a U n i v e r s i t y , s e r v e d f r o m 1 9 7 9 t o 1 9 8 8 . U A H ' s t h i r d p r e s i d e n t w a s D r . L o u i s P a d u l o , f o r m e r S t a n f o r d p r o f e s s o r a n d d e a n o f e n g i n e e r i n g o f B o s t o n U n i v e r s i t y . H u n t s v i l l e l e a d e r J o s e p h M o q u i n t o o k o v e r t h e U A H p r e s i d e n c y o n a n i n t e r i m b a s i s i n 1 9 9 0 . D r . F r a n k F r a n z , w h o w a s t h e n p r o v o s t a t W e s t V i r g i n i a U n i v e r s i t y , w a s c h o s e n a s U A H ' s f o u r t h p r e s i d e n t . H i s w i f e , D r . J u d y F r a n z , a c c o m p a n i e d h i m a n d w a s g r a n t e d f u l l p r o f e s s o r s h i p i n t h e p h y s i c s f a c u l t y . H e r r e n o w n i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c c o m m u n i t y w a s r e a f f i r m e d w h e n s h e w a s n a m e d e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r o f t h e A m e r i c a n P h y s i c a l S o c i e t y i n 1 9 9 4 . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 2 0 0 6 – 2 0 0 7 a c a d e m i c y e a r , D r . F r a n z a n n o u n c e d h i s p l a n t o s t e p d o w n a s p r e s i d e n t a f t e r t h a t y e a r . O n J u l y 1 , 2 0 0 7 , D r . D a v i d B . W i l l i a m s , f o r m e r l y a p r o f e s s o r o f m a t e r i a l s s c i e n c e a n d e n g i n e e r i n g a n d t h e v i c e p r o v o s t f o r r e s e a r c h a t L e h i g h U n i v e r s i t y , b e g a n s e r v i n g a s U A H ' s f i f t h p r e s i d e n t . H e l e f t i n 2 0 1 1 t o j o i n O h i o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y a s d e a n o f e n g i n e e r i n g . T h e u n i v e r s i t y b r i e f l y g a i n e d n a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n i n F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 0 w h e n a p r o f e s s o r k i l l e d t h r e e p e o p l e a n d w o u n d e d t h r e e o t h e r s d u r i n g a f a c u l t y m e e t i n g . D r . R o b e r t A l t e n k i r c h w a s h i r e d a s t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s s i x t h p r e s i d e n t i n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 1 . D r . A l t e n k i r c h s e r v e d a s p r e s i d e n t o f t h e N e w J e r s e y I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y f o r n i n e y e a r s b e f o r e j o i n i n g U A H . I n 2 0 1 9 , D r . D a r r e n D a w s o n , f o r m e r d e a n o f t h e C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g a t K a n s a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , b e c a m e U A H ' s s e v e n t h p r e s i d e n t . D r . D a w s o n a n n o u n c e d h i s r e t i r e m e n t i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 2 1 , a n d D r . C h a r l e s L . K a r r , f o r m e r d e a n o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l a b a m a ' s C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g , w a s n a m e d i n t e r i m p r e s i d e n t . U A H o f f e r s 8 9 d e g r e e - g r a n t i n g p r o g r a m s , i n c l u d i n g 4 4 b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e p r o g r a m s , 3 0 m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e p r o g r a m s , a n d 1 5 P h D p r o g r a m s t h r o u g h i t s n i n e c o l l e g e s : a r t s , h u m a n i t i e s & s o c i a l s c i e n c e s ; b u s i n e s s ; e d u c a t i o n ; e n g i n e e r i n g ; h o n o r s ; n u r s i n g ; p r o f e s s i o n a l & c o n t i n u i n g s t u d i e s ; s c i e n c e ; a n d g r a d u a t e . N u r s i n g i s U A H ' s l a r g e s t s i n g l e m a j o r , a l t h o u g h E n g i n e e r i n g i s t h e l a r g e s t c o l l e g e . T h e r e i s a l s o a n H o n o r s C o l l e g e t h a t o f f e r s a n e n r i c h e d a c a d e m i c a n d c o m m u n i t y e x p e r i e n c e f o r u n d e r g r a d u a t e s i n a l l d i s c i p l i n e s . N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y g i v e n H u n t s v i l l e ' s t e c h n o l o g y - b a s e d e c o n o m y , U A H i s k n o w n f o r e n g i n e e r i n g a n d s c i e n c e p r o g r a m s , i n c l u d i n g a s t r o p h y s i c s , a t m o s p h e r i c s c i e n c e , a e r o s p a c e e n g i n e e r i n g , c y b e r s e c u r i t y , a n d d i g i t a l a n i m a t i o n . T h e f i r s t " c o m m e r c i a l " n o n - r o c k e t r y p r o g r a m s ( C o n s o r t a n d J o u s t ) i n t h e U . S . w e r e m a n a g e d b y U A H s c i e n t i s t s , t h e f i r s t " h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e " s u p e r c o n d u c t o r w a s d i s c o v e r e d a t U A H , a n d t h e f i r s t U . S . e x p e r i m e n t f l o w n a b o a r d t h e S o v i e t M i r S p a c e S t a t i o n w a s f r o m U A H . U A H i s a S p a c e G r a n t u n i v e r s i t y a n d h a s a h i s t o r y o f c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h N A S A ' s M a r s h a l l S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r a n d t h e U . S . A r m y A v i a t i o n a n d M i s s i l e C o m m a n d a t R e d s t o n e A r s e n a l . I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h h e l p i n g N A S A r e a c h i t s g o a l s , U A H m a k e s N A S A ' s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y a v a i l a b l e t o a l l o f A l a b a m a ' s c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h e N a t i o n a l S p a c e S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y C e n t e r i s o n e o f 1 7 h i g h - t e c h r e s e a r c h c e n t e r s o n U A H 5 0 5 - a c r e c a m p u s . T h e U A H P r o p u l s i o n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r ( P R C ) p r o m o t e s i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y r e s e a r c h o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r g r a d u a t e a n d u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s . T h e P R C w a s f o u n d e d b y D r . C l a r k W . H a w k i n 1 9 9 1 a n d h a s s i n c e p r o v i d e d s u p p o r t f o r N A S A , t h e U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e ( D o D ) , a n d t h e U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y . R e s e a r c h t o p i c s i n c l u d e a i r - b r e a t h i n g a n d e l e c t r i c p r o p u l s i o n ; s o l i d , l i q u i d & h y b r i d p r o p e l l a n t c o m b u s t i o n ; m a g n e t o i n e r t i a l f u s i o n ; h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e m a t e r i a l s ; a n d s p a c e a n d t e r r e s t r i a l p o w e r s y s t e m s . R e s e a r c h i n n a n o t e c h n o l o g y a n d m i c r o f a b r i c a t i o n i s c o n d u c t e d b y t h e N a n o a n d M i c r o D e v i c e s C e n t e r . A t m o s p h e r i c S c i e n c e s a n d r e l a t e d r e s e a r c h a r e a s a r e h e a d q u a r t e r e d i n t h e N S S T C a n d S W I R L L b u i l d i n g s . A t l e a s t n i n e d e p a r t m e n t s o r p r o g r a m s a l s o h o l d a c c r e d i t a t i o n f r o m p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e A c c r e d i t a t i o n B o a r d f o r E n g i n e e r i n g a n d T e c h n o l o g y , t h e A m e r i c a n A s s e m b l y o f C o l l e g i a t e S c h o o l s o f B u s i n e s s , t h e A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y , t h e C o m m i s s i o n o n C o l l e g i a t e N u r s i n g E d u c a t i o n , t h e C o m p u t i n g S c i e n c e s A c c r e d i t a t i o n B o a r d , T h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f S c h o o l s o f A r t a n d D e s i g n , a n d t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f S c h o o l s o f M u s i c . U A H r a n k s 2 6 3 r d a m o n g " N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t i e s " a n d N o . 1 2 8 f o r " T o p P u b l i c S c h o o l s " i n t h e 2 0 2 0 " U . S . N e w s & W o r l d R e p o r t " " B e s t C o l l e g e s " r e p o r t . U A H s p o n s o r s s i x m e n ' s a n d s e v e n w o m e n ' s v a r s i t y a t h l e t i c s p r o g r a m s . I n 2 0 1 6 , U A H a d d e d m e n ' s a n d w o m e n ' s l a c r o s s e t o i t s v a r s i t y a t h l e t i c p r o g r a m s . U A H i s a m e m b e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o l l e g i a t e A t h l e t i c s A s s o c i a t i o n ( N C A A ) , c o m p e t i n g i n D i v i s i o n I I i n 1 5 s p o r t s a n d D i v i s i o n I i n m e n ' s i c e h o c k e y . U A H i s a m e m b e r o f t h e G u l f S o u t h C o n f e r e n c e i n a l l s p o r t s e x c e p t h o c k e y , w h i c h p l a y e d i n t h e W e s t e r n C o l l e g i a t e H o c k e y A s s o c i a t i o n , a n d m e n ' s l a c r o s s e ( P e a c h B e l t C o n f e r e n c e ) . B o t h m e n ' s a n d w o m e n ' s t e n n i s p r o g r a m s w e r e d i s c o n t i n u e d i n J u n e 2 0 2 0 d u e t o f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s f r o m C O V I D - 1 9 . A f t e r a p r i v a t e l y f u n d e d 2 0 2 0 - 2 0 2 1 s e a s o n , t h e m e n ' s h o c k e y p r o g r a m w a s a l s o d i s c o n t i n u e d i n M a y 2 0 2 1 . T h e U A H S t u d e n t G o v e r n m e n t A s s o c i a t i o n i s t h e p r i m a r y r e c i p i e n t o f s t u d e n t - a c t i v i t y f u n d i n g f r o m U A H ' s O f f i c e o f S t u d e n t L i f e ; t h e S p a c e H a r d w a r e C l u b , a r e g i s t e r e d s t u d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h e C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g i s t h e s e c o n d a r y r e c i p i e n t . T h e S G A h o l d s a n a d v i s o r y r o l e w i t h c a m p u s a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o n a c t i v i t i e s i n v o l v i n g s t u d e n t s . T h e S G A h o s t s a n u m b e r o f e v e n t s i n c l u d i n g W e e k o f W e l c o m e , a b i - a n n u a l e v e n t w e l c o m i n g s t u d e n t s b a c k t o c a m p u s t h a t b e g i n s t h e w e e k e n d t h e y a r r i v e o n c a m p u s a n d r u n s t h r o u g h t h e f i r s t w e e k o f e a c h s e m e s t e r . U A H h a s s e v e n r e s i d e n c e h a l l s : B e v i l l C e n t e r , C e n t r a l C a m p u s , C h a r g e r V i l l a g e A d d i t i o n , C h a r g e r V i l l a g e O r i g i n a l , F r a n k F r a n z , N o r t h C a m p u s , a n d S o u t h e a s t . C e n t r a l C a m p u s , F r a n k F r a n z , a n d N o r t h a r e r e s e r v e d f o r f i r s t - t i m e f r e s h m e n . F r a n k F r a n z H a l l i s r e s e r v e d f o r F i r s t t i m e H o n o r s C o l l e g e s t u d e n t s . C h a r g e r V i l l a g e A d d i t i o n a n d C h a r g e r V i l l a g e O r i g i n a l a r e r e s e r v e d f o r s o p h o m o r e s , w h e r e a s u p p e r c l a s s s t u d e n t s h a v e t h e o p t i o n o f l i v i n g a t t h e o t h e r r e s i d e n c e h a l l s . C a m p u s h o u s i n g o r i g i n a t e d w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f S o u t h e a s t C a m p u s H o u s i n g . T h e s e s u i t e s w e r e o r i g i n a l l y b u i l t u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e l a t e D r . B e n j a m i n G r a v e s , t h e f i r s t P r e s i d e n t o f U A H , w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e l a t e A l a b a m a S e n a t o r J o h n S p a r k m a n . U A H i s h o m e t o t h e f o l l o w i n g f r a t e r n i t i e s a n d s o r o r i t i e s . M o s t G r e e k o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e n t a f r a t e r n i t y o r s o r o r i t y h o u s e f r o m t h e u n i v e r s i t y . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l h o u s e s w a s m a d e p o s s i b l e b y d o n a t i o n s f r o m M a r k a n d L i n d a S m i t h a n d J i m a n d S u s i e H u d s o n . T h e A s s o c i a t i o n f o r C a m p u s E n t e r t a i n m e n t ( A C E ) i s a s t u d e n t r u n a n d o p e r a t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t h o s t s w e e k l y e v e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e a c a d e m i c y e a r a s w e l l a s s t a n d i n g p r o g r a m s s u c h a s F r i d a y N i g h t F l i c k s , S u n d a y C i n e m a , L a t e - N i g h t B r e a k f a s t , a n d A C E W e d n e s d a y . N o t a b l e g u e s t s i n c l u d e D a n i e l T o s h a n d R e c y c l e d P e r c u s s i o n . U A H h a s m o r e t h a n 1 5 0 s t u d e n t - r u n o r g a n i z a t i o n s o n c a m p u s . T e a m U A H i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y r e n o w n e d f o r i t s a w a r d - w i n n i n g c o n c r e t e c a n o e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p e t i t i o n t e a m a n d i s t h e c u r r e n t r e c o r d h o l d e r w i t h f i v e n a t i o n a l t i t l e s i n 1 9 9 3 , 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 6 , 1 9 9 8 , a n d 2 0 0 1 . T h e N a t i o n a l C o n c r e t e C a n o e C o m p e t i t i o n i s s p o n s o r e d a n n u a l l y b y t h e A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s . T h e U A H A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r s s t u d e n t c h a p t e r a l s o c o m p e t e s i n t h e a n n u a l N A S A H u m a n E x p l o r a t i o n R o v e r C h a l l e n g e . I t c u r r e n t l y h o l d s t w o c h a m p i o n s h i p t i t l e s . T h e U A H S p a c e H a r d w a r e C l u b c o n c e p t u a l i z e s , d e s i g n s , b u i l d s , t e s t s , a n d f l i e s h a r d w a r e f o r h i g h - a l t i t u d e b a l l o o n s , s a t e l l i t e s ( C h a r g e r S a t P r o g r a m ) , t h e C a n S a t c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d h i g h - p o w e r e d r o c k e t r y . M e m b e r s m u s t m a i n t a i n a G P A o f 3 . 0 t o p a r t i c i p a t e . T h e S t u d e n t S u c c e s s C e n t e r ( S S C ) o f f e r s t u t o r i n g f o r n e a r l y a l l f r e s h m a n - a n d s o p h o m o r e - l e v e l c o u r s e s o f f e r e d a t U A H . A d d i t i o n a l t u t o r i n g i s a v a i l a b l e f o r m a t h c o u r s e s o n l i n e a n d i n p e r s o n . T h e S S C r e c r u i t s u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s f o r i t s P A S S ( P e e r A s s i s t e d S t u d y S e s s i o n s ) p r o g r a m , i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s s i t i n o n c o u r s e s t h a t t h e y h a v e a l r e a d y s u c c e e d e d i n , a n d o f f e r s c l a s s - s p e c i f i c s t u d y s e s s i o n s o u t s i d e o f c l a s s , u s u a l l y 3 h o u r s p e r w e e k . H i s t o r i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t f r e s h m a n c o u r s e s a r e t a r g e t e d f o r P A S S , i n c l u d i n g c a l c u l u s , c h e m i s t r y , a n d e c o n o m i c s . T h e C o l l e g e o f S c i e n c e h o u s e s t h e A l a b a m a H i g h F i e l d N u c l e a r M a g n e t i c R e s o n a n c e ( N M R ) C e n t e r , w h i c h i s d e d i c a t e d t o p r o v i d i n g m o d e r n h i g h f i e l d N M R c a p a b i l i t i e s t o a c a d e m i c a n d c o r p o r a t e r e s e a r c h e r s i n t h e s t a t e o f A l a b a m a a n d s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s . U A H ' s E a r t h S y s t e m S c i e n c e C e n t e r i s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y s t u d y o f t h e E a r t h a s a n i n t e g r a t e d s y s t e m w i t h a n e m p h a s i s o n s p a c e - a n d g r o u n d - b a s e d r e m o t e s e n s i n g d a t a . U A H ' s D e p a r t m e n t o f B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s p a r t n e r s w i t h t h e D a u p h i n I s l a n d S e a L a b t o o f f e r r e s e a r c h o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o U A H s t u d e n t s t h r o u g h t h e M a r i n e E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e s C o n s o r t i u m . U A H ' s P s y c h o l o g y D e p a r t m e n t h a s e i g h t r e s e a r c h l a b s : L i f e l o n g L e a r n i n g , M e m o r y a n d C o g n i t i o n , P e r s o n a l i t y T e s t i n g a n d A s s e s s m e n t , P r i v a c y i n C y b e r s p a c e , P s y c h o b i o l o g y , T e a m w o r k a n d S o c i a l C o g n i t i o n , E m p l o y e e E n g a g e m e n t a n d P r o d u c t i v i t y , a n d L e a d e r s h i p a n d O r g a n i z a t i o n a l B e h a v i o r . U A H ' s P r o p u l s i o n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r c o n n e c t s t h e a c a d e m i c r e s e a r c h c o m m u n i t y a n d t h e p r o p u l s i o n c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s : a e r o s p a c e m a t e r i a l s a n d s t r u c t u r e s , c o m p u t a t i o n a l m o d e l i n g , e n e r g y a n d p o w e r s y s t e m s , f u s i o n p r o p u l s i o n a n d p o w e r , p l a s m a s a n d c o m b u s t i o n , p r o p e l l a n t s a n d e n e r g e t i c s , a n d p r o p u l s i o n s y s t e m s i n t e g r a t i o n . U A H ' s C o l l e g e o f E n g i n e e r i n g i s h o m e t o t h e f o l l o w i n g l a b s : U A H ' s K i n e s i o l o g y R e s e a r c h L a b , l o c a t e d i n t h e C o l l e g e o f E d u c a t i o n , h a s a n u n d e r w a t e r t r e a d m i l l t h a t e n a b l e s s t u d e n t s t o c o n d u c t a q u a t i c e x e r c i s e r e s e a r c h o n a d u l t s w i t h t y p e 2 d i a b e t e s a n d l o w e r - l i m b a m p u t a t i o n . S W I R L L ( S e v e r e W e a t h e r I n s t i t u t e – R a d a r a n d L i g h t n i n g L a b o r a t o r i e s ) i s a c o r e r e s e a r c h f a c i l i t y d e d i c a t e d t o r e s e a r c h o n s e v e r e a n d h a z a r d o u s w e a t h e r , r a d a r m e t e o r o l o g y , l i g h t n i n g m e t e o r o l o g y , l i g h t n i n g p h y s i c s , a n d a i r q u a l i t y . I t c o m p r i s e s a r e s e a r c h o p e r a t i o n s c e n t e r w i t h m u l t i p l e w o r k s t a t i o n s , a h i g h b a y u s e d f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e a n d f a b r i c a t i o n o f c o m p r e h e n s i v e m o b i l e p l a t f o r m s a n d o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t s , a s o u n d i n g p r e p a r a t i o n l a b , a n d f i v e r o o f p l a t f o r m s t o s u p p o r t i n s t r u m e n t t e s t i n g a n d d a t a c o l l e c t i o n . U A H ' s L e a r n i n g a n d T e c h n o l o g y R e s o u r c e C e n t e r , l o c a t e d i n t h e C o l l e g e o f N u r s i n g , o f f e r s h i g h - t e c h , h a n d s - o n c l i n i c a l e x p e r i e n c e t h a n k s t o i t s h i g h - f i d e l i t y s i m u l a t o r s , t e l e h e a l t h r o b o t s , a n d l a b o r a t o r y s p a c e s . U A H ' s E a r l y L e a r n i n g C e n t e r , a n o u t r e a c h a n d s e r v i c e u n i t o f t h e C o l l e g e o f E d u c a t i o n , p r o v i d e s i n c l u s i v e e a r l y c h i l d h o o d e d u c a t i o n f o r c h i l d r e n i n d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e c l a s s r o o m s .

Academics

The University of Alabama in Huntsville (UAH) has a rich history dating back to 1968 when it was established as a satellite campus of the University of Alabama. Over the years, it has grown into an independent and autonomous institution, offering a range of undergraduate and graduate programs across various disciplines. The university has a strong focus on STEM fields, particularly engineering and science, and has produced notable alumni in these areas. UAH is also recognized for its research initiatives, including the Alabama High Field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Center, the Earth System Science Center, and the Propulsion Research Center, among others. Additionally, the university has a vibrant campus life, with over 150 student-run organizations and a range of extracurricular activities.

were awarded in May 1968 as part of the spring commencement ceremony at The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, (although a "cap and gown" ceremony was held in Huntsville). One year later, the University of Alabama System Board of Trustees voted to make UAH an independent and autonomous campus. Dr. Benjamin Graves, a 1942 graduate of the University of Mississippi and president of Millsaps College in Jackson, Mississippi, was tapped as UAH's first president in 1970. He returned to faculty status in 1979 and retired in 1989. The first degree awarded for work completed entirely on the UAH campus was awarded to Julian Palmore in 1964. Mr. Palmore was at the time a United States Navy ensign assigned to NASA's Research Projects Division. The first official on-campus graduation ceremony at UAH was in June 1970. The first woman to earn a Ph.D. from UAH was Virginia Kobler in 1979, in Industrial Engineering. UAH's second president, Dr. John Wright, former Vice Chancellor of the West Virginia University, served from 1979 to 1988. UAH's third president was Dr. Louis Padulo, former Stanford professor and dean of engineering of Boston University. Huntsville leader Joseph Moquin took over the UAH presidency on an interim basis in 1990. Dr. Frank Franz, who was then provost at West Virginia University, was chosen as UAH's fourth president. His wife, Dr. Judy Franz, accompanied him and was granted full professorship in the physics faculty. Her renown in the scientific community was reaffirmed when she was named executive officer of the American Physical Society in 1994. At the beginning of the 2006–2007 academic year, Dr. Franz announced his plan to step down as president after that year. On July 1, 2007, Dr. David B. Williams, formerly a professor of materials science and engineering and the vice provost for research at Lehigh University, began serving as UAH's fifth president. He left in 2011 to join Ohio State University as dean of engineering. The university briefly gained national attention in February 2010 when a professor killed three people and wounded three others during a faculty meeting. Dr. Robert Altenkirch was hired as the university's sixth president in September 2011. Dr. Altenkirch served as president of the New Jersey Institute of Technology for nine years before joining UAH. In 2019, Dr. Darren Dawson, former dean of the College of Engineering at Kansas State University, became UAH's seventh president. Dr. Dawson announced his retirement in November 2021, and Dr. Charles L. Karr, former dean of the University of Alabama's College of Engineering, was named interim president. UAH offers 89 degree-granting programs, including 44 bachelor's degree programs, 30 master's degree programs, and 15 PhD programs through its nine colleges: arts, humanities & social sciences; business; education; engineering; honors; nursing; professional & continuing studies; science; and graduate. Nursing is UAH's largest single major, although Engineering is the largest college. There is also an Honors College that offers an enriched academic and community experience for undergraduates in all disciplines. Not surprisingly given Huntsville's technology-based economy, UAH is known for engineering and science programs, including astrophysics, atmospheric science, aerospace engineering, student run and operated organization that hosts weekly events throughout the academic year as well as standing programs such as Friday Night Flicks, Sunday Cinema, Late-Night Breakfast, and ACE Wednesday. Notable guests include Daniel Tosh and Recycled Percussion. UAH has more than 150 student-run organizations on campus. Team UAH is internationally renowned for its award-winning concrete canoe construction competition team and is the current record holder with five national titles in 1993, 1994, 1996, 1998, and 2001. The National Concrete Canoe Competition is sponsored annually by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The UAH American Society of Mechanical Engineers student chapter also competes in the annual NASA Human Exploration Rover Challenge. It currently holds two championship titles. The UAH Space Hardware Club conceptualizes, designs, builds, tests, and flies hardware for high-altitude balloons, satellites (ChargerSat Program), the CanSat competition, and high-powered rocketry. Members must maintain a GPA of 3.0 to participate. The Student Success Center (SSC) offers tutoring for nearly all freshman- and sophomore-level courses offered at UAH. Additional tutoring is available for math courses online and in person. The SSC recruits university students for its PASS (Peer Assisted Study Sessions) program, in which students sit in on courses that they have already succeeded in, and offers class-specific study sessions outside of class, usually 3 hours per week. Historically difficult freshman courses are targeted for PASS, including calculus, chemistry, and economics. The College of Science houses the Alabama High Field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Center, which is dedicated to providing modern high field NMR capabilities to academic and corporate researchers in the state of Alabama and surrounding areas. UAH's Earth System Science Center is dedicated to the interdisciplinary study of the Earth as an integrated system with an emphasis on space- and ground-based remote sensing data. UAH's Department of Biological Sciences partners with the Dauphin Island Sea Lab to offer research opportunities to UAH students through the Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium. UAH's Psychology Department has eight research labs: Lifelong Learning, Memory and Cognition, Personality Testing and Assessment, Privacy in Cyberspace, Psychobiology, Teamwork and Social Cognition, Employee Engagement and Productivity, and Leadership and Organizational Behavior. UAH's Propulsion Research Center connects the academic research community and the propulsion community through interdisciplinary collaboration in the following areas: aerospace materials and structures, computational modeling, energy and power systems, fusion propulsion and power, plasmas and combustion, propellants and energetics, and propulsion systems integration. UAH's College of Engineering is home to the following labs: UAH's Kinesiology Research Lab, located in the College of Education, has an underwater treadmill that enables students to conduct aquatic exercise research on adults with type 2 diabetes and lower-limb amputation. SWIRLL (Severe Weather Institute – Radar and Lightning Laboratories) is a core research facility dedicated to research on severe and hazardous weather, radar meteorology, lightning meteorology, lightning physics, and air quality. It comprises a research operations center with multiple workstations, a high bay used for the maintenance and fabrication of comprehensive mobile platforms and other instruments, a sounding preparation lab, and five roof platforms to support instrument testing and data collection. UAH's Learning and

John Roberts (journalist)

R o b e r t s w a s b o r n i n T o r o n t o , O n t a r i o a n d g r e w u p i n M i s s i s s a u g a , O n t a r i o . H e a t t e n d e d E r i n d a l e S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l a n d L o r n e P a r k S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l a n d l a t e r t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o ' s E r i n d a l e C o l l e g e . R o b e r t s f i r s t s t a r t e d w o r k i n g i n r a d i o a t t h e l o c a l c o l l e g e s t a t i o n , C F R E - F M i n M i s s i s s a u g a . H i s f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l j o b w a s a s r e p o r t e r a n d n e w s a n c h o r w i t h C F O S i n O w e n S o u n d , O n t a r i o i n 1 9 7 5 . F r o m t h e r e , h e w e n t t o C H Y M i n K i t c h e n e r , w h e r e h e w o r k e d a s a n e w s m a n a n d D J , t h e n w o r k e d o n - a i r f o r r a d i o s t a t i o n C J B K i n L o n d o n , O n t a r i o i n 1 9 7 7 , b e f o r e m o v i n g b a c k t o T o r o n t o t o j o i n t o p - 4 0 p o w e r h o u s e C H U M l a t e r t h a t y e a r a s a w e e k d a y e v e n i n g d i s c j o c k e y . 1 0 5 0 C H U M a n d C I T Y - T V g a v e h i m t h e o n - a i r n a m e J . D . R o b e r t s . I n 1 9 7 9 , h e b r a n c h e d o u t f r o m h i s r a d i o w o r k t o c o - h o s t w i t h J e a n n e B e k e r t h e m u s i c n e w s m a g a z i n e " T h e N e w M u s i c " o n C I T Y - T V u n t i l 1 9 8 5 . " T h e N e w M u s i c " w a s a p i o n e e r i n g p r o g r a m t h a t p r e - d a t e d M T V . R o b e r t s , B e k e r a n d t h e " N e w M u s i c " t e a m w o n m a n y a w a r d s f o r t h e i r w o r k . D u r i n g t h a t t i m e , R o b e r t s a l s o s e r v e d a s E n t e r t a i n m e n t r e p o r t e r f o r C I T Y - T V a n d o n o c c a s i o n f i l l e d i n f o r J o h n M a j h o r a n d l a t e r B r a d G i f f e n o n C I T Y - T V ' s l o c a l m u s i c v i d e o s h o w " T o r o n t o R o c k s " . I n 1 9 8 4 , R o b e r t s w a s t a p p e d t o f r o n t C a n a d a ' s m u s i c c h a n n e l M u c h M u s i c . H e a n d C h r i s t o p h e r W a r d w e r e t h e f i r s t o n - a i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s a p p e a r i n g w h e n t h e n e t w o r k l a u n c h e d i n 1 9 8 4 . A t M u c h M u s i c h e h o s t e d m a n y p r o g r a m s , i n c l u d i n g a o n e - h o u r h e a v y m e t a l v i d e o s h o w c a l l e d " T h e P o w e r H o u r " . I n 1 9 8 7 , R o b e r t s l e f t M u c h M u s i c t o a n c h o r C I T Y - T V ' s " C i t y P u l s e " , a n d b e c a m e a n c h o r o f t h e 1 0 p m " C i t y P u l s e T o n i g h t " w h e n A n n e M r o c z k o w s k i m o v e d f r o m a n c h o r i n g t h a t n e w s c a s t t o j o i n G o r d M a r t i n e a u o n t h e 6 p m e d i t i o n . B e t w e e n 1 9 8 9 a n d 1 9 9 0 R o b e r t s w a s a n a n c h o r / r e p o r t e r f o r W C I X ( n o w W F O R - T V ) , t h e C B S - o w n e d a n d o p e r a t e d t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n i n M i a m i , F l o r i d a . R o b e r t s r e t u r n e d t o C a n a d a i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 0 t o c o - h o s t t h e n a t i o n a l C T V m o r n i n g s h o w " C a n a d a A M " , i n i t i a l l y w i t h D e b o r a h M c G r e g o r , a n d l a t e r w i t h P a m e l a W a l l i n . I n 1 9 9 2 , R o b e r t s m o v e d t o C B S N e w s i n N e w Y o r k . H i s i n i t i a l a s s i g n m e n t w a s a n c h o r i n g t h e " C B S M o r n i n g N e w s " w i t h c o - a n c h o r M e r e d i t h V i e i r a . R o b e r t s w a s a l s o t h e n e w s r e a d e r a n d s u b s t i t u t e a n c h o r f o r H a r r y S m i t h o n " C B S T h i s M o r n i n g " a n d " T h e E a r l y S h o w " . F r o m 1 9 9 4 t o 1 9 9 5 R o b e r t s a n c h o r e d t h e 5 p m a n d 1 1 p m n e w s c a s t s a t C B S ' s f l a g s h i p s t a t i o n i n N e w Y o r k , W C B S - T V . I n M a r c h 1 9 9 5 , h e m o v e d b a c k t o t h e C B S N e t w o r k a s a n c h o r o f t h e " C B S S u n d a y E v e n i n g N e w s , " r e m a i n i n g i n t h a t p o s i t i o n f o r n e a r l y 1 1 y e a r s . H e a l s o a n c h o r e d t h e " C B S S a t u r d a y E v e n i n g N e w s " f r o m F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 9 u n t i l h e b e c a m e C B S c h i e f W h i t e H o u s e C o r r e s p o n d e n t i n A u g u s t 1 9 9 9 . R o b e r t s s e r v e d a s c h i e f W h i t e H o u s e C o r r e s p o n d e n t a t C B S f r o m A u g u s t 1 9 9 9 t o F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 6 , a n d r e g u l a r l y a n c h o r e d a S u n d a y - a f t e r n o o n 3 p m E T n e w s c a s t f o r t h e C B S R a d i o N e t w o r k . I n M a r c h 2 0 0 3 , R o b e r t s w a s e m b e d d e d w i t h t h e 2 n d L i g h t A r m o r e d R e c o n n a i s s a n c e B a t t a l i o n o f t h e U . S . M a r i n e s d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l i n v a s i o n o f I r a q . O n J u l y 1 9 , 2 0 0 5 , h e i n t r o d u c e d C B S ' s c o v e r a g e o n t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e n o m i n a t i o n o f J o h n R o b e r t s f o r t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . H e j o k i n g l y a s k e d c o l l e a g u e s t o r e f e r t o h i m a s " Y o u r H o n o r " b e c a u s e h e a n d J u s t i c e R o b e r t s b e a r t h e s a m e n a m e . H e h a d b e e n w i d e l y c o n s i d e r e d a p o t e n t i a l r e p l a c e m e n t f o r " C B S E v e n i n g N e w s " a n c h o r D a n R a t h e r a f t e r R a t h e r s t e p p e d d o w n f r o m t h e a n c h o r d e s k i n M a r c h 2 0 0 5 , b u t B o b S c h i e f f e r w a s c h o s e n o n a n i n t e r i m b a s i s t o b e t h e n e x t " C B S E v e n i n g N e w s " a n c h o r , a n d i n s u b s e q u e n t m o n t h s , i t b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t R o b e r t s w a s n o t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t h e j o b . . D u r i n g h i s t i m e a t C B S , R o b e r t s r e c e i v e d t h r e e n a t i o n a l E m m y a w a r d s a s w e l l a s a G r a c i e a w a r d f o r h i s c o v e r a g e o f a g r o u n d b r e a k i n g s u r g e r y t o r e p a i r n e u r a l t u b e d e f e c t s . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 6 , R o b e r t s l e f t C B S a n d j o i n e d C N N . I n J u l y 2 0 0 6 a n d A u g u s t 2 0 0 6 , R o b e r t s r e p o r t e d f r o m t h e f r o n t l i n e s i n t h e I s r a e l / H e z b o l l a h w a r a n d a t o n e p o i n t , e m b e d d e d w i t h a n I s r a e l i i n f a n t r y u n i t , m a r c h i n g 1 0 m i l e s i n t o L e b a n o n . R o b e r t s w a s r e c o g n i z e d w i t h a H e a d l i n e A w a r d f o r t h a t e m b e d . C N N ' s c o v e r a g e o f t h e w a r w a s r e c o g n i z e d w i t h a n E d w a r d R . M u r r o w A w a r d . I n O c t o b e r 2 0 0 6 , h e r e t u r n e d t o I r a q a s t h e f i r s t a n c h o r o f " T h i s W e e k a t W a r " a n d s e r v e d a s t h e S e n i o r N a t i o n a l C o r r e s p o n d e n t b a s e d i n W a s h i n g t o n . H e h a s a l s o s u b s t i t u t e d f o r A n d e r s o n C o o p e r o n " A n d e r s o n C o o p e r 3 6 0 ° " . R o b e r t s w a s c o - a n c h o r o f C N N ' s m o r n i n g p r o g r a m " A m e r i c a n M o r n i n g " f r o m 2 0 0 7 t o 2 0 1 0 . H e a n c h o r e d f r o m N e w Y o r k . I n 2 0 1 0 , " A m e r i c a n M o r n i n g " w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r " b e s t m o r n i n g p r o g r a m " a t t h e D a y t i m e E m m y A w a r d s , l o s i n g t o " G o o d M o r n i n g A m e r i c a " . T h e " N e w Y o r k P o s t " r e p o r t e d o n D e c e m b e r 7 , 2 0 1 0 , t h a t R o b e r t s w o u l d d e p a r t " A m e r i c a n M o r n i n g " a n d b e c o m e a n a t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n t b a s e d o u t o f C N N ' s h e a d q u a r t e r s i n A t l a n t a . T h e A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s r e p o r t e d t h a t R o b e r t s ' d e p a r t u r e w a s a t h i s r e q u e s t s o h e c o u l d m o v e c l o s e r t o f i a n c é e a n d C N N a n c h o r K y r a P h i l l i p s . E x e c u t i v e s a t C N N c o n f i r m e d o n J a n u a r y 3 , 2 0 1 1 , t h a t R o b e r t s w o u l d b e l e a v i n g C N N t o j o i n F o x N e w s a s a n a t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n t , b a s e d i n A t l a n t a . R o b e r t s r e p o r t e d o n n u m e r o u s b r e a k i n g n e w s e v e n t s i n c l u d i n g t h e m u r d e r t r i a l o f r e a l e s t a t e h e i r R o b e r t D u r s t , t h e U . S . E b o l a o u t b r e a k , t h e 2 0 1 3 E F 5 t o r n a d o i n M o o r e , O k l a h o m a , a n d t h e a f t e r m a t h o f H u r r i c a n e I r e n e i n 2 0 1 1 a s w e l l c o n t i n u i n g h i s c o v e r a g e o f A m e r i c a n p o l i t i c s . I n a n A u g u s t 2 0 1 6 s e x u a l h a r a s s m e n t l a w s u i t a g a i n s t F o x N e w s , A n d r e a T a n t a r o s c l a i m e d t h a t R o b e r t s , S c o t t B r o w n , a n d B i l l O ' R e i l l y s e x u a l l y h a r a s s e d h e r . T h e c a s e w a s d i s m i s s e d . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 7 , R o b e r t s b e c a m e c h i e f W h i t e H o u s e c o r r e s p o n d e n t f o r F o x N e w s , c o v e r i n g t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f U S P r e s i d e n t D o n a l d T r u m p . R o b e r t s g a r n e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t a t t e n t i o n i n 2 0 2 0 f o r c r i t i c i z i n g t h e T r u m p p r e s i d e n c y ' s h o s t i l i t y w i t h t h e m e d i a a n d i t s f a i l u r e t o p r o p e r l y i n f o r m t h e m e d i a . F o l l o w i n g t h e f i r s t p r e s i d e n t i a l d e b a t e i n t h e 2 0 2 0 e l e c t i o n s , R o b e r t s g o t i n t o a h e a t e d e x c h a n g e w i t h p r e s s s e c r e t a r y K a y l e i g h M c E n a n y o v e r t h e p r e s i d e n t ' s f a i l u r e t o e x p l i c i t l y d e n o u n c e w h i t e s u p r e m a c y . D u r i n g t h e p r e s s b r i e f i n g , R o b e r t s f r u s t r a t e d l y t o l d M c E n a n y t o " s t o p d e f l e c t i n g , s t o p b l a m i n g t h e m e d i a " , t o w h i c h h e r e c e i v e d m u c h b a c k l a s h , p r o m p t i n g c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r t h e s u b j e c t i n t h e m e d i a a n d a m o n g p o l i t i c i a n s . I n O c t o b e r 2 0 2 0 , F o x N e w s a n n o u n c e d t h a t R o b e r t s h a d s i g n e d a m u l t i - y e a r c o n t r a c t e x t e n s i o n a n d t h a t h e w o u l d r e m a i n w i t h F o x N e w s f o r t h e c o m i n g y e a r s . O n J a n u a r y 1 4 , 2 0 2 1 , F o x N e w s a n n o u n c e d t h a t R o b e r t s i s b e i n g p r o m o t e d t o a n a n c h o r p o s i t i o n , w i t h a 1 - 3 p m s h o w e n t i t l e d " A m e r i c a R e p o r t s " . P e t e r D o o c y w i l l t a k e R o b e r t s ' f o r m e r p o s i t i o n a s t h e W h i t e H o u s e c o r r e s p o n d e n t d u r i n g t h e J o e B i d e n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . O n O c t o b e r 1 8 , 2 0 2 1 , R o b e r t s t w e e t e d m i s l e a d i n g I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e d e a t h o f C o l i n P o w e l l w r i t i n g t h a t P o w e l l , w h o s e d e a t h a s a r e s u l t o f c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f C O V I D , r a i s e d “ n e w c o n c e r n s ” a b o u t v a c c i n e s w i t h o u t m e n t i o n i n g t h a t P o w e l l w a s s u f f e r i n g f r o m m u l t i p l e m y e l o m a , a t y p e o f b l o o d c a n c e r t h a t w e a k e n s t h e b o d y ’ s a b i l i t y t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t i n f e c t i o n s . R o b e r t s e v e n t u a l l y d e l e t e d t h e t w e e t . D i v o r c e d i n 2 0 0 8 , J o h n R o b e r t s a n n o u n c e d h i s e n g a g e m e n t t o K y r a P h i l l i p s o n A p r i l 2 5 , 2 0 1 0 . T h e y h a v e t w i n c h i l d r e n n a m e d S a g e A n n a n d K e l l a n C l a y .

Career

John Roberts began his career in radio, working at various stations in Ontario, Canada. He transitioned to television, co-hosting "The NewMusic" on CITY-TV and later becoming the face of MuchMusic. Roberts joined CBS in 1995, anchoring the "CBS Sunday Evening News" and serving as chief White House Correspondent. He left CBS in 2006 and joined CNN, reporting from the front lines of the Israel/Hezbollah war and embedding with an Israeli infantry unit. Roberts joined Fox News in 2017, becoming chief White House correspondent and criticizing the Trump presidency's hostility towards the media. He currently anchors "America Reports" on Fox News.

Roberts was born in Toronto, Ontario and grew up in Mississauga, Ontario. He attended Erindale Secondary School and Lorne Park Secondary School and later the University of Toronto's Erindale College. Roberts first started working in radio at the local college station, CFRE-FM in Mississauga. His first professional job was as reporter and news anchor with CFOS in Owen Sound, Ontario in 1975. From there, he went to CHYM in Kitchener, where he worked as a newsman and DJ, then worked on-air for radio station CJBK in London, Ontario in 1977, before moving back to Toronto to join top-40 powerhouse CHUM later that year as a weekday evening disc jockey. 1050 CHUM and CITY-TV gave him the on-air name J.D. Roberts. In 1979, he branched out from his radio work to co-host with Jeanne Beker the music newsmagazine "The NewMusic" on CITY-TV until 1985. "The New Music" was a pioneering program that pre-dated MTV. Roberts, Beker and the "New Music" team won many awards for their work. During that time, Roberts also served as Entertainment reporter for CITY-TV and on occasion filled in for John Majhor and later Brad Giffen on CITY-TV's local music video show "Toronto Rocks". In 1984, Roberts was tapped to front Canada's music channel MuchMusic. He and Christopher Ward were the first on-air personalities appearing when the network launched in 1984. At MuchMusic he hosted many programs, including a one-hour heavy metal video show called "The Power Hour". In 1987, Roberts left MuchMusic to anchor CITY-TV's "CityPulse", and became anchor of the 10 In March 1995, he moved back to the CBS Network as anchor of the "CBS Sunday Evening News," remaining in that position for nearly 11 years. He also anchored the "CBS Saturday Evening News" from February 1999 until he became CBS chief White House Correspondent in August 1999. Roberts served as chief White House Correspondent at CBS from August 1999 to February 2006, and regularly anchored a Sunday-afternoon 3pm ET newscast for the CBS Radio Network. In March 2003, Roberts was embedded with the 2nd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion of the U.S. Marines during the initial invasion of Iraq. On July 19, 2005, he introduced CBS's coverage on the announcement of the nomination of John Roberts for the Supreme Court of the United States. He jokingly asked colleagues to refer to him as "Your Honor" because he and Justice Roberts bear the same name. He had been widely considered a potential replacement for "CBS Evening News" anchor Dan Rather after Rather stepped down from the anchor desk in March 2005, but Bob Schieffer was chosen on an interim basis to be the next "CBS Evening News" anchor, and in subsequent months, it became clear that Roberts was not under consideration for the job.. During his time at CBS, Roberts received three national Emmy awards as well as a Gracie award for his coverage of a groundbreaking surgery to repair neural tube defects. In February 2006, Roberts left CBS and joined CNN. In July 2006 and August 2006, Roberts reported from the front lines in the Israel/Hezbollah war and at one point, embedded with an Israeli infantry unit, marching 10 miles into Lebanon. Roberts was recognized with a Headline Award for that embed. CNN's coverage of the war was recognized with an Edward R. Murrow Award. In October 2006, he returned to Iraq as the first anchor of "This Week at War" and served as the Senior National Correspondent based in Washington. He has also substituted for Anderson Cooper on "Anderson Cooper 360°". Roberts was co-anchor of CNN's morning program "American Morning" from 2007 to 2010. He anchored from New York. In 2010, "American Morning" was nominated for "best morning program" at the Daytime Emmy Awards, losing to "Good Morning America". The "New York Post" reported on December 7, 2010, that Roberts would depart "American The case was dismissed. In January 2017, Roberts became chief White House correspondent for Fox News, covering the activities of US President Donald Trump. Roberts garnered significant attention in 2020 for criticizing the Trump presidency's hostility with the media and its failure to properly inform the media. Following the first presidential debate in the 2020 elections, Roberts got into a heated exchange with press secretary Kayleigh McEnany over the president's failure to explicitly denounce white supremacy. During the press briefing, Roberts frustratedly told McEnany to "stop deflecting, stop blaming the media", to which he received much backlash, prompting controversy over the subject in the media and among politicians. In October 2020, Fox News announced that Roberts had signed a multi-year contract extension and that he would remain with Fox News for the coming years. On January 14, 2021, Fox News announced that Roberts is being promoted to an anchor position, with a 1-3 pm show entitled "America Reports". Peter Doocy will take Roberts' former position as the White House correspondent during the Joe Biden administration. On October 18, 2021, Roberts tweeted misleading Information about the death of Colin Powell writing that Powell, whose death as a result of complications of COVID, raised “new concerns” about vaccines without mentioning that Powell was suffering from multiple myeloma, a type of blood cancer that weakens the body’s ability to protect against infections. Roberts eventually deleted the tweet. Divorced in 2008, John Roberts announced his engagement to Kyra Phillips on April 25, 2010. They have twin children named Sage Ann and Kellan Clay.

John Roberts (journalist)

R o b e r t s w a s b o r n i n T o r o n t o , O n t a r i o a n d g r e w u p i n M i s s i s s a u g a , O n t a r i o . H e a t t e n d e d E r i n d a l e S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l a n d L o r n e P a r k S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l a n d l a t e r t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o ' s E r i n d a l e C o l l e g e . R o b e r t s f i r s t s t a r t e d w o r k i n g i n r a d i o a t t h e l o c a l c o l l e g e s t a t i o n , C F R E - F M i n M i s s i s s a u g a . H i s f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l j o b w a s a s r e p o r t e r a n d n e w s a n c h o r w i t h C F O S i n O w e n S o u n d , O n t a r i o i n 1 9 7 5 . F r o m t h e r e , h e w e n t t o C H Y M i n K i t c h e n e r , w h e r e h e w o r k e d a s a n e w s m a n a n d D J , t h e n w o r k e d o n - a i r f o r r a d i o s t a t i o n C J B K i n L o n d o n , O n t a r i o i n 1 9 7 7 , b e f o r e m o v i n g b a c k t o T o r o n t o t o j o i n t o p - 4 0 p o w e r h o u s e C H U M l a t e r t h a t y e a r a s a w e e k d a y e v e n i n g d i s c j o c k e y . 1 0 5 0 C H U M a n d C I T Y - T V g a v e h i m t h e o n - a i r n a m e J . D . R o b e r t s . I n 1 9 7 9 , h e b r a n c h e d o u t f r o m h i s r a d i o w o r k t o c o - h o s t w i t h J e a n n e B e k e r t h e m u s i c n e w s m a g a z i n e " T h e N e w M u s i c " o n C I T Y - T V u n t i l 1 9 8 5 . " T h e N e w M u s i c " w a s a p i o n e e r i n g p r o g r a m t h a t p r e - d a t e d M T V . R o b e r t s , B e k e r a n d t h e " N e w M u s i c " t e a m w o n m a n y a w a r d s f o r t h e i r w o r k . D u r i n g t h a t t i m e , R o b e r t s a l s o s e r v e d a s E n t e r t a i n m e n t r e p o r t e r f o r C I T Y - T V a n d o n o c c a s i o n f i l l e d i n f o r J o h n M a j h o r a n d l a t e r B r a d G i f f e n o n C I T Y - T V ' s l o c a l m u s i c v i d e o s h o w " T o r o n t o R o c k s " . I n 1 9 8 4 , R o b e r t s w a s t a p p e d t o f r o n t C a n a d a ' s m u s i c c h a n n e l M u c h M u s i c . H e a n d C h r i s t o p h e r W a r d w e r e t h e f i r s t o n - a i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s a p p e a r i n g w h e n t h e n e t w o r k l a u n c h e d i n 1 9 8 4 . A t M u c h M u s i c h e h o s t e d m a n y p r o g r a m s , i n c l u d i n g a o n e - h o u r h e a v y m e t a l v i d e o s h o w c a l l e d " T h e P o w e r H o u r " . I n 1 9 8 7 , R o b e r t s l e f t M u c h M u s i c t o a n c h o r C I T Y - T V ' s " C i t y P u l s e " , a n d b e c a m e a n c h o r o f t h e 1 0 p m " C i t y P u l s e T o n i g h t " w h e n A n n e M r o c z k o w s k i m o v e d f r o m a n c h o r i n g t h a t n e w s c a s t t o j o i n G o r d M a r t i n e a u o n t h e 6 p m e d i t i o n . B e t w e e n 1 9 8 9 a n d 1 9 9 0 R o b e r t s w a s a n a n c h o r / r e p o r t e r f o r W C I X ( n o w W F O R - T V ) , t h e C B S - o w n e d a n d o p e r a t e d t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n i n M i a m i , F l o r i d a . R o b e r t s r e t u r n e d t o C a n a d a i n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 0 t o c o - h o s t t h e n a t i o n a l C T V m o r n i n g s h o w " C a n a d a A M " , i n i t i a l l y w i t h D e b o r a h M c G r e g o r , a n d l a t e r w i t h P a m e l a W a l l i n . I n 1 9 9 2 , R o b e r t s m o v e d t o C B S N e w s i n N e w Y o r k . H i s i n i t i a l a s s i g n m e n t w a s a n c h o r i n g t h e " C B S M o r n i n g N e w s " w i t h c o - a n c h o r M e r e d i t h V i e i r a . R o b e r t s w a s a l s o t h e n e w s r e a d e r a n d s u b s t i t u t e a n c h o r f o r H a r r y S m i t h o n " C B S T h i s M o r n i n g " a n d " T h e E a r l y S h o w " . F r o m 1 9 9 4 t o 1 9 9 5 R o b e r t s a n c h o r e d t h e 5 p m a n d 1 1 p m n e w s c a s t s a t C B S ' s f l a g s h i p s t a t i o n i n N e w Y o r k , W C B S - T V . I n M a r c h 1 9 9 5 , h e m o v e d b a c k t o t h e C B S N e t w o r k a s a n c h o r o f t h e " C B S S u n d a y E v e n i n g N e w s , " r e m a i n i n g i n t h a t p o s i t i o n f o r n e a r l y 1 1 y e a r s . H e a l s o a n c h o r e d t h e " C B S S a t u r d a y E v e n i n g N e w s " f r o m F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 9 u n t i l h e b e c a m e C B S c h i e f W h i t e H o u s e C o r r e s p o n d e n t i n A u g u s t 1 9 9 9 . R o b e r t s s e r v e d a s c h i e f W h i t e H o u s e C o r r e s p o n d e n t a t C B S f r o m A u g u s t 1 9 9 9 t o F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 6 , a n d r e g u l a r l y a n c h o r e d a S u n d a y - a f t e r n o o n 3 p m E T n e w s c a s t f o r t h e C B S R a d i o N e t w o r k . I n M a r c h 2 0 0 3 , R o b e r t s w a s e m b e d d e d w i t h t h e 2 n d L i g h t A r m o r e d R e c o n n a i s s a n c e B a t t a l i o n o f t h e U . S . M a r i n e s d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l i n v a s i o n o f I r a q . O n J u l y 1 9 , 2 0 0 5 , h e i n t r o d u c e d C B S ' s c o v e r a g e o n t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e n o m i n a t i o n o f J o h n R o b e r t s f o r t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . H e j o k i n g l y a s k e d c o l l e a g u e s t o r e f e r t o h i m a s " Y o u r H o n o r " b e c a u s e h e a n d J u s t i c e R o b e r t s b e a r t h e s a m e n a m e . H e h a d b e e n w i d e l y c o n s i d e r e d a p o t e n t i a l r e p l a c e m e n t f o r " C B S E v e n i n g N e w s " a n c h o r D a n R a t h e r a f t e r R a t h e r s t e p p e d d o w n f r o m t h e a n c h o r d e s k i n M a r c h 2 0 0 5 , b u t B o b S c h i e f f e r w a s c h o s e n o n a n i n t e r i m b a s i s t o b e t h e n e x t " C B S E v e n i n g N e w s " a n c h o r , a n d i n s u b s e q u e n t m o n t h s , i t b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t R o b e r t s w a s n o t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t h e j o b . . D u r i n g h i s t i m e a t C B S , R o b e r t s r e c e i v e d t h r e e n a t i o n a l E m m y a w a r d s a s w e l l a s a G r a c i e a w a r d f o r h i s c o v e r a g e o f a g r o u n d b r e a k i n g s u r g e r y t o r e p a i r n e u r a l t u b e d e f e c t s . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 6 , R o b e r t s l e f t C B S a n d j o i n e d C N N . I n J u l y 2 0 0 6 a n d A u g u s t 2 0 0 6 , R o b e r t s r e p o r t e d f r o m t h e f r o n t l i n e s i n t h e I s r a e l / H e z b o l l a h w a r a n d a t o n e p o i n t , e m b e d d e d w i t h a n I s r a e l i i n f a n t r y u n i t , m a r c h i n g 1 0 m i l e s i n t o L e b a n o n . R o b e r t s w a s r e c o g n i z e d w i t h a H e a d l i n e A w a r d f o r t h a t e m b e d . C N N ' s c o v e r a g e o f t h e w a r w a s r e c o g n i z e d w i t h a n E d w a r d R . M u r r o w A w a r d . I n O c t o b e r 2 0 0 6 , h e r e t u r n e d t o I r a q a s t h e f i r s t a n c h o r o f " T h i s W e e k a t W a r " a n d s e r v e d a s t h e S e n i o r N a t i o n a l C o r r e s p o n d e n t b a s e d i n W a s h i n g t o n . H e h a s a l s o s u b s t i t u t e d f o r A n d e r s o n C o o p e r o n " A n d e r s o n C o o p e r 3 6 0 ° " . R o b e r t s w a s c o - a n c h o r o f C N N ' s m o r n i n g p r o g r a m " A m e r i c a n M o r n i n g " f r o m 2 0 0 7 t o 2 0 1 0 . H e a n c h o r e d f r o m N e w Y o r k . I n 2 0 1 0 , " A m e r i c a n M o r n i n g " w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r " b e s t m o r n i n g p r o g r a m " a t t h e D a y t i m e E m m y A w a r d s , l o s i n g t o " G o o d M o r n i n g A m e r i c a " . T h e " N e w Y o r k P o s t " r e p o r t e d o n D e c e m b e r 7 , 2 0 1 0 , t h a t R o b e r t s w o u l d d e p a r t " A m e r i c a n M o r n i n g " a n d b e c o m e a n a t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n t b a s e d o u t o f C N N ' s h e a d q u a r t e r s i n A t l a n t a . T h e A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s r e p o r t e d t h a t R o b e r t s ' d e p a r t u r e w a s a t h i s r e q u e s t s o h e c o u l d m o v e c l o s e r t o f i a n c é e a n d C N N a n c h o r K y r a P h i l l i p s . E x e c u t i v e s a t C N N c o n f i r m e d o n J a n u a r y 3 , 2 0 1 1 , t h a t R o b e r t s w o u l d b e l e a v i n g C N N t o j o i n F o x N e w s a s a n a t i o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n t , b a s e d i n A t l a n t a . R o b e r t s r e p o r t e d o n n u m e r o u s b r e a k i n g n e w s e v e n t s i n c l u d i n g t h e m u r d e r t r i a l o f r e a l e s t a t e h e i r R o b e r t D u r s t , t h e U . S . E b o l a o u t b r e a k , t h e 2 0 1 3 E F 5 t o r n a d o i n M o o r e , O k l a h o m a , a n d t h e a f t e r m a t h o f H u r r i c a n e I r e n e i n 2 0 1 1 a s w e l l c o n t i n u i n g h i s c o v e r a g e o f A m e r i c a n p o l i t i c s . I n a n A u g u s t 2 0 1 6 s e x u a l h a r a s s m e n t l a w s u i t a g a i n s t F o x N e w s , A n d r e a T a n t a r o s c l a i m e d t h a t R o b e r t s , S c o t t B r o w n , a n d B i l l O ' R e i l l y s e x u a l l y h a r a s s e d h e r . T h e c a s e w a s d i s m i s s e d . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 1 7 , R o b e r t s b e c a m e c h i e f W h i t e H o u s e c o r r e s p o n d e n t f o r F o x N e w s , c o v e r i n g t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f U S P r e s i d e n t D o n a l d T r u m p . R o b e r t s g a r n e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t a t t e n t i o n i n 2 0 2 0 f o r c r i t i c i z i n g t h e T r u m p p r e s i d e n c y ' s h o s t i l i t y w i t h t h e m e d i a a n d i t s f a i l u r e t o p r o p e r l y i n f o r m t h e m e d i a . F o l l o w i n g t h e f i r s t p r e s i d e n t i a l d e b a t e i n t h e 2 0 2 0 e l e c t i o n s , R o b e r t s g o t i n t o a h e a t e d e x c h a n g e w i t h p r e s s s e c r e t a r y K a y l e i g h M c E n a n y o v e r t h e p r e s i d e n t ' s f a i l u r e t o e x p l i c i t l y d e n o u n c e w h i t e s u p r e m a c y . D u r i n g t h e p r e s s b r i e f i n g , R o b e r t s f r u s t r a t e d l y t o l d M c E n a n y t o " s t o p d e f l e c t i n g , s t o p b l a m i n g t h e m e d i a " , t o w h i c h h e r e c e i v e d m u c h b a c k l a s h , p r o m p t i n g c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r t h e s u b j e c t i n t h e m e d i a a n d a m o n g p o l i t i c i a n s . I n O c t o b e r 2 0 2 0 , F o x N e w s a n n o u n c e d t h a t R o b e r t s h a d s i g n e d a m u l t i - y e a r c o n t r a c t e x t e n s i o n a n d t h a t h e w o u l d r e m a i n w i t h F o x N e w s f o r t h e c o m i n g y e a r s . O n J a n u a r y 1 4 , 2 0 2 1 , F o x N e w s a n n o u n c e d t h a t R o b e r t s i s b e i n g p r o m o t e d t o a n a n c h o r p o s i t i o n , w i t h a 1 - 3 p m s h o w e n t i t l e d " A m e r i c a R e p o r t s " . P e t e r D o o c y w i l l t a k e R o b e r t s ' f o r m e r p o s i t i o n a s t h e W h i t e H o u s e c o r r e s p o n d e n t d u r i n g t h e J o e B i d e n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . O n O c t o b e r 1 8 , 2 0 2 1 , R o b e r t s t w e e t e d m i s l e a d i n g I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e d e a t h o f C o l i n P o w e l l w r i t i n g t h a t P o w e l l , w h o s e d e a t h a s a r e s u l t o f c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f C O V I D , r a i s e d “ n e w c o n c e r n s ” a b o u t v a c c i n e s w i t h o u t m e n t i o n i n g t h a t P o w e l l w a s s u f f e r i n g f r o m m u l t i p l e m y e l o m a , a t y p e o f b l o o d c a n c e r t h a t w e a k e n s t h e b o d y ’ s a b i l i t y t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t i n f e c t i o n s . R o b e r t s e v e n t u a l l y d e l e t e d t h e t w e e t . D i v o r c e d i n 2 0 0 8 , J o h n R o b e r t s a n n o u n c e d h i s e n g a g e m e n t t o K y r a P h i l l i p s o n A p r i l 2 5 , 2 0 1 0 . T h e y h a v e t w i n c h i l d r e n n a m e d S a g e A n n a n d K e l l a n C l a y .

Career ; Fox News

John Roberts is a Canadian-American journalist who has worked for various networks including CITY-TV, MuchMusic, CBS News, CNN, and Fox News. He started his career hosting music shows before transitioning to news reporting. Throughout his career, he has covered major events such as wars, natural disasters, and political scandals. Currently, he anchors the show "America Reports" on Fox News.

work to co-host with Jeanne Beker the music newsmagazine "The NewMusic" on CITY-TV until 1985. "The New Music" was a pioneering program that pre-dated MTV. Roberts, Beker and the "New Music" team won many awards for their work. During that time, Roberts also served as Entertainment reporter for CITY-TV and on occasion filled in for John Majhor and later Brad Giffen on CITY-TV's local music video show "Toronto Rocks". In 1984, Roberts was tapped to front Canada's music channel MuchMusic. He and Christopher Ward were the first on-air personalities appearing when the network launched in 1984. At MuchMusic he hosted many programs, including a one-hour heavy metal video show called "The Power Hour". In 1987, Roberts left MuchMusic to anchor CITY-TV's "CityPulse", and became anchor of the 10 pm "CityPulse Tonight" when Anne Mroczkowski moved from anchoring that newscast to join Gord Martineau on the 6 pm edition. Between 1989 and 1990 Roberts was an anchor/reporter for WCIX (now WFOR-TV), the CBS-owned and operated television station in Miami, Florida. Roberts returned to Canada in September 1990 to co-host the national CTV morning show "Canada AM", initially with Deborah McGregor, and later with Pamela Wallin. In 1992, Roberts moved to CBS News in New York. His initial assignment was anchoring the "CBS Morning News" with co-anchor Meredith Vieira. Roberts was also the news reader and substitute anchor for Harry Smith on "CBS This Morning" and "The Early Show". From 1994 to 1995 Roberts anchored the 5pm and 11pm newscasts at CBS's flagship station in New York, WCBS-TV. to refer to him as "Your Honor" because he and Justice Roberts bear the same name. He had been widely considered a potential replacement for "CBS Evening News" anchor Dan Rather after Rather stepped down from the anchor desk in March 2005, but Bob Schieffer was chosen on an interim basis to be the next "CBS Evening News" anchor, and in subsequent months, it became clear that Roberts was not under consideration for the job.. During his time at CBS, Roberts received three national Emmy awards as well as a Gracie award for his coverage of a groundbreaking surgery to repair neural tube defects. In February 2006, Roberts left CBS and joined CNN. In July 2006 and August 2006, Roberts reported from the front lines in the Israel/Hezbollah war and at one point, embedded with an Israeli infantry unit, marching 10 miles into Lebanon. Roberts was recognized with a Headline Award for that embed. CNN's coverage of the war was recognized with an Edward R. Murrow Award. In October 2006, he returned to Iraq as the first anchor of "This Week at War" and served as the Senior National Correspondent based in Washington. He has also substituted for Anderson Cooper on "Anderson Cooper 360°". Roberts was co-anchor of CNN's morning program "American Morning" from 2007 to 2010. He anchored from New York. In 2010, "American Morning" was nominated for "best morning program" at the Daytime Emmy Awards, losing to "Good Morning America". The "New York Post" reported on December 7, 2010, that Roberts would depart "American Morning" and become a national correspondent based out of CNN's headquarters in Atlanta. The Associated Press reported that Roberts' departure was at his request so he could move closer to fiancée and CNN anchor Kyra Phillips. Executives at CNN confirmed on January 3, 2011, that Roberts would be leaving CNN to join Fox News as a national correspondent, based in Atlanta. Roberts reported on numerous breaking news events including the murder trial of real estate heir Robert Durst, the U.S. Ebola outbreak, the 2013 EF5 tornado in Moore, Oklahoma, and the aftermath of Hurricane Irene in 2011 as well continuing his coverage of American politics. In an August 2016 sexual harassment lawsuit against Fox News, Andrea Tantaros claimed that Roberts, Scott Brown, and Bill O'Reilly sexually harassed her. The case was dismissed. In January 2017, Roberts became chief White House correspondent for Fox News, covering the activities of US President Donald Trump. Roberts garnered significant attention in 2020 for criticizing the Trump presidency's hostility with the media and its failure to properly inform the media. Following the first presidential debate in the 2020 elections, Roberts got into a heated exchange with press secretary Kayleigh McEnany over the president's failure to explicitly denounce white supremacy. During the press briefing, Roberts frustratedly told McEnany to "stop deflecting, stop blaming the media", to which he received much backlash, prompting controversy over the subject in the media and among politicians. In October 2020, Fox News announced that Roberts had signed a multi-year contract extension and that he would remain with Fox News for the coming years. On January 14, 2021, Fox News announced that Roberts is being promoted to an anchor position, with a 1-3 pm show entitled "America Reports". Peter Doocy will take Roberts' former position as the White House correspondent during the Joe Biden administration. On October 18, 2021, Roberts tweeted misleading Information about the death of Colin Powell writing that Powell, whose death as a result of complications of COVID, raised “new concerns” about vaccines without mentioning that Powell was suffering from multiple myeloma, a type of blood cancer that weakens the body’s ability to protect against infections. Roberts eventually deleted the tweet. Divorced in 2008, John Roberts announced his engagement to Kyra Phillips on April 25, 2010. They have twin children named Sage Ann and Kellan Clay.

Concerto for Two Violins (Bach)

B a c h c o m p o s e d h i s C o n c e r t o f o r T w o V i o l i n s i n D m i n o r , B W V   1 0 4 3 , a r o u n d 1 7 3 0 , a s p a r t o f a c o n c e r t s e r i e s h e r a n a s t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e C o l l e g i u m M u s i c u m i n L e i p z i g . T h e c o n c e r t o i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a s u b t l e y e t e x p r e s s i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e v i o l i n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r k . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t w o s o l o i s t s , t h e c o n c e r t o i s s c o r e d f o r s t r i n g s ( f i r s t v i o l i n , s e c o n d v i o l i n a n d v i o l a p a r t s ) a n d b a s s o c o n t i n u o . T h e m u s i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s p i e c e u s e s f u g a l i m i t a t i o n a n d m u c h c o u n t e r p o i n t . T h e c o n c e r t o c o m p r i s e s t h r e e m o v e m e n t s : # V i v a c e i n D m i n o r # L a r g o m a n o n t a n t o i n F m a j o r # A l l e g r o P e r f o r m a n c e t i m e o f t h e c o n c e r t o r a n g e s f r o m l e s s t h a n 1 3 m i n u t e s t o o v e r 1 8 m i n u t e s . A r o u n d 1 7 3 6 – 1 7 3 7 B a c h a r r a n g e d t h e c o n c e r t o f o r t w o h a r p s i c h o r d s , t r a n s p o s e d i n t o C   m i n o r , B W V   1 0 6 2 . 1 7 3 4 – 1 7 3 8 C a r l P h i l i p p E m a n u e l B a c h p e r f o r m e d t h e c o n c e r t o i n F r a n k f u r t a n d e r O d e r . A f t e r h i s f a t h e r ' s d e a t h i n 1 7 5 0 , C a r l P h i l i p p E m a n u e l i n h e r i t e d s o m e o f t h e o r i g i n a l p e r f o r m a n c e p a r t s , l i k e l y d o u b l e s , o f t h e c o n c e r t o ( s u r v i v i n g : p a r t s f o r s o l o i s t s a n d c o n t i n u o ) , a n d l i k e l y a l s o t h e c o m p o s e r ' s a u t o g r a p h s c o r e ( l o s t ) . T h e e x t a n t o r i g i n a l p a r t s w e r e l a t e r o w n e d b y , a n d w e r e a d d e d t o t h e R o y a l L i b r a r y a t B e r l i n ( l a t e r c o n v e r t e d t o t h e B e r l i n S t a t e L i b r a r y ) i n t h e 1 8 4 0 s . A f t e r t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r t h e y w e r e l o s t f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s , e v e n t u a l l y r e s u r f a c i n g i n P o l a n d . M a n u s c r i p t c o p i e s o f ( p a r t s o f ) t h e c o n c e r t o w e r e p r o d u c e d a r o u n d 1 7 3 0 – 1 7 4 0 , i n 1 7 6 0 , a r o u n d 1 7 6 0 , a r o u n d 1 7 6 0 – 1 7 8 9 , a n d i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . T h e c o n c e r t o w a s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 5 2 , b y E d i t i o n P e t e r s , e d i t e d b y S i e g f r i e d D e h n . I n t h e f i r s t v o l u m e o f h i s B a c h b i o g r a p h y ( 1 8 7 3 ) , P h i l i p p S p i t t a d e s c r i b e s t h e c o n c e r t o a s a p r o d u c t o f t h e c o m p o s e r ' s K ö t h e n p e r i o d ( 1 7 1 7 – 1 7 2 3 ) . A f t e r d e s c r i b i n g B a c h ' s o t h e r e x t a n t v i o l i n c o n c e r t o s , t h o s e i n E   m a j o r ( B W V 1 0 4 2 ) a n d A   m i n o r ( B W V 1 0 4 1 ) , h e a d d s : T h e B a c h G e s e l l s c h a f t p u b l i s h e d t h e c o n c e r t o i n 1 8 7 4 , e d i t e d b y W i l h e l m R u s t . T h e N e u e B a c h g e s e l l s c h a f t r e p o r t s a r o u n d 2 5 k n o w n p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e s o f t h e c o n c e r t o i n t h e p e r i o d f r o m l a t e 1 9 0 4 t o e a r l y 1 9 0 7 : m o s t o f t h e s e i n G e r m a n y , b u t a l s o p e r f o r m a n c e s i n o t h e r E u r o p e a n c i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g L o n d o n , M a d r i d , P a r i s , R i g a , S t . P e t e r s b u r g a n d V i e n n a , a r e m e n t i o n e d . O u t s i d e o f E u r o p e , t h e r e w a s f o r i n s t a n c e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e b y E u g è n e Y s a ÿ e a n d F r i t z K r e i s l e r i n N e w Y o r k i n 1 9 0 5 . I n L o n d o n , B a c h ' s " D o u b l e " b e c a m e a r e p e r t o i r e p i e c e , f o r i n s t a n c e r e g u l a r l y p e r f o r m e d a t t h e P r o m s . A f t e r c o m m e n t i n g t h a t t h e " A   m i n o r a n d E   m a j o r c o n c e r t o s a r e b e g i n n i n g t o w i n a p l a c e i n o u r c o n c e r t h a l l s , " A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r w r i t e s , i n t h e 1 9 1 1 E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e e d i t i o n o f h i s b o o k o n B a c h : J o h a n n e s U m b r e i t ' s p i a n o r e d u c t i o n o f t h e o r c h e s t r a l s c o r e w a s p u b l i s h e d b y H e n l e . R e c o r d i n g s o f t h e c o n c e r t o i n c l u d e : R e s e a r c h b y A n d r e a s G l ö c k n e r , p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 8 2 , d i s p e l l e d p r i o r a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t B a c h w o u l d h a v e c o m p o s e d t h e c o n c e r t o i n K ö t h e n : B a c h ' s e x t a n t a u t o g r a p h p a r t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e c o n c e r t o w a s c o m p o s e d i n L e i p z i g , l i k e l y i n 1 7 3 0 o r t h e e a r l i e r p a r t o f 1 7 3 1 . T h e N e w B a c h E d i t i o n p u b l i s h e d t h e c o n c e r t o i n 1 9 8 6 , e d i t e d b y D i e t r i c h K i l i a n . A c c o r d i n g t o P e t e r W o l l n y , w r i t i n g i n 1 9 9 9 , " T h e " C o n c e r t o f o r t w o v i o l i n s i n D m i n o r B W V 1 0 4 3 " i s t o d a y o n e o f t h e b e s t - k n o w n a n d m o s t f r e q u e n t l y p e r f o r m e d w o r k s o f t h e c o m p o s e r , a b o v e a l l b y v i r t u e o f i t s s o u l f u l , s o n g - l i k e m i d d l e m o v e m e n t . " A c c o r d i n g t o M i c h a e l M i l l e r , w r i t i n g f o r P e n g u i n ' s " C o m p l e t e I d i o t ' s G u i d e s " , t h e c o n c e r t o i s o n e o f B a c h ' s e l e v e n m o s t n o t a b l e c o m p o s i t i o n s . I n t h e " R o u g h G u i d e s " , t h e " D o u b l e C o n c e r t o " i s d e s c r i b e d a s " o n e o f B a c h ' s v e r y g r e a t e s t w o r k s . " T h e B B C w e b s i t e w r i t e s a b o u t t h e c o n c e r t o : " o n e o f B a c h ' s b e s t l o v e d i n s t r u m e n t a l w o r k s . " A c c o r d i n g t o t h e B r i t i s h C l a s s i c F M w e b s i t e , " t h e ' B a c h D o u b l e ' i s o n e o f t h e m o s t f a m o u s o f h i s w o r k s . " T h e u D i s c o v e r M u s i c w e b s i t e l i s t s i t a m o n g t e n e s s e n t i a l p i e c e s b y t h e c o m p o s e r . B y t i t l e : B y a u t h o r :

Reception

Bach's Concerto for Two Violins in D minor, BWV 1043, composed around 1730, features a subtle yet expressive relationship between the violins. Scored for strings and basso continuo, the concerto has three movements and showcases fugal imitation and counterpoint. It was first published in 1852 and gained popularity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Today, it is considered one of Bach's most famous and beloved works, with numerous recordings and performances worldwide.

Bach composed his Concerto for Two Violins in D minor, BWV 1043, around 1730, as part of a concert series he ran as the Director of the Collegium Musicum in Leipzig. The concerto is characterized by a subtle yet expressive relationship between the violins throughout the work. In addition to the two soloists, the concerto is scored for strings (first violin, second violin and viola parts) and basso continuo. The musical structure of this piece uses fugal imitation and much counterpoint. The concerto comprises three movements: # Vivace in D minor # Largo ma non tanto in F major # Allegro Performance time of the concerto ranges from less than 13 minutes to over 18 minutes. Around 1736–1737 Bach arranged the concerto for two harpsichords, transposed into C minor, BWV 1062. 1734–1738 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach performed the concerto in Frankfurt an der Oder. After his father's death in 1750, Carl Philipp Emanuel inherited some of the original performance parts, likely doubles, of the concerto (surviving: parts for soloists and continuo), and likely also the composer's autograph score (lost). The extant original parts were later owned by , and were added to the Royal Library at Berlin (later converted to the Berlin State Library) in the 1840s. After the Second World War they were lost for several decades, eventually resurfacing in Poland. Manuscript copies of (parts of) the concerto were produced around 1730–1740, in 1760, around 1760, around 1760–1789, and in the early 19th century. The concerto was first published in 1852, by Edition Peters, edited by Siegfried Dehn. In the first volume of his Bach biography (1873), Philipp Spitta describes the concerto as a product of the composer's Köthen period (1717–1723). After describing Bach's other extant violin concertos, those in E major (BWV 1042) and A minor (BWV 1041), he adds: The Bach Gesellschaft published the concerto in 1874, edited by Wilhelm Rust. The Neue Bachgesellschaft reports around 25 known public performances of the concerto in the period from late 1904 to early 1907: most of these in Germany, but also performances in other European cities, including London, Madrid, Paris, Riga, St. Petersburg and Vienna, are mentioned. Outside of Europe, there was for instance the performance by Eugène Ysaÿe and Fritz Kreisler in New York in 1905. In London, Bach's "Double" became a repertoire piece, for instance regularly performed at the Proms. After commenting that the "A minor and E major concertos are beginning to win a place in our concert halls," Albert Schweitzer writes, in the 1911 English-language edition of his book on Bach:Johannes Umbreit's piano reduction of the orchestral score was published by Henle. Recordings of the concerto include: Research by Andreas Glöckner, published in 1982, dispelled prior assumptions that Bach would have composed the concerto in Köthen: Bach's extant autograph parts indicate that the concerto was composed in Leipzig, likely in 1730 or the earlier part of 1731. The New Bach Edition published the concerto in 1986, edited by Dietrich Kilian. According to Peter Wollny, writing in 1999, "The "Concerto for two violins in D minor BWV 1043" is today one of the best-known and most frequently performed works of the composer, above all by virtue of its soulful, song-like middle movement. " According to Michael Miller, writing for Penguin's "Complete Idiot's Guides", the concerto is one of Bach's eleven most notable compositions. In the "Rough Guides", the "Double Concerto" is described as "one of Bach's very greatest works." The BBC website writes about the concerto: "one of Bach's best loved instrumental works." According to the British Classic FM website, "the 'Bach Double' is one of the most famous of his works." The uDiscover Music website lists it among ten essential pieces by the composer. By title: By author:

Ron MacLean

M a c L e a n w a s b o r n i n Z w e i b r ü c k e n , W e s t G e r m a n y , a t t h e N A T O R o y a l C a n a d i a n A i r F o r c e ( R C A F ) N u m b e r 3 F i g h t e r W i n g Z w e i b r u c k e n , W e s t G e r m a n y o n A p r i l 1 2 , 1 9 6 0 . H i s f a t h e r w a s s t a t i o n e d a t t h e N A T O R C A F N u m b e r 1 A i r D i v i s i o n H e a d q u a r t e r s , C h a t e a u d e M e r c y , M e t z , F r a n c e w h e r e h e w a s e m p l o y e d i n t h e C h a t e a u a s a N C O C o m m u n i c a t i o n s O p e r a t o r ( C r y p t o C e n t r e ) . R o n M a c L e a n S r . , o f S y d n e y , N o v a S c o t i a , m a r r i e d i n J u l y 1 9 5 9 a t 1 A i r D i v i s i o n M e t z , a m e m b e r o f t h e R C A F , S a r a h " L i l a " M a c D o n a l d , f r o m I o n a , N o v a S c o t i a . I n 1 9 5 6 - 5 7 R o n M a c L e a n S r . w o r k e d a s a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o p e r a t o r a t R C A F S t a t i o n E d m o n t o n , w h i l e M a c D o n a l d w a s a n a i r w o m a n / c l e r k s t a t i o n e d a t R C A F S t a t i o n N a m a o , j u s t o u t s i d e E d m o n t o n . F o u r t e e n m o n t h s a f t e r M a c L e a n ' s b i r t h , t h e f a m i l y m o v e d b a c k t o C a n a d a , i n i t i a l l y s e t t l i n g i n C h e s t e r , N o v a S c o t i a . M a c L e a n w a s f o u r y e a r s o l d w h e n h i s d a d w a s s t a t i o n e d i n W h i t e h o r s e , Y u k o n , w i t h t h e R o y a l C a n a d i a n A i r F o r c e b e f o r e r e l o c a t i n g e v e n t u a l l y i n S y l v a n L a k e , A l b e r t a . H e a t t e n d e d h i g h s c h o o l i n R e d D e e r , A l b e r t a , w h e r e h e m e t h i s f u t u r e w i f e C a r i . A f t e r h i g h s c h o o l , M a c L e a n w a s p r e p a r e d t o a t t e n d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l b e r t a u n t i l h e w a s a s k e d t o f i l l i n f o r a s i c k f r i e n d a t C K R D - F M , w h i c h l e d t o a j o b a t C K R D - T V . A l t h o u g h h e n e v e r a t t e n d e d u n i v e r s i t y , M a c L e a n r e c e i v e d a n h o n o r a r y d e g r e e f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l b e r t a i n 2 0 1 9 . M a c L e a n h a s w o r k e d o n " H o c k e y N i g h t i n C a n a d a " s i n c e 1 9 8 6 – 8 7 . H e b e g a n h o s t i n g t e l e c a s t s i n C a l g a r y a n d T o r o n t o w h e n D a v e H o d g e m o v e d t o V a n c o u v e r . H o d g e w a s l a t e r s u s p e n d e d , a n d e v e n t u a l l y q u i t , p r o t e s t i n g a C B C p r o g r a m m i n g d e c i s i o n o n - a i r . H e w o r k e d h i s f i r s t S t a n l e y C u p F i n a l t h a t s p r i n g a n d h a s b e e n t h e e a r l y g a m e h o s t e v e r s i n c e . P a r t o f h i s d u t i e s i n c l u d e d h o s t i n g " C o a c h ' s C o r n e r " w i t h D o n C h e r r y . C o n t r a c t n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h C B C S p o r t s E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r N a n c y L e e a n d t h e p r e s i d e n t o f E n g l i s h t e l e v i s i o n h a d h i t a s t a n d s t i l l i n t h e 2 0 0 1 – 0 2 N H L s e a s o n . M a c L e a n t h r e a t e n e d t o l e a v e C B C o n t h e a d v i c e o f h i s a g e n t D o n M e e h a n . T h a t m a d e h e a d l i n e s a c r o s s C a n a d a a n d f o l l o w i n g a h u g e p u b l i c o u t c r y , t h e C B C q u i c k l y g a v e i n t o h i s d e m a n d s . I n a d d i t i o n t o h o s t i n g " H N I C " , h e h a s b e e n a p a r t o f t h e C B C ' s O l y m p i c s c o v e r a g e s i n c e 1 9 8 8 . H e t o o k o v e r a s c h i e f a n c h o r f o l l o w i n g t h e d e p a r t u r e o f B r i a n W i l l i a m s t o C T V / T S N . M a c L e a n w a s t h e m a i n s p o r t s c a s t e r a n d h o s t f o r t h e 2 0 0 8 S u m m e r O l y m p i c G a m e s i n B e i j i n g u n t i l h i s m o t h e r d i e d , c a u s i n g h i m t o h a n d o v e r d u t i e s t o S c o t t R u s s e l l . I n 1 9 9 3 , M a c L e a n s e r v e d a s a n i c e l e v e l r e p o r t e r f o r N B C S p o r t s ' c o v e r a g e o f t h e N H L A l l - S t a r G a m e i n M o n t r e a l . M a c L e a n h a s a l s o h o s t e d C B C ' s c o v e r a g e o f t h e Q u e e n ' s P l a t e . B e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 N H L s e a s o n , M a c L e a n w a s h i r e d b y R o g e r s M e d i a w h e n t h e c o m p a n y a c q u i r e d t h e n a t i o n a l r i g h t s t o t h e N H L . M a c L e a n w a s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e h o s t p o s i t i o n o f " H o c k e y N i g h t i n C a n a d a " , b u t r e t a i n e d h i s r o l e a s h o s t o f " C o a c h ' s C o r n e r " , a n d b e c a m e a n o n - l o c a t i o n h o s t f o r t h e n e w , t r a v e l l i n g " H o m e t o w n H o c k e y " b r o a d c a s t s i n t r o d u c e d t h a t s e a s o n . O n J u n e 2 7 , 2 0 1 6 , R o g e r s a n n o u n c e d t h a t M a c L e a n w o u l d b e r e i n s t a t e d a s h o s t o f t h e e a r l y g a m e s o n " H o c k e y N i g h t " b e g i n n i n g i n t h e u p c o m i n g s e a s o n , r e p l a c i n g G e o r g e S t r o u m b o u l o p o u l o s . M a c L e a n h a s w o n e i g h t G e m i n i A w a r d s f o r h i s w o r k w i t h C B C . H i s f i r s t w a s i n 1 9 9 2 f o r B e s t S p o r t s B r o a d c a s t e r ; h e a l s o w o n t h e B e s t S p o r t s B r o a d c a s t e r a w a r d i n 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 7 , 1 9 9 8 a n d 2 0 0 1 . H e w o n B e s t H o s t o r I n t e r v i e w e r i n a S p o r t s P r o g r a m o r S p o r t s c a s t i n 2 0 0 4 a n d a g a i n i n 2 0 0 6 . I n 1 9 9 6 , h e w a s i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e A l b e r t a S p o r t s H a l l o f F a m e . I n 2 0 1 5 , h e w a s i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e O a k v i l l e S p o r t s H a l l o f F a m e . I n 2 0 1 6 , M a c L e a n , a l o n g w i t h h i s C o a c h ' s C o r n e r c o - h o s t D o n C h e r r y , r e c e i v e d a s t a r o n C a n a d a ' s W a l k o f F a m e . O n J a n u a r y 1 6 , 2 0 1 0 , M a c L e a n p r e s e n t e d a p r e - g a m e p i e c e t o g e t h e r w i t h N H L r e p r e s e n t a t i v e C o l i n C a m p b e l l f o c u s i n g o n V a n c o u v e r C a n u c k s p l a y e r A l e x a n d r e B u r r o w s , i n f o l l o w u p t o a n e a r l i e r i n c i d e n t b e t w e e n B u r r o w s a n d r e f e r e e S t é p h a n e A u g e r i n w h i c h t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f A u g e r w a s c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n . T h e p i e c e w a s c o n s i d e r e d b y a n u m b e r o f p r o m i n e n t s p o r t s w r i t e r s , C a n u c k s c o a c h A l a i n V i g n e a u l t , a n d s o m e f a n s t o b e a o n e - s i d e d s m e a r a g a i n s t B u r r o w s . M a c L e a n a p p e a r e d o n V a n c o u v e r - b a s e d s p o r t s r a d i o s h o w T e a m 1 0 4 0 o n J a n u a r y 1 8 , 2 0 1 0 , a n d s t r o n g l y d e n i e d b e i n g b i a s e d o r o n e - s i d e d d u r i n g h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n . I n 2 0 1 7 , M a c L e a n a p o l o g i z e d t o p o s t a l w o r k e r s a f t e r s u g g e s t i n g t h e i r j o b s w e r e " e f f e c t i v e l y o b s o l e t e . " O n N o v e m b e r 9 , 2 0 1 9 , M a c L e a n ' s c o - h o s t D o n C h e r r y m a d e r e m a r k s d u r i n g " C o a c h ' s C o r n e r " s u g g e s t i n g t h a t C a n a d i a n i m m i g r a n t s b e n e f i t f r o m t h e s a c r i f i c e s o f v e t e r a n s a n d d o n o t w e a r r e m e m b r a n c e p o p p i e s . M a c L e a n , w h o n o d d e d d u r i n g C h e r r y ' s r a n t a n d f l a s h e d a t h u m b s - u p s i g n a t t h e e n d o f S a t u r d a y ' s s e g m e n t , a p o l o g i z e d t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y f o r s t a y i n g s i l e n t d u r i n g C h e r r y ' s r e m a r k s . T h e f o l l o w i n g d a y , S p o r t s n e t p r e s i d e n t B a r t Y a b s l e y a n n o u n c e d t h a t C h e r r y h a d b e e n f i r e d : " F o l l o w i n g f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h D o n C h e r r y a f t e r S a t u r d a y n i g h t ' s b r o a d c a s t , i t h a s b e e n d e c i d e d i t i s t h e r i g h t t i m e f o r h i m t o i m m e d i a t e l y s t e p d o w n . " T h e f o l l o w i n g d a y , C h e r r y e x p r e s s e d h i s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t o v e r M a c L e a n ' s a p o l o g y . O n N o v e m b e r 1 6 , 2 0 1 9 , M a c L e a n a d d r e s s e d a n d r e f l e c t e d o n t h e i n c i d e n t d u r i n g " H o c k e y N i g h t i n C a n a d a " , t h e f i r s t w i t h o u t C h e r r y , a l s o a n n o u n c i n g t h e e n d o f " C o a c h ' s C o r n e r " . I n a d d i t i o n t o h i s w o r k a t t h e C B C , M a c L e a n i s a f o r m e r L e v e l 5 r e f e r e e w i t h H o c k e y C a n a d a . H e h a s r e f e r e e d i n j u n i o r , m i n o r p r o , s e n i o r , a n d u n i v e r s i t y l e a g u e s a c r o s s C a n a d a , m o s t l y i n t h e S o u t h e r n O n t a r i o r e g i o n . H e s e r v e d a s a r e f e r e e i n t h e S e p t e m b e r 2 9 , 2 0 0 6 , N H L p r e s e a s o n m a t c h u p o f t h e B u f f a l o S a b r e s a n d t h e P i t t s b u r g h P e n g u i n s , c a l l i n g o n e p e n a l t y i n t h e f i n a l m i n u t e o f t h e g a m e . M a c L e a n w a s n a m e d H o n o r a r y C o l o n e l o f t h e 1 A i r M o v e m e n t s S q u a d r o n a t 1 7 W i n g W i n n i p e g o f t h e C a n a d i a n F o r c e s ' A i r C o m m a n d . O n J u n e 3 , 2 0 1 0 , M a c L e a n h e l p e d t o r e s c u e a m a n t r y i n g t o t a k e h i s o w n l i f e , b y j u m p i n g i n t o t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r i n P h i l a d e l p h i a . I n 2 0 1 0 , M a c L e a n a n d h i s 1 9 8 6 F o r d M u s t a n g w e r e p r o f i l e d b y T h e G l o b e a n d M a i l .

Career

Ron MacLean is a renowned Canadian sportscaster, best known for hosting Hockey Night in Canada since 1986. Born in West Germany to a Royal Canadian Air Force family, MacLean grew up in various locations across Canada. He began his broadcasting career filling in for a sick friend at CKRD-FM, leading to a job at CKRD-TV. MacLean has worked on numerous high-profile events, including the Olympics, Stanley Cup Finals, and NHL All-Star Games. He has won eight Gemini Awards and was inducted into the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame and Canada's Walk of Fame. Despite controversies surrounding his co-host Don Cherry, MacLean remains a respected figure in Canadian sports broadcasting.

MacLean was born in Zweibrücken, West Germany, at the NATO Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) Number 3 Fighter Wing Zweibrucken, West Germany on April 12, 1960. His father was stationed at the NATO RCAF Number 1 Air Division Headquarters, Chateau de Mercy, Metz, France where he was employed in the Chateau as a NCO Communications Operator (Crypto Centre). Ron MacLean Sr., of Sydney, Nova Scotia, married in July 1959 at 1 Air Division Metz, a member of the RCAF, Sarah "Lila" MacDonald, from Iona, Nova Scotia. In 1956-57 Ron Mac Lean Sr. worked as a communications operator at RCAF Station Edmonton, while MacDonald was an airwoman/clerk stationed at RCAF Station Namao, just outside Edmonton. Fourteen months after MacLean's birth, the family moved back to Canada, initially settling in Chester, Nova Scotia. MacLean was four years old when his dad was stationed in Whitehorse, Yukon, with the Royal Canadian Air Force before relocating eventually in Sylvan Lake, Alberta. He attended high school in Red Deer, Alberta, where he met his future wife Cari. After high school, MacLean was prepared to attend the University of Alberta until he was asked to fill in for a sick friend at CKRD-FM, which led to a job at CKRD-TV. Although he never attended university, MacLean received an honorary degree from the University of Alberta in 2019. MacLean has worked on "Hockey Night in Canada" since 1986–87. He began hosting telecasts in Calgary and Toronto when Dave Hodge moved to Vancouver. Hodge was later suspended, and eventually quit, protesting a CBC programming decision on-air. He worked his first Stanley Cup Final that spring and has been the early game host ever since. Part of his duties included hosting "Coach's Corner" with Don Cherry. Contract negotiations with CBC Sports Executive Director Nancy Lee and the president of English television had hit a standstill in the 2001–02 NHL season. MacLean threatened to leave CBC on the advice of his agent Don Meehan. That made headlines across Canada and following a huge public outcry, the CBC quickly gave in to his demands. In addition to hosting "HNIC", he has been a part of the CBC's Olympics coverage since 1988. He took over as chief anchor following the departure of Brian Williams to CTV/TSN. MacLean was the main sportscaster and host for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing until his mother died, causing him to hand over duties to Scott Russell. In 1993, MacLean served as an ice level reporter for NBC Sports' coverage of the NHL All-Star Game in Montreal. MacLean has also hosted CBC's coverage of the Queen's Plate. Beginning with the 2014–15 NHL season, MacLean was hired by Rogers Media when the company acquired the national rights to the NHL. MacLean was removed from the host position of "Hockey Night in Canada", but retained his role as host of "Coach's Corner", and became an on-location host for the new, travelling "Hometown Hockey" broadcasts introduced that season. On June 27, 2016, Rogers announced that MacLean would be reinstated as host of the early games on "Hockey Night" beginning in the upcoming season, replacing George Stroumboulopoulos. MacLean has won eight Gemini Awards for his work with CBC. His first was in 1992 for Best Sports Broadcaster; he also won the Best Sports Broadcaster award in 1994, 1997, 1998 and 2001. He won Best Host or Interviewer in a Sports Program or Sportscast in 2004 and again in 2006. In 1996, he was inducted into the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame. In 2015, he was inducted into the Oakville Sports Hall of Fame. In 2016, MacLean, along with his Coach's Corner co-host Don Cherry, received a star on Canada's Walk of Fame. On January 16, 2010, MacLean presented a pre-game piece together with NHL representative Colin Campbell focusing on Vancouver Canucks player Alexandre Burrows, in follow up to an earlier incident between Burrows and referee Stéphane Auger in which the credibility of Auger was called into question. The piece was considered by a number of prominent sports writers, Canucks coach Alain Vigneault, and some fans to be a one-sided smear against Burrows. MacLean appeared on Vancouver-based sports radio show Team 1040 on January 18, 2010, and strongly denied being biased or one-sided during his presentation. In 2017, MacLean apologized to postal workers after suggesting their jobs were "effectively obsolete." On November 9, 2019, MacLean's co-host Don Cherry made remarks during "Coach's Corner" suggesting that Canadian immigrants benefit from the sacrifices of veterans and do not wear remembrance poppies. MacLean, who nodded during Cherry's rant and flashed a thumbs-up sign at the end of Saturday's segment, apologized the following day for staying silent during Cherry's remarks. The following day, Sportsnet president Bart Yabsley announced that Cherry had been fired: "Following further discussions with Don Cherry after Saturday night's broadcast, it has been decided it is the right time for him to immediately step down." The following day, Cherry expressed his disappointment over MacLean's apology. On November 16, 2019, MacLean addressed and reflected on the incident during "Hockey Night in Canada", the first without Cherry, also announcing the end of "Coach's Corner". In addition to his work at the CBC, MacLean is a former Level 5 referee with Hockey Canada. He has refereed in junior, minor pro, senior, and university leagues across Canada, mostly in the Southern Ontario region. He served as a referee in the September 29, 2006, NHL preseason matchup of the Buffalo Sabres and the Pittsburgh Penguins, calling one penalty in the final minute of the game. MacLean was named Honorary Colonel of the 1 Air Movements Squadron at 17 Wing Winnipeg of the Canadian Forces' Air Command. On June 3, 2010, MacLean helped to rescue a man trying to take his own life, by jumping into the Delaware River in Philadelphia. In 2010, MacLean and his 1986 Ford Mustang were profiled by The Globe and Mail.

Ron MacLean

M a c L e a n w a s b o r n i n Z w e i b r ü c k e n , W e s t G e r m a n y , a t t h e N A T O R o y a l C a n a d i a n A i r F o r c e ( R C A F ) N u m b e r 3 F i g h t e r W i n g Z w e i b r u c k e n , W e s t G e r m a n y o n A p r i l 1 2 , 1 9 6 0 . H i s f a t h e r w a s s t a t i o n e d a t t h e N A T O R C A F N u m b e r 1 A i r D i v i s i o n H e a d q u a r t e r s , C h a t e a u d e M e r c y , M e t z , F r a n c e w h e r e h e w a s e m p l o y e d i n t h e C h a t e a u a s a N C O C o m m u n i c a t i o n s O p e r a t o r ( C r y p t o C e n t r e ) . R o n M a c L e a n S r . , o f S y d n e y , N o v a S c o t i a , m a r r i e d i n J u l y 1 9 5 9 a t 1 A i r D i v i s i o n M e t z , a m e m b e r o f t h e R C A F , S a r a h " L i l a " M a c D o n a l d , f r o m I o n a , N o v a S c o t i a . I n 1 9 5 6 - 5 7 R o n M a c L e a n S r . w o r k e d a s a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o p e r a t o r a t R C A F S t a t i o n E d m o n t o n , w h i l e M a c D o n a l d w a s a n a i r w o m a n / c l e r k s t a t i o n e d a t R C A F S t a t i o n N a m a o , j u s t o u t s i d e E d m o n t o n . F o u r t e e n m o n t h s a f t e r M a c L e a n ' s b i r t h , t h e f a m i l y m o v e d b a c k t o C a n a d a , i n i t i a l l y s e t t l i n g i n C h e s t e r , N o v a S c o t i a . M a c L e a n w a s f o u r y e a r s o l d w h e n h i s d a d w a s s t a t i o n e d i n W h i t e h o r s e , Y u k o n , w i t h t h e R o y a l C a n a d i a n A i r F o r c e b e f o r e r e l o c a t i n g e v e n t u a l l y i n S y l v a n L a k e , A l b e r t a . H e a t t e n d e d h i g h s c h o o l i n R e d D e e r , A l b e r t a , w h e r e h e m e t h i s f u t u r e w i f e C a r i . A f t e r h i g h s c h o o l , M a c L e a n w a s p r e p a r e d t o a t t e n d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l b e r t a u n t i l h e w a s a s k e d t o f i l l i n f o r a s i c k f r i e n d a t C K R D - F M , w h i c h l e d t o a j o b a t C K R D - T V . A l t h o u g h h e n e v e r a t t e n d e d u n i v e r s i t y , M a c L e a n r e c e i v e d a n h o n o r a r y d e g r e e f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l b e r t a i n 2 0 1 9 . M a c L e a n h a s w o r k e d o n " H o c k e y N i g h t i n C a n a d a " s i n c e 1 9 8 6 – 8 7 . H e b e g a n h o s t i n g t e l e c a s t s i n C a l g a r y a n d T o r o n t o w h e n D a v e H o d g e m o v e d t o V a n c o u v e r . H o d g e w a s l a t e r s u s p e n d e d , a n d e v e n t u a l l y q u i t , p r o t e s t i n g a C B C p r o g r a m m i n g d e c i s i o n o n - a i r . H e w o r k e d h i s f i r s t S t a n l e y C u p F i n a l t h a t s p r i n g a n d h a s b e e n t h e e a r l y g a m e h o s t e v e r s i n c e . P a r t o f h i s d u t i e s i n c l u d e d h o s t i n g " C o a c h ' s C o r n e r " w i t h D o n C h e r r y . C o n t r a c t n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h C B C S p o r t s E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r N a n c y L e e a n d t h e p r e s i d e n t o f E n g l i s h t e l e v i s i o n h a d h i t a s t a n d s t i l l i n t h e 2 0 0 1 – 0 2 N H L s e a s o n . M a c L e a n t h r e a t e n e d t o l e a v e C B C o n t h e a d v i c e o f h i s a g e n t D o n M e e h a n . T h a t m a d e h e a d l i n e s a c r o s s C a n a d a a n d f o l l o w i n g a h u g e p u b l i c o u t c r y , t h e C B C q u i c k l y g a v e i n t o h i s d e m a n d s . I n a d d i t i o n t o h o s t i n g " H N I C " , h e h a s b e e n a p a r t o f t h e C B C ' s O l y m p i c s c o v e r a g e s i n c e 1 9 8 8 . H e t o o k o v e r a s c h i e f a n c h o r f o l l o w i n g t h e d e p a r t u r e o f B r i a n W i l l i a m s t o C T V / T S N . M a c L e a n w a s t h e m a i n s p o r t s c a s t e r a n d h o s t f o r t h e 2 0 0 8 S u m m e r O l y m p i c G a m e s i n B e i j i n g u n t i l h i s m o t h e r d i e d , c a u s i n g h i m t o h a n d o v e r d u t i e s t o S c o t t R u s s e l l . I n 1 9 9 3 , M a c L e a n s e r v e d a s a n i c e l e v e l r e p o r t e r f o r N B C S p o r t s ' c o v e r a g e o f t h e N H L A l l - S t a r G a m e i n M o n t r e a l . M a c L e a n h a s a l s o h o s t e d C B C ' s c o v e r a g e o f t h e Q u e e n ' s P l a t e . B e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 N H L s e a s o n , M a c L e a n w a s h i r e d b y R o g e r s M e d i a w h e n t h e c o m p a n y a c q u i r e d t h e n a t i o n a l r i g h t s t o t h e N H L . M a c L e a n w a s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e h o s t p o s i t i o n o f " H o c k e y N i g h t i n C a n a d a " , b u t r e t a i n e d h i s r o l e a s h o s t o f " C o a c h ' s C o r n e r " , a n d b e c a m e a n o n - l o c a t i o n h o s t f o r t h e n e w , t r a v e l l i n g " H o m e t o w n H o c k e y " b r o a d c a s t s i n t r o d u c e d t h a t s e a s o n . O n J u n e 2 7 , 2 0 1 6 , R o g e r s a n n o u n c e d t h a t M a c L e a n w o u l d b e r e i n s t a t e d a s h o s t o f t h e e a r l y g a m e s o n " H o c k e y N i g h t " b e g i n n i n g i n t h e u p c o m i n g s e a s o n , r e p l a c i n g G e o r g e S t r o u m b o u l o p o u l o s . M a c L e a n h a s w o n e i g h t G e m i n i A w a r d s f o r h i s w o r k w i t h C B C . H i s f i r s t w a s i n 1 9 9 2 f o r B e s t S p o r t s B r o a d c a s t e r ; h e a l s o w o n t h e B e s t S p o r t s B r o a d c a s t e r a w a r d i n 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 7 , 1 9 9 8 a n d 2 0 0 1 . H e w o n B e s t H o s t o r I n t e r v i e w e r i n a S p o r t s P r o g r a m o r S p o r t s c a s t i n 2 0 0 4 a n d a g a i n i n 2 0 0 6 . I n 1 9 9 6 , h e w a s i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e A l b e r t a S p o r t s H a l l o f F a m e . I n 2 0 1 5 , h e w a s i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e O a k v i l l e S p o r t s H a l l o f F a m e . I n 2 0 1 6 , M a c L e a n , a l o n g w i t h h i s C o a c h ' s C o r n e r c o - h o s t D o n C h e r r y , r e c e i v e d a s t a r o n C a n a d a ' s W a l k o f F a m e . O n J a n u a r y 1 6 , 2 0 1 0 , M a c L e a n p r e s e n t e d a p r e - g a m e p i e c e t o g e t h e r w i t h N H L r e p r e s e n t a t i v e C o l i n C a m p b e l l f o c u s i n g o n V a n c o u v e r C a n u c k s p l a y e r A l e x a n d r e B u r r o w s , i n f o l l o w u p t o a n e a r l i e r i n c i d e n t b e t w e e n B u r r o w s a n d r e f e r e e S t é p h a n e A u g e r i n w h i c h t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f A u g e r w a s c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n . T h e p i e c e w a s c o n s i d e r e d b y a n u m b e r o f p r o m i n e n t s p o r t s w r i t e r s , C a n u c k s c o a c h A l a i n V i g n e a u l t , a n d s o m e f a n s t o b e a o n e - s i d e d s m e a r a g a i n s t B u r r o w s . M a c L e a n a p p e a r e d o n V a n c o u v e r - b a s e d s p o r t s r a d i o s h o w T e a m 1 0 4 0 o n J a n u a r y 1 8 , 2 0 1 0 , a n d s t r o n g l y d e n i e d b e i n g b i a s e d o r o n e - s i d e d d u r i n g h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n . I n 2 0 1 7 , M a c L e a n a p o l o g i z e d t o p o s t a l w o r k e r s a f t e r s u g g e s t i n g t h e i r j o b s w e r e " e f f e c t i v e l y o b s o l e t e . " O n N o v e m b e r 9 , 2 0 1 9 , M a c L e a n ' s c o - h o s t D o n C h e r r y m a d e r e m a r k s d u r i n g " C o a c h ' s C o r n e r " s u g g e s t i n g t h a t C a n a d i a n i m m i g r a n t s b e n e f i t f r o m t h e s a c r i f i c e s o f v e t e r a n s a n d d o n o t w e a r r e m e m b r a n c e p o p p i e s . M a c L e a n , w h o n o d d e d d u r i n g C h e r r y ' s r a n t a n d f l a s h e d a t h u m b s - u p s i g n a t t h e e n d o f S a t u r d a y ' s s e g m e n t , a p o l o g i z e d t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y f o r s t a y i n g s i l e n t d u r i n g C h e r r y ' s r e m a r k s . T h e f o l l o w i n g d a y , S p o r t s n e t p r e s i d e n t B a r t Y a b s l e y a n n o u n c e d t h a t C h e r r y h a d b e e n f i r e d : " F o l l o w i n g f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h D o n C h e r r y a f t e r S a t u r d a y n i g h t ' s b r o a d c a s t , i t h a s b e e n d e c i d e d i t i s t h e r i g h t t i m e f o r h i m t o i m m e d i a t e l y s t e p d o w n . " T h e f o l l o w i n g d a y , C h e r r y e x p r e s s e d h i s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t o v e r M a c L e a n ' s a p o l o g y . O n N o v e m b e r 1 6 , 2 0 1 9 , M a c L e a n a d d r e s s e d a n d r e f l e c t e d o n t h e i n c i d e n t d u r i n g " H o c k e y N i g h t i n C a n a d a " , t h e f i r s t w i t h o u t C h e r r y , a l s o a n n o u n c i n g t h e e n d o f " C o a c h ' s C o r n e r " . I n a d d i t i o n t o h i s w o r k a t t h e C B C , M a c L e a n i s a f o r m e r L e v e l 5 r e f e r e e w i t h H o c k e y C a n a d a . H e h a s r e f e r e e d i n j u n i o r , m i n o r p r o , s e n i o r , a n d u n i v e r s i t y l e a g u e s a c r o s s C a n a d a , m o s t l y i n t h e S o u t h e r n O n t a r i o r e g i o n . H e s e r v e d a s a r e f e r e e i n t h e S e p t e m b e r 2 9 , 2 0 0 6 , N H L p r e s e a s o n m a t c h u p o f t h e B u f f a l o S a b r e s a n d t h e P i t t s b u r g h P e n g u i n s , c a l l i n g o n e p e n a l t y i n t h e f i n a l m i n u t e o f t h e g a m e . M a c L e a n w a s n a m e d H o n o r a r y C o l o n e l o f t h e 1 A i r M o v e m e n t s S q u a d r o n a t 1 7 W i n g W i n n i p e g o f t h e C a n a d i a n F o r c e s ' A i r C o m m a n d . O n J u n e 3 , 2 0 1 0 , M a c L e a n h e l p e d t o r e s c u e a m a n t r y i n g t o t a k e h i s o w n l i f e , b y j u m p i n g i n t o t h e D e l a w a r e R i v e r i n P h i l a d e l p h i a . I n 2 0 1 0 , M a c L e a n a n d h i s 1 9 8 6 F o r d M u s t a n g w e r e p r o f i l e d b y T h e G l o b e a n d M a i l .

Career ; "Hockey Night in Canada"

Ron MacLean is a renowned Canadian sportscaster, best known for hosting "Hockey Night in Canada" since 1986. Born in West Germany to a Royal Canadian Air Force family, MacLean grew up in various locations across Canada. He began his broadcasting career filling in for a sick friend at CKRD-FM, leading to a job at CKRD-TV. MacLean has worked on numerous high-profile events, including the Olympics and the Stanley Cup Finals. He has won multiple awards, including eight Gemini Awards, and has been inducted into several halls of fame. Despite controversies throughout his career, MacLean remains a beloved figure in Canadian sports broadcasting.

MacLean was born in Zweibrücken, West Germany, at the NATO Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) Number 3 Fighter Wing Zweibrucken, West Germany on April 12, 1960. His father was stationed at the NATO RCAF Number 1 Air Division Headquarters, Chateau de Mercy, Metz, France where he was employed in the Chateau as a NCO Communications Operator (Crypto Centre). Ron MacLean Sr., of Sydney, Nova Scotia, married in July 1959 at 1 Air Division Metz, a member of the RCAF, Sarah "Lila" MacDonald, from Iona, Nova Scotia. In 1956-57 Ron Mac Lean Sr. worked as a communications operator at RCAF Station Edmonton, while MacDonald was an airwoman/clerk stationed at RCAF Station Namao, just outside Edmonton. Fourteen months after MacLean's birth, the family moved back to Canada, initially settling in Chester, Nova Scotia. MacLean was four years old when his dad was stationed in Whitehorse, Yukon, with the Royal Canadian Air Force before relocating eventually in Sylvan Lake, Alberta. He attended high school in Red Deer, Alberta, where he met his future wife Cari. After high school, MacLean was prepared to attend the University of Alberta until he was asked to fill in for a sick friend at CKRD-FM, which led to a job at CKRD-TV. Although he never attended university, MacLean received an honorary degree from the University of Alberta in 2019. MacLean has worked on "Hockey Night in Canada" since 1986–87. He began hosting telecasts in Calgary and Toronto when Dave Hodge moved to Vancouver. Hodge was later suspended, and eventually quit, protesting a CBC programming decision on-air. He worked his first Stanley Cup Final that spring and has been the early game host ever since. Part of his duties included hosting "Coach's Corner" with Don Cherry. Contract negotiations with CBC Sports Executive Director Nancy Lee and the president of English television had hit a standstill in the 2001–02 NHL season. MacLean threatened to leave CBC on the advice of his agent Don Meehan. That made headlines across Canada and following a huge public outcry, the CBC quickly gave in to his demands. In addition to hosting "HNIC", he has been a part of the CBC's Olympics coverage since 1988. He took over as chief anchor following the departure of Brian Williams to CTV/TSN. MacLean was the main sportscaster and host for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing until his mother died, causing him to hand over duties to Scott Russell. In 1993, MacLean served as an ice level reporter for NBC Sports' coverage of the NHL All-Star Game in Montreal. MacLean has also hosted CBC's coverage of the Queen's Plate. Beginning with the 2014–15 NHL season, MacLean was hired by Rogers Media when the company acquired the national rights to the NHL. MacLean was removed from the host position of "Hockey Night in Canada", but retained his role as host of "Coach's Corner", and became an on-location host for the new, travelling "Hometown Hockey" broadcasts introduced that season. On June 27, 2016, Rogers announced that MacLean would be reinstated as host of the early games on "Hockey Night" beginning in the upcoming season, replacing George Stroumboulopoulos. MacLean has won eight Gemini Awards for his work with CBC. His first was in 1992 for Best Sports Broadcaster; he also won the Best Sports Broadcaster award in 1994, 1997, 1998 and 2001. He won Best Host or Interviewer in a Sports Program or Sportscast in 2004 and again in 2006. In 1996, he was inducted into the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame. In 2015, he was inducted into the Oakville Sports Hall of Fame. In 2016, MacLean, along with his Coach's Corner co-host Don Cherry, received a star on Canada's Walk of Fame. On January 16, 2010, MacLean presented a pre-game piece together with NHL representative Colin Campbell focusing on Vancouver Canucks player Alexandre Burrows, in follow up to an earlier incident between Burrows and referee Stéphane Auger in which the credibility of Auger was called into question. The piece was considered by a number of prominent sports writers, Canucks coach Alain Vigneault, and some fans to be a one-sided smear against Burrows. MacLean appeared on Vancouver-based sports radio show Team 1040 on January 18, 2010, and strongly denied being biased or one-sided during his presentation. In 2017, MacLean apologized to postal workers after suggesting their jobs were "effectively obsolete." On November 9, 2019, MacLean's co-host Don Cherry made remarks during "Coach's Corner" suggesting that Canadian immigrants benefit from the sacrifices of veterans and do not wear remembrance poppies. MacLean, who nodded during Cherry's rant and flashed a thumbs-up sign at the end of Saturday's segment, apologized the following day for staying silent during Cherry's remarks. The following day, Sportsnet president Bart Yabsley announced that Cherry had been fired: "Following further discussions with Don Cherry after Saturday night's broadcast, it has been decided it is the right time for him to immediately step down." The following day, Cherry expressed his disappointment over MacLean's apology. On November 16, 2019, MacLean addressed and reflected on the incident during "Hockey Night in Canada", the first without Cherry, also announcing the end of "Coach's Corner". In addition to his work at the CBC, MacLean is a former Level 5 referee with Hockey Canada. He has refereed in junior, minor pro, senior, and university leagues across Canada, mostly in the Southern Ontario region. He served as a referee in the September 29, 2006, NHL preseason matchup of the Buffalo Sabres and the Pittsburgh Penguins, calling one penalty in the final minute of the game. MacLean was named Honorary Colonel of the 1 Air Movements Squadron at 17 Wing Winnipeg of the Canadian Forces' Air Command. On June 3, 2010, MacLean helped to rescue a man trying to take his own life, by jumping into the Delaware River in Philadelphia. In 2010, MacLean and his 1986 Ford Mustang were profiled by The Globe and Mail.

California State Route 82

A t i t s s o u t h e n d S R 8 2 s t a r t s a s T h e A l a m e d a a t I - 8 8 0 i n S a n J o s e . O n c e i t e n t e r s S a n t a C l a r a , i t b e n d s n o r t h - e a s t a r o u n d S a n t a C l a r a U n i v e r s i t y a n d o n t o E l C a m i n o R e a l , w h e r e i t c o n t i n u e s f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f i t s t r i p u p t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o P e n i n s u l a , p a r a l l e l i n g t h e C a l t r a i n c o r r i d o r . S R 8 2 , g e n e r a l l y c a l l e d " E l C a m i n o " b y l o c a l r e s i d e n t s , r u n s t h r o u g h a n u m b e r o f c i t i e s o n t h e P e n i n s u l a , i n c l u d i n g P a l o A l t o ( p a s s i n g b y S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y ) , S a n C a r l o s , S a n M a t e o , B u r l i n g a m e , a n d M i l l b r a e , a n d i t i s a c e n t r a l a r t e r y o f t h e P e n i n s u l a c o m m u n i t i e s t h r o u g h w h i c h i t p a s s e s . I n D a l y C i t y , S R 8 2 b e c o m e s M i s s i o n S t r e e t , c o n n e c t i n g w i t h S a n F r a n c i s c o ' s M i s s i o n S t r e e t , b u t t h e n q u i c k l y f l o w s o n t o S a n J o s e A v e n u e , c r o s s i n g A l e m a n y B o u l e v a r d , a n d t e r m i n a t i n g a t I - 2 8 0 . S R 8 2 t a k e s a n i n l a n d c o u r s e p a r a l l e l i n g U S 1 0 1 . T h e e n t i r e r o u t e i s a t s t r e e t l e v e l w i t h a t l e a s t f o u r l a n e s o f t r a f f i c ; n o p o r t i o n s o f i t e x i s t a s a f r e e w a y , a l t h o u g h t h e r o u t e i s o c c a s i o n a l l y a d i v i d e d h i g h w a y . T h e B a y s h o r e F r e e w a y a n d I - 2 8 0 t e n d t o p r o v i d e f a s t e r a l t e r n a t i v e s t h a n R o u t e 8 2 e v e n d u r i n g t r a f f i c j a m s o n t h o s e f r e e w a y s . F r o m 1 9 6 4 t o 1 9 6 8 , S R 8 2 c o n t i n u e d p a s t i t s c u r r e n t e n d n o r t h o n A l e m a n y B o u l e v a r d t o B a y s h o r e B o u l e v a r d i n S a n F r a n c i s c o ( s e e b e l o w ) . P r i o r t o 2 0 1 3 , S R 8 2 c o n t i n u e d p a s t i t s c u r r e n t s o u t h e n d o n T h e A l a m e d a , b e c o m i n g S a n t a C l a r a S t . i n D o w n t o w n S a n J o s e t h e n t u r n i n g s o u t h o n M o n t g o m e r y S t . ( s o u t h b o u n d ) / A u t u m n S t . ( n o r t h b o u n d ) ; t h e n i t t u r n e d e a s t o n S a n C a r l o s S t . I t t u r n e d s o u t h o n M a r k e t S t . , w h i c h b e c o m e s 1 s t   S t . a n d t h e n M o n t e r e y H i g h w a y . I t f o l l o w e d M o n t e r e y H i g h w a y u n t i l i t t u r n e d e a s t b r i e f l y o n B l o s s o m H i l l R o a d , w h e r e i t e n d e d a t U S 1 0 1 . T h i s r e l i n q u i s h e d s e g m e n t s o u t h o f I - 8 8 0 w i t h i n S a n J o s e i s l e g a l l y n o l o n g e r a s t a t e h i g h w a y , b u t t h e s t a t e ' s S t r e e t s a n d H i g h w a y s C o d e m a n d a t e s t h a t t h e C i t y o f S a n J o s e i s s t i l l r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n " s i g n s d i r e c t i n g m o t o r i s t s t o t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f R o u t e 8 2 " a n d " e n s u r e t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f t r a f f i c f l o w " o n t h i s s e g m e n t . S i g n s a l o n g U S 1 0 1 , I - 2 8 0 , a n d S R 8 7 w h e r e t h e s e r e l i n q u i s h e d s e g m e n t s i n t e r s e c t s t i l l h a v e S R 8 2 s h i e l d s . T h o u g h a s o f 2 0 1 7 , c e r t a i n s i g n s w i t h S R 8 2 s h i e l d s h a v e b e e n r e m o v e d a l o n g U S 1 0 1 n e a r B l o s s o m H i l l R o a d a n d C a p i t o l E x p r e s s w a y . S R 8 2 i s p a r t o f t h e N a t i o n a l H i g h w a y S y s t e m , a n e t w o r k o f h i g h w a y s t h a t a r e c o n s i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l t o t h e c o u n t r y ' s e c o n o m y , d e f e n s e , a n d m o b i l i t y b y t h e F e d e r a l H i g h w a y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . O r i g i n a l l y a s e g m e n t o f U S 1 0 1 ( a n d b e f o r e t h a t , t h e h i s t o r i c E l C a m i n o R e a l ) , t h e h i g h w a y b e c a m e c o m p l e t e l y i n a d e q u a t e f o r t h e n e e d s o f t r a f f i c w i t h t h e r a p i d g r o w t h o f t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a a f t e r W o r l d W a r I I , i n c l u d i n g u r b a n i z a t i o n o f t h e t o w n s a l o n g i t s p a t h . T h e B a y s h o r e H i g h w a y t o t h e e a s t w a s o r i g i n a l l y b u i l t a s " B y p a s s ( B Y P ) U S 1 0 1 " a n d w a s u p g r a d e d t o a f r e e w a y i n 1 9 3 7 . W i t h t h i s u p g r a d e , t h e o r i g i n a l U S 1 0 1 r o u t e w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e B a y s h o r e F r e e w a y , a n d E l C a m i n o R e a l b e c a m e U S 1 0 1 B Y P , b u t i n r e s p o n s e t o p r o t e s t s , t h e s w i t c h i n d e s i g n a t i o n s w a s r e v e r s e d t w o y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1 9 3 9 , a n d t h e B a y s h o r e F r e e w a y r e m a i n e d U S 1 0 1 B Y P u n t i l 1 9 6 4 . I n 1 9 6 4 , U S 1 0 1 w a s m o v e d a g a i n o n t o t h e B a y s h o r e F r e e w a y , a n d i t s f o r m e r a l i g n m e n t o n E l C a m i n o R e a l b e c a m e S R 8 2 . I t w a s d e f i n e d a s t w o p o r t i o n s : F r o m R o u t e ( U S ) 1 0 1 n e a r F o r d R o a d s o u t h o f S a n J o s e t o R o u t e ( U S ) 1 0 1 i n S a n F r a n c i s c o ( w h i c h t o d a y c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e A l e m a n y M a z e ) , a n d f r o m R o u t e ( U S ) 1 0 1 n e a r A l e m a n y B o u l e v a r d t o R o u t e ( S R ) 8 7 ( c u r r e n t u n c o n s t r u c t e d S R 2 3 0 ) i n S a n F r a n c i s c o . I n 1 9 6 8 , t h e p o r t i o n s f r o m I - 2 8 0 ( a t c u r r e n t S R 8 2 ) t o U S 1 0 1 a n d f r o m S R 1 0 1 t o S R 8 7 w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o I - 2 8 0 . S R 8 7 w a s t h e n d e l e t e d n o r t h o f S R 2 3 7 i n 1 9 8 0 , a n d i s o n l y c o n s t r u c t e d s o u t h o f U S 1 0 1 , a n d S R 8 2 t o d a y i s d e s i g n a t e d a s p a r t o f E l C a m i n o R e a l . I n 2 0 1 3 , S R 8 2 w a s r e l i n q u i s h e d s o u t h o f I - 8 8 0 t h r o u g h S a n J o s e . H o w e v e r , t h e s t a t e ' s S t r e e t s a n d H i g h w a y s C o d e s t a t e s t h a t t h e C i t y o f S a n J o s e i s s t i l l r e q u i r e d t o " e n s u r e t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f t r a f f i c f l o w o n t h e r e l i n q u i s h e d f o r m e r p o r t i o n o f R o u t e 8 2 " a l o n g T h e A l a m e d a i n t o d o w n t o w n S a n J o s e , a n d f r o m t h e r e a l o n g M o n t e r e y R o a d t o i t s f o r m e r t e r m i n u s a t B l o s s o m H i l l R o a d a n d U S 1 0 1 . T h e c i t y a l s o h a s t h e f u r t h e r o p t i o n t o a p p l y t o m a k e t h i s s e g m e n t a b u s i n e s s r o u t e . T h e G r a n d B o u l e v a r d I n i t i a t i v e i s a p a r t n e r s h i p o f n i n e t e e n B a y A r e a t r a n s i t a g e n c i e s a n d m u n i c i p a l i t i e s t h a t o p e r a t e o r m a n a g e v a r i o u s p o r t i o n s o f t h e r o u t e . A l t h o u g h E l C a m i n o R e a l i s u l t i m a t e l y u n d e r t h e s t e w a r d s h i p o f C a l t r a n s , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n n e v e r t h e l e s s s p o n s o r s a e s t h e t i c a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l i m p r o v e m e n t s a l o n g t h e c o r r i d o r a n d i t s n e i g h b o r i n g p a r c e l s i n o r d e r t o r e v i t a l i z e t h e s t r e e t s c a p e a n d p r o m o t e d e n s i t y a n d m o r e w a l k a b l e a n d t r a n s i t - o r i e n t e d d e v e l o p m e n t .

Route description

SR 82 begins in San Jose as The Alameda at I-880, bending northeast around Santa Clara University and onto El Camino Real. It parallels the Caltrain corridor, passing through several Peninsula cities, including Palo Alto, San Carlos, San Mateo, Burlingame, and Millbrae. In Daly City, it becomes Mission Street, connecting with San Francisco's Mission Street, before terminating at I-280. The entire route is at street level with at least four lanes of traffic, providing an alternative to US 101 and I-280.

At its south end SR 82 starts as The Alameda at I-880 in San Jose. Once it enters Santa Clara, it bends north-east around Santa Clara University and onto El Camino Real, where it continues for the remainder of its trip up the San Francisco Peninsula, paralleling the Caltrain corridor. SR 82, generally called "El Camino" by local residents, runs through a number of cities on the Peninsula, including Palo Alto (passing by Stanford University), San Carlos, San Mateo, Burlingame, and Millbrae, and it is a central artery of the Peninsula communities through which it passes. In Daly City, SR 82 becomes Mission Street, connecting with San Francisco's Mission Street, but then quickly flows onto San Jose Avenue, crossing Alemany Boulevard, and terminating at I-280. SR 82 takes an inland course paralleling US 101. The entire route is at street level with at least four lanes of traffic; no portions of it exist as a freeway, although the route is occasionally a divided highway. The Bayshore Freeway and I-280 tend to provide faster alternatives than Route 82 even during traffic jams on those freeways. From 1964 to 1968, SR 82 continued past its current end north on Alemany Boulevard to Bayshore Boulevard in San Francisco (see below). Prior to 2013, SR 82 continued past its current south end on The Alameda, becoming Santa Clara St. in Downtown San Jose then turning south on Montgomery St. (southbound) / Autumn St. (northbound); then it turned east on San Carlos St. It turned south on Market St., which becomes 1st St. and then Monterey Highway. It followed Monterey Highway until it turned east briefly on Blossom Hill Road, where it ended at US 101. This relinquished segment south of I-880 within San Jose is legally no longer a state highway, but the state's Streets and Highways Code mandates that the City of San Jose is still required to maintain "signs directing motorists to the continuation of Route 82" and "ensure the continuity of traffic flow" on this segment. Signs along US 101, I-280, and SR 87 where these relinquished segments intersect still have SR 82 shields. Though as of 2017, certain signs with SR 82 shields have been removed along US 101 near Blossom Hill Road and Capitol Expressway. SR 82 is part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration. Originally a segment of US 101 (and before that, the historic El Camino Real), the highway became completely inadequate for the needs of traffic with the rapid growth of the San Francisco Bay Area after World War II, including urbanization of the towns along its path. The Bayshore Highway to the east was originally built as "Bypass (BYP) US 101" and was upgraded to a freeway in 1937. With this upgrade, the original US 101 route was transferred to the Bayshore Freeway, and El Camino Real became US 101 BYP, but in response to protests, the switch in designations was reversed two years later, in 1939, and the Bayshore Freeway remained US 101 BYP until 1964. In 1964, US 101 was moved again onto the Bayshore Freeway, and its former alignment on El Camino Real became SR 82. It was defined as two portions: From Route (US) 101 near Ford Road south of San Jose to Route (US) 101 in San Francisco (which today corresponds to the Alemany Maze), and from Route (US) 101 near Alemany Boulevard to Route (SR) 87 (current unconstructed SR 230) in San Francisco. In 1968, the portions from I-280 (at current SR 82) to US 101 and from SR 101 to SR 87 were transferred to I-280. SR 87 was then deleted north of SR 237 in 1980, and is only constructed south of US 101, and SR 82 today is designated as part of El Camino Real. In 2013, SR 82 was relinquished south of I-880 through San Jose. However, the state's Streets and Highways Code states that the City of San Jose is still required to "ensure the continuity of traffic flow on the relinquished former portion of Route 82" along The Alameda into downtown San Jose, and from there along Monterey Road to its former terminus at Blossom Hill Road and US 101. The city also has the further option to apply to make this segment a business route. The Grand Boulevard Initiative is a partnership of nineteen Bay Area transit agencies and municipalities that operate or manage various portions of the route. Although El Camino Real is ultimately under the stewardship of Caltrans, the organization nevertheless sponsors aesthetic and infrastructural improvements along the corridor and its neighboring parcels in order to revitalize the streetscape and promote density and more walkable and transit-oriented development.

David Thewlis

T h e w l i s w a s b o r n D a v i d W h e e l e r i n B l a c k p o o l o n 2 0 M a r c h 1 9 6 3 , t h e s o n o f M a u r e e n ( n é e T h e w l i s ) a n d A l e c R a y m o n d W h e e l e r . B o t h p a r e n t s w o r k e d a t h i s f a t h e r ' s s h o p . H e h a s a n o l d e r s i b l i n g a n d a y o u n g e r s i b l i n g . A s a t e e n a g e r , h e p l a y e d i n a r o c k b a n d c a l l e d Q E D a n d p l a y e d l e a d g u i t a r w i t h a p u n k r o c k b a n d c a l l e d D o o r 6 6 . H e w a s e d u c a t e d a t H i g h f i e l d H i g h S c h o o l i n B l a c k p o o l ' s M a r t o n a r e a . H e l a t e r e n r o l l e d i n t h e G u i l d h a l l S c h o o l o f M u s i c a n d D r a m a i n L o n d o n , g r a d u a t i n g i n 1 9 8 4 . T h e w l i s h a d a m i n o r r o l e i n a n e p i s o d e o f t h e 1 9 8 0 s s i t c o m " U p t h e E l e p h a n t a n d R o u n d t h e C a s t l e " . H e a l s o a p p e a r e d i n a 1 9 8 5 e p i s o d e o f t h e B B C s i t c o m " O n l y F o o l s a n d H o r s e s " , ' I t ' s O n l y R o c k a n d R o l l ' , a s a m e m b e r o f R o d n e y ' s s h o r t - l i v e d b a n d . H i s f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l r o l e w a s i n t h e p l a y " B u d d y H o l l y a t t h e R e g a l " i n G r e e n w i c h . T h e w l i s ' s b r e a k o u t r o l e w a s " N a k e d " ( 1 9 9 3 ; d i r . M i k e L e i g h ) , a s t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r , J o h n n y , a h o m e l e s s , h i g h l y i n t e l l i g e n t , e m b i t t e r e d , r a m b l i n g s t r e e t p h i l o s o p h e r , f o r w h i c h T h e w l i s w a s n a m e d B e s t A c t o r b y t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y o f F i l m C r i t i c s ( U n i t e d S t a t e s ) , t h e L o n d o n F i l m C r i t i c s C i r c l e , t h e E v e n i n g S t a n d a r d , t h e N e w Y o r k F i l m C r i t i c s ' C i r c l e a n d t h e C a n n e s F i l m F e s t i v a l . T h a t s a m e y e a r , h e a p p e a r e d o n t e l e v i s i o n a s a s e x u a l p r e d a t o r n a m e d J a m e s J a c k s o n i n " P r i m e S u s p e c t 3 " , o p p o s i t e H e l e n M i r r e n a n d C i a r á n H i n d s . B e f o r e t h a t , h i s f i r s t t e l e v i s i o n a p p e a r a n c e w a s i n " V a l e n t i n e P a r k " . D u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 0 s , T h e w l i s a p p e a r e d i n a v a r i e t y o f f i l m s , m o s t l y f a n t a s y a n d p e r i o d , i n c l u d i n g " R e s t o r a t i o n " ( 1 9 9 5 ) , " B l a c k B e a u t y " ( 1 9 9 4 ) , " T o t a l E c l i p s e " ( 1 9 9 5 ) w i t h L e o n a r d o D i C a p r i o , " T h e I s l a n d o f D r . M o r e a u " ( 1 9 9 6 ) , " D r a g o n h e a r t " ( 1 9 9 6 ) , a n d " S e v e n Y e a r s i n T i b e t " ( 1 9 9 7 ) , o p p o s i t e B r a d P i t t . H e w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r a B r i t i s h I n d e p e n d e n t F i l m A w a r d f o r " D i v o r c i n g J a c k " ( 1 9 9 8 ) , a n d p l a y e d C l o v i n a t e l e v i s i o n f i l m o f S a m u e l B e c k e t t ' s " E n d g a m e " ( 2 0 0 0 ) . N o t a b l e a p p e a r a n c e s a l s o i n c l u d e B e r n a r d o B e r t o l u c c i ' s " B e s i e g e d " ( 1 9 9 8 ) , t h e C o e n b r o t h e r s ’ " T h e B i g L e b o w s k i " ( 1 9 9 8 ) , a n d P a u l M c G u i g a n ' s " G a n g s t e r N o . 1 " ( 2 0 0 0 ) , o p p o s i t e P a u l B e t t a n y a n d M a l c o l m M c D o w e l l . H e a u d i t i o n e d f o r t h e r o l e o f Q u i r i n u s Q u i r r e l l i n t h e C h r i s C o l u m b u s d i r e c t e d f i l m " H a r r y P o t t e r a n d t h e P h i l o s o p h e r ' s S t o n e " , b u t t h e p a r t w e n t t o I a n H a r t . D e s p i t e m i s s i n g o u t o n t h e f i r s t f i l m , h e w a s c a s t i n 2 0 0 4 a s P r o f e s s o r R e m u s L u p i n i n " H a r r y P o t t e r a n d t h e P r i s o n e r o f A z k a b a n " . H e d i d n o t h a v e t o a u d i t i o n a s h e w a s d i r e c t o r A l f o n s o C u a r ó n ' s f i r s t c h o i c e f o r t h e r o l e . T h e w l i s r e p r i s e d t h e r o l e i n f o u r o t h e r f i l m s i n t h e s e r i e s . H e a p p e a r e d a s a n S S C o m m a n d a n t o f a N a z i d e a t h c a m p a n d f a t h e r o f t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r i n " T h e B o y i n t h e S t r i p e d P y j a m a s " , w h i c h w a s w e l l r e c e i v e d . O t h e r c r e d i t s i n c l u d e R i d l e y S c o t t ' s " K i n g d o m o f H e a v e n " ( 2 0 0 5 ) , T e r r e n c e M a l i c k ' s " T h e N e w W o r l d " ( 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d " T h e O m e n " ( 2 0 0 6 ) . T h e w l i s p l a y e d t h e l a t e D r . M i c h a e l A r i s , h u s b a n d o f N o b e l P r i z e l a u r e a t e A u n g S a n S u u K y i o f B u r m a , w i t h M a l a y s i a n a c t r e s s M i c h e l l e Y e o h a s S u u K y i , i n t h e b i o p i c " T h e L a d y " d i r e c t e d b y L u c B e s s o n . I n 2 0 1 2 , h e r e c e i v e d a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l F e s t i v a l o f I n d e p e n d e n t C i n e m a O f f P l u s C a m e r a A w a r d . I n t h e s a m e y e a r , h e a l s o p l a y e d i n " S e p a r a t e W e C o m e , S e p a r a t e W e G o " , d i r e c t e d b y H a r r y P o t t e r c o - s t a r B o n n i e W r i g h t . I n J u n e 2 0 1 5 , T h e w l i s w a s r e p o r t e d t o b e f i l m i n g s c e n e s f o r a D o n a l d C r o w h u r s t b i o p i c , " T h e M e r c y " , o n t h e b e a c h a t T e i g n m o u t h , D e v o n , p l a y i n g D o n a l d C r o w h u r s t ' s p r e s s a g e n t , R o d n e y H a l l w o r t h , w h i l e C o l i n F i r t h i s p l a y i n g D o n a l d C r o w h u r s t . H e a l s o s t a r r e d i n " R e g r e s s i o n " , a t h r i l l e r r e l e a s e d i n a u t u m n 2 0 1 5 . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 5 , T h e w l i s s t a r r e d a s I n s p e c t o r G o o l e i n H e l e n E d m u n d s o n ' s B B C T V a d a p t a t i o n o f J . B . P r i e s t l e y ' s " A n I n s p e c t o r C a l l s " . I n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 5 , h e p l a y e d K i n g D u n c a n i n t h e f i l m " M a c b e t h " . T h e w l i s p o r t r a y e d A r e s i n " W o n d e r W o m a n " ( 2 0 1 7 ) , t h e D C C o m i c s f i l m f e a t u r i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s a m e n a m e . H e b r i e f l y r e p r i s e d h i s r o l e a s A r e s i n " J u s t i c e L e a g u e " ( 2 0 1 7 ) . T h a t s a m e y e a r , h e a p p e a r e d a s V . M . V a r g a , t h e m a i n a n t a g o n i s t o f t h e t h i r d s e a s o n o f " F a r g o " . H i s p e r f o r m a n c e w a s c r i t i c a l l y a c c l a i m e d , a n d e a r n e d h i m n o m i n a t i o n s f o r t h e P r i m e t i m e E m m y A w a r d , C r i t i c s ' C h o i c e T e l e v i s i o n A w a r d a n d G o l d e n G l o b e A w a r d a s a s u p p o r t i n g a c t o r . T h e w l i s h a s m o s t r e c e n t l y s t a r r e d i n t h e 2 0 2 0 N e t f l i x f i l m " I ' m T h i n k i n g o f E n d i n g T h i n g s " , d i r e c t e d b y C h a r l i e K a u f m a n . T h e w l i s d i r e c t e d " H e l l o , H e l l o , H e l l o " i n 1 9 9 5 , f o r w h i c h h e w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r a B A F T A A w a r d f o r B e s t S h o r t F i l m . H e a l s o w r o t e , d i r e c t e d a n d s t a r r e d i n t h e f e a t u r e " C h e e k y " ( 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e w l i s ' b l a c k c o m e d y n o v e l s e t i n t h e a r t w o r l d , " T h e L a t e H e c t o r K i p l i n g " , w a s p u b l i s h e d b y S i m o n & S c h u s t e r i n 2 0 0 7 . H i s s e c o n d b o o k , , w a s p u b l i s h e d b y W e i d e n f e l d & N i c o l s o n i n 2 0 2 1 . T h e w l i s w a s m a r r i e d t o W e l s h a c t r e s s S a r a S u g a r m a n f r o m 1 9 9 2 u n t i l t h e i r d i v o r c e i n 1 9 9 4 . H e t h e n h a d a b r i e f r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h E n g l i s h a c t r e s s K a t e H a r d i e . H e w a s i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h E n g l i s h a c t r e s s A n n a F r i e l f r o m 2 0 0 1 u n t i l l a t e 2 0 1 0 . T h e i r d a u g h t e r , G r a c i e , w a s b o r n o n 9 J u l y 2 0 0 5 a n d l a t e r b e c a m e a n a c t r e s s . T h e w l i s m a r r i e d F r e n c h d e s i g n e r H e r m i n e P o i t o u o n 5 A u g u s t 2 0 1 6 . T h e c o u p l e l i v e i n S u n n i n g d a l e , B e r k s h i r e .

Career

David Thewlis is a renowned English actor, born on March 20, 1963, in Blackpool. He began his career in the early 1980s, appearing in various TV shows and films. His breakthrough role came in 1993 with the film "Naked," earning him several awards and nominations. Throughout the 1990s, Thewlis appeared in numerous films, including "Restoration," "Black Beauty," and "Seven Years in Tibet." He gained further recognition for his portrayal of Professor Remus Lupin in the "Harry Potter" franchise. Thewlis has continued to work in film and television, starring in projects such as "The Boy in the Striped Pajamas," "Wonder Woman," and "Fargo." He has also ventured into writing and directing, publishing a novel and releasing a feature film.

Thewlis was born David Wheeler in Blackpool on 20 March 1963, the son of Maureen (née Thewlis) and Alec Raymond Wheeler. Both parents worked at his father's shop. He has an older sibling and a younger sibling. As a teenager, he played in a rock band called QED and played lead guitar with a punk rock band called Door 66. He was educated at Highfield High School in Blackpool's Marton area. He later enrolled in the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London, graduating in 1984. Thewlis had a minor role in an episode of the 1980s sitcom "Up the Elephant and Round the Castle". He also appeared in a 1985 episode of the BBC sitcom "Only Fools and Horses", 'It's Only Rock and Roll', as a member of Rodney's short-lived band. His first professional role was in the play "Buddy Holly at the Regal" in Greenwich. Thewlis's breakout role was "Naked" (1993; dir. Mike Leigh), as the main character, Johnny, a homeless, highly intelligent, embittered, rambling street philosopher, for which Thewlis was named Best Actor by the National Society of Film Critics (United States), the London Film Critics Circle, the Evening Standard, the New York Film Critics' Circle and the Cannes Film Festival. That same year, he appeared on television as a sexual predator named James Jackson in "Prime Suspect 3", opposite Helen Mirren and Ciarán Hinds. Before that, his first television appearance was in "Valentine Park". During the 1990s, Thewlis appeared in a variety of films, mostly fantasy and period, including "Restoration" (1995), "Black Beauty" (1994), "Total Eclipse" (1995) with Leonardo DiCaprio, "The Island of Dr. Moreau" (1996), "Dragonheart" (1996), and "Seven Years in Tibet" (1997), opposite Brad Pitt. He was nominated for a British Independent Film Award for "Divorcing Jack" (1998), and played Clov in a television film of Samuel Beckett's "Endgame" (2000). Notable appearances also include Bernardo Bertolucci's "Besieged" (1998), the Coen brothers’ "The Big Lebowski" (1998), and Paul McGuigan's "Gangster No. 1" (2000), opposite Paul Bettany and Malcolm McDowell. He auditioned for the role of Quirinus Quirrell in the Chris Columbus directed film "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone", but the part went to Ian Hart. Despite missing out on the first film, he was cast in 2004 as Professor Remus Lupin in "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban". He did not have to audition as he was director Alfonso Cuarón's first choice for the role. Thewlis reprised the role in four other films in the series. He appeared as an SS Commandant of a Nazi death camp and father of the main character in "The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas", which was well received. Other credits include Ridley Scott's "Kingdom of Heaven" (2005), Terrence Malick's "The New World" (2005), and "The Omen" (2006). Thewlis played the late Dr. Michael Aris, husband of Nobel Prize laureate Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma, with Malaysian actress Michelle Yeoh as Suu Kyi, in the biopic "The Lady" directed by Luc Besson. In 2012, he received an International Festival of Independent Cinema Off Plus Camera Award. In the same year, he also played in "Separate We Come, Separate We Go", directed by Harry Potter co-star Bonnie Wright. In June 2015, Thewlis was reported to be filming scenes for a Donald Crowhurst biopic, "The Mercy", on the beach at Teignmouth, Devon, playing Donald Crowhurst's press agent, Rodney Hallworth, while Colin Firth is playing Donald Crowhurst. He also starred in "Regression", a thriller released in autumn 2015. In September 2015, Thewlis starred as Inspector Goole in Helen Edmundson's BBC TV adaptation of J. B. Priestley's "An Inspector Calls". In October 2015, he played King Duncan in the film "Macbeth". Thewlis portrayed Ares in "Wonder Woman" (2017), the DC Comics film featuring the character of the same name. He briefly reprised his role as Ares in "Justice League" (2017). That same year, he appeared as V. M. Varga, the main antagonist of the third season of "Fargo". His performance was critically acclaimed, and earned him nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award, Critics' Choice Television Award and Golden Globe Award as a supporting actor. Thewlis has most recently starred in the 2020 Netflix film "I'm Thinking of Ending Things", directed by Charlie Kaufman. Thewlis directed "Hello, Hello, Hello" in 1995, for which he was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Short Film. He also wrote, directed and starred in the feature "Cheeky" (2003). Thewlis' black comedy novel set in the art world, "The Late Hector Kipling", was published by Simon & Schuster in 2007. His second book, , was published by Weidenfeld & Nicolson in 2021. Thewlis was married to Welsh actress Sara Sugarman from 1992 until their divorce in 1994. He then had a brief relationship with English actress Kate Hardie. He was in a relationship with English actress Anna Friel from 2001 until late 2010. Their daughter, Gracie, was born on 9 July 2005 and later became an actress. Thewlis married French designer Hermine Poitou on 5 August 2016. The couple live in Sunningdale, Berkshire.

David Thewlis

T h e w l i s w a s b o r n D a v i d W h e e l e r i n B l a c k p o o l o n 2 0 M a r c h 1 9 6 3 , t h e s o n o f M a u r e e n ( n é e T h e w l i s ) a n d A l e c R a y m o n d W h e e l e r . B o t h p a r e n t s w o r k e d a t h i s f a t h e r ' s s h o p . H e h a s a n o l d e r s i b l i n g a n d a y o u n g e r s i b l i n g . A s a t e e n a g e r , h e p l a y e d i n a r o c k b a n d c a l l e d Q E D a n d p l a y e d l e a d g u i t a r w i t h a p u n k r o c k b a n d c a l l e d D o o r 6 6 . H e w a s e d u c a t e d a t H i g h f i e l d H i g h S c h o o l i n B l a c k p o o l ' s M a r t o n a r e a . H e l a t e r e n r o l l e d i n t h e G u i l d h a l l S c h o o l o f M u s i c a n d D r a m a i n L o n d o n , g r a d u a t i n g i n 1 9 8 4 . T h e w l i s h a d a m i n o r r o l e i n a n e p i s o d e o f t h e 1 9 8 0 s s i t c o m " U p t h e E l e p h a n t a n d R o u n d t h e C a s t l e " . H e a l s o a p p e a r e d i n a 1 9 8 5 e p i s o d e o f t h e B B C s i t c o m " O n l y F o o l s a n d H o r s e s " , ' I t ' s O n l y R o c k a n d R o l l ' , a s a m e m b e r o f R o d n e y ' s s h o r t - l i v e d b a n d . H i s f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l r o l e w a s i n t h e p l a y " B u d d y H o l l y a t t h e R e g a l " i n G r e e n w i c h . T h e w l i s ' s b r e a k o u t r o l e w a s " N a k e d " ( 1 9 9 3 ; d i r . M i k e L e i g h ) , a s t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r , J o h n n y , a h o m e l e s s , h i g h l y i n t e l l i g e n t , e m b i t t e r e d , r a m b l i n g s t r e e t p h i l o s o p h e r , f o r w h i c h T h e w l i s w a s n a m e d B e s t A c t o r b y t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y o f F i l m C r i t i c s ( U n i t e d S t a t e s ) , t h e L o n d o n F i l m C r i t i c s C i r c l e , t h e E v e n i n g S t a n d a r d , t h e N e w Y o r k F i l m C r i t i c s ' C i r c l e a n d t h e C a n n e s F i l m F e s t i v a l . T h a t s a m e y e a r , h e a p p e a r e d o n t e l e v i s i o n a s a s e x u a l p r e d a t o r n a m e d J a m e s J a c k s o n i n " P r i m e S u s p e c t 3 " , o p p o s i t e H e l e n M i r r e n a n d C i a r á n H i n d s . B e f o r e t h a t , h i s f i r s t t e l e v i s i o n a p p e a r a n c e w a s i n " V a l e n t i n e P a r k " . D u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 0 s , T h e w l i s a p p e a r e d i n a v a r i e t y o f f i l m s , m o s t l y f a n t a s y a n d p e r i o d , i n c l u d i n g " R e s t o r a t i o n " ( 1 9 9 5 ) , " B l a c k B e a u t y " ( 1 9 9 4 ) , " T o t a l E c l i p s e " ( 1 9 9 5 ) w i t h L e o n a r d o D i C a p r i o , " T h e I s l a n d o f D r . M o r e a u " ( 1 9 9 6 ) , " D r a g o n h e a r t " ( 1 9 9 6 ) , a n d " S e v e n Y e a r s i n T i b e t " ( 1 9 9 7 ) , o p p o s i t e B r a d P i t t . H e w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r a B r i t i s h I n d e p e n d e n t F i l m A w a r d f o r " D i v o r c i n g J a c k " ( 1 9 9 8 ) , a n d p l a y e d C l o v i n a t e l e v i s i o n f i l m o f S a m u e l B e c k e t t ' s " E n d g a m e " ( 2 0 0 0 ) . N o t a b l e a p p e a r a n c e s a l s o i n c l u d e B e r n a r d o B e r t o l u c c i ' s " B e s i e g e d " ( 1 9 9 8 ) , t h e C o e n b r o t h e r s ’ " T h e B i g L e b o w s k i " ( 1 9 9 8 ) , a n d P a u l M c G u i g a n ' s " G a n g s t e r N o . 1 " ( 2 0 0 0 ) , o p p o s i t e P a u l B e t t a n y a n d M a l c o l m M c D o w e l l . H e a u d i t i o n e d f o r t h e r o l e o f Q u i r i n u s Q u i r r e l l i n t h e C h r i s C o l u m b u s d i r e c t e d f i l m " H a r r y P o t t e r a n d t h e P h i l o s o p h e r ' s S t o n e " , b u t t h e p a r t w e n t t o I a n H a r t . D e s p i t e m i s s i n g o u t o n t h e f i r s t f i l m , h e w a s c a s t i n 2 0 0 4 a s P r o f e s s o r R e m u s L u p i n i n " H a r r y P o t t e r a n d t h e P r i s o n e r o f A z k a b a n " . H e d i d n o t h a v e t o a u d i t i o n a s h e w a s d i r e c t o r A l f o n s o C u a r ó n ' s f i r s t c h o i c e f o r t h e r o l e . T h e w l i s r e p r i s e d t h e r o l e i n f o u r o t h e r f i l m s i n t h e s e r i e s . H e a p p e a r e d a s a n S S C o m m a n d a n t o f a N a z i d e a t h c a m p a n d f a t h e r o f t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r i n " T h e B o y i n t h e S t r i p e d P y j a m a s " , w h i c h w a s w e l l r e c e i v e d . O t h e r c r e d i t s i n c l u d e R i d l e y S c o t t ' s " K i n g d o m o f H e a v e n " ( 2 0 0 5 ) , T e r r e n c e M a l i c k ' s " T h e N e w W o r l d " ( 2 0 0 5 ) , a n d " T h e O m e n " ( 2 0 0 6 ) . T h e w l i s p l a y e d t h e l a t e D r . M i c h a e l A r i s , h u s b a n d o f N o b e l P r i z e l a u r e a t e A u n g S a n S u u K y i o f B u r m a , w i t h M a l a y s i a n a c t r e s s M i c h e l l e Y e o h a s S u u K y i , i n t h e b i o p i c " T h e L a d y " d i r e c t e d b y L u c B e s s o n . I n 2 0 1 2 , h e r e c e i v e d a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l F e s t i v a l o f I n d e p e n d e n t C i n e m a O f f P l u s C a m e r a A w a r d . I n t h e s a m e y e a r , h e a l s o p l a y e d i n " S e p a r a t e W e C o m e , S e p a r a t e W e G o " , d i r e c t e d b y H a r r y P o t t e r c o - s t a r B o n n i e W r i g h t . I n J u n e 2 0 1 5 , T h e w l i s w a s r e p o r t e d t o b e f i l m i n g s c e n e s f o r a D o n a l d C r o w h u r s t b i o p i c , " T h e M e r c y " , o n t h e b e a c h a t T e i g n m o u t h , D e v o n , p l a y i n g D o n a l d C r o w h u r s t ' s p r e s s a g e n t , R o d n e y H a l l w o r t h , w h i l e C o l i n F i r t h i s p l a y i n g D o n a l d C r o w h u r s t . H e a l s o s t a r r e d i n " R e g r e s s i o n " , a t h r i l l e r r e l e a s e d i n a u t u m n 2 0 1 5 . I n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 5 , T h e w l i s s t a r r e d a s I n s p e c t o r G o o l e i n H e l e n E d m u n d s o n ' s B B C T V a d a p t a t i o n o f J . B . P r i e s t l e y ' s " A n I n s p e c t o r C a l l s " . I n O c t o b e r 2 0 1 5 , h e p l a y e d K i n g D u n c a n i n t h e f i l m " M a c b e t h " . T h e w l i s p o r t r a y e d A r e s i n " W o n d e r W o m a n " ( 2 0 1 7 ) , t h e D C C o m i c s f i l m f e a t u r i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s a m e n a m e . H e b r i e f l y r e p r i s e d h i s r o l e a s A r e s i n " J u s t i c e L e a g u e " ( 2 0 1 7 ) . T h a t s a m e y e a r , h e a p p e a r e d a s V . M . V a r g a , t h e m a i n a n t a g o n i s t o f t h e t h i r d s e a s o n o f " F a r g o " . H i s p e r f o r m a n c e w a s c r i t i c a l l y a c c l a i m e d , a n d e a r n e d h i m n o m i n a t i o n s f o r t h e P r i m e t i m e E m m y A w a r d , C r i t i c s ' C h o i c e T e l e v i s i o n A w a r d a n d G o l d e n G l o b e A w a r d a s a s u p p o r t i n g a c t o r . T h e w l i s h a s m o s t r e c e n t l y s t a r r e d i n t h e 2 0 2 0 N e t f l i x f i l m " I ' m T h i n k i n g o f E n d i n g T h i n g s " , d i r e c t e d b y C h a r l i e K a u f m a n . T h e w l i s d i r e c t e d " H e l l o , H e l l o , H e l l o " i n 1 9 9 5 , f o r w h i c h h e w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r a B A F T A A w a r d f o r B e s t S h o r t F i l m . H e a l s o w r o t e , d i r e c t e d a n d s t a r r e d i n t h e f e a t u r e " C h e e k y " ( 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e w l i s ' b l a c k c o m e d y n o v e l s e t i n t h e a r t w o r l d , " T h e L a t e H e c t o r K i p l i n g " , w a s p u b l i s h e d b y S i m o n & S c h u s t e r i n 2 0 0 7 . H i s s e c o n d b o o k , , w a s p u b l i s h e d b y W e i d e n f e l d & N i c o l s o n i n 2 0 2 1 . T h e w l i s w a s m a r r i e d t o W e l s h a c t r e s s S a r a S u g a r m a n f r o m 1 9 9 2 u n t i l t h e i r d i v o r c e i n 1 9 9 4 . H e t h e n h a d a b r i e f r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h E n g l i s h a c t r e s s K a t e H a r d i e . H e w a s i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h E n g l i s h a c t r e s s A n n a F r i e l f r o m 2 0 0 1 u n t i l l a t e 2 0 1 0 . T h e i r d a u g h t e r , G r a c i e , w a s b o r n o n 9 J u l y 2 0 0 5 a n d l a t e r b e c a m e a n a c t r e s s . T h e w l i s m a r r i e d F r e n c h d e s i g n e r H e r m i n e P o i t o u o n 5 A u g u s t 2 0 1 6 . T h e c o u p l e l i v e i n S u n n i n g d a l e , B e r k s h i r e .

Career ; Acting

David Thewlis began his acting career in the early 1980s, landing small roles in TV shows and films. His breakthrough came with the 1993 film "Naked," earning him several awards and nominations. Throughout the 1990s, he appeared in various films, including "Restoration," "Black Beauty," and "Seven Years in Tibet." He gained recognition for his portrayal of Professor Remus Lupin in the "Harry Potter" franchise. Thewlis continued to work in film and television, starring in projects like "The Boy in the Striped Pajamas," "The Lady," and "Fargo." He has also ventured into writing and directing, publishing a novel and releasing a feature film.

Thewlis was born David Wheeler in Blackpool on 20 March 1963, the son of Maureen (née Thewlis) and Alec Raymond Wheeler. Both parents worked at his father's shop. He has an older sibling and a younger sibling. As a teenager, he played in a rock band called QED and played lead guitar with a punk rock band called Door 66. He was educated at Highfield High School in Blackpool's Marton area. He later enrolled in the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London, graduating in 1984. Thewlis had a minor role in an episode of the 1980s sitcom "Up the Elephant and Round the Castle". He also appeared in a 1985 episode of the BBC sitcom "Only Fools and Horses", 'It's Only Rock and Roll', as a member of Rodney's short-lived band. His first professional role was in the play "Buddy Holly at the Regal" in Greenwich. Thewlis's breakout role was "Naked" (1993; dir. Mike Leigh), as the main character, Johnny, a homeless, highly intelligent, embittered, rambling street philosopher, for which Thewlis was named Best Actor by the National Society of Film Critics (United States), the London Film Critics Circle, the Evening Standard, the New York Film Critics' Circle and the Cannes Film Festival. That same year, he appeared on television as a sexual predator named James Jackson in "Prime Suspect 3", opposite Helen Mirren and Ciarán Hinds. Before that, his first television appearance was in "Valentine Park". During the 1990s, Thewlis appeared in a variety of films, mostly fantasy and period, including "Restoration" (1995), "Black Beauty" (1994), "Total Eclipse" (1995) with Leonardo DiCaprio, "The Island of Dr. Moreau" (1996), "Dragonheart" (1996), and "Seven Years in Tibet" (1997), opposite Brad Pitt. He was nominated for a British Independent Film Award for "Divorcing Jack" (1998), and played Clov in a television film of Samuel Beckett's "Endgame" (2000). Notable appearances also include Bernardo Bertolucci's "Besieged" (1998), the Coen brothers’ "The Big Lebowski" (1998), and Paul McGuigan's "Gangster No. 1" (2000), opposite Paul Bettany and Malcolm McDowell. He auditioned for the role of Quirinus Quirrell in the Chris Columbus directed film "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone", but the part went to Ian Hart. Despite missing out on the first film, he was cast in 2004 as Professor Remus Lupin in "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban". He did not have to audition as he was director Alfonso Cuarón's first choice for the role. Thewlis reprised the role in four other films in the series. He appeared as an SS Commandant of a Nazi death camp and father of the main character in "The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas", which was well received. Other credits include Ridley Scott's "Kingdom of Heaven" (2005), Terrence Malick's "The New World" (2005), and "The Omen" (2006). Thewlis played the late Dr. Michael Aris, husband of Nobel Prize laureate Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma, with Malaysian actress Michelle Yeoh as Suu Kyi, in the biopic "The Lady" directed by Luc Besson. In 2012, he received an International Festival of Independent Cinema Off Plus Camera Award. In the same year, he also played in "Separate We Come, Separate We Go", directed by Harry Potter co-star Bonnie Wright. In June 2015, Thewlis was reported to be filming scenes for a Donald Crowhurst biopic, "The Mercy", on the beach at Teignmouth, Devon, playing Donald Crowhurst's press agent, Rodney Hallworth, while Colin Firth is playing Donald Crowhurst. He also starred in "Regression", a thriller released in autumn 2015. In September 2015, Thewlis starred as Inspector Goole in Helen Edmundson's BBC TV adaptation of J. B. Priestley's "An Inspector Calls". In October 2015, he played King Duncan in the film "Macbeth". Thewlis portrayed Ares in "Wonder Woman" (2017), the DC Comics film featuring the character of the same name. He briefly reprised his role as Ares in "Justice League" (2017). That same year, he appeared as V. M. Varga, the main antagonist of the third season of "Fargo". His performance was critically acclaimed, and earned him nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award, Critics' Choice Television Award and Golden Globe Award as a supporting actor. Thewlis has most recently starred in the 2020 Netflix film "I'm Thinking of Ending Things", directed by Charlie Kaufman. Thewlis directed "Hello, Hello, Hello" in 1995, for which he was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Short Film. He also wrote, directed and starred in the feature "Cheeky" (2003). Thewlis' black comedy novel set in the art world, "The Late Hector Kipling", was published by Simon & Schuster in 2007. His second book, , was published by Weidenfeld & Nicolson in 2021. Thewlis was married to Welsh actress Sara Sugarman from 1992 until their divorce in 1994. He then had a brief relationship with English actress Kate Hardie. He was in a relationship with English actress Anna Friel from 2001 until late 2010. Their daughter, Gracie, was born on 9 July 2005 and later became an actress. Thewlis married French designer Hermine Poitou on 5 August 2016. The couple live in Sunningdale, Berkshire.

Stahlhelm

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f W o r l d W a r I , n o n e o f t h e c o m b a t a n t s w e r e i s s u e d w i t h a n y f o r m o f p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e h e a d o t h e r t h a n c l o t h a n d l e a t h e r c a p s , d e s i g n e d a t m o s t t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t s a b r e c u t s . W h e n t r e n c h w a r f a r e b e g a n , t h e n u m b e r o f c a s u a l t i e s o n a l l s i d e s s u f f e r i n g f r o m s e v e r e h e a d w o u n d s ( m o r e o f t e n c a u s e d b y s h r a p n e l b u l l e t s o r s h e l l f r a g m e n t s t h a n b y g u n f i r e ) i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y , s i n c e t h e h e a d w a s t y p i c a l l y t h e m o s t e x p o s e d p a r t o f t h e b o d y w h e n i n a t r e n c h . T h e F r e n c h w e r e t h e f i r s t t o s e e a n e e d f o r m o r e p r o t e c t i o n — i n m i d - 1 9 1 5 t h e y b e g a n t o i s s u e A d r i a n h e l m e t s t o t h e i r t r o o p s . T h e B r i t i s h a n d C o m m o n w e a l t h t r o o p s f o l l o w e d w i t h t h e B r o d i e h e l m e t ( a d e v e l o p m e n t o f w h i c h w a s a l s o l a t e r w o r n b y U S f o r c e s ) a n d t h e G e r m a n s w i t h t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . A s t h e G e r m a n a r m y b e h a v e d h e s i t a n t l y i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n e f f e c t i v e h e a d p r o t e c t i o n , s o m e u n i t s d e v e l o p e d p r o v i s i o n a l h e l m e t s i n 1 9 1 5 . S t a t i o n e d i n t h e r o c k y a r e a o f t h e V o s g e s t h e A r m y D e t a c h m e n t " G a e d e " r e c o r d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e h e a d i n j u r i e s c a u s e d b y s t o n e a n d s h e l l s p l i n t e r s t h a n d i d t r o o p s i n o t h e r s e c t o r s o f t h e f r o n t . T h e a r t i l l e r y w o r k s h o p o f t h e A r m y D e t a c h m e n t d e v e l o p e d a h e l m e t t h a t c o n s i s t e d o f a l e a t h e r c a p w i t h a s t e e l p l a t e ( 6   m m t h i c k n e s s ) . T h e p l a t e p r o t e c t e d n o t o n l y t h e f o r e h e a d b u t a l s o t h e e y e s a n d n o s e . T h e h e l m e t w a s q u i t e d e e p r e l a t i v e t o t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s t e e l ; o n e A m e r i c a n c o m p a n y t h a t t r i e d t o p r e s s s i m i l a r t h i c k n e s s s t e e l i n t o t h e s h a p e o f t h e m u c h s h a l l o w e r B r o d i e h e l m e t w a s u n a b l e t o d o s o . T h e h e l m e t w a s b u l l e t - r e s i s t a n t t o p i s t o l r o u n d s s u c h a s 9 m m L u g e r a n d 4 5 A C P t h a t w o u l d o n l y d e n t t h e s u r f a c e . T h e d e s i g n o f t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s c a r r i e d o u t b y D r F r i e d r i c h S c h w e r d o f t h e T e c h n i c a l I n s t i t u t e o f H a n o v e r . I n e a r l y 1 9 1 5 , S c h w e r d h a d c a r r i e d o u t a s t u d y o f h e a d w o u n d s s u f f e r e d d u r i n g t r e n c h w a r f a r e a n d s u b m i t t e d a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n f o r s t e e l h e l m e t s , s h o r t l y a f t e r w h i c h h e w a s o r d e r e d t o B e r l i n . S c h w e r d t h e n u n d e r t o o k t h e t a s k o f d e s i g n i n g a n d p r o d u c i n g a s u i t a b l e h e l m e t , b r o a d l y b a s e d o n t h e 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y s a l l e t , w h i c h p r o v i d e d g o o d p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e h e a d a n d n e c k . A f t e r l e n g t h y d e v e l o p m e n t w o r k , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t e s t i n g a s e l e c t i o n o f G e r m a n a n d A l l i e d h e a d g e a r , t h e f i r s t " s t a h l h e l m " w e r e t e s t e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 5 a t t h e K u m m e r s d o r f P r o v i n g G r o u n d a n d t h e n f i e l d - t e s t e d b y t h e 1 s t A s s a u l t B a t t a l i o n . T h i r t y t h o u s a n d e x a m p l e s w e r e o r d e r e d , b u t i t w a s n o t a p p r o v e d f o r g e n e r a l i s s u e u n t i l N e w Y e a r o f 1 9 1 6 , h e n c e i t i s m o s t u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e " M o d e l 1 9 1 6 " . I n F e b r u a r y 1 9 1 6 i t w a s d i s t r i b u t e d t o t r o o p s a t V e r d u n , f o l l o w i n g w h i c h t h e i n c i d e n c e o f s e r i o u s h e a d i n j u r i e s f e l l d r a m a t i c a l l y . T h e f i r s t G e r m a n t r o o p s t o u s e t h i s h e l m e t w e r e t h e s t o r m t r o o p e r s o f t h e " S t u r m - B a t a i l l o n N r . 5 ( R o h r ) " , w h i c h w a s c o m m a n d e d b y c a p t a i n W i l l y R o h r . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e H a d f i e l d s t e e l u s e d i n t h e B r i t i s h B r o d i e h e l m e t , t h e G e r m a n s u s e d a h a r d e r m a r t e n s i t i c s i l i c o n / n i c k e l s t e e l . A s a r e s u l t , a n d a l s o d u e t o t h e h e l m e t ' s f o r m , t h e " S t a h l h e l m " h a d t o b e f o r m e d i n h e a t e d d i e s a t a g r e a t e r u n i t c o s t t h a n t h e B r i t i s h h e l m e t , w h i c h c o u l d b e f o r m e d i n o n e p i e c e . L i k e t h e B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h , G e r m a n t r o o p s i d e n t i f i e d h i g h l y w i t h t h e i r h e l m e t s , a s i t b e c a m e a p o p u l a r s y m b o l o f p a r a m i l i t a r y g r o u p s a f t e r t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r . S u c h w a s t h e a t t a c h m e n t o f t h e W o r l d W a r O n e g e n e r a t i o n t o t h e d e s i g n t h a t i t w a s r e p o r t e d l y t h e r e a s o n t h a t H i t l e r r e j e c t e d a m o d e r n i s e d , s l o p i n g h e l m e t d e s i g n t o r e p l a c e i t . G e r m a n y e x p o r t e d v e r s i o n s o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s . V e r s i o n s o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 " S t a h l h e l m " w e r e s e n t t o R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a f r o m 1 9 3 5 t o 1 9 3 6 a n d t h e M 1 9 3 5 w a s t h e m a i n h e l m e t o f t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t A r m y ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e " c e n t r a l " d i v i s i o n s ) d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I . S p a i n a l s o r e c e i v e d s h i p m e n t s o f t h e h e l m e t . D u r i n g t h e i n t e r - w a r y e a r s , s e v e r a l m i l i t a r y m i s s i o n s w e r e s e n t t o S o u t h A m e r i c a u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f H a n s K u n d t , a f t e r C h a c o W a r t h e B o l i v i a n a r m y u s e d t o w e a r t h e h e l m e t u p u n t i l r e c e n t l y . T h e e x p o r t e d M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s w e r e s i m i l a r t o t h e G e r m a n i s s u e , e x c e p t f o r a d i f f e r e n t l i n e r . S o m e c o u n t r i e s m a n u f a c t u r e d t h e i r o w n h e l m e t s u s i n g t h e M 1 9 3 5 d e s i g n , a n d t h i s b a s i c d e s i g n w a s i n u s e i n v a r i o u s n a t i o n s a s l a t e a s t h e 1 9 7 0 s . T h e G e r m a n s a l l o w e d a n d a s s i s t e d t h e H u n g a r i a n s i n c o p y i n g t h e i r d e s i g n o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 s t e e l h e l m e t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e W W I I - p r o d u c e d M 3 8 H u n g a r i a n s t e e l h e l m e t i s n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h e G e r m a n M 1 9 3 5 . B o t h h a v e a l m o s t t h e s a m e s h a p e , r i v e t e d v e n t i l a t i o n h o l e s , a n d t h e c l a s s i c r o l l e d e d g e . D i f f e r e n c e s i n c l u d e s o m e w h a t r o u g h e r H u n g a r i a n f i n i s h i n g , a d i f f e r e n t l i n e r a n d d i f f e r e n t r i v e t s p o s i t i o n – t h e s p l i t p i n s a r e s i t u a t e d b e h i n d t h e v e n t i l a t i o n h o l e s . A s q u a r e m e t a l b r a c k e t i s r i v e t e d o n t h e r e a r , a b o v e t h e b a c k b r i m ; u s e d t o s e c u r e t h e h e l m e t t o t h e k n a p s a c k w h i l e m a r c h i n g . I t w a s t y p i c a l l y p a i n t e d i n H u n g a r i a n b r o w n - g r e e n , a l b e i t b l u e - g r e y v e r s i o n s e x i s t e d . I t i s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " F i n n i s h M 3 5 " d u e t o i t s e x t e n s i v e u s e b y t h e F i n n i s h A r m y d u r i n g t h e C o n t i n u a t i o n W a r 1 9 4 1 – 4 4 . A f t e r t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I P o l a n d s e i z e d l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t s . M o s t o f t h o s e w e r e l a t e r s o l d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g S p a i n . H o w e v e r , a t t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 3 0 s , i t w a s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d P o l i s h w z . 3 1 h e l m e t w a s u n s u i t a b l e f o r t a n k t r o o p s a n d m o t o r i z e d u n i t s ; w h i l e o f f e r i n g d e c e n t p r o t e c t i o n , i t w a s t o o l a r g e a n d h e a v y . A s a s t o p - g a p m e a s u r e b e f o r e a n e w h e l m e t w a s d e v e l o p e d , t h e G e n e r a l S t a f f d e c i d e d t o i s s u e M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t s t o t h e 1 0 t h M o t o r i z e d C a v a l r y B r i g a d e , w h i c h u s e d t h e m d u r i n g t h e P o l i s h D e f e n s i v e W a r . D u r i n g t h e t i m e o f t h e W a r s a w U p r i s i n g t h e h e l m e t w a s a l s o w o r n b y t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e P o l i s h H o m e A r m y a n d i t w a s d u r i n g t h i s t i m e t h a t t h e h e l m e t b e c a m e t h e s y m b o l o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e , a s e v e r y " S t a h l h e l m " w o r n b y a s o l d i e r o f t h e u n d e r g r o u n d a r m y s i g n i f i e d a d e a d G e r m a n o c c u p i e r i t w a s t a k e n f r o m . I n N o v e m b e r 1 9 2 6 , t h e I r i s h D e f e n c e F o r c e s d e c i d e d u p o n a d o p t i n g t h e G e r m a n " S t a h l h e l m " . H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e I r i s h g o v e r n m e n t c o n t a c t e d t h e G e r m a n F o r e i g n O f f i c e w i t h a r e q u e s t f o r a s a m p l e t h e y w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t G e r m a n y w a s b a r r e d f r o m e x p o r t i n g s t e e l h e l m e t s b y t h e T r e a t y o f V e r s a i l l e s . T h e I r i s h t h e n t u r n e d t o L o n d o n b a s e d V i c k e r s , o r d e r i n g 5 , 0 0 0 c o p i e s o f a m o d e l c l o s e l y r e s e m b l i n g t h e M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t . T h e h e l m e t r e m a i n e d i n u s e u n t i l i t w a s r e p l a c e d b y t h e B r i t i s h M a r k I I m o d e l i n 1 9 4 0 . F o l l o w i n g t h e o u t b r e a k o f W o r l d W a r I I , t h e h e l m e t s b e c a m e t h e s u b j e c t o f a n t i - I r i s h p r o p a g a n d a o r i g i n a t i n g i n B r i t a i n . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f t h e w i t h d r a w n h e l m e t s w e r e r e i s s u e d t o v a r i o u s e m e r g e n c y s e r v i c e s a f t e r b e i n g p a i n t e d w h i t e . S w i t z e r l a n d u s e d a h e l m e t , d e s i g n a t e d t h e M 1 9 1 8 , t h a t w a s r o u g h l y s i m i l a r t o t h e M 1 9 1 6 b u t h a d a s h a l l o w e r , w i d e r a n d m o r e r o u n d e d c r o w n a n d s k i r t . T h i s w a s t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t t h e h a r s h w i n t e r w i n d s o f t h e a l p i n e r e g i o n s . T h e C h i l e a n A r m y w a s a p r o l i f i c u s e r o f t h e V u l k a n f i b e r m o d e l s , b o u g h t b e f o r e t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , a l o n g w i t h a f e w M 1 9 3 5 a n d C z e c h o s l o v a k M 3 2 h e l m e t s . A f t e r t h e w a r , l o c a l p r o d u c t i o n o f l i g h t w e i g h t f i b e r a n d p l a s t i c m o d e l s s t a r t e d , w h i c h a r e s t i l l i n c e r e m o n i a l & g a r r i s o n u s e t o d a y . S m a l l r u n s o f s t e e l h e l m e t s w e r e m a d e b y F A M A E i n t h e 8 0 ' s , b u t u l t i m a t e l y w e r e n o t a d o p t e d d u e t o t h e a s c e n d a n c e o f k e v l a r a n d s y n t h e t i c b a l l i s t i c f i b e r h e l m e t s b y t h a t t i m e . A " S t a h l h e l m " w i t h c r o s s e d b a y o n e t s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g n u m b e r i s t h e s t a n d a r d i n s i g n i a o f i n f a n t r y r e g i m e n t s . T h e A r g e n t i n e A r m y a d o p t e d a s i m i l a r m o d e l , m a d e o f p r e s s e d f i b r e , d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I , r e f l e c t i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s y m p a t h y t o w a r d s G e r m a n y f o u n d i n m a n y o f t h e o f f i c e r s . F o r c o m b a t a n d p r o v i n c i a l p o l i c e u s e , i m p o r t e d S w i s s M 1 9 1 8 H e l m e t s w e r e s t i l l i n s e r v i c e a s l a t e a s 1 9 7 6 . I n t h e S o c i a l i s t F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f Y u g o s l a v i a , d u e t o l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s c a p t u r e d b y W o r l d W a r I I P a r t i s a n s , t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s u s e d i n Y u g o s l a v P e o p l e ' s A r m y u p t o 1 9 5 9 , w h e n i t w a s p h a s e d o u t a n d r e p l a c e d b y t h e M 5 9 / 8 5 s t e e l h e l m e t . A f t e r W o r l d W a r I I , W e s t G e r m a n y ' s B u n d e s g r e n z s c h u t z b o r d e r g u a r d s a n d s o m e W e s t G e r m a n p o l i c e u n i t s k e p t t h e " S t a h l h e l m " i n t h e i r i n v e n t o r i e s ( p o l i c e u n i t s c a n b e s e e n w e a r i n g t h e m d u r i n g f o o t a g e o f t h e B l a c k S e p t e m b e r h o s t a g e c r i s i s i n 1 9 7 2 ) , a n d t h e F a l l s c h i r m j ä g e r v a r i a n t w a s u s e d f o r s o m e t i m e b y t h e G S G 9 . W i t h t h e r e - a r m a m e n t o f W e s t G e r m a n y t h e B u n d e s w e h r i n t r o d u c e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s A r m y M 1 H e l m e t w h i c h w a s r e p l a c e d b y a K e v l a r h e l m e t ( " G e f e c h t s h e l m " ) , s i m i l a r t o t h e m o d e r n U S h e l m e t s , i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s . G e r m a n f i r e f i g h t e r u n i t s t o d a y s t i l l u s e " S t a h l h e l m " - s h a p e d h e l m e t s i n a f l u o r e s c e n t c o l o u r . E a s t G e r m a n y ' s N a t i o n a l P e o p l e ' s A r m y M - 5 6 h e l m e t w a s m o d e l l e d o n a n u n u s e d 1 9 4 2 G e r m a n d e s i g n w i t h a m o r e c o n i c a l s h a p e . T h e C h i l e a n A r m y s t i l l u s e s t h e " S t a h l h e l m " d e s i g n f o r c e r e m o n i a l p u r p o s e s , a s w e l l a s t h e B o l i v i a n A r m y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e J a p a n e s e b i c y c l e h e l m e t s ( w i t h a c c o m p a n y i n g g o g g l e s ) t h a t r e s e m b l e t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . M a n y s c h o o l s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s i n M e x i c o s u c h a s t h e A u t o n o m o u s U n i v e r s i t y o f B a j a C a l i f o r n i a h a v e m i l i t a r y b a n d s t h a t u s e o r r e s e m b l e t h e M 3 5 " S t a h l h e l m " . T h e U . S . A r m y ' s 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s e r a K e v l a r P e r s o n n e l A r m o r S y s t e m f o r G r o u n d T r o o p s H e l m e t w a s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " F r i t z h e l m e t " f o r i t s r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . T h e U . S . A r m y a n d M a r i n e s h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o u s e a d e s i g n a k i n t o t h e P A S G T h e l m e t w i t h t h e M I C H T C - 2 0 0 0 C o m b a t H e l m e t a n d L i g h t w e i g h t H e l m e t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e C h i n e s e P e o p l e ' s L i b e r a t i o n A r m y s o l d i e r s s t i l l u s e d M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s w h i c h w e r e c a p t u r e d f r o m t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t A r m y d u r i n g t h e C h i n e s e C i v i l W a r u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 0 s . S i n c e 2 0 1 2 , E l S a l v a d o r ' s P o l i c i a N a c i o n a l C i v i l u s e a n a v y / i n d i g o b l u e - c o l o u r e d h e l m e t t h a t s t r o n g l y r e s e m b l e s t h e " S t a h l h e l m " ; t h i s h e l m e t i s u s e d b y s o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e r i o t - c o n t r o l u n i t a n d r a r e l y u s e d b y t h e P o l i c e ' s a s s a u l t t e a m s . T h e d i f f e r e n t " S t a h l h e l m " d e s i g n s a r e n a m e d f o r t h e i r y e a r o f i n t r o d u c t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e " M o d e l l 1 9 4 2 " w h i c h w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n 1 9 4 2 i s c o m m o n l y k n o w n a s " M 1 9 4 2 " o r s i m p l y " M 4 2 " . H e r e , t h e y a r e r e f e r r e d t o b y t h e i r M 1 9 " X X " n a m e s . T h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o r e g u l a r s e r v i c e d u r i n g t h e V e r d u n c a m p a i g n i n e a r l y 1 9 1 6 . T h e M 1 9 1 6 d e s i g n h a d s i d e - m o u n t e d h o r n - l i k e v e n t i l a t o r l u g s w h i c h w e r e i n t e n d e d t o b e s u p p o r t f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l s t e e l b r o w p l a t e o r " S t i r n p a n z e r " , w h i c h o n l y e v e r s a w l i m i t e d u s e b y s n i p e r s a n d t r e n c h r a i d i n g p a r t i e s , a s i t w a s t o o h e a v y f o r g e n e r a l u s e . T h e s h e l l c a m e i n d i f f e r e n t s i z e s , f r o m 6 0 t o 6 8 , w i t h s o m e s i z e 7 0 s r e p o r t e d . H e l m e t w e i g h t v a r i e d f r o m 0 . 9 8   k g t o 1 . 4   k g , d e p e n d i n g o n s h e l l s i z e . T h e s u s p e n s i o n , o r l i n e r , c o n s i s t e d o f a h e a d b a n d w i t h t h r e e s e g m e n t e d l e a t h e r p o u c h e s , e a c h h o l d i n g p a d d i n g m a t e r i a l s , a n d l e a t h e r o r f a b r i c c o r d s c o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t o p r o v i d e a c o m f o r t a b l e f i t . T h e o n e - p i e c e l e a t h e r c h i n s t r a p w a s a t t a c h e d t o t h e s h e l l b y M 1 8 9 1 c h i n s t r a p l u g s , t h e s a m e k i n d u s e d i n t h e P i c k e l h a u b e h e l m e t . T h e M 1 9 1 6 d e s i g n p r o v i d e d e x c e l l e n t p r o t e c t i o n : R e s e r v e L i e u t e n a n t W a l t e r S c h u l z e o f 8 t h C o m p a n y R e s e r v e I n f a n t r y R e g i m e n t 7 6 d e s c r i b e d h i s c o m b a t i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e h e l m e t o n t h e S o m m e , 2 9 J u l y 1 9 1 6 : . . . s u d d e n l y , w i t h a g r e a t c l a n g i n g t h u d , I w a s h i t o n t h e f o r e h e a d a n d k n o c k e d f l y i n g o n t o t h e f l o o r o f t h e t r e n c h . . . a s h r a p n e l b u l l e t h a d h i t m y h e l m e t w i t h g r e a t v i o l e n c e , w i t h o u t p i e r c i n g i t , b u t s u f f i c i e n t l y h a r d t o d e n t i t . I f I h a d , a s h a d b e e n u s u a l u p u n t i l a f e w d a y s p r e v i o u s l y , b e e n w e a r i n g a c a p , t h e n t h e R e g i m e n t w o u l d h a v e h a d o n e m o r e m a n k i l l e d . B u t t h e h e l m e t w a s n o t w i t h o u t i t s f l a w s . T h e v e n t i l a t o r h o r n s o f t e n l e t c o l d a i r i n d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r , r e q u i r i n g t h e w e a r e r t o b l o c k t h e v e n t s w i t h m u d o r f a b r i c . T h e l a r g e , f l a r e d s k i r t t e n d e d t o m a k e i t d i f f i c u l t f o r s o l d i e r s t o h e a r , d i s t o r t i n g s u r r o u n d i n g s o u n d s a n d c r e a t i n g a n e c h o w h e n t h e w e a r e r s p o k e . O r i g i n a l l y p a i n t e d " F e l d g r a u " ( f i e l d g r e y ) , t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s o f t e n c a m o u f l a g e d b y t r o o p s i n t h e f i e l d u s i n g m u d , f o l i a g e , c l o t h c o v e r s , a n d p a i n t . O f f i c i a l i s s u e c l o t h c o v e r s i n w h i t e a n d g r e y a p p e a r e d i n l a t e 1 9 1 6 a n d e a r l y 1 9 1 7 . C a m o u f l a g e p a i n t w a s n o t f o r m a l l y i n t r o d u c e d u n t i l J u l y 1 9 1 8 , w h e n G e r m a n A r m y O r d e r I I , N o 9 1 3 6 6 , s i g n e d b y G e n e r a l E r i c h L u d e n d o r f f o n 7 J u l y 1 9 1 8 , o u t l i n e d o f f i c i a l s t a n d a r d s f o r h e l m e t c a m o u f l a g e . T h e o r d e r s t i p u l a t e d t h a t h e l m e t s s h o u l d b e p a i n t e d i n s e v e r a l c o l o u r s , s e p a r a t e d b y a f i n g e r - w i d e b l a c k l i n e . T h e c o l o u r s s h o u l d b e r e l e v a n t t o t h e s e a s o n , s u c h a s u s i n g g r e e n , b r o w n a n d o c h r e i n s u m m e r . A f t e r t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e M 1 9 1 6 d e s i g n w a s v a l i d a t e d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 1 6 c a m p a i g n s , i n c r e m e n t a l i m p r o v e m e n t s w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y m a d e . T h e M 1 9 1 7 v e r s i o n s a w i m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h e l i n e r b u t w a s o t h e r w i s e i d e n t i c a l t o t h e o r i g i n a l d e s i g n . E x t e n s i v e r e d e s i g n s w e r e m a d e f o r t h e M 1 9 1 8 m o d e l . A n e w t w o - p i e c e c h i n s t r a p w a s i n t r o d u c e d a n d w a s a t t a c h e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e h e l m e t l i n e r r a t h e r t h a n t h e s h e l l . C e r t a i n e x a m p l e s o f t h e M 1 9 1 8 h a d c u t o u t s i n t h e r i m a l o n g t h e s i d e s o f t h e h e l m e t . I t h a s i n c o r r e c t l y b e e n s a i d t h a t t h e s e c u t o u t s w e r e t o a c c o m m o d a t e u s i n g h e a d p h o n e s w h i l e w e a r i n g t h e h e l m e t . T h e s e c u t o u t s w e r e a c t u a l l y d o n e t o i m p r o v e h e a r i n g a n d t o r e d u c e e c h o c r e a t e d b y t h e l a r g e , f l a r e d s k i r t . T h e M 1 9 1 8 " S t a h l h e l m " c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e M 1 9 1 6 , a s t h e M 1 9 1 8 s h e l l l a c k s t h e c h i n s t r a p r i v e t o n t h e l o w e r s i d e o f t h e h e l m e t s k i r t f o u n d o n e a r l i e r m o d e l s . A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y p u r c h a s e d a b o u t 4 1 6 , 0 0 0 G e r m a n h e l m e t s f r o m N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 6 u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e w a r a n d a l s o b e g a n i t s o w n l i c e n s e d p r o d u c t i o n s t a r t i n g i n M a y 1 9 1 7 . A r o u n d a m i l l i o n " S t a h l h e l m " o f a l l v a r i a n t s w e r e i s s u e d u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e w a r . T h e A u s t r i a n M 1 7 h e l m e t w a s s i m i l a r t o t h e G e r m a n M 1 6 b u t w a s c o l o u r e d g o l d e n - b r o w n ( k n o w n a s I s o n z o - b r a u n ) , h a d a c l o t h c h i n s t r a p a n d h a d t h e c h i n s t r a p r i v e t l o c a t e d h i g h e r u p o n t h e s t e e l s h e l l . F r o m M a y 1 9 1 7 t i l l t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I 5 3 4 , 0 1 3 w e r e p r o d u c e d , m a n y o f w h i c h w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d a t t h e K r u p p i n B e r n d o r f , L o w e r A u s t r i a . O t h e r p r o d u c t i o n l o c a t i o n s i n c l u d e d : T h e H u n g a r i a n M 1 8 v a r i a n t w a s s i m i l a r t o t h e A u s t r i a n M 1 7 d e s i g n , b u t t h e c h i n s t r a p r i v e t w a s s m a l l e r i n s i z e a n d l o c a t e d e v e n h i g h e r u p t h a n t h e A u s t r i a n v e r s i o n . I t w a s c o l o u r e d i n g o l d e n - b r o w n ( k n o w n a s I s o n z o - b r a u n ) . T h e s e w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d a t t h e K r u p p i n B e r n d o r f , L o w e r A u s t r i a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , d o m e s t i c a l l y d e v e l o p e d B e r n d o r f e r v a r i a n t . 1 3 9 , 9 6 8 w e r e p r o d u c e d f r o m M a y t i l l N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 7 a t t h e K r u p p i n B e r n d o r f , L o w e r A u s t r i a T h e f o r m a t i o n i n 1 9 1 7 b y t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e o f s t o r m t r o o p e r b a t t a l i o n s f o l l o w i n g t h e G e r m a n m o d e l p r o m p t e d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r s t e e l h e l m e t s , a s t h e s e h a d n o t p r e v i o u s l y b e e n a d o p t e d . A l t h o u g h G e r m a n h e l m e t s w e r e o r d e r e d , O t t o m a n o f f i c e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e d e s i g n i m p e d e d t h e s o l d i e r s ' a b i l i t y t o h e a r o r d e r s i n t h e f i e l d a n d r e q u e s t e d t h a t t h e v i s o r , e a r a n d n e c k p r o t e c t o r s b e r e m o v e d , w h i c h w a s d o n e u s i n g g r i n d i n g m a c h i n e s . G e r m a n y d e l i v e r e d 5 , 4 0 0 v i s o r l e s s v e r s i o n s o f t h e M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t f o r t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e . T h e m i s s i n g f r o n t v i s o r w a s t h o u g h t b y t h e G e r m a n s t o b e f o r r e l i g i o u s r e a s o n s , a n d i t w a s c l a i m e d t h a t i t w a s t o a l l o w T u r k i s h s o l d i e r s t o t o u c h t h e i r f o r e h e a d s t o t h e g r o u n d d u r i n g p r a y e r , w i t h o u t r e m o v i n g t h e i r h e l m e t s . H o w e v e r , t h i s s t o r y h a s b e e n d i s p u t e d . T h e T u r k s r e j e c t e d a n y m o r e t h a n t h e 5 , 4 0 0 d e l i v e r e d a n d a n u n k n o w n n u m b e r f r o m t h e o v e r r u n w e r e i s s u e d t o G e r m a n a r m e d f o r c e s a n d w e r e u s e d b y G e r m a n F r e i k o r p s u n i t s a f t e r t h e w a r . I n 1 9 3 2 t h e A r m y H i g h C o m m a n d o r d e r e d t h e t e s t i n g o f a n e w p r o t o t y p e h e l m e t i n t e n d e d t o r e p l a c e t h e o l d e r m o d e l s . I t w a s m a d e e n t i r e l y f r o m a c o m p o s i t e p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l c a l l e d " V u l k a n f i b e r " . T h e M o d e l 1 9 3 3 V u l k a n f i b e r h e l m e t k e p t t h e b a s i c f o r m o f p r e v i o u s h e l m e t s b u t w a s m u c h l i g h t e r . I t w a s p u t i n t o l i m i t e d p r o d u c t i o n f o l l o w i n g f a v o u r a b l e f i e l d t e s t s i n e a r l y 1 9 3 3 a n d s m a l l n u m b e r s w e r e i s s u e d t o R e i c h s w e h r i n f a n t r y , a r t i l l e r y a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s u n i t s . I t w a s r e m o v e d f r o m s e r v i c e f o l l o w i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t a n d m o s t o f t h e r e m a i n i n g s t o c k w e r e r e i s s u e d t o c i v i l o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h a s f i r e b r i g a d e s a n d p o l i c e f o r c e s . S o m e e x a m p l e s w e r e a l s o r e t a i n e d f o r p a r a d e u s e b y s e n i o r o f f i c e r s , w h o w e r e n o t g e n e r a l l y i s s u e d w i t h t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . I n 1 9 3 4 t e s t s b e g a n o n a n i m p r o v e d " S t a h l h e l m " , w h o s e d e s i g n w a s a d e v e l o p m e n t o f W o r l d W a r I m o d e l s . T h e E i s e n h ü t t e n w e r k e c o m p a n y o f T h a l e c a r r i e d o u t p r o t o t y p e d e s i g n a n d t e s t i n g , w i t h D r F r i e d r i c h S c h w e r d o n c e a g a i n t a k i n g a h a n d . T h e n e w h e l m e t w a s p r e s s e d f r o m s h e e t s o f m o l y b d e n u m s t e e l i n s e v e r a l s t a g e s . T h e s i z e o f t h e f l a r e d v i s o r a n d s k i r t w a s r e d u c e d , a n d t h e l a r g e p r o j e c t i n g l u g s f o r t h e o b s o l e t e a r m o u r s h i e l d w e r e e l i m i n a t e d . T h e v e n t i l a t o r h o l e s w e r e r e t a i n e d b u t w e r e s e t i n s m a l l e r h o l l o w r i v e t s m o u n t e d t o t h e h e l m e t ' s s h e l l . T h e e d g e s o f t h e s h e l l w e r e r o l l e d o v e r , c r e a t i n g a s m o o t h e d g e a l o n g t h e h e l m e t . F i n a l l y , a c o m p l e t e l y n e w l e a t h e r s u s p e n s i o n , o r l i n e r , w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d t h a t g r e a t l y i m p r o v e d t h e h e l m e t ' s s a f e t y , a d j u s t a b i l i t y , a n d c o m f o r t f o r e a c h w e a r e r . T h e s e i m p r o v e m e n t s m a d e t h e n e w M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t l i g h t e r , m o r e c o m p a c t , a n d m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e t o w e a r t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s d e s i g n s . T h e A r m y ' s S u p r e m e C o m m a n d w i t h i n t h e T h i r d R e i c h ' s " W e h r m a c h t " c o m b i n e d a r m e d f o r c e s o f f i c i a l l y a c c e p t e d t h e n e w h e l m e t o n J u n e 2 5 , 1 9 3 5 a n d i t w a s i n t e n d e d t o r e p l a c e a l l o t h e r h e l m e t s i n s e r v i c e . M o r e t h a n 1 m i l l i o n M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d i n t h e f i r s t t w o y e a r s a f t e r i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n , a n d m i l l i o n s m o r e w e r e p r o d u c e d u n t i l 1 9 4 0 w h e n t h e b a s i c d e s i g n a n d p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d s w e r e c h a n g e d . I n 1 9 3 8 , t h e G e r m a n s d e v e l o p e d a v a r i a n t o f t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w i t h a w i d e r , f l a r e d p e a k a n d v e n t i l a t i o n h o l e s o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d f o r f i r e f i g h t e r s , c i v i l d e f e n s e , R e i c h s a r b e i t s d i e n s t , a n d L u f t s c h u t z p e r s o n n e l . K n o w n a s t h e g l a d i a t o r p a t t e r n , t h e p r i v a t e l y p u r c h a s e d L u f t s c h u t z h e l m e t w a s o r i g i n a l l y m a d e f r o m t h r e e p i e c e s o f s t e e l a n d t y p i c a l l y p a i n t e d b l a c k o r d a r k b l u e . L a t e r i n t h e w a r t h e s e w e r e i s s u e d t o V o l k s s t u r m p e r s o n n e l , a n d s o m e t i m e s r e p a i n t e d i n F e l d g r u n . B y 1 9 4 4 , t h e h e l m e t s w e r e s t a m p e d f r o m a s i n g l e s t e e l s h e e t , a n d t h e o r i g i n a l c l o t h l i n i n g r e p l a c e d w i t h v i n y l t o r e d u c e c o s t s . D u e t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l n u m b e r p r o d u c e d , o r i g i n a l h e l m e t s f r o m t h e w a r y e a r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d r a r e . H o w e v e r , a m o d i f i e d p o s t w a r v e r s i o n i n f l u o r e s c e n t g r e e n , w h i t e o r y e l l o w c o n t i n u e d t o b e i s s u e d t o r e s c u e w o r k e r s i n t h e B u n d e s r e p u b l i k u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s . T h e M 1 9 3 5 d e s i g n w a s s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d i n 1 9 4 0 t o s i m p l i f y i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s n o w i n c o r p o r a t i n g m o r e a u t o m a t e d s t a m p i n g m e t h o d s . T h e p r i n c i p a l c h a n g e w a s t o s t a m p t h e v e n t i l a t o r h o l e m o u n t s d i r e c t l y o n t o t h e s h e l l , r a t h e r t h a n u t i l i z i n g s e p a r a t e f i t t i n g s . I n o t h e r r e s p e c t s , t h e M 1 9 4 0 h e l m e t w a s i d e n t i c a l t o t h e M 1 9 3 5 . T h e G e r m a n s s t i l l r e f e r r e d t o t h e M 1 9 4 0 a s t h e M 1 9 3 5 , w h i l e t h e M 1 9 4 0 d e s i g n a t i o n w e r e g i v e n b y c o l l e c t o r s . A v a r i a n t o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t w i t h a s h e l l l a c k i n g t h e p r o j e c t i n g v i s o r a n d d e e p f l a r e d r i m w a s i s s u e d t o " F a l l s c h i r m j ä g e r " ( G e r m a n p a r a t r o o p e r ) u n i t s . I t w a s s o d e s i g n e d i n o r d e r t o l e s s e n t h e r i s k o f h e a d i n j u r y o n l a n d i n g a f t e r a p a r a c h u t e j u m p ; a l s o t o r e d u c e t h e s i g n i f i c a n t w i n d r e s i s t a n c e a n d r e s u l t i n g n e c k t r a u m a . E a r l y F a l l s c h i r m j ä g e r h e l m e t s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d f r o m e x i s t i n g M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s b y r e m o v i n g t h e u n d e s i r a b l e p r o j e c t i o n s , w h i c h w e r e o m i t t e d w h e n t h e n e w d e s i g n e n t e r e d f u l l p r o d u c t i o n . T h e m o d i f i e d s h e l l a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e d a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t a n d m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l l i n e r a n d c h i n s t r a p d e s i g n t h a t p r o v i d e d f a r m o r e p r o t e c t i o n f o r G e r m a n a i r b o r n e t r o o p s . T h e c h i n s t r a p f e a t u r e d a f o u r - p o i n t r e t e n t i o n s y s t e m t h a t h a s c o m e i n t o u s e a g a i n b y m o d e r n c o m b a t h e l m e t s s u c h a s t h e M I C H s i n c e t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s . T h e M 1 9 4 2 d e s i g n w a s a r e s u l t o f w a r t i m e d e m a n d s . F r o m d i r e c t o r d e r s o f t h e F ü h r e r , t o ‘ m a i n t a i n i n t i m i d a t i o n b u t r e d u c e c o s t ’ . T h e r o l l e d e d g e o n t h e s h e l l w a s e l i m i n a t e d , c r e a t i n g a n u n f i n i s h e d e d g e a l o n g t h e r i m . T h i s e d g e s l i g h t l y f l a r e d o u t , a l o n g t h e b a s e o f t h e s k i r t , r e d u c i n g t h e p r o t e c t i o n t h e h e l m e t g a v e . T h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e r o l l e d e d g e e x p e d i t e d t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s a n d r e d u c e d t h e a m o u n t o f m e t a l u s e d i n e a c h h e l m e t . S h e l l p a i n t c o l o u r s w e r e t y p i c a l l y m a t t e g r e y - g r e e n ( H e e r ) o r g r e y - b l u e ( L u f t w a f f e ) , a n d t h e d e c a l s w e r e e l i m i n a t e d i n 1 9 4 3 t o s p e e d u p p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e d u c e t h e h e l m e t ' s c o m b a t v i s i b i l i t y . G r e a t e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g f l a w s w e r e a l s o o b s e r v e d i n M 1 9 4 2 h e l m e t s m a d e l a t e i n t h e w a r . A s i m p l e r v a r i a n t , d e s i g n e d i n 1 9 4 2 b y t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r D e f e n c e T e c h n i c a l M a t e r i a l s S c i e n c e i n B e r l i n , w a s a l s o s t a m p e d o u t o f o n e p i e c e o f m e t a l , b u t w i t h s l o p e d s i d e s . I t w a s s i m i l a r i n a p p e a r a n c e t o t h e B r i t i s h 1 9 4 4 T y p e M k I I I h e l m e t . T h e r e h a v e b e e n r e p o r t s o f a v a r i a n t m a n u f a c t u r e d i n t h e l a s t m o n t h s o f t h e w a r . T h e M 1 9 4 5 w a s r e p o r t e d t o h a v e b e e n s i m i l a r t o t h e M 1 9 4 2 d e s i g n b u t d i d a w a y c o m p l e t e l y w i t h t h e v e n t i l a t o r . T h e s e h e l m e t s a r e r e p o r t e d t o b e e x t r e m e l y r a r e . M a n y c o l l e c t o r s a n d h i s t o r i a n s a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e M 1 9 4 5 h e l m e t i s j u s t a r e g u l a r M 1 9 4 2 h e l m e t t h a t l a c k e d t h e v e n t s s i m p l y b e c a u s e o f m a c h i n e m a l f u n c t i o n s i n t h e f a c t o r y , o r u n f i n i s h e d M 1 9 4 2 t h a t w e r e c o m p l e t e d i n t h e p o s t - w a r e r a . A v a r i a n t o f t h e M 1 9 4 4 w i t h a m o d i f i e d s u s p e n s i o n s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d f u r t h e r i n t o t h e M 1 9 5 6 . T h e E a s t G e r m a n M - 5 6 h e l m e t w a s o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d i n 1 9 4 2 a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e M 1 9 3 5 / M 1 9 4 0 m o d e l " S t a h l h e l m " . I t w a s i n i t i a l l y d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e W e h r m a c h t b y t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r D e f e n s e T e c h n i c a l M a t e r i a l s S c i e n c e i n B e r l i n ( s e e " M 1 9 4 4 " a b o v e ) . T h e h e l m e t h a d s e e n t r i a l s s i n c e 1 9 4 3 b u t w a s n o t a d o p t e d d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I . T h e d e s i g n w a s n o t u s e d u n t i l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a d i s t i n c t G e r m a n h e l m e t f o r t h e V o l k s p o l i z e i a n d t h e N a t i o n a l P e o p l e ' s A r m y a r o s e . T h e E a s t G e r m a n l e a d e r s h i p w a s m o t i v a t e d i n l a r g e p a r t b y a d e s i r e t o a v o i d p r o v o k i n g t h e o f f e n c e t h a t u s i n g a t r a d i t i o n a l " S t a h l h e l m " d e s i g n w o u l d h a v e c a u s e d E a s t G e r m a n y ' s W a r s a w P a c t a l l i e s ( e s p e c i a l l y C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , P o l a n d a n d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ) , b u t a m o r e p r a c t i c a l m i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y w a s a l s o p r e s e n t d u e t o t h e c o n t i n u e d u s e o f s u r p l u s " S t a h l h e l m e n " b y W e s t G e r m a n u n i t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r b o r d e r g u a r d s . M o r e o v e r , t h e E a s t G e r m a n s s u s p e c t e d t h e W e s t c o u l d r e - i s s u e t h e " S t a h l h e l m " o n a g e n e r a l b a s i s i n t h e B u n d e s w e h r a t a n y t i m e a n d t h e r e f o r e n e e d e d a h e l m e t t h a t w a s e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h a t o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a l e n e m y . F o r b o t h r e a s o n s , t h e 1 9 4 2 d e s i g n w a s l i k e l y c h o s e n b e c a u s e i t w a s t h e m o s t s i m i l a r o f a l l G e r m a n d e s i g n s t o t h e m o s t r e c o g n i z a b l e S o v i e t h e l m e t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e i c o n i c S S h - 4 0 d e s i g n . S u c h a d e s i g n n o t o n l y s e r v e d a p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e b u t w a s o n e t h a t N A T O a r m i e s w e r e u n l i k e l y t o c l o s e l y d u p l i c a t e . I n d e e d , t h e M - 5 6 w a s s i m i l a r e n o u g h i n a p p e a r a n c e t o t h e S S h - 4 0 t h a t s o m e W e s t e r n e r s f a i l e d t o r e a l i z e i t s G e r m a n o r i g i n s a l t o g e t h e r a n d a s s u m e d t h e E a s t G e r m a n s h a d a d o p t e d a S o v i e t d e s i g n . T h e M - 5 6 h e l m e t c a m e i n t h r e e b a s i c v e r s i o n s , M o d 1 o r I / 5 6 , M o d 2 o r I / 5 7 a n d M o d 3 o r I / 7 1 , a n d w a s w i d e l y s o l d ( o r g i v e n ) t o T h i r d W o r l d a r m i e s . T h e W e s t G e r m a n M - 5 6 " S t a h l h e l m " w a s a d i r e c t c o p y o f t h e U . S . M 1 h e l m e t . I t w a s p r o p e r l y c a l l e d " z w e i t e i l i g e r " S t a h l h e l m " " ( t w o - p i e c e s t e e l h e l m e t ) . I n 1 9 5 8 t h e h e l m e t w a s m a d e a s a o n e - p i e c e h e l m e t a n d r e n a m e d " S t a h l h e l m " M 1 A 1 . T h e M 1 A 1 c a m e i n t h r e e s i z e s : 6 6 , 6 8 , a n d 7 1 . T h i s h e l m e t w a s u s e d u n t i l 1 9 8 1 w h e n a m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n w a s r e l e a s e d a n d r e n a m e d t h e H e l m 1 A 1 . M o d i f i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e d a 3 - p o i n t c h i n s t r a p w i t h t h e t h i r d p o i n t c o n n e c t i n g a t t h e n a p e , e x t r a - l a r g e s i z e s , a n d a f u r t h e r a d j u s t a b l e l i n e r . T h e M 1 A 1 " S t a h l h e l m " r e m a i n e d i n s e r v i c e u n t i l 1 9 9 2 w h e n t h e B u n d e s w e h r r e p l a c e d i t w i t h a P A S G T - d e r i v e d k e v l a r h e l m e t c a l l e d t h e " G e f e c h t s h e l m " ( " C o m b a t h e l m e t " ) . A f t e r " S t a h l h e l m " s h e l l s w e r e p a i n t e d , t h e c o l o u r s o f w h i c h v a r i e d b y o r g a n i z a t i o n , s m a l l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o r i n s i g n i a d e c a l s u s u a l l y w e r e a f f i x e d t o o n e o r b o t h s i d e s o f t h e h e l m e t . A l m o s t e v e r y m i l i t a r y , n a v a l , a n d p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n h a d i t s o w n d i s t i n c t i v e i n s i g n i a , w h i c h w a s a p p l i e d a s d e c a l s t o t h e s i d e s o f h e l m e t s . T h e r i g h t s i d e o f e a r l y M 3 5 h e l m e t s b o r e t h e t r i c o l o r e d s h i e l d o f b l a c k , w h i t e , a n d r e d s t r i p e s , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i o n a l c o l o r s o f t h e p r e - W W I G e r m a n E m p i r e ( c f . t h e b l a c k , r e d , a n d g o l d o f t o d a y ' s F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f G e r m a n y , h a r k i n g b a c k t o t h e 1 8 4 8 R e v o l t ) . T h e l e f t s i d e o f t h e s h e l l o f t e n r e c e i v e d d e c a l i n s i g n i a d e n o t i n g t h e b r a n c h o f t h e a r m e d f o r c e s , o r " W e h r m a c h t " , o r a n o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h i n t h e N a z i P a r t y . T h e c o m b i n e d " W e h r m a c h t " m i l i t a r y f o r c e s o f N a z i G e r m a n y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e " H e e r " ( a r m y ) , t h e " K r i e g s m a r i n e " ( n a v y ) , a n d t h e " L u f t w a f f e " ( a i r f o r c e ) . W h i l e n o t t e c h n i c a l l y p a r t o f t h e W e h r m a c h t , t h e " W a f f e n - S S " ( " A r m e d - S S " ) t a c t i c a l l y o p e r a t e d a s s u c h a n d w a s c o n s i d e r e d p a r t o f G e r m a n y ' s a r m e d f o r c e s d u r i n g t h e w a r . T h e s a m e w a s t r u e o f s o m e " S t u r m a b t e i l u n g " ( S A ) u n i t s , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r s u b s i d i a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s , w h i c h f u n c t i o n e d a s p a r t o f t h e a r m e d f o r c e s p a r t i c u l a r l y t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e w a r . W e h r m a c h t b r a n c h e s t y p i c a l l y d i s p l a y e d d i s t i n c t i v e e m b l e m s i n t h e f o r m o f d e c a l s o n t h e i r h e l m e t s . T h e H e e r , o r a r m y , d i s p l a y e d a b l a c k s h i e l d b e a r i n g t h e f r o n t a l v i e w o f a s i l v e r - c o l o u r e d G e r m a n e a g l e h o l d i n g a s w a s t i k a i n i t s t a l o n s ( k n o w n a s t h e " R e i c h s a d l e r " ) , w h i l e t h e n a v y u s e d t h e s a m e e a g l e e m b l e m i n g o l d . L u f t w a f f e d e c a l s d i s p l a y e d t h e s i d e v i e w o f a n e a g l e i n f l i g h t , a l s o h o l d i n g a s w a s t i k a . T h e S S w a s b o t h a p a r a m i l i t a r y a n d a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d i t s b l a c k r u n i c i n i t i a l s o n a s i l v e r - c o l o u r e d s h i e l d ( n o r m a l l y a p p l i e d t o t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e s h e l l ) l o o k e d l i k e t w i n l i g h t n i n g b o l t s . O t h e r m i l i t a r y , p o l i t i c a l , a n d c i v i l o r d e f e n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s u s e d s i m i l a r d e c a l i n s i g n i a t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e i r h e l m e t s . S u c h v i s i b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d e v i c e s w e r e g r a d u a l l y a b a n d o n e d a s t h e w a r p r o g r e s s e d , h o w e v e r , s o t h a t b y w a r ' s e n d m o s t W e h r m a c h t h e l m e t i n s i g n i a h a d b e e n e l i m i n a t e d t o r e d u c e t h e w e a r e r ' s v i s i b i l i t y i n c o m b a t . F o r t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t A r m y s o l d i e r s , t h e i r M 3 5 h e l m e t s w e r e s t e n c i l l e d w i t h t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t I n s i g n i a o n t h e l e f t s i d e . B o l i v i a n A r m y p e r s o n n e l c a r r y t h e n a t i o n a l f l a g d e c a l o n t h e i r S t a h l h e l m s w h e n i n t h e f u l l d r e s s . T h e G e r m a n a r m y " S t a h l h e l m " , a s w e l l a s t h e J a p a n e s e " K a b u t o " , s e r v e d a s a t e m p l a t e f o r t h e f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r ' s D a r t h V a d e r o u t f i t i n t h e S t a r W a r s f r a n c h i s e . M e m b e r s o f t h e W o l f B r i g a d e , a f i c t i o n a l J a p a n e s e u n i t i n t h e a n i m e J i n - R o h : T h e W o l f B r i g a d e a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h " S t a h l h e l m e " , a s w e l l a s W e h r m a c h t w e a p o n s o f t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , i n c l u d i n g S t G 4 4 s a n d M G 4 2 s .

History

The Stahlhelm, a German helmet, has a rich history dating back to WWI. Initially, some units developed provisional helmets in 1915, leading to the creation of the iconic M1916 design. The helmet underwent modifications throughout the years, with variations being exported to countries like China, Spain, and Hungary. The M1935 design became synonymous with the German military, and its influence can still be seen in modern-day helmets.

the "Stahlhelm". As the German army behaved hesitantly in the development of an effective head protection, some units developed provisional helmets in 1915. Stationed in the rocky area of the Vosges the Army Detachment "Gaede" recorded significantly more head injuries caused by stone and shell splinters than did troops in other sectors of the front. The artillery workshop of the Army Detachment developed a helmet that consisted of a leather cap with a steel plate (6 mm thickness). The plate protected not only the forehead but also the eyes and nose. The helmet was quite deep relative to the thickness of the steel; one American company that tried to press similar thickness steel into the shape of the much shallower Brodie helmet was unable to do so. The one piece. Like the British and French, German troops identified highly with their helmets, as it became a popular symbol of paramilitary groups after the First World War. Such was the attachment of the World War One generation to the design that it was reportedly the reason that Hitler rejected a modernised, sloping helmet design to replace it. Germany exported versions of the M1935 helmet to various countries. Versions of the M1935 "Stahlhelm" were sent to Republic of China from 1935 to 1936 and the M1935 was the main helmet of the Chinese Nationalist Army (especially the "central" divisions) during World War II. Spain also received shipments of the helmet. During the inter-war years, several military missions were sent to South America under the command of Hans Kundt, after Chaco War the Bolivian army used to wear the helmet up until recently. The exported M1935 helmets were similar to the German issue, except for a different liner. Some countries manufactured their own helmets using the M1935 design, and this basic design was in use in various nations as late as the 1970s. The Germans allowed and assisted the Hungarians in copying their design of the M1935 steel helmet. Therefore, the WWII-produced M38 Hungarian steel helmet is nearly identical to the German M1935. Both have almost the same shape, riveted ventilation holes, and the classic rolled edge. Differences include somewhat rougher Hungarian finishing, a different liner and different rivets position – the split pins are situated behind the ventilation holes. A square metal bracket is riveted on the rear, above the back brim; used to secure the helmet to the knapsack while marching. It was typically painted in Hungarian brown-green, albeit blue-grey versions existed. It is sometimes called the "Finnish M35" due to its extensive use by the Finnish Army during the Continuation War 1941–44. After the end of World War I Poland seized large quantities of M1918 helmets. Most of those were later sold to various countries, including Spain. However, at the end of the 1930s, it was discovered that the standard Polish wz. 31 helmet was unsuitable for tank troops and motorized units; while offering decent protection, it was too large and heavy. As a stop-gap measure before a new helmet was developed, the General Staff decided to issue M1918 helmets to the trench raiding parties, as it was too heavy for general use. The shell came in different sizes, from 60 to 68, with some size 70s reported. Helmet weight varied from 0.98 kg to 1.4 kg, depending on shell size. The suspension, or liner, consisted of a headband with three segmented leather pouches, each holding padding materials, and leather or fabric cords could be adjusted to provide a comfortable fit. The one-piece leather chin strap was attached to the shell by M1891 chinstrap lugs, the same kind used in the Pickelhaube helmet. The M1916 design provided excellent protection: Reserve Lieutenant Walter Schulze of 8th Company Reserve Infantry Regiment 76 described his combat introduction to the helmet on the Somme, 29 July 1916: ... suddenly, with a great clanging thud, a variant of the "Stahlhelm" with a wider, flared peak and ventilation holes originally intended for firefighters, civil defense, Reichsarbeitsdienst, and Luftschutz personnel. Known as the gladiator pattern, the privately purchased Luftschutz helmet was originally made from three pieces of steel and typically painted black or dark blue. Later in the war these were issued to Volkssturm personnel, and sometimes repainted in Feldgrun. By 1944, the helmets were stamped from a single steel sheet, and the original cloth lining replaced with vinyl to reduce costs. Due to the relatively small number produced, original helmets from the war years are considered rare. However, a modified postwar version in fluorescent green, white or yellow continued to be issued to rescue workers in the Bundesrepublik until the early 1990s. The M1935 ventilator. These helmets are reported to be extremely rare. Many collectors and historians are of the opinion that the M1945 helmet is just a regular M1942 helmet that lacked the vents simply because of machine malfunctions in the factory, or unfinished M1942 that were completed in the post-war era. A variant of the M1944 with a modified suspension system developed further into the M1956. The East German M-56 helmet was originally designed in 1942 as a replacement for the M1935/M1940 model "Stahlhelm". It was initially developed for the Wehrmacht by the Institute for Defense Technical Materials Science in Berlin (see "M1944" above). The helmet had seen trials since 1943 but was not adopted during World War II. The design was not used until the requirement for a distinct early M35 helmets bore the tricolored shield of black, white, and red stripes, the traditional national colors of the pre-WWI German Empire (cf. the black, red, and gold of today's Federal Republic of Germany, harking back to the 1848 Revolt). The left side of the shell often received decal insignia denoting the branch of the armed forces, or "Wehrmacht", or an organization within the Nazi Party. The combined "Wehrmacht" military forces of Nazi Germany consisted of the "Heer" (army), the "Kriegsmarine" (navy), and the "Luftwaffe" (air force). While not technically part of the Wehrmacht, the "Waffen-SS" ("Armed-SS") tactically operated as such and was considered part of Germany's armed forces during the war. The same was true of some "Sturmabteilung" (SA) units, along with other subsidiary organizations, which functioned 42s.

Stahlhelm

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f W o r l d W a r I , n o n e o f t h e c o m b a t a n t s w e r e i s s u e d w i t h a n y f o r m o f p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e h e a d o t h e r t h a n c l o t h a n d l e a t h e r c a p s , d e s i g n e d a t m o s t t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t s a b r e c u t s . W h e n t r e n c h w a r f a r e b e g a n , t h e n u m b e r o f c a s u a l t i e s o n a l l s i d e s s u f f e r i n g f r o m s e v e r e h e a d w o u n d s ( m o r e o f t e n c a u s e d b y s h r a p n e l b u l l e t s o r s h e l l f r a g m e n t s t h a n b y g u n f i r e ) i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y , s i n c e t h e h e a d w a s t y p i c a l l y t h e m o s t e x p o s e d p a r t o f t h e b o d y w h e n i n a t r e n c h . T h e F r e n c h w e r e t h e f i r s t t o s e e a n e e d f o r m o r e p r o t e c t i o n — i n m i d - 1 9 1 5 t h e y b e g a n t o i s s u e A d r i a n h e l m e t s t o t h e i r t r o o p s . T h e B r i t i s h a n d C o m m o n w e a l t h t r o o p s f o l l o w e d w i t h t h e B r o d i e h e l m e t ( a d e v e l o p m e n t o f w h i c h w a s a l s o l a t e r w o r n b y U S f o r c e s ) a n d t h e G e r m a n s w i t h t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . A s t h e G e r m a n a r m y b e h a v e d h e s i t a n t l y i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n e f f e c t i v e h e a d p r o t e c t i o n , s o m e u n i t s d e v e l o p e d p r o v i s i o n a l h e l m e t s i n 1 9 1 5 . S t a t i o n e d i n t h e r o c k y a r e a o f t h e V o s g e s t h e A r m y D e t a c h m e n t " G a e d e " r e c o r d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e h e a d i n j u r i e s c a u s e d b y s t o n e a n d s h e l l s p l i n t e r s t h a n d i d t r o o p s i n o t h e r s e c t o r s o f t h e f r o n t . T h e a r t i l l e r y w o r k s h o p o f t h e A r m y D e t a c h m e n t d e v e l o p e d a h e l m e t t h a t c o n s i s t e d o f a l e a t h e r c a p w i t h a s t e e l p l a t e ( 6   m m t h i c k n e s s ) . T h e p l a t e p r o t e c t e d n o t o n l y t h e f o r e h e a d b u t a l s o t h e e y e s a n d n o s e . T h e h e l m e t w a s q u i t e d e e p r e l a t i v e t o t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s t e e l ; o n e A m e r i c a n c o m p a n y t h a t t r i e d t o p r e s s s i m i l a r t h i c k n e s s s t e e l i n t o t h e s h a p e o f t h e m u c h s h a l l o w e r B r o d i e h e l m e t w a s u n a b l e t o d o s o . T h e h e l m e t w a s b u l l e t - r e s i s t a n t t o p i s t o l r o u n d s s u c h a s 9 m m L u g e r a n d 4 5 A C P t h a t w o u l d o n l y d e n t t h e s u r f a c e . T h e d e s i g n o f t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s c a r r i e d o u t b y D r F r i e d r i c h S c h w e r d o f t h e T e c h n i c a l I n s t i t u t e o f H a n o v e r . I n e a r l y 1 9 1 5 , S c h w e r d h a d c a r r i e d o u t a s t u d y o f h e a d w o u n d s s u f f e r e d d u r i n g t r e n c h w a r f a r e a n d s u b m i t t e d a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n f o r s t e e l h e l m e t s , s h o r t l y a f t e r w h i c h h e w a s o r d e r e d t o B e r l i n . S c h w e r d t h e n u n d e r t o o k t h e t a s k o f d e s i g n i n g a n d p r o d u c i n g a s u i t a b l e h e l m e t , b r o a d l y b a s e d o n t h e 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y s a l l e t , w h i c h p r o v i d e d g o o d p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e h e a d a n d n e c k . A f t e r l e n g t h y d e v e l o p m e n t w o r k , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t e s t i n g a s e l e c t i o n o f G e r m a n a n d A l l i e d h e a d g e a r , t h e f i r s t " s t a h l h e l m " w e r e t e s t e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 5 a t t h e K u m m e r s d o r f P r o v i n g G r o u n d a n d t h e n f i e l d - t e s t e d b y t h e 1 s t A s s a u l t B a t t a l i o n . T h i r t y t h o u s a n d e x a m p l e s w e r e o r d e r e d , b u t i t w a s n o t a p p r o v e d f o r g e n e r a l i s s u e u n t i l N e w Y e a r o f 1 9 1 6 , h e n c e i t i s m o s t u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e " M o d e l 1 9 1 6 " . I n F e b r u a r y 1 9 1 6 i t w a s d i s t r i b u t e d t o t r o o p s a t V e r d u n , f o l l o w i n g w h i c h t h e i n c i d e n c e o f s e r i o u s h e a d i n j u r i e s f e l l d r a m a t i c a l l y . T h e f i r s t G e r m a n t r o o p s t o u s e t h i s h e l m e t w e r e t h e s t o r m t r o o p e r s o f t h e " S t u r m - B a t a i l l o n N r . 5 ( R o h r ) " , w h i c h w a s c o m m a n d e d b y c a p t a i n W i l l y R o h r . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e H a d f i e l d s t e e l u s e d i n t h e B r i t i s h B r o d i e h e l m e t , t h e G e r m a n s u s e d a h a r d e r m a r t e n s i t i c s i l i c o n / n i c k e l s t e e l . A s a r e s u l t , a n d a l s o d u e t o t h e h e l m e t ' s f o r m , t h e " S t a h l h e l m " h a d t o b e f o r m e d i n h e a t e d d i e s a t a g r e a t e r u n i t c o s t t h a n t h e B r i t i s h h e l m e t , w h i c h c o u l d b e f o r m e d i n o n e p i e c e . L i k e t h e B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h , G e r m a n t r o o p s i d e n t i f i e d h i g h l y w i t h t h e i r h e l m e t s , a s i t b e c a m e a p o p u l a r s y m b o l o f p a r a m i l i t a r y g r o u p s a f t e r t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r . S u c h w a s t h e a t t a c h m e n t o f t h e W o r l d W a r O n e g e n e r a t i o n t o t h e d e s i g n t h a t i t w a s r e p o r t e d l y t h e r e a s o n t h a t H i t l e r r e j e c t e d a m o d e r n i s e d , s l o p i n g h e l m e t d e s i g n t o r e p l a c e i t . G e r m a n y e x p o r t e d v e r s i o n s o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s . V e r s i o n s o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 " S t a h l h e l m " w e r e s e n t t o R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a f r o m 1 9 3 5 t o 1 9 3 6 a n d t h e M 1 9 3 5 w a s t h e m a i n h e l m e t o f t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t A r m y ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e " c e n t r a l " d i v i s i o n s ) d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I . S p a i n a l s o r e c e i v e d s h i p m e n t s o f t h e h e l m e t . D u r i n g t h e i n t e r - w a r y e a r s , s e v e r a l m i l i t a r y m i s s i o n s w e r e s e n t t o S o u t h A m e r i c a u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f H a n s K u n d t , a f t e r C h a c o W a r t h e B o l i v i a n a r m y u s e d t o w e a r t h e h e l m e t u p u n t i l r e c e n t l y . T h e e x p o r t e d M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s w e r e s i m i l a r t o t h e G e r m a n i s s u e , e x c e p t f o r a d i f f e r e n t l i n e r . S o m e c o u n t r i e s m a n u f a c t u r e d t h e i r o w n h e l m e t s u s i n g t h e M 1 9 3 5 d e s i g n , a n d t h i s b a s i c d e s i g n w a s i n u s e i n v a r i o u s n a t i o n s a s l a t e a s t h e 1 9 7 0 s . T h e G e r m a n s a l l o w e d a n d a s s i s t e d t h e H u n g a r i a n s i n c o p y i n g t h e i r d e s i g n o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 s t e e l h e l m e t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e W W I I - p r o d u c e d M 3 8 H u n g a r i a n s t e e l h e l m e t i s n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h e G e r m a n M 1 9 3 5 . B o t h h a v e a l m o s t t h e s a m e s h a p e , r i v e t e d v e n t i l a t i o n h o l e s , a n d t h e c l a s s i c r o l l e d e d g e . D i f f e r e n c e s i n c l u d e s o m e w h a t r o u g h e r H u n g a r i a n f i n i s h i n g , a d i f f e r e n t l i n e r a n d d i f f e r e n t r i v e t s p o s i t i o n – t h e s p l i t p i n s a r e s i t u a t e d b e h i n d t h e v e n t i l a t i o n h o l e s . A s q u a r e m e t a l b r a c k e t i s r i v e t e d o n t h e r e a r , a b o v e t h e b a c k b r i m ; u s e d t o s e c u r e t h e h e l m e t t o t h e k n a p s a c k w h i l e m a r c h i n g . I t w a s t y p i c a l l y p a i n t e d i n H u n g a r i a n b r o w n - g r e e n , a l b e i t b l u e - g r e y v e r s i o n s e x i s t e d . I t i s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " F i n n i s h M 3 5 " d u e t o i t s e x t e n s i v e u s e b y t h e F i n n i s h A r m y d u r i n g t h e C o n t i n u a t i o n W a r 1 9 4 1 – 4 4 . A f t e r t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I P o l a n d s e i z e d l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t s . M o s t o f t h o s e w e r e l a t e r s o l d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g S p a i n . H o w e v e r , a t t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 3 0 s , i t w a s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d P o l i s h w z . 3 1 h e l m e t w a s u n s u i t a b l e f o r t a n k t r o o p s a n d m o t o r i z e d u n i t s ; w h i l e o f f e r i n g d e c e n t p r o t e c t i o n , i t w a s t o o l a r g e a n d h e a v y . A s a s t o p - g a p m e a s u r e b e f o r e a n e w h e l m e t w a s d e v e l o p e d , t h e G e n e r a l S t a f f d e c i d e d t o i s s u e M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t s t o t h e 1 0 t h M o t o r i z e d C a v a l r y B r i g a d e , w h i c h u s e d t h e m d u r i n g t h e P o l i s h D e f e n s i v e W a r . D u r i n g t h e t i m e o f t h e W a r s a w U p r i s i n g t h e h e l m e t w a s a l s o w o r n b y t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e P o l i s h H o m e A r m y a n d i t w a s d u r i n g t h i s t i m e t h a t t h e h e l m e t b e c a m e t h e s y m b o l o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e , a s e v e r y " S t a h l h e l m " w o r n b y a s o l d i e r o f t h e u n d e r g r o u n d a r m y s i g n i f i e d a d e a d G e r m a n o c c u p i e r i t w a s t a k e n f r o m . I n N o v e m b e r 1 9 2 6 , t h e I r i s h D e f e n c e F o r c e s d e c i d e d u p o n a d o p t i n g t h e G e r m a n " S t a h l h e l m " . H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e I r i s h g o v e r n m e n t c o n t a c t e d t h e G e r m a n F o r e i g n O f f i c e w i t h a r e q u e s t f o r a s a m p l e t h e y w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t G e r m a n y w a s b a r r e d f r o m e x p o r t i n g s t e e l h e l m e t s b y t h e T r e a t y o f V e r s a i l l e s . T h e I r i s h t h e n t u r n e d t o L o n d o n b a s e d V i c k e r s , o r d e r i n g 5 , 0 0 0 c o p i e s o f a m o d e l c l o s e l y r e s e m b l i n g t h e M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t . T h e h e l m e t r e m a i n e d i n u s e u n t i l i t w a s r e p l a c e d b y t h e B r i t i s h M a r k I I m o d e l i n 1 9 4 0 . F o l l o w i n g t h e o u t b r e a k o f W o r l d W a r I I , t h e h e l m e t s b e c a m e t h e s u b j e c t o f a n t i - I r i s h p r o p a g a n d a o r i g i n a t i n g i n B r i t a i n . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f t h e w i t h d r a w n h e l m e t s w e r e r e i s s u e d t o v a r i o u s e m e r g e n c y s e r v i c e s a f t e r b e i n g p a i n t e d w h i t e . S w i t z e r l a n d u s e d a h e l m e t , d e s i g n a t e d t h e M 1 9 1 8 , t h a t w a s r o u g h l y s i m i l a r t o t h e M 1 9 1 6 b u t h a d a s h a l l o w e r , w i d e r a n d m o r e r o u n d e d c r o w n a n d s k i r t . T h i s w a s t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t t h e h a r s h w i n t e r w i n d s o f t h e a l p i n e r e g i o n s . T h e C h i l e a n A r m y w a s a p r o l i f i c u s e r o f t h e V u l k a n f i b e r m o d e l s , b o u g h t b e f o r e t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , a l o n g w i t h a f e w M 1 9 3 5 a n d C z e c h o s l o v a k M 3 2 h e l m e t s . A f t e r t h e w a r , l o c a l p r o d u c t i o n o f l i g h t w e i g h t f i b e r a n d p l a s t i c m o d e l s s t a r t e d , w h i c h a r e s t i l l i n c e r e m o n i a l & g a r r i s o n u s e t o d a y . S m a l l r u n s o f s t e e l h e l m e t s w e r e m a d e b y F A M A E i n t h e 8 0 ' s , b u t u l t i m a t e l y w e r e n o t a d o p t e d d u e t o t h e a s c e n d a n c e o f k e v l a r a n d s y n t h e t i c b a l l i s t i c f i b e r h e l m e t s b y t h a t t i m e . A " S t a h l h e l m " w i t h c r o s s e d b a y o n e t s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g n u m b e r i s t h e s t a n d a r d i n s i g n i a o f i n f a n t r y r e g i m e n t s . T h e A r g e n t i n e A r m y a d o p t e d a s i m i l a r m o d e l , m a d e o f p r e s s e d f i b r e , d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I , r e f l e c t i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s y m p a t h y t o w a r d s G e r m a n y f o u n d i n m a n y o f t h e o f f i c e r s . F o r c o m b a t a n d p r o v i n c i a l p o l i c e u s e , i m p o r t e d S w i s s M 1 9 1 8 H e l m e t s w e r e s t i l l i n s e r v i c e a s l a t e a s 1 9 7 6 . I n t h e S o c i a l i s t F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f Y u g o s l a v i a , d u e t o l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s c a p t u r e d b y W o r l d W a r I I P a r t i s a n s , t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s u s e d i n Y u g o s l a v P e o p l e ' s A r m y u p t o 1 9 5 9 , w h e n i t w a s p h a s e d o u t a n d r e p l a c e d b y t h e M 5 9 / 8 5 s t e e l h e l m e t . A f t e r W o r l d W a r I I , W e s t G e r m a n y ' s B u n d e s g r e n z s c h u t z b o r d e r g u a r d s a n d s o m e W e s t G e r m a n p o l i c e u n i t s k e p t t h e " S t a h l h e l m " i n t h e i r i n v e n t o r i e s ( p o l i c e u n i t s c a n b e s e e n w e a r i n g t h e m d u r i n g f o o t a g e o f t h e B l a c k S e p t e m b e r h o s t a g e c r i s i s i n 1 9 7 2 ) , a n d t h e F a l l s c h i r m j ä g e r v a r i a n t w a s u s e d f o r s o m e t i m e b y t h e G S G 9 . W i t h t h e r e - a r m a m e n t o f W e s t G e r m a n y t h e B u n d e s w e h r i n t r o d u c e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s A r m y M 1 H e l m e t w h i c h w a s r e p l a c e d b y a K e v l a r h e l m e t ( " G e f e c h t s h e l m " ) , s i m i l a r t o t h e m o d e r n U S h e l m e t s , i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s . G e r m a n f i r e f i g h t e r u n i t s t o d a y s t i l l u s e " S t a h l h e l m " - s h a p e d h e l m e t s i n a f l u o r e s c e n t c o l o u r . E a s t G e r m a n y ' s N a t i o n a l P e o p l e ' s A r m y M - 5 6 h e l m e t w a s m o d e l l e d o n a n u n u s e d 1 9 4 2 G e r m a n d e s i g n w i t h a m o r e c o n i c a l s h a p e . T h e C h i l e a n A r m y s t i l l u s e s t h e " S t a h l h e l m " d e s i g n f o r c e r e m o n i a l p u r p o s e s , a s w e l l a s t h e B o l i v i a n A r m y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e J a p a n e s e b i c y c l e h e l m e t s ( w i t h a c c o m p a n y i n g g o g g l e s ) t h a t r e s e m b l e t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . M a n y s c h o o l s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s i n M e x i c o s u c h a s t h e A u t o n o m o u s U n i v e r s i t y o f B a j a C a l i f o r n i a h a v e m i l i t a r y b a n d s t h a t u s e o r r e s e m b l e t h e M 3 5 " S t a h l h e l m " . T h e U . S . A r m y ' s 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s e r a K e v l a r P e r s o n n e l A r m o r S y s t e m f o r G r o u n d T r o o p s H e l m e t w a s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " F r i t z h e l m e t " f o r i t s r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . T h e U . S . A r m y a n d M a r i n e s h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o u s e a d e s i g n a k i n t o t h e P A S G T h e l m e t w i t h t h e M I C H T C - 2 0 0 0 C o m b a t H e l m e t a n d L i g h t w e i g h t H e l m e t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e C h i n e s e P e o p l e ' s L i b e r a t i o n A r m y s o l d i e r s s t i l l u s e d M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s w h i c h w e r e c a p t u r e d f r o m t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t A r m y d u r i n g t h e C h i n e s e C i v i l W a r u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 0 s . S i n c e 2 0 1 2 , E l S a l v a d o r ' s P o l i c i a N a c i o n a l C i v i l u s e a n a v y / i n d i g o b l u e - c o l o u r e d h e l m e t t h a t s t r o n g l y r e s e m b l e s t h e " S t a h l h e l m " ; t h i s h e l m e t i s u s e d b y s o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e r i o t - c o n t r o l u n i t a n d r a r e l y u s e d b y t h e P o l i c e ' s a s s a u l t t e a m s . T h e d i f f e r e n t " S t a h l h e l m " d e s i g n s a r e n a m e d f o r t h e i r y e a r o f i n t r o d u c t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e " M o d e l l 1 9 4 2 " w h i c h w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n 1 9 4 2 i s c o m m o n l y k n o w n a s " M 1 9 4 2 " o r s i m p l y " M 4 2 " . H e r e , t h e y a r e r e f e r r e d t o b y t h e i r M 1 9 " X X " n a m e s . T h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o r e g u l a r s e r v i c e d u r i n g t h e V e r d u n c a m p a i g n i n e a r l y 1 9 1 6 . T h e M 1 9 1 6 d e s i g n h a d s i d e - m o u n t e d h o r n - l i k e v e n t i l a t o r l u g s w h i c h w e r e i n t e n d e d t o b e s u p p o r t f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l s t e e l b r o w p l a t e o r " S t i r n p a n z e r " , w h i c h o n l y e v e r s a w l i m i t e d u s e b y s n i p e r s a n d t r e n c h r a i d i n g p a r t i e s , a s i t w a s t o o h e a v y f o r g e n e r a l u s e . T h e s h e l l c a m e i n d i f f e r e n t s i z e s , f r o m 6 0 t o 6 8 , w i t h s o m e s i z e 7 0 s r e p o r t e d . H e l m e t w e i g h t v a r i e d f r o m 0 . 9 8   k g t o 1 . 4   k g , d e p e n d i n g o n s h e l l s i z e . T h e s u s p e n s i o n , o r l i n e r , c o n s i s t e d o f a h e a d b a n d w i t h t h r e e s e g m e n t e d l e a t h e r p o u c h e s , e a c h h o l d i n g p a d d i n g m a t e r i a l s , a n d l e a t h e r o r f a b r i c c o r d s c o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t o p r o v i d e a c o m f o r t a b l e f i t . T h e o n e - p i e c e l e a t h e r c h i n s t r a p w a s a t t a c h e d t o t h e s h e l l b y M 1 8 9 1 c h i n s t r a p l u g s , t h e s a m e k i n d u s e d i n t h e P i c k e l h a u b e h e l m e t . T h e M 1 9 1 6 d e s i g n p r o v i d e d e x c e l l e n t p r o t e c t i o n : R e s e r v e L i e u t e n a n t W a l t e r S c h u l z e o f 8 t h C o m p a n y R e s e r v e I n f a n t r y R e g i m e n t 7 6 d e s c r i b e d h i s c o m b a t i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e h e l m e t o n t h e S o m m e , 2 9 J u l y 1 9 1 6 : . . . s u d d e n l y , w i t h a g r e a t c l a n g i n g t h u d , I w a s h i t o n t h e f o r e h e a d a n d k n o c k e d f l y i n g o n t o t h e f l o o r o f t h e t r e n c h . . . a s h r a p n e l b u l l e t h a d h i t m y h e l m e t w i t h g r e a t v i o l e n c e , w i t h o u t p i e r c i n g i t , b u t s u f f i c i e n t l y h a r d t o d e n t i t . I f I h a d , a s h a d b e e n u s u a l u p u n t i l a f e w d a y s p r e v i o u s l y , b e e n w e a r i n g a c a p , t h e n t h e R e g i m e n t w o u l d h a v e h a d o n e m o r e m a n k i l l e d . B u t t h e h e l m e t w a s n o t w i t h o u t i t s f l a w s . T h e v e n t i l a t o r h o r n s o f t e n l e t c o l d a i r i n d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r , r e q u i r i n g t h e w e a r e r t o b l o c k t h e v e n t s w i t h m u d o r f a b r i c . T h e l a r g e , f l a r e d s k i r t t e n d e d t o m a k e i t d i f f i c u l t f o r s o l d i e r s t o h e a r , d i s t o r t i n g s u r r o u n d i n g s o u n d s a n d c r e a t i n g a n e c h o w h e n t h e w e a r e r s p o k e . O r i g i n a l l y p a i n t e d " F e l d g r a u " ( f i e l d g r e y ) , t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s o f t e n c a m o u f l a g e d b y t r o o p s i n t h e f i e l d u s i n g m u d , f o l i a g e , c l o t h c o v e r s , a n d p a i n t . O f f i c i a l i s s u e c l o t h c o v e r s i n w h i t e a n d g r e y a p p e a r e d i n l a t e 1 9 1 6 a n d e a r l y 1 9 1 7 . C a m o u f l a g e p a i n t w a s n o t f o r m a l l y i n t r o d u c e d u n t i l J u l y 1 9 1 8 , w h e n G e r m a n A r m y O r d e r I I , N o 9 1 3 6 6 , s i g n e d b y G e n e r a l E r i c h L u d e n d o r f f o n 7 J u l y 1 9 1 8 , o u t l i n e d o f f i c i a l s t a n d a r d s f o r h e l m e t c a m o u f l a g e . T h e o r d e r s t i p u l a t e d t h a t h e l m e t s s h o u l d b e p a i n t e d i n s e v e r a l c o l o u r s , s e p a r a t e d b y a f i n g e r - w i d e b l a c k l i n e . T h e c o l o u r s s h o u l d b e r e l e v a n t t o t h e s e a s o n , s u c h a s u s i n g g r e e n , b r o w n a n d o c h r e i n s u m m e r . A f t e r t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e M 1 9 1 6 d e s i g n w a s v a l i d a t e d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 1 6 c a m p a i g n s , i n c r e m e n t a l i m p r o v e m e n t s w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y m a d e . T h e M 1 9 1 7 v e r s i o n s a w i m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h e l i n e r b u t w a s o t h e r w i s e i d e n t i c a l t o t h e o r i g i n a l d e s i g n . E x t e n s i v e r e d e s i g n s w e r e m a d e f o r t h e M 1 9 1 8 m o d e l . A n e w t w o - p i e c e c h i n s t r a p w a s i n t r o d u c e d a n d w a s a t t a c h e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e h e l m e t l i n e r r a t h e r t h a n t h e s h e l l . C e r t a i n e x a m p l e s o f t h e M 1 9 1 8 h a d c u t o u t s i n t h e r i m a l o n g t h e s i d e s o f t h e h e l m e t . I t h a s i n c o r r e c t l y b e e n s a i d t h a t t h e s e c u t o u t s w e r e t o a c c o m m o d a t e u s i n g h e a d p h o n e s w h i l e w e a r i n g t h e h e l m e t . T h e s e c u t o u t s w e r e a c t u a l l y d o n e t o i m p r o v e h e a r i n g a n d t o r e d u c e e c h o c r e a t e d b y t h e l a r g e , f l a r e d s k i r t . T h e M 1 9 1 8 " S t a h l h e l m " c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e M 1 9 1 6 , a s t h e M 1 9 1 8 s h e l l l a c k s t h e c h i n s t r a p r i v e t o n t h e l o w e r s i d e o f t h e h e l m e t s k i r t f o u n d o n e a r l i e r m o d e l s . A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y p u r c h a s e d a b o u t 4 1 6 , 0 0 0 G e r m a n h e l m e t s f r o m N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 6 u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e w a r a n d a l s o b e g a n i t s o w n l i c e n s e d p r o d u c t i o n s t a r t i n g i n M a y 1 9 1 7 . A r o u n d a m i l l i o n " S t a h l h e l m " o f a l l v a r i a n t s w e r e i s s u e d u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e w a r . T h e A u s t r i a n M 1 7 h e l m e t w a s s i m i l a r t o t h e G e r m a n M 1 6 b u t w a s c o l o u r e d g o l d e n - b r o w n ( k n o w n a s I s o n z o - b r a u n ) , h a d a c l o t h c h i n s t r a p a n d h a d t h e c h i n s t r a p r i v e t l o c a t e d h i g h e r u p o n t h e s t e e l s h e l l . F r o m M a y 1 9 1 7 t i l l t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I 5 3 4 , 0 1 3 w e r e p r o d u c e d , m a n y o f w h i c h w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d a t t h e K r u p p i n B e r n d o r f , L o w e r A u s t r i a . O t h e r p r o d u c t i o n l o c a t i o n s i n c l u d e d : T h e H u n g a r i a n M 1 8 v a r i a n t w a s s i m i l a r t o t h e A u s t r i a n M 1 7 d e s i g n , b u t t h e c h i n s t r a p r i v e t w a s s m a l l e r i n s i z e a n d l o c a t e d e v e n h i g h e r u p t h a n t h e A u s t r i a n v e r s i o n . I t w a s c o l o u r e d i n g o l d e n - b r o w n ( k n o w n a s I s o n z o - b r a u n ) . T h e s e w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d a t t h e K r u p p i n B e r n d o r f , L o w e r A u s t r i a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , d o m e s t i c a l l y d e v e l o p e d B e r n d o r f e r v a r i a n t . 1 3 9 , 9 6 8 w e r e p r o d u c e d f r o m M a y t i l l N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 7 a t t h e K r u p p i n B e r n d o r f , L o w e r A u s t r i a T h e f o r m a t i o n i n 1 9 1 7 b y t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e o f s t o r m t r o o p e r b a t t a l i o n s f o l l o w i n g t h e G e r m a n m o d e l p r o m p t e d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r s t e e l h e l m e t s , a s t h e s e h a d n o t p r e v i o u s l y b e e n a d o p t e d . A l t h o u g h G e r m a n h e l m e t s w e r e o r d e r e d , O t t o m a n o f f i c e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e d e s i g n i m p e d e d t h e s o l d i e r s ' a b i l i t y t o h e a r o r d e r s i n t h e f i e l d a n d r e q u e s t e d t h a t t h e v i s o r , e a r a n d n e c k p r o t e c t o r s b e r e m o v e d , w h i c h w a s d o n e u s i n g g r i n d i n g m a c h i n e s . G e r m a n y d e l i v e r e d 5 , 4 0 0 v i s o r l e s s v e r s i o n s o f t h e M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t f o r t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e . T h e m i s s i n g f r o n t v i s o r w a s t h o u g h t b y t h e G e r m a n s t o b e f o r r e l i g i o u s r e a s o n s , a n d i t w a s c l a i m e d t h a t i t w a s t o a l l o w T u r k i s h s o l d i e r s t o t o u c h t h e i r f o r e h e a d s t o t h e g r o u n d d u r i n g p r a y e r , w i t h o u t r e m o v i n g t h e i r h e l m e t s . H o w e v e r , t h i s s t o r y h a s b e e n d i s p u t e d . T h e T u r k s r e j e c t e d a n y m o r e t h a n t h e 5 , 4 0 0 d e l i v e r e d a n d a n u n k n o w n n u m b e r f r o m t h e o v e r r u n w e r e i s s u e d t o G e r m a n a r m e d f o r c e s a n d w e r e u s e d b y G e r m a n F r e i k o r p s u n i t s a f t e r t h e w a r . I n 1 9 3 2 t h e A r m y H i g h C o m m a n d o r d e r e d t h e t e s t i n g o f a n e w p r o t o t y p e h e l m e t i n t e n d e d t o r e p l a c e t h e o l d e r m o d e l s . I t w a s m a d e e n t i r e l y f r o m a c o m p o s i t e p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l c a l l e d " V u l k a n f i b e r " . T h e M o d e l 1 9 3 3 V u l k a n f i b e r h e l m e t k e p t t h e b a s i c f o r m o f p r e v i o u s h e l m e t s b u t w a s m u c h l i g h t e r . I t w a s p u t i n t o l i m i t e d p r o d u c t i o n f o l l o w i n g f a v o u r a b l e f i e l d t e s t s i n e a r l y 1 9 3 3 a n d s m a l l n u m b e r s w e r e i s s u e d t o R e i c h s w e h r i n f a n t r y , a r t i l l e r y a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s u n i t s . I t w a s r e m o v e d f r o m s e r v i c e f o l l o w i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t a n d m o s t o f t h e r e m a i n i n g s t o c k w e r e r e i s s u e d t o c i v i l o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h a s f i r e b r i g a d e s a n d p o l i c e f o r c e s . S o m e e x a m p l e s w e r e a l s o r e t a i n e d f o r p a r a d e u s e b y s e n i o r o f f i c e r s , w h o w e r e n o t g e n e r a l l y i s s u e d w i t h t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . I n 1 9 3 4 t e s t s b e g a n o n a n i m p r o v e d " S t a h l h e l m " , w h o s e d e s i g n w a s a d e v e l o p m e n t o f W o r l d W a r I m o d e l s . T h e E i s e n h ü t t e n w e r k e c o m p a n y o f T h a l e c a r r i e d o u t p r o t o t y p e d e s i g n a n d t e s t i n g , w i t h D r F r i e d r i c h S c h w e r d o n c e a g a i n t a k i n g a h a n d . T h e n e w h e l m e t w a s p r e s s e d f r o m s h e e t s o f m o l y b d e n u m s t e e l i n s e v e r a l s t a g e s . T h e s i z e o f t h e f l a r e d v i s o r a n d s k i r t w a s r e d u c e d , a n d t h e l a r g e p r o j e c t i n g l u g s f o r t h e o b s o l e t e a r m o u r s h i e l d w e r e e l i m i n a t e d . T h e v e n t i l a t o r h o l e s w e r e r e t a i n e d b u t w e r e s e t i n s m a l l e r h o l l o w r i v e t s m o u n t e d t o t h e h e l m e t ' s s h e l l . T h e e d g e s o f t h e s h e l l w e r e r o l l e d o v e r , c r e a t i n g a s m o o t h e d g e a l o n g t h e h e l m e t . F i n a l l y , a c o m p l e t e l y n e w l e a t h e r s u s p e n s i o n , o r l i n e r , w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d t h a t g r e a t l y i m p r o v e d t h e h e l m e t ' s s a f e t y , a d j u s t a b i l i t y , a n d c o m f o r t f o r e a c h w e a r e r . T h e s e i m p r o v e m e n t s m a d e t h e n e w M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t l i g h t e r , m o r e c o m p a c t , a n d m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e t o w e a r t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s d e s i g n s . T h e A r m y ' s S u p r e m e C o m m a n d w i t h i n t h e T h i r d R e i c h ' s " W e h r m a c h t " c o m b i n e d a r m e d f o r c e s o f f i c i a l l y a c c e p t e d t h e n e w h e l m e t o n J u n e 2 5 , 1 9 3 5 a n d i t w a s i n t e n d e d t o r e p l a c e a l l o t h e r h e l m e t s i n s e r v i c e . M o r e t h a n 1 m i l l i o n M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d i n t h e f i r s t t w o y e a r s a f t e r i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n , a n d m i l l i o n s m o r e w e r e p r o d u c e d u n t i l 1 9 4 0 w h e n t h e b a s i c d e s i g n a n d p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d s w e r e c h a n g e d . I n 1 9 3 8 , t h e G e r m a n s d e v e l o p e d a v a r i a n t o f t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w i t h a w i d e r , f l a r e d p e a k a n d v e n t i l a t i o n h o l e s o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d f o r f i r e f i g h t e r s , c i v i l d e f e n s e , R e i c h s a r b e i t s d i e n s t , a n d L u f t s c h u t z p e r s o n n e l . K n o w n a s t h e g l a d i a t o r p a t t e r n , t h e p r i v a t e l y p u r c h a s e d L u f t s c h u t z h e l m e t w a s o r i g i n a l l y m a d e f r o m t h r e e p i e c e s o f s t e e l a n d t y p i c a l l y p a i n t e d b l a c k o r d a r k b l u e . L a t e r i n t h e w a r t h e s e w e r e i s s u e d t o V o l k s s t u r m p e r s o n n e l , a n d s o m e t i m e s r e p a i n t e d i n F e l d g r u n . B y 1 9 4 4 , t h e h e l m e t s w e r e s t a m p e d f r o m a s i n g l e s t e e l s h e e t , a n d t h e o r i g i n a l c l o t h l i n i n g r e p l a c e d w i t h v i n y l t o r e d u c e c o s t s . D u e t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l n u m b e r p r o d u c e d , o r i g i n a l h e l m e t s f r o m t h e w a r y e a r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d r a r e . H o w e v e r , a m o d i f i e d p o s t w a r v e r s i o n i n f l u o r e s c e n t g r e e n , w h i t e o r y e l l o w c o n t i n u e d t o b e i s s u e d t o r e s c u e w o r k e r s i n t h e B u n d e s r e p u b l i k u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s . T h e M 1 9 3 5 d e s i g n w a s s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d i n 1 9 4 0 t o s i m p l i f y i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s n o w i n c o r p o r a t i n g m o r e a u t o m a t e d s t a m p i n g m e t h o d s . T h e p r i n c i p a l c h a n g e w a s t o s t a m p t h e v e n t i l a t o r h o l e m o u n t s d i r e c t l y o n t o t h e s h e l l , r a t h e r t h a n u t i l i z i n g s e p a r a t e f i t t i n g s . I n o t h e r r e s p e c t s , t h e M 1 9 4 0 h e l m e t w a s i d e n t i c a l t o t h e M 1 9 3 5 . T h e G e r m a n s s t i l l r e f e r r e d t o t h e M 1 9 4 0 a s t h e M 1 9 3 5 , w h i l e t h e M 1 9 4 0 d e s i g n a t i o n w e r e g i v e n b y c o l l e c t o r s . A v a r i a n t o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t w i t h a s h e l l l a c k i n g t h e p r o j e c t i n g v i s o r a n d d e e p f l a r e d r i m w a s i s s u e d t o " F a l l s c h i r m j ä g e r " ( G e r m a n p a r a t r o o p e r ) u n i t s . I t w a s s o d e s i g n e d i n o r d e r t o l e s s e n t h e r i s k o f h e a d i n j u r y o n l a n d i n g a f t e r a p a r a c h u t e j u m p ; a l s o t o r e d u c e t h e s i g n i f i c a n t w i n d r e s i s t a n c e a n d r e s u l t i n g n e c k t r a u m a . E a r l y F a l l s c h i r m j ä g e r h e l m e t s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d f r o m e x i s t i n g M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s b y r e m o v i n g t h e u n d e s i r a b l e p r o j e c t i o n s , w h i c h w e r e o m i t t e d w h e n t h e n e w d e s i g n e n t e r e d f u l l p r o d u c t i o n . T h e m o d i f i e d s h e l l a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e d a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t a n d m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l l i n e r a n d c h i n s t r a p d e s i g n t h a t p r o v i d e d f a r m o r e p r o t e c t i o n f o r G e r m a n a i r b o r n e t r o o p s . T h e c h i n s t r a p f e a t u r e d a f o u r - p o i n t r e t e n t i o n s y s t e m t h a t h a s c o m e i n t o u s e a g a i n b y m o d e r n c o m b a t h e l m e t s s u c h a s t h e M I C H s i n c e t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s . T h e M 1 9 4 2 d e s i g n w a s a r e s u l t o f w a r t i m e d e m a n d s . F r o m d i r e c t o r d e r s o f t h e F ü h r e r , t o ‘ m a i n t a i n i n t i m i d a t i o n b u t r e d u c e c o s t ’ . T h e r o l l e d e d g e o n t h e s h e l l w a s e l i m i n a t e d , c r e a t i n g a n u n f i n i s h e d e d g e a l o n g t h e r i m . T h i s e d g e s l i g h t l y f l a r e d o u t , a l o n g t h e b a s e o f t h e s k i r t , r e d u c i n g t h e p r o t e c t i o n t h e h e l m e t g a v e . T h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e r o l l e d e d g e e x p e d i t e d t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s a n d r e d u c e d t h e a m o u n t o f m e t a l u s e d i n e a c h h e l m e t . S h e l l p a i n t c o l o u r s w e r e t y p i c a l l y m a t t e g r e y - g r e e n ( H e e r ) o r g r e y - b l u e ( L u f t w a f f e ) , a n d t h e d e c a l s w e r e e l i m i n a t e d i n 1 9 4 3 t o s p e e d u p p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e d u c e t h e h e l m e t ' s c o m b a t v i s i b i l i t y . G r e a t e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g f l a w s w e r e a l s o o b s e r v e d i n M 1 9 4 2 h e l m e t s m a d e l a t e i n t h e w a r . A s i m p l e r v a r i a n t , d e s i g n e d i n 1 9 4 2 b y t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r D e f e n c e T e c h n i c a l M a t e r i a l s S c i e n c e i n B e r l i n , w a s a l s o s t a m p e d o u t o f o n e p i e c e o f m e t a l , b u t w i t h s l o p e d s i d e s . I t w a s s i m i l a r i n a p p e a r a n c e t o t h e B r i t i s h 1 9 4 4 T y p e M k I I I h e l m e t . T h e r e h a v e b e e n r e p o r t s o f a v a r i a n t m a n u f a c t u r e d i n t h e l a s t m o n t h s o f t h e w a r . T h e M 1 9 4 5 w a s r e p o r t e d t o h a v e b e e n s i m i l a r t o t h e M 1 9 4 2 d e s i g n b u t d i d a w a y c o m p l e t e l y w i t h t h e v e n t i l a t o r . T h e s e h e l m e t s a r e r e p o r t e d t o b e e x t r e m e l y r a r e . M a n y c o l l e c t o r s a n d h i s t o r i a n s a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e M 1 9 4 5 h e l m e t i s j u s t a r e g u l a r M 1 9 4 2 h e l m e t t h a t l a c k e d t h e v e n t s s i m p l y b e c a u s e o f m a c h i n e m a l f u n c t i o n s i n t h e f a c t o r y , o r u n f i n i s h e d M 1 9 4 2 t h a t w e r e c o m p l e t e d i n t h e p o s t - w a r e r a . A v a r i a n t o f t h e M 1 9 4 4 w i t h a m o d i f i e d s u s p e n s i o n s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d f u r t h e r i n t o t h e M 1 9 5 6 . T h e E a s t G e r m a n M - 5 6 h e l m e t w a s o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d i n 1 9 4 2 a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e M 1 9 3 5 / M 1 9 4 0 m o d e l " S t a h l h e l m " . I t w a s i n i t i a l l y d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e W e h r m a c h t b y t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r D e f e n s e T e c h n i c a l M a t e r i a l s S c i e n c e i n B e r l i n ( s e e " M 1 9 4 4 " a b o v e ) . T h e h e l m e t h a d s e e n t r i a l s s i n c e 1 9 4 3 b u t w a s n o t a d o p t e d d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I . T h e d e s i g n w a s n o t u s e d u n t i l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a d i s t i n c t G e r m a n h e l m e t f o r t h e V o l k s p o l i z e i a n d t h e N a t i o n a l P e o p l e ' s A r m y a r o s e . T h e E a s t G e r m a n l e a d e r s h i p w a s m o t i v a t e d i n l a r g e p a r t b y a d e s i r e t o a v o i d p r o v o k i n g t h e o f f e n c e t h a t u s i n g a t r a d i t i o n a l " S t a h l h e l m " d e s i g n w o u l d h a v e c a u s e d E a s t G e r m a n y ' s W a r s a w P a c t a l l i e s ( e s p e c i a l l y C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , P o l a n d a n d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ) , b u t a m o r e p r a c t i c a l m i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y w a s a l s o p r e s e n t d u e t o t h e c o n t i n u e d u s e o f s u r p l u s " S t a h l h e l m e n " b y W e s t G e r m a n u n i t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r b o r d e r g u a r d s . M o r e o v e r , t h e E a s t G e r m a n s s u s p e c t e d t h e W e s t c o u l d r e - i s s u e t h e " S t a h l h e l m " o n a g e n e r a l b a s i s i n t h e B u n d e s w e h r a t a n y t i m e a n d t h e r e f o r e n e e d e d a h e l m e t t h a t w a s e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h a t o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a l e n e m y . F o r b o t h r e a s o n s , t h e 1 9 4 2 d e s i g n w a s l i k e l y c h o s e n b e c a u s e i t w a s t h e m o s t s i m i l a r o f a l l G e r m a n d e s i g n s t o t h e m o s t r e c o g n i z a b l e S o v i e t h e l m e t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e i c o n i c S S h - 4 0 d e s i g n . S u c h a d e s i g n n o t o n l y s e r v e d a p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e b u t w a s o n e t h a t N A T O a r m i e s w e r e u n l i k e l y t o c l o s e l y d u p l i c a t e . I n d e e d , t h e M - 5 6 w a s s i m i l a r e n o u g h i n a p p e a r a n c e t o t h e S S h - 4 0 t h a t s o m e W e s t e r n e r s f a i l e d t o r e a l i z e i t s G e r m a n o r i g i n s a l t o g e t h e r a n d a s s u m e d t h e E a s t G e r m a n s h a d a d o p t e d a S o v i e t d e s i g n . T h e M - 5 6 h e l m e t c a m e i n t h r e e b a s i c v e r s i o n s , M o d 1 o r I / 5 6 , M o d 2 o r I / 5 7 a n d M o d 3 o r I / 7 1 , a n d w a s w i d e l y s o l d ( o r g i v e n ) t o T h i r d W o r l d a r m i e s . T h e W e s t G e r m a n M - 5 6 " S t a h l h e l m " w a s a d i r e c t c o p y o f t h e U . S . M 1 h e l m e t . I t w a s p r o p e r l y c a l l e d " z w e i t e i l i g e r " S t a h l h e l m " " ( t w o - p i e c e s t e e l h e l m e t ) . I n 1 9 5 8 t h e h e l m e t w a s m a d e a s a o n e - p i e c e h e l m e t a n d r e n a m e d " S t a h l h e l m " M 1 A 1 . T h e M 1 A 1 c a m e i n t h r e e s i z e s : 6 6 , 6 8 , a n d 7 1 . T h i s h e l m e t w a s u s e d u n t i l 1 9 8 1 w h e n a m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n w a s r e l e a s e d a n d r e n a m e d t h e H e l m 1 A 1 . M o d i f i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e d a 3 - p o i n t c h i n s t r a p w i t h t h e t h i r d p o i n t c o n n e c t i n g a t t h e n a p e , e x t r a - l a r g e s i z e s , a n d a f u r t h e r a d j u s t a b l e l i n e r . T h e M 1 A 1 " S t a h l h e l m " r e m a i n e d i n s e r v i c e u n t i l 1 9 9 2 w h e n t h e B u n d e s w e h r r e p l a c e d i t w i t h a P A S G T - d e r i v e d k e v l a r h e l m e t c a l l e d t h e " G e f e c h t s h e l m " ( " C o m b a t h e l m e t " ) . A f t e r " S t a h l h e l m " s h e l l s w e r e p a i n t e d , t h e c o l o u r s o f w h i c h v a r i e d b y o r g a n i z a t i o n , s m a l l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o r i n s i g n i a d e c a l s u s u a l l y w e r e a f f i x e d t o o n e o r b o t h s i d e s o f t h e h e l m e t . A l m o s t e v e r y m i l i t a r y , n a v a l , a n d p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n h a d i t s o w n d i s t i n c t i v e i n s i g n i a , w h i c h w a s a p p l i e d a s d e c a l s t o t h e s i d e s o f h e l m e t s . T h e r i g h t s i d e o f e a r l y M 3 5 h e l m e t s b o r e t h e t r i c o l o r e d s h i e l d o f b l a c k , w h i t e , a n d r e d s t r i p e s , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i o n a l c o l o r s o f t h e p r e - W W I G e r m a n E m p i r e ( c f . t h e b l a c k , r e d , a n d g o l d o f t o d a y ' s F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f G e r m a n y , h a r k i n g b a c k t o t h e 1 8 4 8 R e v o l t ) . T h e l e f t s i d e o f t h e s h e l l o f t e n r e c e i v e d d e c a l i n s i g n i a d e n o t i n g t h e b r a n c h o f t h e a r m e d f o r c e s , o r " W e h r m a c h t " , o r a n o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h i n t h e N a z i P a r t y . T h e c o m b i n e d " W e h r m a c h t " m i l i t a r y f o r c e s o f N a z i G e r m a n y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e " H e e r " ( a r m y ) , t h e " K r i e g s m a r i n e " ( n a v y ) , a n d t h e " L u f t w a f f e " ( a i r f o r c e ) . W h i l e n o t t e c h n i c a l l y p a r t o f t h e W e h r m a c h t , t h e " W a f f e n - S S " ( " A r m e d - S S " ) t a c t i c a l l y o p e r a t e d a s s u c h a n d w a s c o n s i d e r e d p a r t o f G e r m a n y ' s a r m e d f o r c e s d u r i n g t h e w a r . T h e s a m e w a s t r u e o f s o m e " S t u r m a b t e i l u n g " ( S A ) u n i t s , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r s u b s i d i a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s , w h i c h f u n c t i o n e d a s p a r t o f t h e a r m e d f o r c e s p a r t i c u l a r l y t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e w a r . W e h r m a c h t b r a n c h e s t y p i c a l l y d i s p l a y e d d i s t i n c t i v e e m b l e m s i n t h e f o r m o f d e c a l s o n t h e i r h e l m e t s . T h e H e e r , o r a r m y , d i s p l a y e d a b l a c k s h i e l d b e a r i n g t h e f r o n t a l v i e w o f a s i l v e r - c o l o u r e d G e r m a n e a g l e h o l d i n g a s w a s t i k a i n i t s t a l o n s ( k n o w n a s t h e " R e i c h s a d l e r " ) , w h i l e t h e n a v y u s e d t h e s a m e e a g l e e m b l e m i n g o l d . L u f t w a f f e d e c a l s d i s p l a y e d t h e s i d e v i e w o f a n e a g l e i n f l i g h t , a l s o h o l d i n g a s w a s t i k a . T h e S S w a s b o t h a p a r a m i l i t a r y a n d a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d i t s b l a c k r u n i c i n i t i a l s o n a s i l v e r - c o l o u r e d s h i e l d ( n o r m a l l y a p p l i e d t o t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e s h e l l ) l o o k e d l i k e t w i n l i g h t n i n g b o l t s . O t h e r m i l i t a r y , p o l i t i c a l , a n d c i v i l o r d e f e n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s u s e d s i m i l a r d e c a l i n s i g n i a t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e i r h e l m e t s . S u c h v i s i b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d e v i c e s w e r e g r a d u a l l y a b a n d o n e d a s t h e w a r p r o g r e s s e d , h o w e v e r , s o t h a t b y w a r ' s e n d m o s t W e h r m a c h t h e l m e t i n s i g n i a h a d b e e n e l i m i n a t e d t o r e d u c e t h e w e a r e r ' s v i s i b i l i t y i n c o m b a t . F o r t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t A r m y s o l d i e r s , t h e i r M 3 5 h e l m e t s w e r e s t e n c i l l e d w i t h t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t I n s i g n i a o n t h e l e f t s i d e . B o l i v i a n A r m y p e r s o n n e l c a r r y t h e n a t i o n a l f l a g d e c a l o n t h e i r S t a h l h e l m s w h e n i n t h e f u l l d r e s s . T h e G e r m a n a r m y " S t a h l h e l m " , a s w e l l a s t h e J a p a n e s e " K a b u t o " , s e r v e d a s a t e m p l a t e f o r t h e f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r ' s D a r t h V a d e r o u t f i t i n t h e S t a r W a r s f r a n c h i s e . M e m b e r s o f t h e W o l f B r i g a d e , a f i c t i o n a l J a p a n e s e u n i t i n t h e a n i m e J i n - R o h : T h e W o l f B r i g a d e a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h " S t a h l h e l m e " , a s w e l l a s W e h r m a c h t w e a p o n s o f t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , i n c l u d i n g S t G 4 4 s a n d M G 4 2 s .

History ; "Stahlhelm" use in other countries

The Stahlhelm, a symbol of German military might, transcended national borders, influencing helmet designs globally. Its iconic shape was adopted by various countries, including China, Spain, Bolivia, Hungary, Ireland, Argentina, and Yugoslavia. Even today, modified versions of the Stahlhelm continue to be used in ceremonial contexts, while its legacy can be seen in modern helmet designs around the world.

one piece. Like the British and French, German troops identified highly with their helmets, as it became a popular symbol of paramilitary groups after the First World War. Such was the attachment of the World War One generation to the design that it was reportedly the reason that Hitler rejected a modernised, sloping helmet design to replace it. Germany exported versions of the M1935 helmet to various countries. Versions of the M1935 "Stahlhelm" were sent to Republic of China from 1935 to 1936 and the M1935 was the main helmet of the Chinese Nationalist Army (especially the "central" divisions) during World War II. Spain also received shipments of the helmet. During the inter-war years, several military missions were sent to South America under the command of Hans Kundt, after Chaco War the Bolivian army used to wear the helmet up until recently. The exported M1935 helmets were similar to the German issue, except for a different liner. Some countries manufactured their own helmets using the M1935 design, and this basic design was in use in various nations as late as the 1970s. The Germans allowed and assisted the Hungarians in copying their design of the M1935 steel helmet. Therefore, the WWII-produced M38 Hungarian steel helmet is nearly identical to the German M1935. Both have almost the same shape, riveted ventilation holes, and the classic rolled edge. Differences include somewhat rougher Hungarian finishing, a different liner and different rivets position – the split pins are situated behind the ventilation holes. A square metal bracket is riveted on 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade, which used them during the Polish Defensive War. During the time of the Warsaw Uprising the helmet was also worn by the members of the Polish Home Army and it was during this time that the helmet became the symbol of the resistance, as every "Stahlhelm" worn by a soldier of the underground army signified a dead German occupier it was taken from. In November 1926, the Irish Defence Forces decided upon adopting the German "Stahlhelm". However, when the Irish government contacted the German Foreign Office with a request for a sample they were informed that Germany was barred from exporting steel helmets by the Treaty of Versailles. The Irish then turned to London based Vickers, ordering 5,000 copies of a model closely resembling plastic models started, which are still in ceremonial & garrison use today. Small runs of steel helmets were made by FAMAE in the 80's, but ultimately were not adopted due to the ascendance of kevlar and synthetic ballistic fiber helmets by that time. A "Stahlhelm" with crossed bayonets and the corresponding number is the standard insignia of infantry regiments. The Argentine Army adopted a similar model, made of pressed fibre, during World War II, reflecting the traditional sympathy towards Germany found in many of the officers. For combat and provincial police use, imported Swiss M1918 Helmets were still in service as late as 1976. In the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, due to large quantities captured by World War II Partisans, the "Stahlhelm" was used in Yugoslav People's Army up to 1959, when it was phased out and replaced by the M59/85 steel helmet. After World War II, West Germany's Bundesgrenzschutz border guards and some West German police units kept the "Stahlhelm" in their inventories (police units can be seen wearing them during footage of the Black September hostage crisis in 1972), and the Fallschirmjäger variant was used for some time by the GSG 9. With the re-armament of West Germany the Bundeswehr introduced the United States Army M1 Helmet which was replaced by a Kevlar helmet ("Gefechtshelm"), similar to the modern US helmets, in the 1990s. German firefighter units today still use "Stahlhelm"-shaped helmets in a fluorescent colour. East Germany's National People's Army M-56 helmet was modelled on an unused 1942 German design with a more conical shape. The Chilean Army still uses the "Stahlhelm" design for ceremonial purposes, as well as the Bolivian Army. There are also some Japanese bicycle helmets (with accompanying goggles) that resemble the "Stahlhelm". Many schools and universities in Mexico such as the Autonomous University of Baja California have military bands that use or resemble the M35 "Stahlhelm". The U.S. Army's 1980s and 1990s era Kevlar Personnel Armor System for Ground Troops Helmet was sometimes called the "Fritz helmet" for its resemblance to the "Stahlhelm". The U.S. Army and Marines have continued to use a design akin to the PASGT helmet with the MICH TC-2000 Combat Helmet and Lightweight Helmet, respectively. The Chinese People's Liberation Army soldiers still used M1935 helmets which were captured from the Chinese Nationalist Army during the Chinese Civil War until the 1970s. Since 2012, El Salvador's Policia Nacional Civil use a navy/indigo blue-coloured helmet that strongly resembles the "Stahlhelm"; this helmet is used by some members of the riot-control unit and rarely used by the Police's assault teams. The different "Stahlhelm" designs are named for their year of introduction. For example, the "Modell 1942" which was introduced in 1942 is commonly known as "M1942" or simply "M42". Here, they are referred to by their M19"XX" names. The "Stahlhelm" was introduced into regular service during the Verdun campaign in early 1916. The M1916 design had side-mounted horn-like ventilator lugs which were intended to be support for an additional steel brow plate or "Stirnpanzer", which only ever saw limited use by snipers and German helmet for the Volkspolizei and the National People's Army arose. The East German leadership was motivated in large part by a desire to avoid provoking the offence that using a traditional "Stahlhelm" design would have caused East Germany's Warsaw Pact allies (especially Czechoslovakia, Poland and the Soviet Union), but a more practical military necessity was also present due to the continued use of surplus "Stahlhelmen" by West German units, in particular border guards. Moreover, the East Germans suspected the West could re-issue the "Stahlhelm" on a general basis in the Bundeswehr at any time and therefore needed a helmet that was easily distinguishable from that of their potential enemy. For both reasons, the 1942 design was likely chosen because it was the most similar of all German

Stahlhelm

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f W o r l d W a r I , n o n e o f t h e c o m b a t a n t s w e r e i s s u e d w i t h a n y f o r m o f p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e h e a d o t h e r t h a n c l o t h a n d l e a t h e r c a p s , d e s i g n e d a t m o s t t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t s a b r e c u t s . W h e n t r e n c h w a r f a r e b e g a n , t h e n u m b e r o f c a s u a l t i e s o n a l l s i d e s s u f f e r i n g f r o m s e v e r e h e a d w o u n d s ( m o r e o f t e n c a u s e d b y s h r a p n e l b u l l e t s o r s h e l l f r a g m e n t s t h a n b y g u n f i r e ) i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y , s i n c e t h e h e a d w a s t y p i c a l l y t h e m o s t e x p o s e d p a r t o f t h e b o d y w h e n i n a t r e n c h . T h e F r e n c h w e r e t h e f i r s t t o s e e a n e e d f o r m o r e p r o t e c t i o n — i n m i d - 1 9 1 5 t h e y b e g a n t o i s s u e A d r i a n h e l m e t s t o t h e i r t r o o p s . T h e B r i t i s h a n d C o m m o n w e a l t h t r o o p s f o l l o w e d w i t h t h e B r o d i e h e l m e t ( a d e v e l o p m e n t o f w h i c h w a s a l s o l a t e r w o r n b y U S f o r c e s ) a n d t h e G e r m a n s w i t h t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . A s t h e G e r m a n a r m y b e h a v e d h e s i t a n t l y i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n e f f e c t i v e h e a d p r o t e c t i o n , s o m e u n i t s d e v e l o p e d p r o v i s i o n a l h e l m e t s i n 1 9 1 5 . S t a t i o n e d i n t h e r o c k y a r e a o f t h e V o s g e s t h e A r m y D e t a c h m e n t " G a e d e " r e c o r d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e h e a d i n j u r i e s c a u s e d b y s t o n e a n d s h e l l s p l i n t e r s t h a n d i d t r o o p s i n o t h e r s e c t o r s o f t h e f r o n t . T h e a r t i l l e r y w o r k s h o p o f t h e A r m y D e t a c h m e n t d e v e l o p e d a h e l m e t t h a t c o n s i s t e d o f a l e a t h e r c a p w i t h a s t e e l p l a t e ( 6   m m t h i c k n e s s ) . T h e p l a t e p r o t e c t e d n o t o n l y t h e f o r e h e a d b u t a l s o t h e e y e s a n d n o s e . T h e h e l m e t w a s q u i t e d e e p r e l a t i v e t o t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s t e e l ; o n e A m e r i c a n c o m p a n y t h a t t r i e d t o p r e s s s i m i l a r t h i c k n e s s s t e e l i n t o t h e s h a p e o f t h e m u c h s h a l l o w e r B r o d i e h e l m e t w a s u n a b l e t o d o s o . T h e h e l m e t w a s b u l l e t - r e s i s t a n t t o p i s t o l r o u n d s s u c h a s 9 m m L u g e r a n d 4 5 A C P t h a t w o u l d o n l y d e n t t h e s u r f a c e . T h e d e s i g n o f t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s c a r r i e d o u t b y D r F r i e d r i c h S c h w e r d o f t h e T e c h n i c a l I n s t i t u t e o f H a n o v e r . I n e a r l y 1 9 1 5 , S c h w e r d h a d c a r r i e d o u t a s t u d y o f h e a d w o u n d s s u f f e r e d d u r i n g t r e n c h w a r f a r e a n d s u b m i t t e d a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n f o r s t e e l h e l m e t s , s h o r t l y a f t e r w h i c h h e w a s o r d e r e d t o B e r l i n . S c h w e r d t h e n u n d e r t o o k t h e t a s k o f d e s i g n i n g a n d p r o d u c i n g a s u i t a b l e h e l m e t , b r o a d l y b a s e d o n t h e 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y s a l l e t , w h i c h p r o v i d e d g o o d p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e h e a d a n d n e c k . A f t e r l e n g t h y d e v e l o p m e n t w o r k , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t e s t i n g a s e l e c t i o n o f G e r m a n a n d A l l i e d h e a d g e a r , t h e f i r s t " s t a h l h e l m " w e r e t e s t e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 5 a t t h e K u m m e r s d o r f P r o v i n g G r o u n d a n d t h e n f i e l d - t e s t e d b y t h e 1 s t A s s a u l t B a t t a l i o n . T h i r t y t h o u s a n d e x a m p l e s w e r e o r d e r e d , b u t i t w a s n o t a p p r o v e d f o r g e n e r a l i s s u e u n t i l N e w Y e a r o f 1 9 1 6 , h e n c e i t i s m o s t u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e " M o d e l 1 9 1 6 " . I n F e b r u a r y 1 9 1 6 i t w a s d i s t r i b u t e d t o t r o o p s a t V e r d u n , f o l l o w i n g w h i c h t h e i n c i d e n c e o f s e r i o u s h e a d i n j u r i e s f e l l d r a m a t i c a l l y . T h e f i r s t G e r m a n t r o o p s t o u s e t h i s h e l m e t w e r e t h e s t o r m t r o o p e r s o f t h e " S t u r m - B a t a i l l o n N r . 5 ( R o h r ) " , w h i c h w a s c o m m a n d e d b y c a p t a i n W i l l y R o h r . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e H a d f i e l d s t e e l u s e d i n t h e B r i t i s h B r o d i e h e l m e t , t h e G e r m a n s u s e d a h a r d e r m a r t e n s i t i c s i l i c o n / n i c k e l s t e e l . A s a r e s u l t , a n d a l s o d u e t o t h e h e l m e t ' s f o r m , t h e " S t a h l h e l m " h a d t o b e f o r m e d i n h e a t e d d i e s a t a g r e a t e r u n i t c o s t t h a n t h e B r i t i s h h e l m e t , w h i c h c o u l d b e f o r m e d i n o n e p i e c e . L i k e t h e B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h , G e r m a n t r o o p s i d e n t i f i e d h i g h l y w i t h t h e i r h e l m e t s , a s i t b e c a m e a p o p u l a r s y m b o l o f p a r a m i l i t a r y g r o u p s a f t e r t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r . S u c h w a s t h e a t t a c h m e n t o f t h e W o r l d W a r O n e g e n e r a t i o n t o t h e d e s i g n t h a t i t w a s r e p o r t e d l y t h e r e a s o n t h a t H i t l e r r e j e c t e d a m o d e r n i s e d , s l o p i n g h e l m e t d e s i g n t o r e p l a c e i t . G e r m a n y e x p o r t e d v e r s i o n s o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s . V e r s i o n s o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 " S t a h l h e l m " w e r e s e n t t o R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a f r o m 1 9 3 5 t o 1 9 3 6 a n d t h e M 1 9 3 5 w a s t h e m a i n h e l m e t o f t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t A r m y ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e " c e n t r a l " d i v i s i o n s ) d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I . S p a i n a l s o r e c e i v e d s h i p m e n t s o f t h e h e l m e t . D u r i n g t h e i n t e r - w a r y e a r s , s e v e r a l m i l i t a r y m i s s i o n s w e r e s e n t t o S o u t h A m e r i c a u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f H a n s K u n d t , a f t e r C h a c o W a r t h e B o l i v i a n a r m y u s e d t o w e a r t h e h e l m e t u p u n t i l r e c e n t l y . T h e e x p o r t e d M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s w e r e s i m i l a r t o t h e G e r m a n i s s u e , e x c e p t f o r a d i f f e r e n t l i n e r . S o m e c o u n t r i e s m a n u f a c t u r e d t h e i r o w n h e l m e t s u s i n g t h e M 1 9 3 5 d e s i g n , a n d t h i s b a s i c d e s i g n w a s i n u s e i n v a r i o u s n a t i o n s a s l a t e a s t h e 1 9 7 0 s . T h e G e r m a n s a l l o w e d a n d a s s i s t e d t h e H u n g a r i a n s i n c o p y i n g t h e i r d e s i g n o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 s t e e l h e l m e t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e W W I I - p r o d u c e d M 3 8 H u n g a r i a n s t e e l h e l m e t i s n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h e G e r m a n M 1 9 3 5 . B o t h h a v e a l m o s t t h e s a m e s h a p e , r i v e t e d v e n t i l a t i o n h o l e s , a n d t h e c l a s s i c r o l l e d e d g e . D i f f e r e n c e s i n c l u d e s o m e w h a t r o u g h e r H u n g a r i a n f i n i s h i n g , a d i f f e r e n t l i n e r a n d d i f f e r e n t r i v e t s p o s i t i o n – t h e s p l i t p i n s a r e s i t u a t e d b e h i n d t h e v e n t i l a t i o n h o l e s . A s q u a r e m e t a l b r a c k e t i s r i v e t e d o n t h e r e a r , a b o v e t h e b a c k b r i m ; u s e d t o s e c u r e t h e h e l m e t t o t h e k n a p s a c k w h i l e m a r c h i n g . I t w a s t y p i c a l l y p a i n t e d i n H u n g a r i a n b r o w n - g r e e n , a l b e i t b l u e - g r e y v e r s i o n s e x i s t e d . I t i s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " F i n n i s h M 3 5 " d u e t o i t s e x t e n s i v e u s e b y t h e F i n n i s h A r m y d u r i n g t h e C o n t i n u a t i o n W a r 1 9 4 1 – 4 4 . A f t e r t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I P o l a n d s e i z e d l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t s . M o s t o f t h o s e w e r e l a t e r s o l d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g S p a i n . H o w e v e r , a t t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 3 0 s , i t w a s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d P o l i s h w z . 3 1 h e l m e t w a s u n s u i t a b l e f o r t a n k t r o o p s a n d m o t o r i z e d u n i t s ; w h i l e o f f e r i n g d e c e n t p r o t e c t i o n , i t w a s t o o l a r g e a n d h e a v y . A s a s t o p - g a p m e a s u r e b e f o r e a n e w h e l m e t w a s d e v e l o p e d , t h e G e n e r a l S t a f f d e c i d e d t o i s s u e M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t s t o t h e 1 0 t h M o t o r i z e d C a v a l r y B r i g a d e , w h i c h u s e d t h e m d u r i n g t h e P o l i s h D e f e n s i v e W a r . D u r i n g t h e t i m e o f t h e W a r s a w U p r i s i n g t h e h e l m e t w a s a l s o w o r n b y t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e P o l i s h H o m e A r m y a n d i t w a s d u r i n g t h i s t i m e t h a t t h e h e l m e t b e c a m e t h e s y m b o l o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e , a s e v e r y " S t a h l h e l m " w o r n b y a s o l d i e r o f t h e u n d e r g r o u n d a r m y s i g n i f i e d a d e a d G e r m a n o c c u p i e r i t w a s t a k e n f r o m . I n N o v e m b e r 1 9 2 6 , t h e I r i s h D e f e n c e F o r c e s d e c i d e d u p o n a d o p t i n g t h e G e r m a n " S t a h l h e l m " . H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e I r i s h g o v e r n m e n t c o n t a c t e d t h e G e r m a n F o r e i g n O f f i c e w i t h a r e q u e s t f o r a s a m p l e t h e y w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t G e r m a n y w a s b a r r e d f r o m e x p o r t i n g s t e e l h e l m e t s b y t h e T r e a t y o f V e r s a i l l e s . T h e I r i s h t h e n t u r n e d t o L o n d o n b a s e d V i c k e r s , o r d e r i n g 5 , 0 0 0 c o p i e s o f a m o d e l c l o s e l y r e s e m b l i n g t h e M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t . T h e h e l m e t r e m a i n e d i n u s e u n t i l i t w a s r e p l a c e d b y t h e B r i t i s h M a r k I I m o d e l i n 1 9 4 0 . F o l l o w i n g t h e o u t b r e a k o f W o r l d W a r I I , t h e h e l m e t s b e c a m e t h e s u b j e c t o f a n t i - I r i s h p r o p a g a n d a o r i g i n a t i n g i n B r i t a i n . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f t h e w i t h d r a w n h e l m e t s w e r e r e i s s u e d t o v a r i o u s e m e r g e n c y s e r v i c e s a f t e r b e i n g p a i n t e d w h i t e . S w i t z e r l a n d u s e d a h e l m e t , d e s i g n a t e d t h e M 1 9 1 8 , t h a t w a s r o u g h l y s i m i l a r t o t h e M 1 9 1 6 b u t h a d a s h a l l o w e r , w i d e r a n d m o r e r o u n d e d c r o w n a n d s k i r t . T h i s w a s t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t t h e h a r s h w i n t e r w i n d s o f t h e a l p i n e r e g i o n s . T h e C h i l e a n A r m y w a s a p r o l i f i c u s e r o f t h e V u l k a n f i b e r m o d e l s , b o u g h t b e f o r e t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , a l o n g w i t h a f e w M 1 9 3 5 a n d C z e c h o s l o v a k M 3 2 h e l m e t s . A f t e r t h e w a r , l o c a l p r o d u c t i o n o f l i g h t w e i g h t f i b e r a n d p l a s t i c m o d e l s s t a r t e d , w h i c h a r e s t i l l i n c e r e m o n i a l & g a r r i s o n u s e t o d a y . S m a l l r u n s o f s t e e l h e l m e t s w e r e m a d e b y F A M A E i n t h e 8 0 ' s , b u t u l t i m a t e l y w e r e n o t a d o p t e d d u e t o t h e a s c e n d a n c e o f k e v l a r a n d s y n t h e t i c b a l l i s t i c f i b e r h e l m e t s b y t h a t t i m e . A " S t a h l h e l m " w i t h c r o s s e d b a y o n e t s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g n u m b e r i s t h e s t a n d a r d i n s i g n i a o f i n f a n t r y r e g i m e n t s . T h e A r g e n t i n e A r m y a d o p t e d a s i m i l a r m o d e l , m a d e o f p r e s s e d f i b r e , d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I , r e f l e c t i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s y m p a t h y t o w a r d s G e r m a n y f o u n d i n m a n y o f t h e o f f i c e r s . F o r c o m b a t a n d p r o v i n c i a l p o l i c e u s e , i m p o r t e d S w i s s M 1 9 1 8 H e l m e t s w e r e s t i l l i n s e r v i c e a s l a t e a s 1 9 7 6 . I n t h e S o c i a l i s t F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f Y u g o s l a v i a , d u e t o l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s c a p t u r e d b y W o r l d W a r I I P a r t i s a n s , t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s u s e d i n Y u g o s l a v P e o p l e ' s A r m y u p t o 1 9 5 9 , w h e n i t w a s p h a s e d o u t a n d r e p l a c e d b y t h e M 5 9 / 8 5 s t e e l h e l m e t . A f t e r W o r l d W a r I I , W e s t G e r m a n y ' s B u n d e s g r e n z s c h u t z b o r d e r g u a r d s a n d s o m e W e s t G e r m a n p o l i c e u n i t s k e p t t h e " S t a h l h e l m " i n t h e i r i n v e n t o r i e s ( p o l i c e u n i t s c a n b e s e e n w e a r i n g t h e m d u r i n g f o o t a g e o f t h e B l a c k S e p t e m b e r h o s t a g e c r i s i s i n 1 9 7 2 ) , a n d t h e F a l l s c h i r m j ä g e r v a r i a n t w a s u s e d f o r s o m e t i m e b y t h e G S G 9 . W i t h t h e r e - a r m a m e n t o f W e s t G e r m a n y t h e B u n d e s w e h r i n t r o d u c e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s A r m y M 1 H e l m e t w h i c h w a s r e p l a c e d b y a K e v l a r h e l m e t ( " G e f e c h t s h e l m " ) , s i m i l a r t o t h e m o d e r n U S h e l m e t s , i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s . G e r m a n f i r e f i g h t e r u n i t s t o d a y s t i l l u s e " S t a h l h e l m " - s h a p e d h e l m e t s i n a f l u o r e s c e n t c o l o u r . E a s t G e r m a n y ' s N a t i o n a l P e o p l e ' s A r m y M - 5 6 h e l m e t w a s m o d e l l e d o n a n u n u s e d 1 9 4 2 G e r m a n d e s i g n w i t h a m o r e c o n i c a l s h a p e . T h e C h i l e a n A r m y s t i l l u s e s t h e " S t a h l h e l m " d e s i g n f o r c e r e m o n i a l p u r p o s e s , a s w e l l a s t h e B o l i v i a n A r m y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e J a p a n e s e b i c y c l e h e l m e t s ( w i t h a c c o m p a n y i n g g o g g l e s ) t h a t r e s e m b l e t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . M a n y s c h o o l s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s i n M e x i c o s u c h a s t h e A u t o n o m o u s U n i v e r s i t y o f B a j a C a l i f o r n i a h a v e m i l i t a r y b a n d s t h a t u s e o r r e s e m b l e t h e M 3 5 " S t a h l h e l m " . T h e U . S . A r m y ' s 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s e r a K e v l a r P e r s o n n e l A r m o r S y s t e m f o r G r o u n d T r o o p s H e l m e t w a s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " F r i t z h e l m e t " f o r i t s r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . T h e U . S . A r m y a n d M a r i n e s h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o u s e a d e s i g n a k i n t o t h e P A S G T h e l m e t w i t h t h e M I C H T C - 2 0 0 0 C o m b a t H e l m e t a n d L i g h t w e i g h t H e l m e t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e C h i n e s e P e o p l e ' s L i b e r a t i o n A r m y s o l d i e r s s t i l l u s e d M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s w h i c h w e r e c a p t u r e d f r o m t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t A r m y d u r i n g t h e C h i n e s e C i v i l W a r u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 0 s . S i n c e 2 0 1 2 , E l S a l v a d o r ' s P o l i c i a N a c i o n a l C i v i l u s e a n a v y / i n d i g o b l u e - c o l o u r e d h e l m e t t h a t s t r o n g l y r e s e m b l e s t h e " S t a h l h e l m " ; t h i s h e l m e t i s u s e d b y s o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e r i o t - c o n t r o l u n i t a n d r a r e l y u s e d b y t h e P o l i c e ' s a s s a u l t t e a m s . T h e d i f f e r e n t " S t a h l h e l m " d e s i g n s a r e n a m e d f o r t h e i r y e a r o f i n t r o d u c t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e " M o d e l l 1 9 4 2 " w h i c h w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n 1 9 4 2 i s c o m m o n l y k n o w n a s " M 1 9 4 2 " o r s i m p l y " M 4 2 " . H e r e , t h e y a r e r e f e r r e d t o b y t h e i r M 1 9 " X X " n a m e s . T h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o r e g u l a r s e r v i c e d u r i n g t h e V e r d u n c a m p a i g n i n e a r l y 1 9 1 6 . T h e M 1 9 1 6 d e s i g n h a d s i d e - m o u n t e d h o r n - l i k e v e n t i l a t o r l u g s w h i c h w e r e i n t e n d e d t o b e s u p p o r t f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l s t e e l b r o w p l a t e o r " S t i r n p a n z e r " , w h i c h o n l y e v e r s a w l i m i t e d u s e b y s n i p e r s a n d t r e n c h r a i d i n g p a r t i e s , a s i t w a s t o o h e a v y f o r g e n e r a l u s e . T h e s h e l l c a m e i n d i f f e r e n t s i z e s , f r o m 6 0 t o 6 8 , w i t h s o m e s i z e 7 0 s r e p o r t e d . H e l m e t w e i g h t v a r i e d f r o m 0 . 9 8   k g t o 1 . 4   k g , d e p e n d i n g o n s h e l l s i z e . T h e s u s p e n s i o n , o r l i n e r , c o n s i s t e d o f a h e a d b a n d w i t h t h r e e s e g m e n t e d l e a t h e r p o u c h e s , e a c h h o l d i n g p a d d i n g m a t e r i a l s , a n d l e a t h e r o r f a b r i c c o r d s c o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t o p r o v i d e a c o m f o r t a b l e f i t . T h e o n e - p i e c e l e a t h e r c h i n s t r a p w a s a t t a c h e d t o t h e s h e l l b y M 1 8 9 1 c h i n s t r a p l u g s , t h e s a m e k i n d u s e d i n t h e P i c k e l h a u b e h e l m e t . T h e M 1 9 1 6 d e s i g n p r o v i d e d e x c e l l e n t p r o t e c t i o n : R e s e r v e L i e u t e n a n t W a l t e r S c h u l z e o f 8 t h C o m p a n y R e s e r v e I n f a n t r y R e g i m e n t 7 6 d e s c r i b e d h i s c o m b a t i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e h e l m e t o n t h e S o m m e , 2 9 J u l y 1 9 1 6 : . . . s u d d e n l y , w i t h a g r e a t c l a n g i n g t h u d , I w a s h i t o n t h e f o r e h e a d a n d k n o c k e d f l y i n g o n t o t h e f l o o r o f t h e t r e n c h . . . a s h r a p n e l b u l l e t h a d h i t m y h e l m e t w i t h g r e a t v i o l e n c e , w i t h o u t p i e r c i n g i t , b u t s u f f i c i e n t l y h a r d t o d e n t i t . I f I h a d , a s h a d b e e n u s u a l u p u n t i l a f e w d a y s p r e v i o u s l y , b e e n w e a r i n g a c a p , t h e n t h e R e g i m e n t w o u l d h a v e h a d o n e m o r e m a n k i l l e d . B u t t h e h e l m e t w a s n o t w i t h o u t i t s f l a w s . T h e v e n t i l a t o r h o r n s o f t e n l e t c o l d a i r i n d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r , r e q u i r i n g t h e w e a r e r t o b l o c k t h e v e n t s w i t h m u d o r f a b r i c . T h e l a r g e , f l a r e d s k i r t t e n d e d t o m a k e i t d i f f i c u l t f o r s o l d i e r s t o h e a r , d i s t o r t i n g s u r r o u n d i n g s o u n d s a n d c r e a t i n g a n e c h o w h e n t h e w e a r e r s p o k e . O r i g i n a l l y p a i n t e d " F e l d g r a u " ( f i e l d g r e y ) , t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s o f t e n c a m o u f l a g e d b y t r o o p s i n t h e f i e l d u s i n g m u d , f o l i a g e , c l o t h c o v e r s , a n d p a i n t . O f f i c i a l i s s u e c l o t h c o v e r s i n w h i t e a n d g r e y a p p e a r e d i n l a t e 1 9 1 6 a n d e a r l y 1 9 1 7 . C a m o u f l a g e p a i n t w a s n o t f o r m a l l y i n t r o d u c e d u n t i l J u l y 1 9 1 8 , w h e n G e r m a n A r m y O r d e r I I , N o 9 1 3 6 6 , s i g n e d b y G e n e r a l E r i c h L u d e n d o r f f o n 7 J u l y 1 9 1 8 , o u t l i n e d o f f i c i a l s t a n d a r d s f o r h e l m e t c a m o u f l a g e . T h e o r d e r s t i p u l a t e d t h a t h e l m e t s s h o u l d b e p a i n t e d i n s e v e r a l c o l o u r s , s e p a r a t e d b y a f i n g e r - w i d e b l a c k l i n e . T h e c o l o u r s s h o u l d b e r e l e v a n t t o t h e s e a s o n , s u c h a s u s i n g g r e e n , b r o w n a n d o c h r e i n s u m m e r . A f t e r t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e M 1 9 1 6 d e s i g n w a s v a l i d a t e d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 1 6 c a m p a i g n s , i n c r e m e n t a l i m p r o v e m e n t s w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y m a d e . T h e M 1 9 1 7 v e r s i o n s a w i m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h e l i n e r b u t w a s o t h e r w i s e i d e n t i c a l t o t h e o r i g i n a l d e s i g n . E x t e n s i v e r e d e s i g n s w e r e m a d e f o r t h e M 1 9 1 8 m o d e l . A n e w t w o - p i e c e c h i n s t r a p w a s i n t r o d u c e d a n d w a s a t t a c h e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e h e l m e t l i n e r r a t h e r t h a n t h e s h e l l . C e r t a i n e x a m p l e s o f t h e M 1 9 1 8 h a d c u t o u t s i n t h e r i m a l o n g t h e s i d e s o f t h e h e l m e t . I t h a s i n c o r r e c t l y b e e n s a i d t h a t t h e s e c u t o u t s w e r e t o a c c o m m o d a t e u s i n g h e a d p h o n e s w h i l e w e a r i n g t h e h e l m e t . T h e s e c u t o u t s w e r e a c t u a l l y d o n e t o i m p r o v e h e a r i n g a n d t o r e d u c e e c h o c r e a t e d b y t h e l a r g e , f l a r e d s k i r t . T h e M 1 9 1 8 " S t a h l h e l m " c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e M 1 9 1 6 , a s t h e M 1 9 1 8 s h e l l l a c k s t h e c h i n s t r a p r i v e t o n t h e l o w e r s i d e o f t h e h e l m e t s k i r t f o u n d o n e a r l i e r m o d e l s . A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y p u r c h a s e d a b o u t 4 1 6 , 0 0 0 G e r m a n h e l m e t s f r o m N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 6 u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e w a r a n d a l s o b e g a n i t s o w n l i c e n s e d p r o d u c t i o n s t a r t i n g i n M a y 1 9 1 7 . A r o u n d a m i l l i o n " S t a h l h e l m " o f a l l v a r i a n t s w e r e i s s u e d u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e w a r . T h e A u s t r i a n M 1 7 h e l m e t w a s s i m i l a r t o t h e G e r m a n M 1 6 b u t w a s c o l o u r e d g o l d e n - b r o w n ( k n o w n a s I s o n z o - b r a u n ) , h a d a c l o t h c h i n s t r a p a n d h a d t h e c h i n s t r a p r i v e t l o c a t e d h i g h e r u p o n t h e s t e e l s h e l l . F r o m M a y 1 9 1 7 t i l l t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I 5 3 4 , 0 1 3 w e r e p r o d u c e d , m a n y o f w h i c h w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d a t t h e K r u p p i n B e r n d o r f , L o w e r A u s t r i a . O t h e r p r o d u c t i o n l o c a t i o n s i n c l u d e d : T h e H u n g a r i a n M 1 8 v a r i a n t w a s s i m i l a r t o t h e A u s t r i a n M 1 7 d e s i g n , b u t t h e c h i n s t r a p r i v e t w a s s m a l l e r i n s i z e a n d l o c a t e d e v e n h i g h e r u p t h a n t h e A u s t r i a n v e r s i o n . I t w a s c o l o u r e d i n g o l d e n - b r o w n ( k n o w n a s I s o n z o - b r a u n ) . T h e s e w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d a t t h e K r u p p i n B e r n d o r f , L o w e r A u s t r i a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , d o m e s t i c a l l y d e v e l o p e d B e r n d o r f e r v a r i a n t . 1 3 9 , 9 6 8 w e r e p r o d u c e d f r o m M a y t i l l N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 7 a t t h e K r u p p i n B e r n d o r f , L o w e r A u s t r i a T h e f o r m a t i o n i n 1 9 1 7 b y t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e o f s t o r m t r o o p e r b a t t a l i o n s f o l l o w i n g t h e G e r m a n m o d e l p r o m p t e d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r s t e e l h e l m e t s , a s t h e s e h a d n o t p r e v i o u s l y b e e n a d o p t e d . A l t h o u g h G e r m a n h e l m e t s w e r e o r d e r e d , O t t o m a n o f f i c e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e d e s i g n i m p e d e d t h e s o l d i e r s ' a b i l i t y t o h e a r o r d e r s i n t h e f i e l d a n d r e q u e s t e d t h a t t h e v i s o r , e a r a n d n e c k p r o t e c t o r s b e r e m o v e d , w h i c h w a s d o n e u s i n g g r i n d i n g m a c h i n e s . G e r m a n y d e l i v e r e d 5 , 4 0 0 v i s o r l e s s v e r s i o n s o f t h e M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t f o r t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e . T h e m i s s i n g f r o n t v i s o r w a s t h o u g h t b y t h e G e r m a n s t o b e f o r r e l i g i o u s r e a s o n s , a n d i t w a s c l a i m e d t h a t i t w a s t o a l l o w T u r k i s h s o l d i e r s t o t o u c h t h e i r f o r e h e a d s t o t h e g r o u n d d u r i n g p r a y e r , w i t h o u t r e m o v i n g t h e i r h e l m e t s . H o w e v e r , t h i s s t o r y h a s b e e n d i s p u t e d . T h e T u r k s r e j e c t e d a n y m o r e t h a n t h e 5 , 4 0 0 d e l i v e r e d a n d a n u n k n o w n n u m b e r f r o m t h e o v e r r u n w e r e i s s u e d t o G e r m a n a r m e d f o r c e s a n d w e r e u s e d b y G e r m a n F r e i k o r p s u n i t s a f t e r t h e w a r . I n 1 9 3 2 t h e A r m y H i g h C o m m a n d o r d e r e d t h e t e s t i n g o f a n e w p r o t o t y p e h e l m e t i n t e n d e d t o r e p l a c e t h e o l d e r m o d e l s . I t w a s m a d e e n t i r e l y f r o m a c o m p o s i t e p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l c a l l e d " V u l k a n f i b e r " . T h e M o d e l 1 9 3 3 V u l k a n f i b e r h e l m e t k e p t t h e b a s i c f o r m o f p r e v i o u s h e l m e t s b u t w a s m u c h l i g h t e r . I t w a s p u t i n t o l i m i t e d p r o d u c t i o n f o l l o w i n g f a v o u r a b l e f i e l d t e s t s i n e a r l y 1 9 3 3 a n d s m a l l n u m b e r s w e r e i s s u e d t o R e i c h s w e h r i n f a n t r y , a r t i l l e r y a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s u n i t s . I t w a s r e m o v e d f r o m s e r v i c e f o l l o w i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t a n d m o s t o f t h e r e m a i n i n g s t o c k w e r e r e i s s u e d t o c i v i l o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h a s f i r e b r i g a d e s a n d p o l i c e f o r c e s . S o m e e x a m p l e s w e r e a l s o r e t a i n e d f o r p a r a d e u s e b y s e n i o r o f f i c e r s , w h o w e r e n o t g e n e r a l l y i s s u e d w i t h t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . I n 1 9 3 4 t e s t s b e g a n o n a n i m p r o v e d " S t a h l h e l m " , w h o s e d e s i g n w a s a d e v e l o p m e n t o f W o r l d W a r I m o d e l s . T h e E i s e n h ü t t e n w e r k e c o m p a n y o f T h a l e c a r r i e d o u t p r o t o t y p e d e s i g n a n d t e s t i n g , w i t h D r F r i e d r i c h S c h w e r d o n c e a g a i n t a k i n g a h a n d . T h e n e w h e l m e t w a s p r e s s e d f r o m s h e e t s o f m o l y b d e n u m s t e e l i n s e v e r a l s t a g e s . T h e s i z e o f t h e f l a r e d v i s o r a n d s k i r t w a s r e d u c e d , a n d t h e l a r g e p r o j e c t i n g l u g s f o r t h e o b s o l e t e a r m o u r s h i e l d w e r e e l i m i n a t e d . T h e v e n t i l a t o r h o l e s w e r e r e t a i n e d b u t w e r e s e t i n s m a l l e r h o l l o w r i v e t s m o u n t e d t o t h e h e l m e t ' s s h e l l . T h e e d g e s o f t h e s h e l l w e r e r o l l e d o v e r , c r e a t i n g a s m o o t h e d g e a l o n g t h e h e l m e t . F i n a l l y , a c o m p l e t e l y n e w l e a t h e r s u s p e n s i o n , o r l i n e r , w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d t h a t g r e a t l y i m p r o v e d t h e h e l m e t ' s s a f e t y , a d j u s t a b i l i t y , a n d c o m f o r t f o r e a c h w e a r e r . T h e s e i m p r o v e m e n t s m a d e t h e n e w M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t l i g h t e r , m o r e c o m p a c t , a n d m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e t o w e a r t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s d e s i g n s . T h e A r m y ' s S u p r e m e C o m m a n d w i t h i n t h e T h i r d R e i c h ' s " W e h r m a c h t " c o m b i n e d a r m e d f o r c e s o f f i c i a l l y a c c e p t e d t h e n e w h e l m e t o n J u n e 2 5 , 1 9 3 5 a n d i t w a s i n t e n d e d t o r e p l a c e a l l o t h e r h e l m e t s i n s e r v i c e . M o r e t h a n 1 m i l l i o n M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d i n t h e f i r s t t w o y e a r s a f t e r i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n , a n d m i l l i o n s m o r e w e r e p r o d u c e d u n t i l 1 9 4 0 w h e n t h e b a s i c d e s i g n a n d p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d s w e r e c h a n g e d . I n 1 9 3 8 , t h e G e r m a n s d e v e l o p e d a v a r i a n t o f t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w i t h a w i d e r , f l a r e d p e a k a n d v e n t i l a t i o n h o l e s o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d f o r f i r e f i g h t e r s , c i v i l d e f e n s e , R e i c h s a r b e i t s d i e n s t , a n d L u f t s c h u t z p e r s o n n e l . K n o w n a s t h e g l a d i a t o r p a t t e r n , t h e p r i v a t e l y p u r c h a s e d L u f t s c h u t z h e l m e t w a s o r i g i n a l l y m a d e f r o m t h r e e p i e c e s o f s t e e l a n d t y p i c a l l y p a i n t e d b l a c k o r d a r k b l u e . L a t e r i n t h e w a r t h e s e w e r e i s s u e d t o V o l k s s t u r m p e r s o n n e l , a n d s o m e t i m e s r e p a i n t e d i n F e l d g r u n . B y 1 9 4 4 , t h e h e l m e t s w e r e s t a m p e d f r o m a s i n g l e s t e e l s h e e t , a n d t h e o r i g i n a l c l o t h l i n i n g r e p l a c e d w i t h v i n y l t o r e d u c e c o s t s . D u e t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l n u m b e r p r o d u c e d , o r i g i n a l h e l m e t s f r o m t h e w a r y e a r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d r a r e . H o w e v e r , a m o d i f i e d p o s t w a r v e r s i o n i n f l u o r e s c e n t g r e e n , w h i t e o r y e l l o w c o n t i n u e d t o b e i s s u e d t o r e s c u e w o r k e r s i n t h e B u n d e s r e p u b l i k u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s . T h e M 1 9 3 5 d e s i g n w a s s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d i n 1 9 4 0 t o s i m p l i f y i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s n o w i n c o r p o r a t i n g m o r e a u t o m a t e d s t a m p i n g m e t h o d s . T h e p r i n c i p a l c h a n g e w a s t o s t a m p t h e v e n t i l a t o r h o l e m o u n t s d i r e c t l y o n t o t h e s h e l l , r a t h e r t h a n u t i l i z i n g s e p a r a t e f i t t i n g s . I n o t h e r r e s p e c t s , t h e M 1 9 4 0 h e l m e t w a s i d e n t i c a l t o t h e M 1 9 3 5 . T h e G e r m a n s s t i l l r e f e r r e d t o t h e M 1 9 4 0 a s t h e M 1 9 3 5 , w h i l e t h e M 1 9 4 0 d e s i g n a t i o n w e r e g i v e n b y c o l l e c t o r s . A v a r i a n t o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t w i t h a s h e l l l a c k i n g t h e p r o j e c t i n g v i s o r a n d d e e p f l a r e d r i m w a s i s s u e d t o " F a l l s c h i r m j ä g e r " ( G e r m a n p a r a t r o o p e r ) u n i t s . I t w a s s o d e s i g n e d i n o r d e r t o l e s s e n t h e r i s k o f h e a d i n j u r y o n l a n d i n g a f t e r a p a r a c h u t e j u m p ; a l s o t o r e d u c e t h e s i g n i f i c a n t w i n d r e s i s t a n c e a n d r e s u l t i n g n e c k t r a u m a . E a r l y F a l l s c h i r m j ä g e r h e l m e t s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d f r o m e x i s t i n g M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s b y r e m o v i n g t h e u n d e s i r a b l e p r o j e c t i o n s , w h i c h w e r e o m i t t e d w h e n t h e n e w d e s i g n e n t e r e d f u l l p r o d u c t i o n . T h e m o d i f i e d s h e l l a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e d a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t a n d m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l l i n e r a n d c h i n s t r a p d e s i g n t h a t p r o v i d e d f a r m o r e p r o t e c t i o n f o r G e r m a n a i r b o r n e t r o o p s . T h e c h i n s t r a p f e a t u r e d a f o u r - p o i n t r e t e n t i o n s y s t e m t h a t h a s c o m e i n t o u s e a g a i n b y m o d e r n c o m b a t h e l m e t s s u c h a s t h e M I C H s i n c e t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s . T h e M 1 9 4 2 d e s i g n w a s a r e s u l t o f w a r t i m e d e m a n d s . F r o m d i r e c t o r d e r s o f t h e F ü h r e r , t o ‘ m a i n t a i n i n t i m i d a t i o n b u t r e d u c e c o s t ’ . T h e r o l l e d e d g e o n t h e s h e l l w a s e l i m i n a t e d , c r e a t i n g a n u n f i n i s h e d e d g e a l o n g t h e r i m . T h i s e d g e s l i g h t l y f l a r e d o u t , a l o n g t h e b a s e o f t h e s k i r t , r e d u c i n g t h e p r o t e c t i o n t h e h e l m e t g a v e . T h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e r o l l e d e d g e e x p e d i t e d t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s a n d r e d u c e d t h e a m o u n t o f m e t a l u s e d i n e a c h h e l m e t . S h e l l p a i n t c o l o u r s w e r e t y p i c a l l y m a t t e g r e y - g r e e n ( H e e r ) o r g r e y - b l u e ( L u f t w a f f e ) , a n d t h e d e c a l s w e r e e l i m i n a t e d i n 1 9 4 3 t o s p e e d u p p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e d u c e t h e h e l m e t ' s c o m b a t v i s i b i l i t y . G r e a t e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g f l a w s w e r e a l s o o b s e r v e d i n M 1 9 4 2 h e l m e t s m a d e l a t e i n t h e w a r . A s i m p l e r v a r i a n t , d e s i g n e d i n 1 9 4 2 b y t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r D e f e n c e T e c h n i c a l M a t e r i a l s S c i e n c e i n B e r l i n , w a s a l s o s t a m p e d o u t o f o n e p i e c e o f m e t a l , b u t w i t h s l o p e d s i d e s . I t w a s s i m i l a r i n a p p e a r a n c e t o t h e B r i t i s h 1 9 4 4 T y p e M k I I I h e l m e t . T h e r e h a v e b e e n r e p o r t s o f a v a r i a n t m a n u f a c t u r e d i n t h e l a s t m o n t h s o f t h e w a r . T h e M 1 9 4 5 w a s r e p o r t e d t o h a v e b e e n s i m i l a r t o t h e M 1 9 4 2 d e s i g n b u t d i d a w a y c o m p l e t e l y w i t h t h e v e n t i l a t o r . T h e s e h e l m e t s a r e r e p o r t e d t o b e e x t r e m e l y r a r e . M a n y c o l l e c t o r s a n d h i s t o r i a n s a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e M 1 9 4 5 h e l m e t i s j u s t a r e g u l a r M 1 9 4 2 h e l m e t t h a t l a c k e d t h e v e n t s s i m p l y b e c a u s e o f m a c h i n e m a l f u n c t i o n s i n t h e f a c t o r y , o r u n f i n i s h e d M 1 9 4 2 t h a t w e r e c o m p l e t e d i n t h e p o s t - w a r e r a . A v a r i a n t o f t h e M 1 9 4 4 w i t h a m o d i f i e d s u s p e n s i o n s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d f u r t h e r i n t o t h e M 1 9 5 6 . T h e E a s t G e r m a n M - 5 6 h e l m e t w a s o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d i n 1 9 4 2 a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e M 1 9 3 5 / M 1 9 4 0 m o d e l " S t a h l h e l m " . I t w a s i n i t i a l l y d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e W e h r m a c h t b y t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r D e f e n s e T e c h n i c a l M a t e r i a l s S c i e n c e i n B e r l i n ( s e e " M 1 9 4 4 " a b o v e ) . T h e h e l m e t h a d s e e n t r i a l s s i n c e 1 9 4 3 b u t w a s n o t a d o p t e d d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I . T h e d e s i g n w a s n o t u s e d u n t i l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a d i s t i n c t G e r m a n h e l m e t f o r t h e V o l k s p o l i z e i a n d t h e N a t i o n a l P e o p l e ' s A r m y a r o s e . T h e E a s t G e r m a n l e a d e r s h i p w a s m o t i v a t e d i n l a r g e p a r t b y a d e s i r e t o a v o i d p r o v o k i n g t h e o f f e n c e t h a t u s i n g a t r a d i t i o n a l " S t a h l h e l m " d e s i g n w o u l d h a v e c a u s e d E a s t G e r m a n y ' s W a r s a w P a c t a l l i e s ( e s p e c i a l l y C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , P o l a n d a n d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ) , b u t a m o r e p r a c t i c a l m i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y w a s a l s o p r e s e n t d u e t o t h e c o n t i n u e d u s e o f s u r p l u s " S t a h l h e l m e n " b y W e s t G e r m a n u n i t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r b o r d e r g u a r d s . M o r e o v e r , t h e E a s t G e r m a n s s u s p e c t e d t h e W e s t c o u l d r e - i s s u e t h e " S t a h l h e l m " o n a g e n e r a l b a s i s i n t h e B u n d e s w e h r a t a n y t i m e a n d t h e r e f o r e n e e d e d a h e l m e t t h a t w a s e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h a t o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a l e n e m y . F o r b o t h r e a s o n s , t h e 1 9 4 2 d e s i g n w a s l i k e l y c h o s e n b e c a u s e i t w a s t h e m o s t s i m i l a r o f a l l G e r m a n d e s i g n s t o t h e m o s t r e c o g n i z a b l e S o v i e t h e l m e t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e i c o n i c S S h - 4 0 d e s i g n . S u c h a d e s i g n n o t o n l y s e r v e d a p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e b u t w a s o n e t h a t N A T O a r m i e s w e r e u n l i k e l y t o c l o s e l y d u p l i c a t e . I n d e e d , t h e M - 5 6 w a s s i m i l a r e n o u g h i n a p p e a r a n c e t o t h e S S h - 4 0 t h a t s o m e W e s t e r n e r s f a i l e d t o r e a l i z e i t s G e r m a n o r i g i n s a l t o g e t h e r a n d a s s u m e d t h e E a s t G e r m a n s h a d a d o p t e d a S o v i e t d e s i g n . T h e M - 5 6 h e l m e t c a m e i n t h r e e b a s i c v e r s i o n s , M o d 1 o r I / 5 6 , M o d 2 o r I / 5 7 a n d M o d 3 o r I / 7 1 , a n d w a s w i d e l y s o l d ( o r g i v e n ) t o T h i r d W o r l d a r m i e s . T h e W e s t G e r m a n M - 5 6 " S t a h l h e l m " w a s a d i r e c t c o p y o f t h e U . S . M 1 h e l m e t . I t w a s p r o p e r l y c a l l e d " z w e i t e i l i g e r " S t a h l h e l m " " ( t w o - p i e c e s t e e l h e l m e t ) . I n 1 9 5 8 t h e h e l m e t w a s m a d e a s a o n e - p i e c e h e l m e t a n d r e n a m e d " S t a h l h e l m " M 1 A 1 . T h e M 1 A 1 c a m e i n t h r e e s i z e s : 6 6 , 6 8 , a n d 7 1 . T h i s h e l m e t w a s u s e d u n t i l 1 9 8 1 w h e n a m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n w a s r e l e a s e d a n d r e n a m e d t h e H e l m 1 A 1 . M o d i f i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e d a 3 - p o i n t c h i n s t r a p w i t h t h e t h i r d p o i n t c o n n e c t i n g a t t h e n a p e , e x t r a - l a r g e s i z e s , a n d a f u r t h e r a d j u s t a b l e l i n e r . T h e M 1 A 1 " S t a h l h e l m " r e m a i n e d i n s e r v i c e u n t i l 1 9 9 2 w h e n t h e B u n d e s w e h r r e p l a c e d i t w i t h a P A S G T - d e r i v e d k e v l a r h e l m e t c a l l e d t h e " G e f e c h t s h e l m " ( " C o m b a t h e l m e t " ) . A f t e r " S t a h l h e l m " s h e l l s w e r e p a i n t e d , t h e c o l o u r s o f w h i c h v a r i e d b y o r g a n i z a t i o n , s m a l l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o r i n s i g n i a d e c a l s u s u a l l y w e r e a f f i x e d t o o n e o r b o t h s i d e s o f t h e h e l m e t . A l m o s t e v e r y m i l i t a r y , n a v a l , a n d p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n h a d i t s o w n d i s t i n c t i v e i n s i g n i a , w h i c h w a s a p p l i e d a s d e c a l s t o t h e s i d e s o f h e l m e t s . T h e r i g h t s i d e o f e a r l y M 3 5 h e l m e t s b o r e t h e t r i c o l o r e d s h i e l d o f b l a c k , w h i t e , a n d r e d s t r i p e s , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i o n a l c o l o r s o f t h e p r e - W W I G e r m a n E m p i r e ( c f . t h e b l a c k , r e d , a n d g o l d o f t o d a y ' s F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f G e r m a n y , h a r k i n g b a c k t o t h e 1 8 4 8 R e v o l t ) . T h e l e f t s i d e o f t h e s h e l l o f t e n r e c e i v e d d e c a l i n s i g n i a d e n o t i n g t h e b r a n c h o f t h e a r m e d f o r c e s , o r " W e h r m a c h t " , o r a n o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h i n t h e N a z i P a r t y . T h e c o m b i n e d " W e h r m a c h t " m i l i t a r y f o r c e s o f N a z i G e r m a n y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e " H e e r " ( a r m y ) , t h e " K r i e g s m a r i n e " ( n a v y ) , a n d t h e " L u f t w a f f e " ( a i r f o r c e ) . W h i l e n o t t e c h n i c a l l y p a r t o f t h e W e h r m a c h t , t h e " W a f f e n - S S " ( " A r m e d - S S " ) t a c t i c a l l y o p e r a t e d a s s u c h a n d w a s c o n s i d e r e d p a r t o f G e r m a n y ' s a r m e d f o r c e s d u r i n g t h e w a r . T h e s a m e w a s t r u e o f s o m e " S t u r m a b t e i l u n g " ( S A ) u n i t s , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r s u b s i d i a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s , w h i c h f u n c t i o n e d a s p a r t o f t h e a r m e d f o r c e s p a r t i c u l a r l y t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e w a r . W e h r m a c h t b r a n c h e s t y p i c a l l y d i s p l a y e d d i s t i n c t i v e e m b l e m s i n t h e f o r m o f d e c a l s o n t h e i r h e l m e t s . T h e H e e r , o r a r m y , d i s p l a y e d a b l a c k s h i e l d b e a r i n g t h e f r o n t a l v i e w o f a s i l v e r - c o l o u r e d G e r m a n e a g l e h o l d i n g a s w a s t i k a i n i t s t a l o n s ( k n o w n a s t h e " R e i c h s a d l e r " ) , w h i l e t h e n a v y u s e d t h e s a m e e a g l e e m b l e m i n g o l d . L u f t w a f f e d e c a l s d i s p l a y e d t h e s i d e v i e w o f a n e a g l e i n f l i g h t , a l s o h o l d i n g a s w a s t i k a . T h e S S w a s b o t h a p a r a m i l i t a r y a n d a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d i t s b l a c k r u n i c i n i t i a l s o n a s i l v e r - c o l o u r e d s h i e l d ( n o r m a l l y a p p l i e d t o t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e s h e l l ) l o o k e d l i k e t w i n l i g h t n i n g b o l t s . O t h e r m i l i t a r y , p o l i t i c a l , a n d c i v i l o r d e f e n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s u s e d s i m i l a r d e c a l i n s i g n i a t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e i r h e l m e t s . S u c h v i s i b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d e v i c e s w e r e g r a d u a l l y a b a n d o n e d a s t h e w a r p r o g r e s s e d , h o w e v e r , s o t h a t b y w a r ' s e n d m o s t W e h r m a c h t h e l m e t i n s i g n i a h a d b e e n e l i m i n a t e d t o r e d u c e t h e w e a r e r ' s v i s i b i l i t y i n c o m b a t . F o r t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t A r m y s o l d i e r s , t h e i r M 3 5 h e l m e t s w e r e s t e n c i l l e d w i t h t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t I n s i g n i a o n t h e l e f t s i d e . B o l i v i a n A r m y p e r s o n n e l c a r r y t h e n a t i o n a l f l a g d e c a l o n t h e i r S t a h l h e l m s w h e n i n t h e f u l l d r e s s . T h e G e r m a n a r m y " S t a h l h e l m " , a s w e l l a s t h e J a p a n e s e " K a b u t o " , s e r v e d a s a t e m p l a t e f o r t h e f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r ' s D a r t h V a d e r o u t f i t i n t h e S t a r W a r s f r a n c h i s e . M e m b e r s o f t h e W o l f B r i g a d e , a f i c t i o n a l J a p a n e s e u n i t i n t h e a n i m e J i n - R o h : T h e W o l f B r i g a d e a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h " S t a h l h e l m e " , a s w e l l a s W e h r m a c h t w e a p o n s o f t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , i n c l u d i n g S t G 4 4 s a n d M G 4 2 s .

History ; "Stahlhelm" use in other countries ; Postwar

The Stahlhelm has been used in various forms across multiple countries, often being adapted and modified to suit local needs. Its iconic design has become synonymous with military and paramilitary groups, and its influence can still be seen in modern helmet designs.

one piece. Like the British and French, German troops identified highly with their helmets, as it became a popular symbol of paramilitary groups after the First World War. Such was the attachment of the World War One generation to the design that it was reportedly the reason that Hitler rejected a modernised, sloping helmet design to replace it. Germany exported versions of the M1935 helmet to various countries. Versions of the M1935 "Stahlhelm" were sent to Republic of China from 1935 to 1936 and the M1935 was the main helmet of the Chinese Nationalist Army (especially the "central" divisions) during World War II. Spain also received shipments of the helmet. During the inter-war years, several military missions were sent to South America under the command of Hans Kundt, after Chaco War the Bolivian army used to wear the helmet up until recently. The exported M1935 helmets were similar to the German issue, except for a different liner. Some countries manufactured their own helmets using the M1935 design, and this basic design was in use in various nations as late as the 1970s. The Germans allowed and assisted the Hungarians in copying their design of the M1935 steel helmet. Therefore, the WWII-produced M38 Hungarian steel helmet is nearly identical to the German M1935. Both have almost the same shape, riveted ventilation holes, and the classic rolled edge. Differences include somewhat rougher Hungarian finishing, a different liner and different rivets position – the split pins are situated behind the ventilation holes. A square metal bracket is riveted on the rear, above the back brim; used to secure the helmet to the knapsack while marching. It was typically painted in Hungarian brown-green, albeit blue-grey versions existed. It is sometimes called the "Finnish M35" due to its extensive use by the Finnish Army during the Continuation War 1941–44. After the end of World War I Poland seized large quantities of M1918 helmets. Most of those were later sold to various countries, including Spain. However, at the end of the 1930s, it was discovered that the standard Polish wz. 31 helmet was unsuitable for tank troops and motorized units; while offering decent protection, it was too large and heavy. As a stop-gap measure before a new helmet was developed, the General Staff decided to issue M1918 helmets to the 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade, which used them during the Polish Defensive War. During the time of the Warsaw Uprising the helmet was also worn by the members of the Polish Home Army and it was during this time that the helmet became the symbol of the resistance, as every "Stahlhelm" worn by a soldier of the underground army signified a dead German occupier it was taken from. In November 1926, the Irish Defence Forces decided upon adopting the German "Stahlhelm". However, when the Irish government contacted the German Foreign Office with a request for a sample they were informed that Germany was barred from exporting steel helmets by the Treaty of Versailles. The Irish then turned to London based Vickers, ordering 5,000 copies of a model closely resembling plastic models started, which are still in ceremonial & garrison use today. Small runs of steel helmets were made by FAMAE in the 80's, but ultimately were not adopted due to the ascendance of kevlar and synthetic ballistic fiber helmets by that time. A "Stahlhelm" with crossed bayonets and the corresponding number is the standard insignia of infantry regiments. The Argentine Army adopted a similar model, made of pressed fibre, during World War II, reflecting the traditional sympathy towards Germany found in many of the officers. For combat and provincial police use, imported Swiss M1918 Helmets were still in service as late as 1976. In the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, due to large quantities captured by World War II Partisans, the "Stahlhelm" was used in Yugoslav People's Army up to 1959, when it was phased out and replaced by the M59/85 steel helmet. After World War II, West Germany's Bundesgrenzschutz border guards and some West German police units kept the "Stahlhelm" in their inventories (police units can be seen wearing them during footage of the Black September hostage crisis in 1972), and the Fallschirmjäger variant was used for some time by the GSG 9. With the re-armament of West Germany the Bundeswehr introduced the United States Army M1 Helmet which was replaced by a Kevlar helmet ("Gefechtshelm"), similar to the modern US helmets, in the 1990s. German firefighter units today still use "Stahlhelm"-shaped helmets in a fluorescent colour. East Germany's National People's Army M-56 helmet was modelled on an unused 1942 German design with a a variant of the "Stahlhelm" with a wider, flared peak and ventilation holes originally intended for firefighters, civil defense, Reichsarbeitsdienst, and Luftschutz personnel. Known as the gladiator pattern, the privately purchased Luftschutz helmet was originally made from three pieces of steel and typically painted black or dark blue. Later in the war these were issued to Volkssturm personnel, and sometimes repainted in Feldgrun. By 1944, the helmets were stamped from a single steel sheet, and the original cloth lining replaced with vinyl to reduce costs. Due to the relatively small number produced, original helmets from the war years are considered rare. However, a modified postwar version in fluorescent green, white or yellow continued to be issued to rescue workers in the Bundesrepublik until the early 1990s. The M1935 German helmet for the Volkspolizei and the National People's Army arose. The East German leadership was motivated in large part by a desire to avoid provoking the offence that using a traditional "Stahlhelm" design would have caused East Germany's Warsaw Pact allies (especially Czechoslovakia, Poland and the Soviet Union), but a more practical military necessity was also present due to the continued use of surplus "Stahlhelmen" by West German units, in particular border guards. Moreover, the East Germans suspected the West could re-issue the "Stahlhelm" on a general basis in the Bundeswehr at any time and therefore needed a helmet that was easily distinguishable from that of their potential enemy. For both reasons, the 1942 design was likely chosen because it was the most similar of all German

Stahlhelm

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f W o r l d W a r I , n o n e o f t h e c o m b a t a n t s w e r e i s s u e d w i t h a n y f o r m o f p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e h e a d o t h e r t h a n c l o t h a n d l e a t h e r c a p s , d e s i g n e d a t m o s t t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t s a b r e c u t s . W h e n t r e n c h w a r f a r e b e g a n , t h e n u m b e r o f c a s u a l t i e s o n a l l s i d e s s u f f e r i n g f r o m s e v e r e h e a d w o u n d s ( m o r e o f t e n c a u s e d b y s h r a p n e l b u l l e t s o r s h e l l f r a g m e n t s t h a n b y g u n f i r e ) i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y , s i n c e t h e h e a d w a s t y p i c a l l y t h e m o s t e x p o s e d p a r t o f t h e b o d y w h e n i n a t r e n c h . T h e F r e n c h w e r e t h e f i r s t t o s e e a n e e d f o r m o r e p r o t e c t i o n — i n m i d - 1 9 1 5 t h e y b e g a n t o i s s u e A d r i a n h e l m e t s t o t h e i r t r o o p s . T h e B r i t i s h a n d C o m m o n w e a l t h t r o o p s f o l l o w e d w i t h t h e B r o d i e h e l m e t ( a d e v e l o p m e n t o f w h i c h w a s a l s o l a t e r w o r n b y U S f o r c e s ) a n d t h e G e r m a n s w i t h t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . A s t h e G e r m a n a r m y b e h a v e d h e s i t a n t l y i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n e f f e c t i v e h e a d p r o t e c t i o n , s o m e u n i t s d e v e l o p e d p r o v i s i o n a l h e l m e t s i n 1 9 1 5 . S t a t i o n e d i n t h e r o c k y a r e a o f t h e V o s g e s t h e A r m y D e t a c h m e n t " G a e d e " r e c o r d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e h e a d i n j u r i e s c a u s e d b y s t o n e a n d s h e l l s p l i n t e r s t h a n d i d t r o o p s i n o t h e r s e c t o r s o f t h e f r o n t . T h e a r t i l l e r y w o r k s h o p o f t h e A r m y D e t a c h m e n t d e v e l o p e d a h e l m e t t h a t c o n s i s t e d o f a l e a t h e r c a p w i t h a s t e e l p l a t e ( 6   m m t h i c k n e s s ) . T h e p l a t e p r o t e c t e d n o t o n l y t h e f o r e h e a d b u t a l s o t h e e y e s a n d n o s e . T h e h e l m e t w a s q u i t e d e e p r e l a t i v e t o t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e s t e e l ; o n e A m e r i c a n c o m p a n y t h a t t r i e d t o p r e s s s i m i l a r t h i c k n e s s s t e e l i n t o t h e s h a p e o f t h e m u c h s h a l l o w e r B r o d i e h e l m e t w a s u n a b l e t o d o s o . T h e h e l m e t w a s b u l l e t - r e s i s t a n t t o p i s t o l r o u n d s s u c h a s 9 m m L u g e r a n d 4 5 A C P t h a t w o u l d o n l y d e n t t h e s u r f a c e . T h e d e s i g n o f t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s c a r r i e d o u t b y D r F r i e d r i c h S c h w e r d o f t h e T e c h n i c a l I n s t i t u t e o f H a n o v e r . I n e a r l y 1 9 1 5 , S c h w e r d h a d c a r r i e d o u t a s t u d y o f h e a d w o u n d s s u f f e r e d d u r i n g t r e n c h w a r f a r e a n d s u b m i t t e d a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n f o r s t e e l h e l m e t s , s h o r t l y a f t e r w h i c h h e w a s o r d e r e d t o B e r l i n . S c h w e r d t h e n u n d e r t o o k t h e t a s k o f d e s i g n i n g a n d p r o d u c i n g a s u i t a b l e h e l m e t , b r o a d l y b a s e d o n t h e 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y s a l l e t , w h i c h p r o v i d e d g o o d p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e h e a d a n d n e c k . A f t e r l e n g t h y d e v e l o p m e n t w o r k , w h i c h i n c l u d e d t e s t i n g a s e l e c t i o n o f G e r m a n a n d A l l i e d h e a d g e a r , t h e f i r s t " s t a h l h e l m " w e r e t e s t e d i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 5 a t t h e K u m m e r s d o r f P r o v i n g G r o u n d a n d t h e n f i e l d - t e s t e d b y t h e 1 s t A s s a u l t B a t t a l i o n . T h i r t y t h o u s a n d e x a m p l e s w e r e o r d e r e d , b u t i t w a s n o t a p p r o v e d f o r g e n e r a l i s s u e u n t i l N e w Y e a r o f 1 9 1 6 , h e n c e i t i s m o s t u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e " M o d e l 1 9 1 6 " . I n F e b r u a r y 1 9 1 6 i t w a s d i s t r i b u t e d t o t r o o p s a t V e r d u n , f o l l o w i n g w h i c h t h e i n c i d e n c e o f s e r i o u s h e a d i n j u r i e s f e l l d r a m a t i c a l l y . T h e f i r s t G e r m a n t r o o p s t o u s e t h i s h e l m e t w e r e t h e s t o r m t r o o p e r s o f t h e " S t u r m - B a t a i l l o n N r . 5 ( R o h r ) " , w h i c h w a s c o m m a n d e d b y c a p t a i n W i l l y R o h r . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e H a d f i e l d s t e e l u s e d i n t h e B r i t i s h B r o d i e h e l m e t , t h e G e r m a n s u s e d a h a r d e r m a r t e n s i t i c s i l i c o n / n i c k e l s t e e l . A s a r e s u l t , a n d a l s o d u e t o t h e h e l m e t ' s f o r m , t h e " S t a h l h e l m " h a d t o b e f o r m e d i n h e a t e d d i e s a t a g r e a t e r u n i t c o s t t h a n t h e B r i t i s h h e l m e t , w h i c h c o u l d b e f o r m e d i n o n e p i e c e . L i k e t h e B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h , G e r m a n t r o o p s i d e n t i f i e d h i g h l y w i t h t h e i r h e l m e t s , a s i t b e c a m e a p o p u l a r s y m b o l o f p a r a m i l i t a r y g r o u p s a f t e r t h e F i r s t W o r l d W a r . S u c h w a s t h e a t t a c h m e n t o f t h e W o r l d W a r O n e g e n e r a t i o n t o t h e d e s i g n t h a t i t w a s r e p o r t e d l y t h e r e a s o n t h a t H i t l e r r e j e c t e d a m o d e r n i s e d , s l o p i n g h e l m e t d e s i g n t o r e p l a c e i t . G e r m a n y e x p o r t e d v e r s i o n s o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s . V e r s i o n s o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 " S t a h l h e l m " w e r e s e n t t o R e p u b l i c o f C h i n a f r o m 1 9 3 5 t o 1 9 3 6 a n d t h e M 1 9 3 5 w a s t h e m a i n h e l m e t o f t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t A r m y ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e " c e n t r a l " d i v i s i o n s ) d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I . S p a i n a l s o r e c e i v e d s h i p m e n t s o f t h e h e l m e t . D u r i n g t h e i n t e r - w a r y e a r s , s e v e r a l m i l i t a r y m i s s i o n s w e r e s e n t t o S o u t h A m e r i c a u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f H a n s K u n d t , a f t e r C h a c o W a r t h e B o l i v i a n a r m y u s e d t o w e a r t h e h e l m e t u p u n t i l r e c e n t l y . T h e e x p o r t e d M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s w e r e s i m i l a r t o t h e G e r m a n i s s u e , e x c e p t f o r a d i f f e r e n t l i n e r . S o m e c o u n t r i e s m a n u f a c t u r e d t h e i r o w n h e l m e t s u s i n g t h e M 1 9 3 5 d e s i g n , a n d t h i s b a s i c d e s i g n w a s i n u s e i n v a r i o u s n a t i o n s a s l a t e a s t h e 1 9 7 0 s . T h e G e r m a n s a l l o w e d a n d a s s i s t e d t h e H u n g a r i a n s i n c o p y i n g t h e i r d e s i g n o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 s t e e l h e l m e t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e W W I I - p r o d u c e d M 3 8 H u n g a r i a n s t e e l h e l m e t i s n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h e G e r m a n M 1 9 3 5 . B o t h h a v e a l m o s t t h e s a m e s h a p e , r i v e t e d v e n t i l a t i o n h o l e s , a n d t h e c l a s s i c r o l l e d e d g e . D i f f e r e n c e s i n c l u d e s o m e w h a t r o u g h e r H u n g a r i a n f i n i s h i n g , a d i f f e r e n t l i n e r a n d d i f f e r e n t r i v e t s p o s i t i o n – t h e s p l i t p i n s a r e s i t u a t e d b e h i n d t h e v e n t i l a t i o n h o l e s . A s q u a r e m e t a l b r a c k e t i s r i v e t e d o n t h e r e a r , a b o v e t h e b a c k b r i m ; u s e d t o s e c u r e t h e h e l m e t t o t h e k n a p s a c k w h i l e m a r c h i n g . I t w a s t y p i c a l l y p a i n t e d i n H u n g a r i a n b r o w n - g r e e n , a l b e i t b l u e - g r e y v e r s i o n s e x i s t e d . I t i s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " F i n n i s h M 3 5 " d u e t o i t s e x t e n s i v e u s e b y t h e F i n n i s h A r m y d u r i n g t h e C o n t i n u a t i o n W a r 1 9 4 1 – 4 4 . A f t e r t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I P o l a n d s e i z e d l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t s . M o s t o f t h o s e w e r e l a t e r s o l d t o v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g S p a i n . H o w e v e r , a t t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 3 0 s , i t w a s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d P o l i s h w z . 3 1 h e l m e t w a s u n s u i t a b l e f o r t a n k t r o o p s a n d m o t o r i z e d u n i t s ; w h i l e o f f e r i n g d e c e n t p r o t e c t i o n , i t w a s t o o l a r g e a n d h e a v y . A s a s t o p - g a p m e a s u r e b e f o r e a n e w h e l m e t w a s d e v e l o p e d , t h e G e n e r a l S t a f f d e c i d e d t o i s s u e M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t s t o t h e 1 0 t h M o t o r i z e d C a v a l r y B r i g a d e , w h i c h u s e d t h e m d u r i n g t h e P o l i s h D e f e n s i v e W a r . D u r i n g t h e t i m e o f t h e W a r s a w U p r i s i n g t h e h e l m e t w a s a l s o w o r n b y t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e P o l i s h H o m e A r m y a n d i t w a s d u r i n g t h i s t i m e t h a t t h e h e l m e t b e c a m e t h e s y m b o l o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e , a s e v e r y " S t a h l h e l m " w o r n b y a s o l d i e r o f t h e u n d e r g r o u n d a r m y s i g n i f i e d a d e a d G e r m a n o c c u p i e r i t w a s t a k e n f r o m . I n N o v e m b e r 1 9 2 6 , t h e I r i s h D e f e n c e F o r c e s d e c i d e d u p o n a d o p t i n g t h e G e r m a n " S t a h l h e l m " . H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e I r i s h g o v e r n m e n t c o n t a c t e d t h e G e r m a n F o r e i g n O f f i c e w i t h a r e q u e s t f o r a s a m p l e t h e y w e r e i n f o r m e d t h a t G e r m a n y w a s b a r r e d f r o m e x p o r t i n g s t e e l h e l m e t s b y t h e T r e a t y o f V e r s a i l l e s . T h e I r i s h t h e n t u r n e d t o L o n d o n b a s e d V i c k e r s , o r d e r i n g 5 , 0 0 0 c o p i e s o f a m o d e l c l o s e l y r e s e m b l i n g t h e M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t . T h e h e l m e t r e m a i n e d i n u s e u n t i l i t w a s r e p l a c e d b y t h e B r i t i s h M a r k I I m o d e l i n 1 9 4 0 . F o l l o w i n g t h e o u t b r e a k o f W o r l d W a r I I , t h e h e l m e t s b e c a m e t h e s u b j e c t o f a n t i - I r i s h p r o p a g a n d a o r i g i n a t i n g i n B r i t a i n . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f t h e w i t h d r a w n h e l m e t s w e r e r e i s s u e d t o v a r i o u s e m e r g e n c y s e r v i c e s a f t e r b e i n g p a i n t e d w h i t e . S w i t z e r l a n d u s e d a h e l m e t , d e s i g n a t e d t h e M 1 9 1 8 , t h a t w a s r o u g h l y s i m i l a r t o t h e M 1 9 1 6 b u t h a d a s h a l l o w e r , w i d e r a n d m o r e r o u n d e d c r o w n a n d s k i r t . T h i s w a s t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t t h e h a r s h w i n t e r w i n d s o f t h e a l p i n e r e g i o n s . T h e C h i l e a n A r m y w a s a p r o l i f i c u s e r o f t h e V u l k a n f i b e r m o d e l s , b o u g h t b e f o r e t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , a l o n g w i t h a f e w M 1 9 3 5 a n d C z e c h o s l o v a k M 3 2 h e l m e t s . A f t e r t h e w a r , l o c a l p r o d u c t i o n o f l i g h t w e i g h t f i b e r a n d p l a s t i c m o d e l s s t a r t e d , w h i c h a r e s t i l l i n c e r e m o n i a l & g a r r i s o n u s e t o d a y . S m a l l r u n s o f s t e e l h e l m e t s w e r e m a d e b y F A M A E i n t h e 8 0 ' s , b u t u l t i m a t e l y w e r e n o t a d o p t e d d u e t o t h e a s c e n d a n c e o f k e v l a r a n d s y n t h e t i c b a l l i s t i c f i b e r h e l m e t s b y t h a t t i m e . A " S t a h l h e l m " w i t h c r o s s e d b a y o n e t s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g n u m b e r i s t h e s t a n d a r d i n s i g n i a o f i n f a n t r y r e g i m e n t s . T h e A r g e n t i n e A r m y a d o p t e d a s i m i l a r m o d e l , m a d e o f p r e s s e d f i b r e , d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I , r e f l e c t i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s y m p a t h y t o w a r d s G e r m a n y f o u n d i n m a n y o f t h e o f f i c e r s . F o r c o m b a t a n d p r o v i n c i a l p o l i c e u s e , i m p o r t e d S w i s s M 1 9 1 8 H e l m e t s w e r e s t i l l i n s e r v i c e a s l a t e a s 1 9 7 6 . I n t h e S o c i a l i s t F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f Y u g o s l a v i a , d u e t o l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s c a p t u r e d b y W o r l d W a r I I P a r t i s a n s , t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s u s e d i n Y u g o s l a v P e o p l e ' s A r m y u p t o 1 9 5 9 , w h e n i t w a s p h a s e d o u t a n d r e p l a c e d b y t h e M 5 9 / 8 5 s t e e l h e l m e t . A f t e r W o r l d W a r I I , W e s t G e r m a n y ' s B u n d e s g r e n z s c h u t z b o r d e r g u a r d s a n d s o m e W e s t G e r m a n p o l i c e u n i t s k e p t t h e " S t a h l h e l m " i n t h e i r i n v e n t o r i e s ( p o l i c e u n i t s c a n b e s e e n w e a r i n g t h e m d u r i n g f o o t a g e o f t h e B l a c k S e p t e m b e r h o s t a g e c r i s i s i n 1 9 7 2 ) , a n d t h e F a l l s c h i r m j ä g e r v a r i a n t w a s u s e d f o r s o m e t i m e b y t h e G S G 9 . W i t h t h e r e - a r m a m e n t o f W e s t G e r m a n y t h e B u n d e s w e h r i n t r o d u c e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s A r m y M 1 H e l m e t w h i c h w a s r e p l a c e d b y a K e v l a r h e l m e t ( " G e f e c h t s h e l m " ) , s i m i l a r t o t h e m o d e r n U S h e l m e t s , i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s . G e r m a n f i r e f i g h t e r u n i t s t o d a y s t i l l u s e " S t a h l h e l m " - s h a p e d h e l m e t s i n a f l u o r e s c e n t c o l o u r . E a s t G e r m a n y ' s N a t i o n a l P e o p l e ' s A r m y M - 5 6 h e l m e t w a s m o d e l l e d o n a n u n u s e d 1 9 4 2 G e r m a n d e s i g n w i t h a m o r e c o n i c a l s h a p e . T h e C h i l e a n A r m y s t i l l u s e s t h e " S t a h l h e l m " d e s i g n f o r c e r e m o n i a l p u r p o s e s , a s w e l l a s t h e B o l i v i a n A r m y . T h e r e a r e a l s o s o m e J a p a n e s e b i c y c l e h e l m e t s ( w i t h a c c o m p a n y i n g g o g g l e s ) t h a t r e s e m b l e t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . M a n y s c h o o l s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s i n M e x i c o s u c h a s t h e A u t o n o m o u s U n i v e r s i t y o f B a j a C a l i f o r n i a h a v e m i l i t a r y b a n d s t h a t u s e o r r e s e m b l e t h e M 3 5 " S t a h l h e l m " . T h e U . S . A r m y ' s 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s e r a K e v l a r P e r s o n n e l A r m o r S y s t e m f o r G r o u n d T r o o p s H e l m e t w a s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d t h e " F r i t z h e l m e t " f o r i t s r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . T h e U . S . A r m y a n d M a r i n e s h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o u s e a d e s i g n a k i n t o t h e P A S G T h e l m e t w i t h t h e M I C H T C - 2 0 0 0 C o m b a t H e l m e t a n d L i g h t w e i g h t H e l m e t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e C h i n e s e P e o p l e ' s L i b e r a t i o n A r m y s o l d i e r s s t i l l u s e d M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s w h i c h w e r e c a p t u r e d f r o m t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t A r m y d u r i n g t h e C h i n e s e C i v i l W a r u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 0 s . S i n c e 2 0 1 2 , E l S a l v a d o r ' s P o l i c i a N a c i o n a l C i v i l u s e a n a v y / i n d i g o b l u e - c o l o u r e d h e l m e t t h a t s t r o n g l y r e s e m b l e s t h e " S t a h l h e l m " ; t h i s h e l m e t i s u s e d b y s o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e r i o t - c o n t r o l u n i t a n d r a r e l y u s e d b y t h e P o l i c e ' s a s s a u l t t e a m s . T h e d i f f e r e n t " S t a h l h e l m " d e s i g n s a r e n a m e d f o r t h e i r y e a r o f i n t r o d u c t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e " M o d e l l 1 9 4 2 " w h i c h w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n 1 9 4 2 i s c o m m o n l y k n o w n a s " M 1 9 4 2 " o r s i m p l y " M 4 2 " . H e r e , t h e y a r e r e f e r r e d t o b y t h e i r M 1 9 " X X " n a m e s . T h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o r e g u l a r s e r v i c e d u r i n g t h e V e r d u n c a m p a i g n i n e a r l y 1 9 1 6 . T h e M 1 9 1 6 d e s i g n h a d s i d e - m o u n t e d h o r n - l i k e v e n t i l a t o r l u g s w h i c h w e r e i n t e n d e d t o b e s u p p o r t f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l s t e e l b r o w p l a t e o r " S t i r n p a n z e r " , w h i c h o n l y e v e r s a w l i m i t e d u s e b y s n i p e r s a n d t r e n c h r a i d i n g p a r t i e s , a s i t w a s t o o h e a v y f o r g e n e r a l u s e . T h e s h e l l c a m e i n d i f f e r e n t s i z e s , f r o m 6 0 t o 6 8 , w i t h s o m e s i z e 7 0 s r e p o r t e d . H e l m e t w e i g h t v a r i e d f r o m 0 . 9 8   k g t o 1 . 4   k g , d e p e n d i n g o n s h e l l s i z e . T h e s u s p e n s i o n , o r l i n e r , c o n s i s t e d o f a h e a d b a n d w i t h t h r e e s e g m e n t e d l e a t h e r p o u c h e s , e a c h h o l d i n g p a d d i n g m a t e r i a l s , a n d l e a t h e r o r f a b r i c c o r d s c o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t o p r o v i d e a c o m f o r t a b l e f i t . T h e o n e - p i e c e l e a t h e r c h i n s t r a p w a s a t t a c h e d t o t h e s h e l l b y M 1 8 9 1 c h i n s t r a p l u g s , t h e s a m e k i n d u s e d i n t h e P i c k e l h a u b e h e l m e t . T h e M 1 9 1 6 d e s i g n p r o v i d e d e x c e l l e n t p r o t e c t i o n : R e s e r v e L i e u t e n a n t W a l t e r S c h u l z e o f 8 t h C o m p a n y R e s e r v e I n f a n t r y R e g i m e n t 7 6 d e s c r i b e d h i s c o m b a t i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e h e l m e t o n t h e S o m m e , 2 9 J u l y 1 9 1 6 : . . . s u d d e n l y , w i t h a g r e a t c l a n g i n g t h u d , I w a s h i t o n t h e f o r e h e a d a n d k n o c k e d f l y i n g o n t o t h e f l o o r o f t h e t r e n c h . . . a s h r a p n e l b u l l e t h a d h i t m y h e l m e t w i t h g r e a t v i o l e n c e , w i t h o u t p i e r c i n g i t , b u t s u f f i c i e n t l y h a r d t o d e n t i t . I f I h a d , a s h a d b e e n u s u a l u p u n t i l a f e w d a y s p r e v i o u s l y , b e e n w e a r i n g a c a p , t h e n t h e R e g i m e n t w o u l d h a v e h a d o n e m o r e m a n k i l l e d . B u t t h e h e l m e t w a s n o t w i t h o u t i t s f l a w s . T h e v e n t i l a t o r h o r n s o f t e n l e t c o l d a i r i n d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r , r e q u i r i n g t h e w e a r e r t o b l o c k t h e v e n t s w i t h m u d o r f a b r i c . T h e l a r g e , f l a r e d s k i r t t e n d e d t o m a k e i t d i f f i c u l t f o r s o l d i e r s t o h e a r , d i s t o r t i n g s u r r o u n d i n g s o u n d s a n d c r e a t i n g a n e c h o w h e n t h e w e a r e r s p o k e . O r i g i n a l l y p a i n t e d " F e l d g r a u " ( f i e l d g r e y ) , t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w a s o f t e n c a m o u f l a g e d b y t r o o p s i n t h e f i e l d u s i n g m u d , f o l i a g e , c l o t h c o v e r s , a n d p a i n t . O f f i c i a l i s s u e c l o t h c o v e r s i n w h i t e a n d g r e y a p p e a r e d i n l a t e 1 9 1 6 a n d e a r l y 1 9 1 7 . C a m o u f l a g e p a i n t w a s n o t f o r m a l l y i n t r o d u c e d u n t i l J u l y 1 9 1 8 , w h e n G e r m a n A r m y O r d e r I I , N o 9 1 3 6 6 , s i g n e d b y G e n e r a l E r i c h L u d e n d o r f f o n 7 J u l y 1 9 1 8 , o u t l i n e d o f f i c i a l s t a n d a r d s f o r h e l m e t c a m o u f l a g e . T h e o r d e r s t i p u l a t e d t h a t h e l m e t s s h o u l d b e p a i n t e d i n s e v e r a l c o l o u r s , s e p a r a t e d b y a f i n g e r - w i d e b l a c k l i n e . T h e c o l o u r s s h o u l d b e r e l e v a n t t o t h e s e a s o n , s u c h a s u s i n g g r e e n , b r o w n a n d o c h r e i n s u m m e r . A f t e r t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e M 1 9 1 6 d e s i g n w a s v a l i d a t e d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 1 6 c a m p a i g n s , i n c r e m e n t a l i m p r o v e m e n t s w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y m a d e . T h e M 1 9 1 7 v e r s i o n s a w i m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h e l i n e r b u t w a s o t h e r w i s e i d e n t i c a l t o t h e o r i g i n a l d e s i g n . E x t e n s i v e r e d e s i g n s w e r e m a d e f o r t h e M 1 9 1 8 m o d e l . A n e w t w o - p i e c e c h i n s t r a p w a s i n t r o d u c e d a n d w a s a t t a c h e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e h e l m e t l i n e r r a t h e r t h a n t h e s h e l l . C e r t a i n e x a m p l e s o f t h e M 1 9 1 8 h a d c u t o u t s i n t h e r i m a l o n g t h e s i d e s o f t h e h e l m e t . I t h a s i n c o r r e c t l y b e e n s a i d t h a t t h e s e c u t o u t s w e r e t o a c c o m m o d a t e u s i n g h e a d p h o n e s w h i l e w e a r i n g t h e h e l m e t . T h e s e c u t o u t s w e r e a c t u a l l y d o n e t o i m p r o v e h e a r i n g a n d t o r e d u c e e c h o c r e a t e d b y t h e l a r g e , f l a r e d s k i r t . T h e M 1 9 1 8 " S t a h l h e l m " c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e M 1 9 1 6 , a s t h e M 1 9 1 8 s h e l l l a c k s t h e c h i n s t r a p r i v e t o n t h e l o w e r s i d e o f t h e h e l m e t s k i r t f o u n d o n e a r l i e r m o d e l s . A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y p u r c h a s e d a b o u t 4 1 6 , 0 0 0 G e r m a n h e l m e t s f r o m N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 6 u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e w a r a n d a l s o b e g a n i t s o w n l i c e n s e d p r o d u c t i o n s t a r t i n g i n M a y 1 9 1 7 . A r o u n d a m i l l i o n " S t a h l h e l m " o f a l l v a r i a n t s w e r e i s s u e d u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e w a r . T h e A u s t r i a n M 1 7 h e l m e t w a s s i m i l a r t o t h e G e r m a n M 1 6 b u t w a s c o l o u r e d g o l d e n - b r o w n ( k n o w n a s I s o n z o - b r a u n ) , h a d a c l o t h c h i n s t r a p a n d h a d t h e c h i n s t r a p r i v e t l o c a t e d h i g h e r u p o n t h e s t e e l s h e l l . F r o m M a y 1 9 1 7 t i l l t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I 5 3 4 , 0 1 3 w e r e p r o d u c e d , m a n y o f w h i c h w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d a t t h e K r u p p i n B e r n d o r f , L o w e r A u s t r i a . O t h e r p r o d u c t i o n l o c a t i o n s i n c l u d e d : T h e H u n g a r i a n M 1 8 v a r i a n t w a s s i m i l a r t o t h e A u s t r i a n M 1 7 d e s i g n , b u t t h e c h i n s t r a p r i v e t w a s s m a l l e r i n s i z e a n d l o c a t e d e v e n h i g h e r u p t h a n t h e A u s t r i a n v e r s i o n . I t w a s c o l o u r e d i n g o l d e n - b r o w n ( k n o w n a s I s o n z o - b r a u n ) . T h e s e w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d a t t h e K r u p p i n B e r n d o r f , L o w e r A u s t r i a . T h e r e w a s a l s o a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , d o m e s t i c a l l y d e v e l o p e d B e r n d o r f e r v a r i a n t . 1 3 9 , 9 6 8 w e r e p r o d u c e d f r o m M a y t i l l N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 7 a t t h e K r u p p i n B e r n d o r f , L o w e r A u s t r i a T h e f o r m a t i o n i n 1 9 1 7 b y t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e o f s t o r m t r o o p e r b a t t a l i o n s f o l l o w i n g t h e G e r m a n m o d e l p r o m p t e d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r s t e e l h e l m e t s , a s t h e s e h a d n o t p r e v i o u s l y b e e n a d o p t e d . A l t h o u g h G e r m a n h e l m e t s w e r e o r d e r e d , O t t o m a n o f f i c e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e d e s i g n i m p e d e d t h e s o l d i e r s ' a b i l i t y t o h e a r o r d e r s i n t h e f i e l d a n d r e q u e s t e d t h a t t h e v i s o r , e a r a n d n e c k p r o t e c t o r s b e r e m o v e d , w h i c h w a s d o n e u s i n g g r i n d i n g m a c h i n e s . G e r m a n y d e l i v e r e d 5 , 4 0 0 v i s o r l e s s v e r s i o n s o f t h e M 1 9 1 8 h e l m e t f o r t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e . T h e m i s s i n g f r o n t v i s o r w a s t h o u g h t b y t h e G e r m a n s t o b e f o r r e l i g i o u s r e a s o n s , a n d i t w a s c l a i m e d t h a t i t w a s t o a l l o w T u r k i s h s o l d i e r s t o t o u c h t h e i r f o r e h e a d s t o t h e g r o u n d d u r i n g p r a y e r , w i t h o u t r e m o v i n g t h e i r h e l m e t s . H o w e v e r , t h i s s t o r y h a s b e e n d i s p u t e d . T h e T u r k s r e j e c t e d a n y m o r e t h a n t h e 5 , 4 0 0 d e l i v e r e d a n d a n u n k n o w n n u m b e r f r o m t h e o v e r r u n w e r e i s s u e d t o G e r m a n a r m e d f o r c e s a n d w e r e u s e d b y G e r m a n F r e i k o r p s u n i t s a f t e r t h e w a r . I n 1 9 3 2 t h e A r m y H i g h C o m m a n d o r d e r e d t h e t e s t i n g o f a n e w p r o t o t y p e h e l m e t i n t e n d e d t o r e p l a c e t h e o l d e r m o d e l s . I t w a s m a d e e n t i r e l y f r o m a c o m p o s i t e p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l c a l l e d " V u l k a n f i b e r " . T h e M o d e l 1 9 3 3 V u l k a n f i b e r h e l m e t k e p t t h e b a s i c f o r m o f p r e v i o u s h e l m e t s b u t w a s m u c h l i g h t e r . I t w a s p u t i n t o l i m i t e d p r o d u c t i o n f o l l o w i n g f a v o u r a b l e f i e l d t e s t s i n e a r l y 1 9 3 3 a n d s m a l l n u m b e r s w e r e i s s u e d t o R e i c h s w e h r i n f a n t r y , a r t i l l e r y a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s u n i t s . I t w a s r e m o v e d f r o m s e r v i c e f o l l o w i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t a n d m o s t o f t h e r e m a i n i n g s t o c k w e r e r e i s s u e d t o c i v i l o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h a s f i r e b r i g a d e s a n d p o l i c e f o r c e s . S o m e e x a m p l e s w e r e a l s o r e t a i n e d f o r p a r a d e u s e b y s e n i o r o f f i c e r s , w h o w e r e n o t g e n e r a l l y i s s u e d w i t h t h e " S t a h l h e l m " . I n 1 9 3 4 t e s t s b e g a n o n a n i m p r o v e d " S t a h l h e l m " , w h o s e d e s i g n w a s a d e v e l o p m e n t o f W o r l d W a r I m o d e l s . T h e E i s e n h ü t t e n w e r k e c o m p a n y o f T h a l e c a r r i e d o u t p r o t o t y p e d e s i g n a n d t e s t i n g , w i t h D r F r i e d r i c h S c h w e r d o n c e a g a i n t a k i n g a h a n d . T h e n e w h e l m e t w a s p r e s s e d f r o m s h e e t s o f m o l y b d e n u m s t e e l i n s e v e r a l s t a g e s . T h e s i z e o f t h e f l a r e d v i s o r a n d s k i r t w a s r e d u c e d , a n d t h e l a r g e p r o j e c t i n g l u g s f o r t h e o b s o l e t e a r m o u r s h i e l d w e r e e l i m i n a t e d . T h e v e n t i l a t o r h o l e s w e r e r e t a i n e d b u t w e r e s e t i n s m a l l e r h o l l o w r i v e t s m o u n t e d t o t h e h e l m e t ' s s h e l l . T h e e d g e s o f t h e s h e l l w e r e r o l l e d o v e r , c r e a t i n g a s m o o t h e d g e a l o n g t h e h e l m e t . F i n a l l y , a c o m p l e t e l y n e w l e a t h e r s u s p e n s i o n , o r l i n e r , w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d t h a t g r e a t l y i m p r o v e d t h e h e l m e t ' s s a f e t y , a d j u s t a b i l i t y , a n d c o m f o r t f o r e a c h w e a r e r . T h e s e i m p r o v e m e n t s m a d e t h e n e w M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t l i g h t e r , m o r e c o m p a c t , a n d m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e t o w e a r t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s d e s i g n s . T h e A r m y ' s S u p r e m e C o m m a n d w i t h i n t h e T h i r d R e i c h ' s " W e h r m a c h t " c o m b i n e d a r m e d f o r c e s o f f i c i a l l y a c c e p t e d t h e n e w h e l m e t o n J u n e 2 5 , 1 9 3 5 a n d i t w a s i n t e n d e d t o r e p l a c e a l l o t h e r h e l m e t s i n s e r v i c e . M o r e t h a n 1 m i l l i o n M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d i n t h e f i r s t t w o y e a r s a f t e r i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n , a n d m i l l i o n s m o r e w e r e p r o d u c e d u n t i l 1 9 4 0 w h e n t h e b a s i c d e s i g n a n d p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d s w e r e c h a n g e d . I n 1 9 3 8 , t h e G e r m a n s d e v e l o p e d a v a r i a n t o f t h e " S t a h l h e l m " w i t h a w i d e r , f l a r e d p e a k a n d v e n t i l a t i o n h o l e s o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d f o r f i r e f i g h t e r s , c i v i l d e f e n s e , R e i c h s a r b e i t s d i e n s t , a n d L u f t s c h u t z p e r s o n n e l . K n o w n a s t h e g l a d i a t o r p a t t e r n , t h e p r i v a t e l y p u r c h a s e d L u f t s c h u t z h e l m e t w a s o r i g i n a l l y m a d e f r o m t h r e e p i e c e s o f s t e e l a n d t y p i c a l l y p a i n t e d b l a c k o r d a r k b l u e . L a t e r i n t h e w a r t h e s e w e r e i s s u e d t o V o l k s s t u r m p e r s o n n e l , a n d s o m e t i m e s r e p a i n t e d i n F e l d g r u n . B y 1 9 4 4 , t h e h e l m e t s w e r e s t a m p e d f r o m a s i n g l e s t e e l s h e e t , a n d t h e o r i g i n a l c l o t h l i n i n g r e p l a c e d w i t h v i n y l t o r e d u c e c o s t s . D u e t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l n u m b e r p r o d u c e d , o r i g i n a l h e l m e t s f r o m t h e w a r y e a r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d r a r e . H o w e v e r , a m o d i f i e d p o s t w a r v e r s i o n i n f l u o r e s c e n t g r e e n , w h i t e o r y e l l o w c o n t i n u e d t o b e i s s u e d t o r e s c u e w o r k e r s i n t h e B u n d e s r e p u b l i k u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s . T h e M 1 9 3 5 d e s i g n w a s s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d i n 1 9 4 0 t o s i m p l i f y i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s n o w i n c o r p o r a t i n g m o r e a u t o m a t e d s t a m p i n g m e t h o d s . T h e p r i n c i p a l c h a n g e w a s t o s t a m p t h e v e n t i l a t o r h o l e m o u n t s d i r e c t l y o n t o t h e s h e l l , r a t h e r t h a n u t i l i z i n g s e p a r a t e f i t t i n g s . I n o t h e r r e s p e c t s , t h e M 1 9 4 0 h e l m e t w a s i d e n t i c a l t o t h e M 1 9 3 5 . T h e G e r m a n s s t i l l r e f e r r e d t o t h e M 1 9 4 0 a s t h e M 1 9 3 5 , w h i l e t h e M 1 9 4 0 d e s i g n a t i o n w e r e g i v e n b y c o l l e c t o r s . A v a r i a n t o f t h e M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t w i t h a s h e l l l a c k i n g t h e p r o j e c t i n g v i s o r a n d d e e p f l a r e d r i m w a s i s s u e d t o " F a l l s c h i r m j ä g e r " ( G e r m a n p a r a t r o o p e r ) u n i t s . I t w a s s o d e s i g n e d i n o r d e r t o l e s s e n t h e r i s k o f h e a d i n j u r y o n l a n d i n g a f t e r a p a r a c h u t e j u m p ; a l s o t o r e d u c e t h e s i g n i f i c a n t w i n d r e s i s t a n c e a n d r e s u l t i n g n e c k t r a u m a . E a r l y F a l l s c h i r m j ä g e r h e l m e t s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d f r o m e x i s t i n g M 1 9 3 5 h e l m e t s b y r e m o v i n g t h e u n d e s i r a b l e p r o j e c t i o n s , w h i c h w e r e o m i t t e d w h e n t h e n e w d e s i g n e n t e r e d f u l l p r o d u c t i o n . T h e m o d i f i e d s h e l l a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e d a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t a n d m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l l i n e r a n d c h i n s t r a p d e s i g n t h a t p r o v i d e d f a r m o r e p r o t e c t i o n f o r G e r m a n a i r b o r n e t r o o p s . T h e c h i n s t r a p f e a t u r e d a f o u r - p o i n t r e t e n t i o n s y s t e m t h a t h a s c o m e i n t o u s e a g a i n b y m o d e r n c o m b a t h e l m e t s s u c h a s t h e M I C H s i n c e t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s . T h e M 1 9 4 2 d e s i g n w a s a r e s u l t o f w a r t i m e d e m a n d s . F r o m d i r e c t o r d e r s o f t h e F ü h r e r , t o ‘ m a i n t a i n i n t i m i d a t i o n b u t r e d u c e c o s t ’ . T h e r o l l e d e d g e o n t h e s h e l l w a s e l i m i n a t e d , c r e a t i n g a n u n f i n i s h e d e d g e a l o n g t h e r i m . T h i s e d g e s l i g h t l y f l a r e d o u t , a l o n g t h e b a s e o f t h e s k i r t , r e d u c i n g t h e p r o t e c t i o n t h e h e l m e t g a v e . T h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e r o l l e d e d g e e x p e d i t e d t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s a n d r e d u c e d t h e a m o u n t o f m e t a l u s e d i n e a c h h e l m e t . S h e l l p a i n t c o l o u r s w e r e t y p i c a l l y m a t t e g r e y - g r e e n ( H e e r ) o r g r e y - b l u e ( L u f t w a f f e ) , a n d t h e d e c a l s w e r e e l i m i n a t e d i n 1 9 4 3 t o s p e e d u p p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e d u c e t h e h e l m e t ' s c o m b a t v i s i b i l i t y . G r e a t e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g f l a w s w e r e a l s o o b s e r v e d i n M 1 9 4 2 h e l m e t s m a d e l a t e i n t h e w a r . A s i m p l e r v a r i a n t , d e s i g n e d i n 1 9 4 2 b y t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r D e f e n c e T e c h n i c a l M a t e r i a l s S c i e n c e i n B e r l i n , w a s a l s o s t a m p e d o u t o f o n e p i e c e o f m e t a l , b u t w i t h s l o p e d s i d e s . I t w a s s i m i l a r i n a p p e a r a n c e t o t h e B r i t i s h 1 9 4 4 T y p e M k I I I h e l m e t . T h e r e h a v e b e e n r e p o r t s o f a v a r i a n t m a n u f a c t u r e d i n t h e l a s t m o n t h s o f t h e w a r . T h e M 1 9 4 5 w a s r e p o r t e d t o h a v e b e e n s i m i l a r t o t h e M 1 9 4 2 d e s i g n b u t d i d a w a y c o m p l e t e l y w i t h t h e v e n t i l a t o r . T h e s e h e l m e t s a r e r e p o r t e d t o b e e x t r e m e l y r a r e . M a n y c o l l e c t o r s a n d h i s t o r i a n s a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e M 1 9 4 5 h e l m e t i s j u s t a r e g u l a r M 1 9 4 2 h e l m e t t h a t l a c k e d t h e v e n t s s i m p l y b e c a u s e o f m a c h i n e m a l f u n c t i o n s i n t h e f a c t o r y , o r u n f i n i s h e d M 1 9 4 2 t h a t w e r e c o m p l e t e d i n t h e p o s t - w a r e r a . A v a r i a n t o f t h e M 1 9 4 4 w i t h a m o d i f i e d s u s p e n s i o n s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d f u r t h e r i n t o t h e M 1 9 5 6 . T h e E a s t G e r m a n M - 5 6 h e l m e t w a s o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d i n 1 9 4 2 a s a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r t h e M 1 9 3 5 / M 1 9 4 0 m o d e l " S t a h l h e l m " . I t w a s i n i t i a l l y d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e W e h r m a c h t b y t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r D e f e n s e T e c h n i c a l M a t e r i a l s S c i e n c e i n B e r l i n ( s e e " M 1 9 4 4 " a b o v e ) . T h e h e l m e t h a d s e e n t r i a l s s i n c e 1 9 4 3 b u t w a s n o t a d o p t e d d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I . T h e d e s i g n w a s n o t u s e d u n t i l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a d i s t i n c t G e r m a n h e l m e t f o r t h e V o l k s p o l i z e i a n d t h e N a t i o n a l P e o p l e ' s A r m y a r o s e . T h e E a s t G e r m a n l e a d e r s h i p w a s m o t i v a t e d i n l a r g e p a r t b y a d e s i r e t o a v o i d p r o v o k i n g t h e o f f e n c e t h a t u s i n g a t r a d i t i o n a l " S t a h l h e l m " d e s i g n w o u l d h a v e c a u s e d E a s t G e r m a n y ' s W a r s a w P a c t a l l i e s ( e s p e c i a l l y C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , P o l a n d a n d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ) , b u t a m o r e p r a c t i c a l m i l i t a r y n e c e s s i t y w a s a l s o p r e s e n t d u e t o t h e c o n t i n u e d u s e o f s u r p l u s " S t a h l h e l m e n " b y W e s t G e r m a n u n i t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r b o r d e r g u a r d s . M o r e o v e r , t h e E a s t G e r m a n s s u s p e c t e d t h e W e s t c o u l d r e - i s s u e t h e " S t a h l h e l m " o n a g e n e r a l b a s i s i n t h e B u n d e s w e h r a t a n y t i m e a n d t h e r e f o r e n e e d e d a h e l m e t t h a t w a s e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h a t o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a l e n e m y . F o r b o t h r e a s o n s , t h e 1 9 4 2 d e s i g n w a s l i k e l y c h o s e n b e c a u s e i t w a s t h e m o s t s i m i l a r o f a l l G e r m a n d e s i g n s t o t h e m o s t r e c o g n i z a b l e S o v i e t h e l m e t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e i c o n i c S S h - 4 0 d e s i g n . S u c h a d e s i g n n o t o n l y s e r v e d a p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e b u t w a s o n e t h a t N A T O a r m i e s w e r e u n l i k e l y t o c l o s e l y d u p l i c a t e . I n d e e d , t h e M - 5 6 w a s s i m i l a r e n o u g h i n a p p e a r a n c e t o t h e S S h - 4 0 t h a t s o m e W e s t e r n e r s f a i l e d t o r e a l i z e i t s G e r m a n o r i g i n s a l t o g e t h e r a n d a s s u m e d t h e E a s t G e r m a n s h a d a d o p t e d a S o v i e t d e s i g n . T h e M - 5 6 h e l m e t c a m e i n t h r e e b a s i c v e r s i o n s , M o d 1 o r I / 5 6 , M o d 2 o r I / 5 7 a n d M o d 3 o r I / 7 1 , a n d w a s w i d e l y s o l d ( o r g i v e n ) t o T h i r d W o r l d a r m i e s . T h e W e s t G e r m a n M - 5 6 " S t a h l h e l m " w a s a d i r e c t c o p y o f t h e U . S . M 1 h e l m e t . I t w a s p r o p e r l y c a l l e d " z w e i t e i l i g e r " S t a h l h e l m " " ( t w o - p i e c e s t e e l h e l m e t ) . I n 1 9 5 8 t h e h e l m e t w a s m a d e a s a o n e - p i e c e h e l m e t a n d r e n a m e d " S t a h l h e l m " M 1 A 1 . T h e M 1 A 1 c a m e i n t h r e e s i z e s : 6 6 , 6 8 , a n d 7 1 . T h i s h e l m e t w a s u s e d u n t i l 1 9 8 1 w h e n a m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n w a s r e l e a s e d a n d r e n a m e d t h e H e l m 1 A 1 . M o d i f i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e d a 3 - p o i n t c h i n s t r a p w i t h t h e t h i r d p o i n t c o n n e c t i n g a t t h e n a p e , e x t r a - l a r g e s i z e s , a n d a f u r t h e r a d j u s t a b l e l i n e r . T h e M 1 A 1 " S t a h l h e l m " r e m a i n e d i n s e r v i c e u n t i l 1 9 9 2 w h e n t h e B u n d e s w e h r r e p l a c e d i t w i t h a P A S G T - d e r i v e d k e v l a r h e l m e t c a l l e d t h e " G e f e c h t s h e l m " ( " C o m b a t h e l m e t " ) . A f t e r " S t a h l h e l m " s h e l l s w e r e p a i n t e d , t h e c o l o u r s o f w h i c h v a r i e d b y o r g a n i z a t i o n , s m a l l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o r i n s i g n i a d e c a l s u s u a l l y w e r e a f f i x e d t o o n e o r b o t h s i d e s o f t h e h e l m e t . A l m o s t e v e r y m i l i t a r y , n a v a l , a n d p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n h a d i t s o w n d i s t i n c t i v e i n s i g n i a , w h i c h w a s a p p l i e d a s d e c a l s t o t h e s i d e s o f h e l m e t s . T h e r i g h t s i d e o f e a r l y M 3 5 h e l m e t s b o r e t h e t r i c o l o r e d s h i e l d o f b l a c k , w h i t e , a n d r e d s t r i p e s , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i o n a l c o l o r s o f t h e p r e - W W I G e r m a n E m p i r e ( c f . t h e b l a c k , r e d , a n d g o l d o f t o d a y ' s F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f G e r m a n y , h a r k i n g b a c k t o t h e 1 8 4 8 R e v o l t ) . T h e l e f t s i d e o f t h e s h e l l o f t e n r e c e i v e d d e c a l i n s i g n i a d e n o t i n g t h e b r a n c h o f t h e a r m e d f o r c e s , o r " W e h r m a c h t " , o r a n o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h i n t h e N a z i P a r t y . T h e c o m b i n e d " W e h r m a c h t " m i l i t a r y f o r c e s o f N a z i G e r m a n y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e " H e e r " ( a r m y ) , t h e " K r i e g s m a r i n e " ( n a v y ) , a n d t h e " L u f t w a f f e " ( a i r f o r c e ) . W h i l e n o t t e c h n i c a l l y p a r t o f t h e W e h r m a c h t , t h e " W a f f e n - S S " ( " A r m e d - S S " ) t a c t i c a l l y o p e r a t e d a s s u c h a n d w a s c o n s i d e r e d p a r t o f G e r m a n y ' s a r m e d f o r c e s d u r i n g t h e w a r . T h e s a m e w a s t r u e o f s o m e " S t u r m a b t e i l u n g " ( S A ) u n i t s , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r s u b s i d i a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s , w h i c h f u n c t i o n e d a s p a r t o f t h e a r m e d f o r c e s p a r t i c u l a r l y t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e w a r . W e h r m a c h t b r a n c h e s t y p i c a l l y d i s p l a y e d d i s t i n c t i v e e m b l e m s i n t h e f o r m o f d e c a l s o n t h e i r h e l m e t s . T h e H e e r , o r a r m y , d i s p l a y e d a b l a c k s h i e l d b e a r i n g t h e f r o n t a l v i e w o f a s i l v e r - c o l o u r e d G e r m a n e a g l e h o l d i n g a s w a s t i k a i n i t s t a l o n s ( k n o w n a s t h e " R e i c h s a d l e r " ) , w h i l e t h e n a v y u s e d t h e s a m e e a g l e e m b l e m i n g o l d . L u f t w a f f e d e c a l s d i s p l a y e d t h e s i d e v i e w o f a n e a g l e i n f l i g h t , a l s o h o l d i n g a s w a s t i k a . T h e S S w a s b o t h a p a r a m i l i t a r y a n d a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d i t s b l a c k r u n i c i n i t i a l s o n a s i l v e r - c o l o u r e d s h i e l d ( n o r m a l l y a p p l i e d t o t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e s h e l l ) l o o k e d l i k e t w i n l i g h t n i n g b o l t s . O t h e r m i l i t a r y , p o l i t i c a l , a n d c i v i l o r d e f e n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s u s e d s i m i l a r d e c a l i n s i g n i a t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e i r h e l m e t s . S u c h v i s i b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d e v i c e s w e r e g r a d u a l l y a b a n d o n e d a s t h e w a r p r o g r e s s e d , h o w e v e r , s o t h a t b y w a r ' s e n d m o s t W e h r m a c h t h e l m e t i n s i g n i a h a d b e e n e l i m i n a t e d t o r e d u c e t h e w e a r e r ' s v i s i b i l i t y i n c o m b a t . F o r t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t A r m y s o l d i e r s , t h e i r M 3 5 h e l m e t s w e r e s t e n c i l l e d w i t h t h e C h i n e s e N a t i o n a l i s t I n s i g n i a o n t h e l e f t s i d e . B o l i v i a n A r m y p e r s o n n e l c a r r y t h e n a t i o n a l f l a g d e c a l o n t h e i r S t a h l h e l m s w h e n i n t h e f u l l d r e s s . T h e G e r m a n a r m y " S t a h l h e l m " , a s w e l l a s t h e J a p a n e s e " K a b u t o " , s e r v e d a s a t e m p l a t e f o r t h e f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r ' s D a r t h V a d e r o u t f i t i n t h e S t a r W a r s f r a n c h i s e . M e m b e r s o f t h e W o l f B r i g a d e , a f i c t i o n a l J a p a n e s e u n i t i n t h e a n i m e J i n - R o h : T h e W o l f B r i g a d e a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h " S t a h l h e l m e " , a s w e l l a s W e h r m a c h t w e a p o n s o f t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , i n c l u d i n g S t G 4 4 s a n d M G 4 2 s .

Variants

The Stahlhelm was used by Bolivia after the Chaco War, and exported M1935 helmets were similar to the German issue, except for a different liner. Hungary copied the German design, producing the M38 helmet, which is nearly identical to the German M1935. The Austrian M17 helmet was similar to the German M16, but with a golden-brown color and a cloth chinstrap. The Hungarian M18 variant was similar to the Austrian M17 design. Various modifications were made to the Stahlhelm design throughout its history, including changes to the ventilation system, liner, and materials used. The helmet was used by several countries, including Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Bolivia, and remained in use until the 1970s.

after Chaco War the Bolivian army used to wear the helmet up until recently. The exported M1935 helmets were similar to the German issue, except for a different liner. Some countries manufactured their own helmets using the M1935 design, and this basic design was in use in various nations as late as the 1970s. The Germans allowed and assisted the Hungarians in copying their design of the M1935 steel helmet. Therefore, the WWII-produced M38 Hungarian steel helmet is nearly identical to the German M1935. Both have almost the same shape, riveted ventilation holes, and the classic rolled edge. Differences include somewhat rougher Hungarian finishing, a different liner and different rivets position – the split pins are situated behind the ventilation holes. A square metal bracket is riveted on 1917. Around a million "Stahlhelm" of all variants were issued until the end of the war. The Austrian M17 helmet was similar to the German M16 but was coloured golden-brown (known as Isonzo-braun), had a cloth chinstrap and had the chinstrap rivet located higher up on the steel shell. From May 1917 till the end of World War I 534,013 were produced, many of which were manufactured at the Krupp in Berndorf, Lower Austria. Other production locations included: The Hungarian M18 variant was similar to the Austrian M17 design, but the chinstrap rivet was smaller in size and located even higher up than the Austrian version. It was coloured in golden-brown (known as Isonzo-braun). These were manufactured at the Krupp in Berndorf, Lower Austria. There was also a a variant of the "Stahlhelm" with a wider, flared peak and ventilation holes originally intended for firefighters, civil defense, Reichsarbeitsdienst, and Luftschutz personnel. Known as the gladiator pattern, the privately purchased Luftschutz helmet was originally made from three pieces of steel and typically painted black or dark blue. Later in the war these were issued to Volkssturm personnel, and sometimes repainted in Feldgrun. By 1944, the helmets were stamped from a single steel sheet, and the original cloth lining replaced with vinyl to reduce costs. Due to the relatively small number produced, original helmets from the war years are considered rare. However, a modified postwar version in fluorescent green, white or yellow continued to be issued to rescue workers in the Bundesrepublik until the early 1990s. The M1935 design was slightly modified in 1940 to simplify its construction, the manufacturing process now incorporating more automated stamping methods. The principal change was to stamp the ventilator hole mounts directly onto the shell, rather than utilizing separate fittings. In other respects, the M1940 helmet was identical to the M1935. The Germans still referred to the M1940 as the M1935, while the M1940 designation were given by collectors. A variant of the M1935 helmet with a shell lacking the projecting visor and deep flared rim was issued to "Fallschirmjäger" (German paratrooper) units. It was so designed in order to lessen the risk of head injury on landing after a parachute jump; also to reduce the significant wind resistance and resulting neck trauma. Early Fallschirmjäger helmets were manufactured from existing process and reduced the amount of metal used in each helmet. Shell paint colours were typically matte grey-green (Heer) or grey-blue (Luftwaffe), and the decals were eliminated in 1943 to speed up production and reduce the helmet's combat visibility. Greater manufacturing flaws were also observed in M1942 helmets made late in the war. A simpler variant, designed in 1942 by the Institute for Defence Technical Materials Science in Berlin, was also stamped out of one piece of metal, but with sloped sides. It was similar in appearance to the British 1944 Type Mk III helmet. There have been reports of a variant manufactured in the last months of the war. The M1945 was reported to have been similar to the M1942 design but did away completely with the ventilator. These helmets are reported to be extremely rare. Many collectors and historians are of the opinion that the M1945 helmet is just a regular M1942 helmet that lacked the vents simply because of machine malfunctions in the factory, or unfinished M1942 that were completed in the post-war era. A variant of the M1944 with a modified suspension system developed further into the M1956. The East German M-56 helmet was originally designed in 1942 as a replacement for the M1935/M1940 model "Stahlhelm". It was initially developed for the Wehrmacht by the Institute for Defense Technical Materials Science in Berlin (see "M1944" above). The helmet had seen trials since 1943 but was not adopted during World War II. The design was not used until the requirement for a distinct designs to the most recognizable Soviet helmets, in particular the iconic SSh-40 design. Such a design not only served a political purpose but was one that NATO armies were unlikely to closely duplicate. Indeed, the M-56 was similar enough in appearance to the SSh-40 that some Westerners failed to realize its German origins altogether and assumed the East Germans had adopted a Soviet design. The M-56 helmet came in three basic versions, Mod 1 or I/56, Mod 2 or I/57 and Mod 3 or I/71, and was widely sold (or given) to Third World armies. The West German M-56 "Stahlhelm" was a direct copy of the U.S. M1 helmet. It was properly called "zweiteiliger "Stahlhelm"" (two-piece steel helmet). In 1958 the helmet was made as a one-piece helmet and renamed "Stahlhelm" M1A1. The M1A1 came in three sizes: 66, 68, and 71. This helmet was used until 1981 when a modified version was released and renamed the Helm1A1. Modifications included a 3-point chin strap with the third point connecting at the nape, extra-large sizes, and a further adjustable liner. The M1A1 "Stahlhelm" remained in service until 1992 when the Bundeswehr replaced it with a PASGT-derived kevlar helmet called the "Gefechtshelm" ("Combat helmet"). After "Stahlhelm" shells were painted, the colours of which varied by organization, small identification or insignia decals usually were affixed to one or both sides of the helmet. Almost every military, naval, and political organization had its own distinctive insignia, which was applied as decals to the sides of helmets. The right side of 42s.

Arrangement of lines

A n y f i n i t e s e t f o r m u l a _ 1 o f l i n e s i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e c a n b e u s e d t o c l a s s i f y t h e p o i n t s o f t h e p l a n e a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h s i d e o f e a c h l i n e t h e y a r e o n . I n t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , t w o p o i n t s f o r m u l a _ 2 a n d f o r m u l a _ 3 a r e e q u i v a l e n t i f t h e y a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e s a m e w a y a s e a c h o t h e r b y a l l t h e l i n e s : f o r e a c h l i n e f o r m u l a _ 4 , e i t h e r b o t h p o i n t s b e l o n g t o t h e s a m e o p e n h a l f - p l a n e b o u n d e d b y f o r m u l a _ 4 , o r b o t h p o i n t s l i e o n f o r m u l a _ 4 . T h i s i s a n e q u i v a l e n c e r e l a t i o n , w h o s e e q u i v a l e n c e c l a s s e s a r e s u b s e t s o f e q u i v a l e n t p o i n t s . T h e s e s u b s e t s s u b d i v i d e t h e p l a n e i n t o s h a p e s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e t y p e s : # t h e i n t e r i o r s o f b o u n d e d o r u n b o u n d e d c o n v e x p o l y g o n s ( t h e " c e l l s " o r " c h a m b e r s " o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ) , t h e c o n n e c t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e s u b s e t o f t h e p l a n e n o t c o n t a i n e d i n a n y o f t h e l i n e s o f f o r m u l a _ 1 , # o p e n l i n e s e g m e n t s a n d o p e n i n f i n i t e r a y s ( t h e " e d g e s " o r " p a n e l s " o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ) , t h e c o n n e c t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e p o i n t s o f a s i n g l e l i n e t h a t d o n o t b e l o n g t o a n y o t h e r l i n e s o f f o r m u l a _ 1 , a n d # s i n g l e p o i n t s ( t h e " v e r t i c e s " o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ) , t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f t w o o r m o r e l i n e s o f f o r m u l a _ 1 . T h e s e t h r e e t y p e s o f o b j e c t s , l i n k e d t o g e t h e r b y a b o u n d a r y m a p t h a t t a k e s e a c h e d g e t o i t s e n d p o i n t s a n d e a c h c e l l t o t h e e d g e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c e l l , f o r m a c e l l c o m p l e x c o v e r i n g t h e p l a n e . T w o a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e s a i d t o b e " i s o m o r p h i c " o r " c o m b i n a t o r i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t " i f t h e r e i s a o n e - t o - o n e b o u n d a r y - p r e s e r v i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e o b j e c t s i n t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d c e l l c o m p l e x e s . T h e s a m e t y p e s o f s h a p e s o c c u r f o r i n f i n i t e b u t " l o c a l l y f i n i t e " a r r a n g e m e n t s , i n w h i c h e v e r y b o u n d e d s u b s e t o f t h e p l a n e m a y b e c r o s s e d b y o n l y f i n i t e l y m a n y l i n e s , a l t h o u g h i n t h i s c a s e t h e u n b o u n d e d c e l l s m a y h a v e i n f i n i t e l y m a n y s i d e s . I n f i n i t e s y s t e m s o f l i n e s t h a t a r e n o t l o c a l l y f i n i t e m a y h a v e e q u i v a l e n c e c l a s s e s o f o t h e r s h a p e s ; f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s y s t e m o f t a n g e n t l i n e s t o a u n i t c i r c l e h a s t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e c i r c l e a s o n e o f i t s e q u i v a l e n c e c l a s s e s . T h e s t u d y o f a r r a n g e m e n t s w a s b e g u n b y J a k o b S t e i n e r , w h o p r o v e d t h e f i r s t b o u n d s o n t h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f f e a t u r e s o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s t h a t a n a r r a n g e m e n t m a y h a v e . A n a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h f o r m u l a _ 1 0 l i n e s h a s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 1 1 v e r t i c e s ( a t r i a n g u l a r n u m b e r ) , o n e p e r p a i r o f c r o s s i n g l i n e s . T h i s m a x i m u m i s a c h i e v e d f o r " s i m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t s " , t h o s e i n w h i c h e a c h t w o l i n e s h a s a d i s t i n c t p a i r o f c r o s s i n g p o i n t s . I n a n y a r r a n g e m e n t t h e r e w i l l b e f o r m u l a _ 1 0 i n f i n i t e - d o w n w a r d r a y s , o n e p e r l i n e ; t h e s e r a y s s e p a r a t e f o r m u l a _ 1 3 c e l l s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t a r e u n b o u n d e d i n t h e d o w n w a r d d i r e c t i o n . T h e r e m a i n i n g c e l l s a l l h a v e a u n i q u e b o t t o m m o s t v e r t e x , a n d e a c h v e r t e x i s b o t t o m m o s t f o r a u n i q u e c e l l , s o t h e n u m b e r o f c e l l s i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t i s t h e n u m b e r o f v e r t i c e s p l u s f o r m u l a _ 1 3 , o r a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 1 5 ; s e e l a z y c a t e r e r ' s s e q u e n c e . T h e n u m b e r o f e d g e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t i s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 1 6 , a s m a y b e s e e n e i t h e r b y u s i n g t h e E u l e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o c a l c u l a t e i t f r o m t h e n u m b e r s o f v e r t i c e s a n d c e l l s , o r b y o b s e r v i n g t h a t e a c h l i n e i s p a r t i t i o n e d i n t o a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 1 0 e d g e s b y t h e o t h e r f o r m u l a _ 1 8 l i n e s ; a g a i n , t h i s w o r s t - c a s e b o u n d i s a c h i e v e d f o r s i m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h e " z o n e " o f a l i n e f o r m u l a _ 4 i n a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t i s t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f c e l l s h a v i n g e d g e s b e l o n g i n g t o f o r m u l a _ 4 . T h e z o n e t h e o r e m s t a t e s t h a t t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f e d g e s i n t h e c e l l s o f a s i n g l e z o n e i s l i n e a r . M o r e p r e c i s e l y , t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f e d g e s o f t h e c e l l s b e l o n g i n g t o a s i n g l e s i d e o f l i n e f o r m u l a _ 4 i s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 2 2 , a n d t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f e d g e s o f t h e c e l l s b e l o n g i n g t o b o t h s i d e s o f f o r m u l a _ 4 i s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 2 4 . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , t h e t o t a l c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e c e l l s o f a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t a r e i n t e r s e c t e d b y a n y c o n v e x c u r v e i s f o r m u l a _ 2 5 , w h e r e f o r m u l a _ 2 6 d e n o t e s t h e i n v e r s e A c k e r m a n n f u n c t i o n , a s m a y b e s h o w n u s i n g D a v e n p o r t – S c h i n z e l s e q u e n c e s . S u m m i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f a l l z o n e s , o n e f i n d s t h a t t h e s u m o f s q u a r e s o f c e l l c o m p l e x i t i e s i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t i s f o r m u l a _ 2 7 . T h e f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - " l e v e l " o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t i s t h e p o l y g o n a l c h a i n f o r m e d b y t h e e d g e s t h a t h a v e e x a c t l y f o r m u l a _ 2 8 o t h e r l i n e s d i r e c t l y b e l o w t h e m , a n d t h e f o r m u l a _ 3 0 - l e v e l i s t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t b e l o w t h e f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l . F i n d i n g m a t c h i n g u p p e r a n d l o w e r b o u n d s f o r t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f a f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l r e m a i n s a m a j o r o p e n p r o b l e m i n d i s c r e t e g e o m e t r y ; t h e b e s t u p p e r b o u n d i s f o r m u l a _ 3 3 , w h i l e t h e b e s t l o w e r b o u n d i s f o r m u l a _ 3 4 . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e m a x i m u m c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e f o r m u l a _ 3 0 - l e v e l i s k n o w n t o b e f o r m u l a _ 3 6 . A f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l i s a s p e c i a l c a s e o f a m o n o t o n e p a t h i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t ; t h a t i s , a s e q u e n c e o f e d g e s t h a t i n t e r s e c t s a n y v e r t i c a l l i n e i n a s i n g l e p o i n t . H o w e v e r , m o n o t o n e p a t h s m a y b e m u c h m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l s : t h e r e e x i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d m o n o t o n e p a t h s i n t h e s e a r r a n g e m e n t s w h e r e t h e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s a t w h i c h t h e p a t h c h a n g e s d i r e c t i o n i s f o r m u l a _ 3 9 . A l t h o u g h a s i n g l e c e l l i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t m a y b e b o u n d e d b y a l l f o r m u l a _ 1 0 l i n e s , i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e i n g e n e r a l f o r f o r m u l a _ 4 1 d i f f e r e n t c e l l s t o a l l b e b o u n d e d b y f o r m u l a _ 1 0 l i n e s . R a t h e r , t h e t o t a l c o m p l e x i t y o f f o r m u l a _ 4 1 c e l l s i s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 4 4 , a l m o s t t h e s a m e b o u n d a s o c c u r s i n t h e S z e m e r é d i – T r o t t e r t h e o r e m o n p o i n t - l i n e i n c i d e n c e s i n t h e p l a n e . A s i m p l e p r o o f o f t h i s f o l l o w s f r o m t h e c r o s s i n g n u m b e r i n e q u a l i t y : i f f o r m u l a _ 4 1 c e l l s h a v e a t o t a l o f f o r m u l a _ 4 6 e d g e s , o n e c a n f o r m a g r a p h w i t h f o r m u l a _ 4 1 n o d e s ( o n e p e r c e l l ) a n d f o r m u l a _ 4 8 e d g e s ( o n e p e r p a i r o f c o n s e c u t i v e c e l l s o n t h e s a m e l i n e ) . T h e e d g e s o f t h i s g r a p h c a n b e d r a w n a s c u r v e s t h a t d o n o t c r o s s w i t h i n t h e c e l l s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i r e n d p o i n t s , a n d t h e n f o l l o w t h e l i n e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r e f o r m u l a _ 2 7 c r o s s i n g s i n t h i s d r a w i n g . H o w e v e r , b y t h e c r o s s i n g n u m b e r i n e q u a l i t y , t h e r e a r e f o r m u l a _ 5 0 c r o s s i n g s ; i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y b o t h b o u n d s , f o r m u l a _ 4 8 m u s t b e f o r m u l a _ 5 2 . I t i s o f t e n c o n v e n i e n t t o s t u d y l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s n o t i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e b u t i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e , d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n p r o j e c t i v e g e o m e t r y e v e r y p a i r o f l i n e s h a s a c r o s s i n g p o i n t . I n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e , w e m a y n o l o n g e r d e f i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s u s i n g s i d e s o f l i n e s ( a l i n e i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e d o e s n o t s e p a r a t e t h e p l a n e i n t o t w o d i s t i n c t s i d e s ) , b u t w e m a y s t i l l d e f i n e t h e c e l l s o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t t o b e t h e c o n n e c t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e p o i n t s n o t b e l o n g i n g t o a n y l i n e , t h e e d g e s t o b e t h e c o n n e c t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f s e t s o f p o i n t s b e l o n g i n g t o a s i n g l e l i n e , a n d t h e v e r t i c e s t o b e p o i n t s w h e r e t w o o r m o r e l i n e s c r o s s . A l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e d i f f e r s f r o m i t s E u c l i d e a n c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h a t t h e t w o E u c l i d e a n r a y s a t e i t h e r e n d o f a l i n e a r e r e p l a c e d b y a s i n g l e e d g e i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e l e f t m o s t a n d r i g h t m o s t v e r t i c e s o n t h a t l i n e , a n d i n t h a t p a i r s o f u n b o u n d e d E u c l i d e a n c e l l s a r e r e p l a c e d i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e b y s i n g l e c e l l s t h a t a r e c r o s s e d b y t h e p r o j e c t i v e l i n e a t i n f i n i t y . D u e t o p r o j e c t i v e d u a l i t y , m a n y s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e c o m b i n a t o r i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f p o i n t s i n t h e p l a n e m a y b e m o r e e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d i n a n e q u i v a l e n t d u a l f o r m a b o u t a r r a n g e m e n t s o f l i n e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e S y l v e s t e r – G a l l a i t h e o r e m , s t a t i n g t h a t a n y n o n - c o l l i n e a r s e t o f p o i n t s i n t h e p l a n e h a s a n " o r d i n a r y l i n e " c o n t a i n i n g e x a c t l y t w o p o i n t s , t r a n s f o r m s u n d e r p r o j e c t i v e d u a l i t y t o t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t a n y a r r a n g e m e n t o f l i n e s w i t h m o r e t h a n o n e v e r t e x h a s a n " o r d i n a r y p o i n t " , a v e r t e x w h e r e o n l y t w o l i n e s c r o s s . T h e e a r l i e s t k n o w n p r o o f o f t h e S y l v e s t e r – G a l l a i t h e o r e m , b y , u s e s t h e E u l e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o s h o w t h a t s u c h a v e r t e x m u s t a l w a y s e x i s t . A n a r r a n g e m e n t o f l i n e s i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e i s s a i d t o b e " s i m p l i c i a l " i f e v e r y c e l l o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t i s b o u n d e d b y e x a c t l y t h r e e e d g e s ; s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e f i r s t s t u d i e d b y M e l c h i o r . T h r e e i n f i n i t e f a m i l i e s o f s i m p l i c i a l l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e k n o w n : # A " n e a r - p e n c i l " c o n s i s t i n g o f f o r m u l a _ 1 8 l i n e s t h r o u g h a s i n g l e p o i n t , t o g e t h e r w i t h a s i n g l e a d d i t i o n a l l i n e t h a t d o e s n o t g o t h r o u g h t h e s a m e p o i n t , # T h e f a m i l y o f l i n e s f o r m e d b y t h e s i d e s o f a r e g u l a r p o l y g o n t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s a x e s o f s y m m e t r y , a n d # T h e s i d e s a n d a x e s o f s y m m e t r y o f a n e v e n r e g u l a r p o l y g o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e l i n e a t i n f i n i t y . A d d i t i o n a l l y t h e r e a r e m a n y o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f " s p o r a d i c s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s " t h a t d o n o t f i t i n t o a n y k n o w n i n f i n i t e f a m i l y . A s G r ü n b a u m w r i t e s , s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s “ a p p e a r a s e x a m p l e s o r c o u n t e r e x a m p l e s i n m a n y c o n t e x t s o f c o m b i n a t o r i a l g e o m e t r y a n d i t s a p p l i c a t i o n s . ” F o r i n s t a n c e , u s e s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s t o c o n s t r u c t c o u n t e r e x a m p l e s t o a c o n j e c t u r e o n t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d e g r e e o f a s e t o f d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s a n d t h e n u m b e r o f i n v a r i a n t l i n e s t h e e q u a t i o n s m a y h a v e . T h e t w o k n o w n c o u n t e r e x a m p l e s t o t h e D i r a c – M o t z k i n c o n j e c t u r e ( w h i c h s t a t e s t h a t a n y f o r m u l a _ 1 0 - l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t h a s a t l e a s t f o r m u l a _ 5 5 o r d i n a r y p o i n t s ) a r e b o t h s i m p l i c i a l . T h e d u a l g r a p h o f a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t , i n w h i c h t h e r e i s o n e n o d e p e r c e l l a n d o n e e d g e l i n k i n g a n y p a i r o f c e l l s t h a t s h a r e a n e d g e o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , i s a p a r t i a l c u b e , a g r a p h i n w h i c h t h e n o d e s c a n b e l a b e l e d b y b i t v e c t o r s i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e g r a p h d i s t a n c e e q u a l s t h e H a m m i n g d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n l a b e l s ; i n t h e c a s e o f a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t , e a c h c o o r d i n a t e o f t h e l a b e l i n g a s s i g n s 0 t o n o d e s o n o n e s i d e o f o n e o f t h e l i n e s a n d 1 t o n o d e s o n t h e o t h e r s i d e . D u a l g r a p h s o f s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s h a v e b e e n u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t i n f i n i t e f a m i l i e s o f 3 - r e g u l a r p a r t i a l c u b e s , i s o m o r p h i c t o t h e g r a p h s o f s i m p l e z o n o h e d r a . I t i s a l s o o f i n t e r e s t t o s t u d y t h e e x t r e m a l n u m b e r s o f t r i a n g u l a r c e l l s i n a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t m a y n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e s i m p l i c i a l . I n a n y a r r a n g e m e n t , t h e r e m u s t b e a t l e a s t f o r m u l a _ 1 0 t r i a n g l e s ; e v e r y a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t h a s o n l y f o r m u l a _ 1 0 t r i a n g l e s m u s t b e s i m p l e . T h e m a x i m u m p o s s i b l e n u m b e r o f t r i a n g l e s i n a s i m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t i s k n o w n t o b e u p p e r b o u n d e d b y f o r m u l a _ 5 8 a n d l o w e r b o u n d e d b y f o r m u l a _ 5 9 ; t h e l o w e r b o u n d i s a c h i e v e d b y c e r t a i n s u b s e t s o f t h e d i a g o n a l s o f a r e g u l a r f o r m u l a _ 6 0 - g o n . F o r n o n - s i m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t s t h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f t r i a n g l e s i s s i m i l a r b u t m o r e t i g h t l y b o u n d e d . T h e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d K o b o n t r i a n g l e p r o b l e m a s k s f o r t h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f n o n - o v e r l a p p i n g f i n i t e t r i a n g l e s ( n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f a c e s ) i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e ; f o r s o m e b u t n o t a l l v a l u e s o f f o r m u l a _ 1 0 , f o r m u l a _ 6 2 t r i a n g l e s a r e p o s s i b l e . T h e d u a l g r a p h o f a s i m p l e l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t m a y b e r e p r e s e n t e d g e o m e t r i c a l l y a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f r h o m b i , o n e p e r v e r t e x o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , w i t h s i d e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l i n e s t h a t m e e t a t t h a t v e r t e x . T h e s e r h o m b i m a y b e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r t o f o r m a t i l i n g o f a c o n v e x p o l y g o n i n t h e c a s e o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t o f f i n i t e l y m a n y l i n e s , o r o f t h e e n t i r e p l a n e i n t h e c a s e o f a l o c a l l y f i n i t e a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h i n f i n i t e l y m a n y l i n e s . i n v e s t i g a t e d s p e c i a l c a s e s o f t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t c o n s i s t s o f f o r m u l a _ 2 8 s e t s o f e q u a l l y s p a c e d p a r a l l e l l i n e s . F o r t w o p e r p e n d i c u l a r f a m i l i e s o f p a r a l l e l l i n e s t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n j u s t g i v e s t h e f a m i l i a r s q u a r e t i l i n g o f t h e p l a n e , a n d f o r t h r e e f a m i l i e s o f l i n e s a t 1 2 0 - d e g r e e a n g l e s f r o m e a c h o t h e r ( t h e m s e l v e s f o r m i n g a t r i h e x a g o n a l t i l i n g ) t h i s p r o d u c e s t h e r h o m b i l l e t i l i n g . H o w e v e r , f o r m o r e f a m i l i e s o f l i n e s t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o d u c e s a p e r i o d i c t i l i n g s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , f o r f i v e f a m i l i e s o f l i n e s a t e q u a l a n g l e s t o e a c h o t h e r ( o r , a s d e B r u i j n c a l l s t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t , a " p e n t a g r i d " ) i t p r o d u c e s a f a m i l y o f t i l i n g s t h a t i n c l u d e t h e r h o m b i c v e r s i o n o f t h e P e n r o s e t i l i n g s . T h e t e t r a k i s s q u a r e t i l i n g i s a n i n f i n i t e a r r a n g e m e n t o f l i n e s f o r m i n g a p e r i o d i c t i l i n g t h a t r e s e m b l e s a m u l t i g r i d w i t h f o u r p a r a l l e l f a m i l i e s , b u t i n w h i c h t w o o f t h e f a m i l i e s a r e m o r e w i d e l y s p a c e d t h a n t h e o t h e r t w o , a n d i n w h i c h t h e a r r a n g e m e n t i s s i m p l i c i a l r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l e . I t s d u a l i s t h e t r u n c a t e d s q u a r e t i l i n g . S i m i l a r l y , t h e t r i a n g u l a r t i l i n g i s a n i n f i n i t e s i m p l i c i a l l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h t h r e e p a r a l l e l f a m i l i e s , w h i c h h a s a s i t s d u a l t h e h e x a g o n a l t i l i n g , a n d t h e b i s e c t e d h e x a g o n a l t i l i n g i s a n i n f i n i t e s i m p l i c i a l l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h s i x p a r a l l e l f a m i l i e s a n d t w o l i n e s p a c i n g s , d u a l t o t h e g r e a t r h o m b i t r i h e x a g o n a l t i l i n g . " C o n s t r u c t i n g " a n a r r a n g e m e n t m e a n s , g i v e n a s i n p u t a l i s t o f t h e l i n e s i n t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , c o m p u t i n g a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e v e r t i c e s , e d g e s , a n d c e l l s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a d j a c e n c i e s b e t w e e n t h e s e o b j e c t s , f o r i n s t a n c e a s a d o u b l y c o n n e c t e d e d g e l i s t . D u e t o t h e z o n e t h e o r e m , a r r a n g e m e n t s c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d e f f i c i e n t l y b y a n i n c r e m e n t a l a l g o r i t h m t h a t a d d s o n e l i n e a t a t i m e t o t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y a d d e d l i n e s : e a c h n e w l i n e c a n b e a d d e d i n t i m e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o i t s z o n e , r e s u l t i n g i n a t o t a l c o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e o f f o r m u l a _ 2 7 . H o w e v e r , t h e m e m o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h i s a l g o r i t h m a r e h i g h , s o i t m a y b e m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o r e p o r t a l l f e a t u r e s o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t b y a n a l g o r i t h m t h a t d o e s n o t k e e p t h e e n t i r e a r r a n g e m e n t i n m e m o r y a t o n c e . T h i s m a y a g a i n b e d o n e e f f i c i e n t l y , i n t i m e f o r m u l a _ 2 7 a n d s p a c e f o r m u l a _ 6 6 , b y a n a l g o r i t h m i c t e c h n i q u e k n o w n a s " t o p o l o g i c a l s w e e p i n g " . C o m p u t i n g a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t e x a c t l y r e q u i r e s a n u m e r i c a l p r e c i s i o n s e v e r a l t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e i n p u t c o o r d i n a t e s : i f a l i n e i s s p e c i f i e d b y t w o p o i n t s o n i t , t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t v e r t i c e s m a y n e e d f o u r t i m e s a s m u c h p r e c i s i o n a s t h e s e i n p u t p o i n t s . T h e r e f o r e , c o m p u t a t i o n a l g e o m e t e r s h a v e a l s o s t u d i e d a l g o r i t h m s f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s e f f i c i e n t l y w i t h l i m i t e d n u m e r i c a l p r e c i s i o n . A s w e l l , r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e s t u d i e d e f f i c i e n t a l g o r i t h m s f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g s m a l l e r p o r t i o n s o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t , s u c h a s z o n e s , f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l s , o r t h e s e t o f c e l l s c o n t a i n i n g a g i v e n s e t o f p o i n t s . T h e p r o b l e m o f f i n d i n g t h e a r r a n g e m e n t v e r t e x w i t h t h e m e d i a n f o r m u l a _ 4 8 - c o o r d i n a t e a r i s e s ( i n a d u a l f o r m ) i n r o b u s t s t a t i s t i c s a s t h e p r o b l e m o f c o m p u t i n g t h e T h e i l – S e n e s t i m a t o r o f a s e t o f p o i n t s . M a r c v a n K r e v e l d s u g g e s t e d t h e a l g o r i t h m i c p r o b l e m o f c o m p u t i n g s h o r t e s t p a t h s b e t w e e n v e r t i c e s i n a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t , w h e r e t h e p a t h s a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o f o l l o w t h e e d g e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , m o r e q u i c k l y t h a n t h e q u a d r a t i c t i m e t h a t i t w o u l d t a k e t o a p p l y a s h o r t e s t p a t h a l g o r i t h m t o t h e w h o l e a r r a n g e m e n t g r a p h . A n a p p r o x i m a t i o n a l g o r i t h m i s k n o w n , a n d t h e p r o b l e m m a y b e s o l v e d e f f i c i e n t l y f o r l i n e s t h a t f a l l i n t o a s m a l l n u m b e r o f p a r a l l e l f a m i l i e s ( a s i s t y p i c a l f o r u r b a n s t r e e t g r i d s ) , b u t t h e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m r e m a i n s o p e n . A p s e u d o l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t i s a f a m i l y o f c u r v e s t h a t s h a r e s i m i l a r t o p o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s w i t h a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e s e c a n b e d e f i n e d m o s t s i m p l y i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e a s s i m p l e c l o s e d c u r v e s a n y t w o o f w h i c h m e e t i n a s i n g l e c r o s s i n g p o i n t . A p s e u d o l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t i s s a i d t o b e " s t r e t c h a b l e " i f i t i s c o m b i n a t o r i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t ; i t i s c o m p l e t e f o r t h e e x i s t e n t i a l t h e o r y o f t h e r e a l s t o d i s t i n g u i s h s t r e t c h a b l e a r r a n g e m e n t s f r o m n o n - s t r e t c h a b l e o n e s . E v e r y a r r a n g e m e n t o f f i n i t e l y m a n y p s e u d o l i n e s c a n b e e x t e n d e d s o t h a t t h e y b e c o m e l i n e s i n a " s p r e a d " , a t y p e o f n o n - E u c l i d e a n i n c i d e n c e g e o m e t r y i n w h i c h e v e r y t w o p o i n t s o f a t o p o l o g i c a l p l a n e a r e c o n n e c t e d b y a u n i q u e l i n e ( a s i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e ) b u t i n w h i c h o t h e r a x i o m s o f E u c l i d e a n g e o m e t r y m a y n o t a p p l y . A n o t h e r t y p e o f n o n - E u c l i d e a n g e o m e t r y i s t h e h y p e r b o l i c p l a n e , a n d a r r a n g e m e n t s o f h y p e r b o l i c l i n e s i n t h i s g e o m e t r y h a v e a l s o b e e n s t u d i e d . A n y f i n i t e s e t o f l i n e s i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e h a s a c o m b i n a t o r i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e h y p e r b o l i c p l a n e ( e . g . b y e n c l o s i n g t h e v e r t i c e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t b y a l a r g e c i r c l e a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e c i r c l e a s a K l e i n m o d e l o f t h e h y p e r b o l i c p l a n e ) . H o w e v e r , i n h y p e r b o l i c l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s l i n e s m a y a v o i d c r o s s i n g e a c h o t h e r w i t h o u t b e i n g p a r a l l e l ; t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n g r a p h o f t h e l i n e s i n a h y p e r b o l i c a r r a n g e m e n t i s a c i r c l e g r a p h . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n c e p t t o h y p e r b o l i c l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r p s e u d o l i n e s i s a " w e a k p s e u d o l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t " , a f a m i l y o f c u r v e s h a v i n g t h e s a m e t o p o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a s l i n e s s u c h t h a t a n y t w o c u r v e s i n t h e f a m i l y e i t h e r m e e t i n a s i n g l e c r o s s i n g p o i n t o r h a v e n o i n t e r s e c t i o n .

Complexity of arrangements

The complexity of arrangements for text describes the combinatorial structure of the subdivision of the plane into regions by a set of lines. The arrangement consists of vertices, edges, and cells, which are connected by a boundary map. The study of arrangements began with Jakob Steiner, who proved bounds on the maximum number of features of different types. The zone theorem states that the total number of edges in the cells of a single zone is linear. The complexity of a level in an arrangement is still an open problem, but the maximum complexity of the k-level is known. Monotone paths in arrangements can be very complicated, and the total complexity of multiple cells is bounded. The extremal numbers of triangular cells in arrangements have been studied, and algorithms have been developed to compute arrangements efficiently with limited numerical precision.

in any of the lines of formula_1, #open line segments and open infinite rays (the "edges" or "panels" of the arrangement), the connected components of the points of a single line that do not belong to any other lines of formula_1, and #single points (the "vertices" of the arrangement), the intersections of two or more lines of formula_1. These three types of objects, linked together by a boundary map that takes each edge to its endpoints and each cell to the edges surrounding the cell, form a cell complex covering the plane. Two arrangements are said to be "isomorphic" or "combinatorially equivalent" if there is a one-to-one boundary-preserving correspondence between the objects in their associated cell complexes. The same types of shapes occur for infinite but "locally finite" arrangements, in which every bounded subset of the plane may be crossed by only finitely many lines, although in this case the unbounded cells may have infinitely many sides. Infinite systems of lines that are not locally finite may have equivalence classes of other shapes; for instance, the system of tangent lines to a unit circle has the interior of the circle as one of its equivalence classes. The study of arrangements was begun by Jakob Steiner, who proved the first bounds on the maximum number of features of different types that an arrangement may have. An arrangement with formula_10 lines has at most formula_11 vertices (a triangular number), one per pair of crossing lines. This maximum is achieved for "simple arrangements", those in which each two lines is achieved for simple arrangements. The "zone" of a line formula_4 in a line arrangement is the collection of cells having edges belonging to formula_4. The zone theorem states that the total number of edges in the cells of a single zone is linear. More precisely, the total number of edges of the cells belonging to a single side of line formula_4 is at most formula_22, and the total number of edges of the cells belonging to both sides of formula_4 is at most formula_24. More generally, the total complexity of the cells of a line arrangement that are intersected by any convex curve is formula_25, where formula_26 denotes the inverse Ackermann function, as may be shown using Davenport–Schinzel sequences. Summing the complexities of all zones, one finds that the sum of squares of cell complexities in an arrangement is formula_27. The formula_28-"level" of an arrangement is the polygonal chain formed by the edges that have exactly formula_28 other lines directly below them, and the formula_30-level is the portion of the arrangement below the formula_28-level. Finding matching upper and lower bounds for the complexity of a formula_28-level remains a major open problem in discrete geometry; the best upper bound is formula_33, while the best lower bound is formula_34. In contrast, the maximum complexity of the formula_30-level is known to be formula_36. A formula_28-level is a special case of a monotone path in an arrangement; that is, a sequence of edges that intersects any vertical line in a single point. However, monotone paths may be much more complicated than formula_28-levels: there exist arrangements and monotone paths in these arrangements where the number of points at which the path changes direction is formula_39. Although a single cell in an arrangement may be bounded by all formula_10 lines, it is not possible in general for formula_41 different cells to all be bounded by formula_10 lines. Rather, the total complexity of formula_41 cells is at most formula_44, almost the same bound as occurs in the Szemerédi–Trotter theorem on point-line incidences in the plane. A simple proof of this follows from the crossing number inequality: if formula_41 cells have a total of formula_46 edges, one can form a graph with formula_41 nodes (one per cell) and formula_48 edges (one per pair of consecutive cells on the same line). The families of 3-regular partial cubes, isomorphic to the graphs of simple zonohedra. It is also of interest to study the extremal numbers of triangular cells in arrangements that may not necessarily be simplicial. In any arrangement, there must be at least formula_10 triangles; every arrangement that has only formula_10 triangles must be simple. The maximum possible number of triangles in a simple arrangement is known to be upper bounded by formula_58 and lower bounded by formula_59; the lower bound is achieved by certain subsets of the diagonals of a regular formula_60-gon. For non-simple arrangements the maximum number of triangles is similar but more tightly bounded. The closely related Kobon triangle problem asks for the maximum number of non-overlapping finite triangles (not necessarily faces) in an arrangement in the total construction time of formula_27. However, the memory requirements of this algorithm are high, so it may be more convenient to report all features of an arrangement by an algorithm that does not keep the entire arrangement in memory at once. This may again be done efficiently, in time formula_27 and space formula_66, by an algorithmic technique known as "topological sweeping". Computing a line arrangement exactly requires a numerical precision several times greater than that of the input coordinates: if a line is specified by two points on it, the coordinates of the arrangement vertices may need four times as much precision as these input points. Therefore, computational geometers have also studied algorithms for constructing arrangements efficiently with limited numerical precision. As well, researchers have studied efficient algorithms topological properties as lines such that any two curves in the family either meet in a single crossing point or have no intersection.

Arrangement of lines

A n y f i n i t e s e t f o r m u l a _ 1 o f l i n e s i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e c a n b e u s e d t o c l a s s i f y t h e p o i n t s o f t h e p l a n e a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h s i d e o f e a c h l i n e t h e y a r e o n . I n t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , t w o p o i n t s f o r m u l a _ 2 a n d f o r m u l a _ 3 a r e e q u i v a l e n t i f t h e y a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e s a m e w a y a s e a c h o t h e r b y a l l t h e l i n e s : f o r e a c h l i n e f o r m u l a _ 4 , e i t h e r b o t h p o i n t s b e l o n g t o t h e s a m e o p e n h a l f - p l a n e b o u n d e d b y f o r m u l a _ 4 , o r b o t h p o i n t s l i e o n f o r m u l a _ 4 . T h i s i s a n e q u i v a l e n c e r e l a t i o n , w h o s e e q u i v a l e n c e c l a s s e s a r e s u b s e t s o f e q u i v a l e n t p o i n t s . T h e s e s u b s e t s s u b d i v i d e t h e p l a n e i n t o s h a p e s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e t y p e s : # t h e i n t e r i o r s o f b o u n d e d o r u n b o u n d e d c o n v e x p o l y g o n s ( t h e " c e l l s " o r " c h a m b e r s " o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ) , t h e c o n n e c t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e s u b s e t o f t h e p l a n e n o t c o n t a i n e d i n a n y o f t h e l i n e s o f f o r m u l a _ 1 , # o p e n l i n e s e g m e n t s a n d o p e n i n f i n i t e r a y s ( t h e " e d g e s " o r " p a n e l s " o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ) , t h e c o n n e c t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e p o i n t s o f a s i n g l e l i n e t h a t d o n o t b e l o n g t o a n y o t h e r l i n e s o f f o r m u l a _ 1 , a n d # s i n g l e p o i n t s ( t h e " v e r t i c e s " o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ) , t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f t w o o r m o r e l i n e s o f f o r m u l a _ 1 . T h e s e t h r e e t y p e s o f o b j e c t s , l i n k e d t o g e t h e r b y a b o u n d a r y m a p t h a t t a k e s e a c h e d g e t o i t s e n d p o i n t s a n d e a c h c e l l t o t h e e d g e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c e l l , f o r m a c e l l c o m p l e x c o v e r i n g t h e p l a n e . T w o a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e s a i d t o b e " i s o m o r p h i c " o r " c o m b i n a t o r i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t " i f t h e r e i s a o n e - t o - o n e b o u n d a r y - p r e s e r v i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e o b j e c t s i n t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d c e l l c o m p l e x e s . T h e s a m e t y p e s o f s h a p e s o c c u r f o r i n f i n i t e b u t " l o c a l l y f i n i t e " a r r a n g e m e n t s , i n w h i c h e v e r y b o u n d e d s u b s e t o f t h e p l a n e m a y b e c r o s s e d b y o n l y f i n i t e l y m a n y l i n e s , a l t h o u g h i n t h i s c a s e t h e u n b o u n d e d c e l l s m a y h a v e i n f i n i t e l y m a n y s i d e s . I n f i n i t e s y s t e m s o f l i n e s t h a t a r e n o t l o c a l l y f i n i t e m a y h a v e e q u i v a l e n c e c l a s s e s o f o t h e r s h a p e s ; f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s y s t e m o f t a n g e n t l i n e s t o a u n i t c i r c l e h a s t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e c i r c l e a s o n e o f i t s e q u i v a l e n c e c l a s s e s . T h e s t u d y o f a r r a n g e m e n t s w a s b e g u n b y J a k o b S t e i n e r , w h o p r o v e d t h e f i r s t b o u n d s o n t h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f f e a t u r e s o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s t h a t a n a r r a n g e m e n t m a y h a v e . A n a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h f o r m u l a _ 1 0 l i n e s h a s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 1 1 v e r t i c e s ( a t r i a n g u l a r n u m b e r ) , o n e p e r p a i r o f c r o s s i n g l i n e s . T h i s m a x i m u m i s a c h i e v e d f o r " s i m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t s " , t h o s e i n w h i c h e a c h t w o l i n e s h a s a d i s t i n c t p a i r o f c r o s s i n g p o i n t s . I n a n y a r r a n g e m e n t t h e r e w i l l b e f o r m u l a _ 1 0 i n f i n i t e - d o w n w a r d r a y s , o n e p e r l i n e ; t h e s e r a y s s e p a r a t e f o r m u l a _ 1 3 c e l l s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t a r e u n b o u n d e d i n t h e d o w n w a r d d i r e c t i o n . T h e r e m a i n i n g c e l l s a l l h a v e a u n i q u e b o t t o m m o s t v e r t e x , a n d e a c h v e r t e x i s b o t t o m m o s t f o r a u n i q u e c e l l , s o t h e n u m b e r o f c e l l s i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t i s t h e n u m b e r o f v e r t i c e s p l u s f o r m u l a _ 1 3 , o r a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 1 5 ; s e e l a z y c a t e r e r ' s s e q u e n c e . T h e n u m b e r o f e d g e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t i s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 1 6 , a s m a y b e s e e n e i t h e r b y u s i n g t h e E u l e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o c a l c u l a t e i t f r o m t h e n u m b e r s o f v e r t i c e s a n d c e l l s , o r b y o b s e r v i n g t h a t e a c h l i n e i s p a r t i t i o n e d i n t o a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 1 0 e d g e s b y t h e o t h e r f o r m u l a _ 1 8 l i n e s ; a g a i n , t h i s w o r s t - c a s e b o u n d i s a c h i e v e d f o r s i m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h e " z o n e " o f a l i n e f o r m u l a _ 4 i n a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t i s t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f c e l l s h a v i n g e d g e s b e l o n g i n g t o f o r m u l a _ 4 . T h e z o n e t h e o r e m s t a t e s t h a t t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f e d g e s i n t h e c e l l s o f a s i n g l e z o n e i s l i n e a r . M o r e p r e c i s e l y , t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f e d g e s o f t h e c e l l s b e l o n g i n g t o a s i n g l e s i d e o f l i n e f o r m u l a _ 4 i s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 2 2 , a n d t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f e d g e s o f t h e c e l l s b e l o n g i n g t o b o t h s i d e s o f f o r m u l a _ 4 i s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 2 4 . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , t h e t o t a l c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e c e l l s o f a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t a r e i n t e r s e c t e d b y a n y c o n v e x c u r v e i s f o r m u l a _ 2 5 , w h e r e f o r m u l a _ 2 6 d e n o t e s t h e i n v e r s e A c k e r m a n n f u n c t i o n , a s m a y b e s h o w n u s i n g D a v e n p o r t – S c h i n z e l s e q u e n c e s . S u m m i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f a l l z o n e s , o n e f i n d s t h a t t h e s u m o f s q u a r e s o f c e l l c o m p l e x i t i e s i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t i s f o r m u l a _ 2 7 . T h e f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - " l e v e l " o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t i s t h e p o l y g o n a l c h a i n f o r m e d b y t h e e d g e s t h a t h a v e e x a c t l y f o r m u l a _ 2 8 o t h e r l i n e s d i r e c t l y b e l o w t h e m , a n d t h e f o r m u l a _ 3 0 - l e v e l i s t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t b e l o w t h e f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l . F i n d i n g m a t c h i n g u p p e r a n d l o w e r b o u n d s f o r t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f a f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l r e m a i n s a m a j o r o p e n p r o b l e m i n d i s c r e t e g e o m e t r y ; t h e b e s t u p p e r b o u n d i s f o r m u l a _ 3 3 , w h i l e t h e b e s t l o w e r b o u n d i s f o r m u l a _ 3 4 . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e m a x i m u m c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e f o r m u l a _ 3 0 - l e v e l i s k n o w n t o b e f o r m u l a _ 3 6 . A f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l i s a s p e c i a l c a s e o f a m o n o t o n e p a t h i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t ; t h a t i s , a s e q u e n c e o f e d g e s t h a t i n t e r s e c t s a n y v e r t i c a l l i n e i n a s i n g l e p o i n t . H o w e v e r , m o n o t o n e p a t h s m a y b e m u c h m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l s : t h e r e e x i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d m o n o t o n e p a t h s i n t h e s e a r r a n g e m e n t s w h e r e t h e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s a t w h i c h t h e p a t h c h a n g e s d i r e c t i o n i s f o r m u l a _ 3 9 . A l t h o u g h a s i n g l e c e l l i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t m a y b e b o u n d e d b y a l l f o r m u l a _ 1 0 l i n e s , i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e i n g e n e r a l f o r f o r m u l a _ 4 1 d i f f e r e n t c e l l s t o a l l b e b o u n d e d b y f o r m u l a _ 1 0 l i n e s . R a t h e r , t h e t o t a l c o m p l e x i t y o f f o r m u l a _ 4 1 c e l l s i s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 4 4 , a l m o s t t h e s a m e b o u n d a s o c c u r s i n t h e S z e m e r é d i – T r o t t e r t h e o r e m o n p o i n t - l i n e i n c i d e n c e s i n t h e p l a n e . A s i m p l e p r o o f o f t h i s f o l l o w s f r o m t h e c r o s s i n g n u m b e r i n e q u a l i t y : i f f o r m u l a _ 4 1 c e l l s h a v e a t o t a l o f f o r m u l a _ 4 6 e d g e s , o n e c a n f o r m a g r a p h w i t h f o r m u l a _ 4 1 n o d e s ( o n e p e r c e l l ) a n d f o r m u l a _ 4 8 e d g e s ( o n e p e r p a i r o f c o n s e c u t i v e c e l l s o n t h e s a m e l i n e ) . T h e e d g e s o f t h i s g r a p h c a n b e d r a w n a s c u r v e s t h a t d o n o t c r o s s w i t h i n t h e c e l l s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i r e n d p o i n t s , a n d t h e n f o l l o w t h e l i n e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r e f o r m u l a _ 2 7 c r o s s i n g s i n t h i s d r a w i n g . H o w e v e r , b y t h e c r o s s i n g n u m b e r i n e q u a l i t y , t h e r e a r e f o r m u l a _ 5 0 c r o s s i n g s ; i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y b o t h b o u n d s , f o r m u l a _ 4 8 m u s t b e f o r m u l a _ 5 2 . I t i s o f t e n c o n v e n i e n t t o s t u d y l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s n o t i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e b u t i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e , d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n p r o j e c t i v e g e o m e t r y e v e r y p a i r o f l i n e s h a s a c r o s s i n g p o i n t . I n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e , w e m a y n o l o n g e r d e f i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s u s i n g s i d e s o f l i n e s ( a l i n e i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e d o e s n o t s e p a r a t e t h e p l a n e i n t o t w o d i s t i n c t s i d e s ) , b u t w e m a y s t i l l d e f i n e t h e c e l l s o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t t o b e t h e c o n n e c t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e p o i n t s n o t b e l o n g i n g t o a n y l i n e , t h e e d g e s t o b e t h e c o n n e c t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f s e t s o f p o i n t s b e l o n g i n g t o a s i n g l e l i n e , a n d t h e v e r t i c e s t o b e p o i n t s w h e r e t w o o r m o r e l i n e s c r o s s . A l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e d i f f e r s f r o m i t s E u c l i d e a n c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h a t t h e t w o E u c l i d e a n r a y s a t e i t h e r e n d o f a l i n e a r e r e p l a c e d b y a s i n g l e e d g e i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e l e f t m o s t a n d r i g h t m o s t v e r t i c e s o n t h a t l i n e , a n d i n t h a t p a i r s o f u n b o u n d e d E u c l i d e a n c e l l s a r e r e p l a c e d i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e b y s i n g l e c e l l s t h a t a r e c r o s s e d b y t h e p r o j e c t i v e l i n e a t i n f i n i t y . D u e t o p r o j e c t i v e d u a l i t y , m a n y s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e c o m b i n a t o r i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f p o i n t s i n t h e p l a n e m a y b e m o r e e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d i n a n e q u i v a l e n t d u a l f o r m a b o u t a r r a n g e m e n t s o f l i n e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e S y l v e s t e r – G a l l a i t h e o r e m , s t a t i n g t h a t a n y n o n - c o l l i n e a r s e t o f p o i n t s i n t h e p l a n e h a s a n " o r d i n a r y l i n e " c o n t a i n i n g e x a c t l y t w o p o i n t s , t r a n s f o r m s u n d e r p r o j e c t i v e d u a l i t y t o t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t a n y a r r a n g e m e n t o f l i n e s w i t h m o r e t h a n o n e v e r t e x h a s a n " o r d i n a r y p o i n t " , a v e r t e x w h e r e o n l y t w o l i n e s c r o s s . T h e e a r l i e s t k n o w n p r o o f o f t h e S y l v e s t e r – G a l l a i t h e o r e m , b y , u s e s t h e E u l e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o s h o w t h a t s u c h a v e r t e x m u s t a l w a y s e x i s t . A n a r r a n g e m e n t o f l i n e s i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e i s s a i d t o b e " s i m p l i c i a l " i f e v e r y c e l l o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t i s b o u n d e d b y e x a c t l y t h r e e e d g e s ; s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e f i r s t s t u d i e d b y M e l c h i o r . T h r e e i n f i n i t e f a m i l i e s o f s i m p l i c i a l l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e k n o w n : # A " n e a r - p e n c i l " c o n s i s t i n g o f f o r m u l a _ 1 8 l i n e s t h r o u g h a s i n g l e p o i n t , t o g e t h e r w i t h a s i n g l e a d d i t i o n a l l i n e t h a t d o e s n o t g o t h r o u g h t h e s a m e p o i n t , # T h e f a m i l y o f l i n e s f o r m e d b y t h e s i d e s o f a r e g u l a r p o l y g o n t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s a x e s o f s y m m e t r y , a n d # T h e s i d e s a n d a x e s o f s y m m e t r y o f a n e v e n r e g u l a r p o l y g o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e l i n e a t i n f i n i t y . A d d i t i o n a l l y t h e r e a r e m a n y o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f " s p o r a d i c s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s " t h a t d o n o t f i t i n t o a n y k n o w n i n f i n i t e f a m i l y . A s G r ü n b a u m w r i t e s , s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s “ a p p e a r a s e x a m p l e s o r c o u n t e r e x a m p l e s i n m a n y c o n t e x t s o f c o m b i n a t o r i a l g e o m e t r y a n d i t s a p p l i c a t i o n s . ” F o r i n s t a n c e , u s e s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s t o c o n s t r u c t c o u n t e r e x a m p l e s t o a c o n j e c t u r e o n t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d e g r e e o f a s e t o f d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s a n d t h e n u m b e r o f i n v a r i a n t l i n e s t h e e q u a t i o n s m a y h a v e . T h e t w o k n o w n c o u n t e r e x a m p l e s t o t h e D i r a c – M o t z k i n c o n j e c t u r e ( w h i c h s t a t e s t h a t a n y f o r m u l a _ 1 0 - l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t h a s a t l e a s t f o r m u l a _ 5 5 o r d i n a r y p o i n t s ) a r e b o t h s i m p l i c i a l . T h e d u a l g r a p h o f a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t , i n w h i c h t h e r e i s o n e n o d e p e r c e l l a n d o n e e d g e l i n k i n g a n y p a i r o f c e l l s t h a t s h a r e a n e d g e o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , i s a p a r t i a l c u b e , a g r a p h i n w h i c h t h e n o d e s c a n b e l a b e l e d b y b i t v e c t o r s i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e g r a p h d i s t a n c e e q u a l s t h e H a m m i n g d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n l a b e l s ; i n t h e c a s e o f a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t , e a c h c o o r d i n a t e o f t h e l a b e l i n g a s s i g n s 0 t o n o d e s o n o n e s i d e o f o n e o f t h e l i n e s a n d 1 t o n o d e s o n t h e o t h e r s i d e . D u a l g r a p h s o f s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s h a v e b e e n u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t i n f i n i t e f a m i l i e s o f 3 - r e g u l a r p a r t i a l c u b e s , i s o m o r p h i c t o t h e g r a p h s o f s i m p l e z o n o h e d r a . I t i s a l s o o f i n t e r e s t t o s t u d y t h e e x t r e m a l n u m b e r s o f t r i a n g u l a r c e l l s i n a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t m a y n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e s i m p l i c i a l . I n a n y a r r a n g e m e n t , t h e r e m u s t b e a t l e a s t f o r m u l a _ 1 0 t r i a n g l e s ; e v e r y a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t h a s o n l y f o r m u l a _ 1 0 t r i a n g l e s m u s t b e s i m p l e . T h e m a x i m u m p o s s i b l e n u m b e r o f t r i a n g l e s i n a s i m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t i s k n o w n t o b e u p p e r b o u n d e d b y f o r m u l a _ 5 8 a n d l o w e r b o u n d e d b y f o r m u l a _ 5 9 ; t h e l o w e r b o u n d i s a c h i e v e d b y c e r t a i n s u b s e t s o f t h e d i a g o n a l s o f a r e g u l a r f o r m u l a _ 6 0 - g o n . F o r n o n - s i m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t s t h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f t r i a n g l e s i s s i m i l a r b u t m o r e t i g h t l y b o u n d e d . T h e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d K o b o n t r i a n g l e p r o b l e m a s k s f o r t h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f n o n - o v e r l a p p i n g f i n i t e t r i a n g l e s ( n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f a c e s ) i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e ; f o r s o m e b u t n o t a l l v a l u e s o f f o r m u l a _ 1 0 , f o r m u l a _ 6 2 t r i a n g l e s a r e p o s s i b l e . T h e d u a l g r a p h o f a s i m p l e l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t m a y b e r e p r e s e n t e d g e o m e t r i c a l l y a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f r h o m b i , o n e p e r v e r t e x o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , w i t h s i d e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l i n e s t h a t m e e t a t t h a t v e r t e x . T h e s e r h o m b i m a y b e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r t o f o r m a t i l i n g o f a c o n v e x p o l y g o n i n t h e c a s e o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t o f f i n i t e l y m a n y l i n e s , o r o f t h e e n t i r e p l a n e i n t h e c a s e o f a l o c a l l y f i n i t e a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h i n f i n i t e l y m a n y l i n e s . i n v e s t i g a t e d s p e c i a l c a s e s o f t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t c o n s i s t s o f f o r m u l a _ 2 8 s e t s o f e q u a l l y s p a c e d p a r a l l e l l i n e s . F o r t w o p e r p e n d i c u l a r f a m i l i e s o f p a r a l l e l l i n e s t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n j u s t g i v e s t h e f a m i l i a r s q u a r e t i l i n g o f t h e p l a n e , a n d f o r t h r e e f a m i l i e s o f l i n e s a t 1 2 0 - d e g r e e a n g l e s f r o m e a c h o t h e r ( t h e m s e l v e s f o r m i n g a t r i h e x a g o n a l t i l i n g ) t h i s p r o d u c e s t h e r h o m b i l l e t i l i n g . H o w e v e r , f o r m o r e f a m i l i e s o f l i n e s t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o d u c e s a p e r i o d i c t i l i n g s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , f o r f i v e f a m i l i e s o f l i n e s a t e q u a l a n g l e s t o e a c h o t h e r ( o r , a s d e B r u i j n c a l l s t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t , a " p e n t a g r i d " ) i t p r o d u c e s a f a m i l y o f t i l i n g s t h a t i n c l u d e t h e r h o m b i c v e r s i o n o f t h e P e n r o s e t i l i n g s . T h e t e t r a k i s s q u a r e t i l i n g i s a n i n f i n i t e a r r a n g e m e n t o f l i n e s f o r m i n g a p e r i o d i c t i l i n g t h a t r e s e m b l e s a m u l t i g r i d w i t h f o u r p a r a l l e l f a m i l i e s , b u t i n w h i c h t w o o f t h e f a m i l i e s a r e m o r e w i d e l y s p a c e d t h a n t h e o t h e r t w o , a n d i n w h i c h t h e a r r a n g e m e n t i s s i m p l i c i a l r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l e . I t s d u a l i s t h e t r u n c a t e d s q u a r e t i l i n g . S i m i l a r l y , t h e t r i a n g u l a r t i l i n g i s a n i n f i n i t e s i m p l i c i a l l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h t h r e e p a r a l l e l f a m i l i e s , w h i c h h a s a s i t s d u a l t h e h e x a g o n a l t i l i n g , a n d t h e b i s e c t e d h e x a g o n a l t i l i n g i s a n i n f i n i t e s i m p l i c i a l l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h s i x p a r a l l e l f a m i l i e s a n d t w o l i n e s p a c i n g s , d u a l t o t h e g r e a t r h o m b i t r i h e x a g o n a l t i l i n g . " C o n s t r u c t i n g " a n a r r a n g e m e n t m e a n s , g i v e n a s i n p u t a l i s t o f t h e l i n e s i n t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , c o m p u t i n g a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e v e r t i c e s , e d g e s , a n d c e l l s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a d j a c e n c i e s b e t w e e n t h e s e o b j e c t s , f o r i n s t a n c e a s a d o u b l y c o n n e c t e d e d g e l i s t . D u e t o t h e z o n e t h e o r e m , a r r a n g e m e n t s c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d e f f i c i e n t l y b y a n i n c r e m e n t a l a l g o r i t h m t h a t a d d s o n e l i n e a t a t i m e t o t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y a d d e d l i n e s : e a c h n e w l i n e c a n b e a d d e d i n t i m e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o i t s z o n e , r e s u l t i n g i n a t o t a l c o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e o f f o r m u l a _ 2 7 . H o w e v e r , t h e m e m o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h i s a l g o r i t h m a r e h i g h , s o i t m a y b e m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o r e p o r t a l l f e a t u r e s o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t b y a n a l g o r i t h m t h a t d o e s n o t k e e p t h e e n t i r e a r r a n g e m e n t i n m e m o r y a t o n c e . T h i s m a y a g a i n b e d o n e e f f i c i e n t l y , i n t i m e f o r m u l a _ 2 7 a n d s p a c e f o r m u l a _ 6 6 , b y a n a l g o r i t h m i c t e c h n i q u e k n o w n a s " t o p o l o g i c a l s w e e p i n g " . C o m p u t i n g a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t e x a c t l y r e q u i r e s a n u m e r i c a l p r e c i s i o n s e v e r a l t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e i n p u t c o o r d i n a t e s : i f a l i n e i s s p e c i f i e d b y t w o p o i n t s o n i t , t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t v e r t i c e s m a y n e e d f o u r t i m e s a s m u c h p r e c i s i o n a s t h e s e i n p u t p o i n t s . T h e r e f o r e , c o m p u t a t i o n a l g e o m e t e r s h a v e a l s o s t u d i e d a l g o r i t h m s f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s e f f i c i e n t l y w i t h l i m i t e d n u m e r i c a l p r e c i s i o n . A s w e l l , r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e s t u d i e d e f f i c i e n t a l g o r i t h m s f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g s m a l l e r p o r t i o n s o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t , s u c h a s z o n e s , f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l s , o r t h e s e t o f c e l l s c o n t a i n i n g a g i v e n s e t o f p o i n t s . T h e p r o b l e m o f f i n d i n g t h e a r r a n g e m e n t v e r t e x w i t h t h e m e d i a n f o r m u l a _ 4 8 - c o o r d i n a t e a r i s e s ( i n a d u a l f o r m ) i n r o b u s t s t a t i s t i c s a s t h e p r o b l e m o f c o m p u t i n g t h e T h e i l – S e n e s t i m a t o r o f a s e t o f p o i n t s . M a r c v a n K r e v e l d s u g g e s t e d t h e a l g o r i t h m i c p r o b l e m o f c o m p u t i n g s h o r t e s t p a t h s b e t w e e n v e r t i c e s i n a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t , w h e r e t h e p a t h s a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o f o l l o w t h e e d g e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , m o r e q u i c k l y t h a n t h e q u a d r a t i c t i m e t h a t i t w o u l d t a k e t o a p p l y a s h o r t e s t p a t h a l g o r i t h m t o t h e w h o l e a r r a n g e m e n t g r a p h . A n a p p r o x i m a t i o n a l g o r i t h m i s k n o w n , a n d t h e p r o b l e m m a y b e s o l v e d e f f i c i e n t l y f o r l i n e s t h a t f a l l i n t o a s m a l l n u m b e r o f p a r a l l e l f a m i l i e s ( a s i s t y p i c a l f o r u r b a n s t r e e t g r i d s ) , b u t t h e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m r e m a i n s o p e n . A p s e u d o l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t i s a f a m i l y o f c u r v e s t h a t s h a r e s i m i l a r t o p o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s w i t h a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e s e c a n b e d e f i n e d m o s t s i m p l y i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e a s s i m p l e c l o s e d c u r v e s a n y t w o o f w h i c h m e e t i n a s i n g l e c r o s s i n g p o i n t . A p s e u d o l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t i s s a i d t o b e " s t r e t c h a b l e " i f i t i s c o m b i n a t o r i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t ; i t i s c o m p l e t e f o r t h e e x i s t e n t i a l t h e o r y o f t h e r e a l s t o d i s t i n g u i s h s t r e t c h a b l e a r r a n g e m e n t s f r o m n o n - s t r e t c h a b l e o n e s . E v e r y a r r a n g e m e n t o f f i n i t e l y m a n y p s e u d o l i n e s c a n b e e x t e n d e d s o t h a t t h e y b e c o m e l i n e s i n a " s p r e a d " , a t y p e o f n o n - E u c l i d e a n i n c i d e n c e g e o m e t r y i n w h i c h e v e r y t w o p o i n t s o f a t o p o l o g i c a l p l a n e a r e c o n n e c t e d b y a u n i q u e l i n e ( a s i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e ) b u t i n w h i c h o t h e r a x i o m s o f E u c l i d e a n g e o m e t r y m a y n o t a p p l y . A n o t h e r t y p e o f n o n - E u c l i d e a n g e o m e t r y i s t h e h y p e r b o l i c p l a n e , a n d a r r a n g e m e n t s o f h y p e r b o l i c l i n e s i n t h i s g e o m e t r y h a v e a l s o b e e n s t u d i e d . A n y f i n i t e s e t o f l i n e s i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e h a s a c o m b i n a t o r i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e h y p e r b o l i c p l a n e ( e . g . b y e n c l o s i n g t h e v e r t i c e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t b y a l a r g e c i r c l e a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e c i r c l e a s a K l e i n m o d e l o f t h e h y p e r b o l i c p l a n e ) . H o w e v e r , i n h y p e r b o l i c l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s l i n e s m a y a v o i d c r o s s i n g e a c h o t h e r w i t h o u t b e i n g p a r a l l e l ; t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n g r a p h o f t h e l i n e s i n a h y p e r b o l i c a r r a n g e m e n t i s a c i r c l e g r a p h . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n c e p t t o h y p e r b o l i c l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r p s e u d o l i n e s i s a " w e a k p s e u d o l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t " , a f a m i l y o f c u r v e s h a v i n g t h e s a m e t o p o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a s l i n e s s u c h t h a t a n y t w o c u r v e s i n t h e f a m i l y e i t h e r m e e t i n a s i n g l e c r o s s i n g p o i n t o r h a v e n o i n t e r s e c t i o n .

Projective arrangements and projective duality

This text discusses projective arrangements and projective duality in the context of line arrangements. Key concepts include: * Line arrangements in the projective plane, where every pair of lines has a crossing point. * Cells, edges, and vertices of an arrangement, defined similarly to those in the Euclidean plane. * Projective duality, which allows statements about points in the plane to be transformed into equivalent statements about arrangements of lines. * Simplicial arrangements, where every cell is bounded by exactly three edges. * Dual graphs of line arrangements, which are partial cubes representing the adjacency relationships between cells. * Constructing arrangements, including efficient algorithms for adding lines incrementally. * Pseudoline arrangements, which share similar topological properties with line arrangements, and the concept of stretchability. These concepts have applications in various areas, including combinatorial geometry, graph theory, and computational geometry.

edges of this graph can be drawn as curves that do not cross within the cells corresponding to their endpoints, and then follow the lines of the arrangement; therefore, there are formula_27 crossings in this drawing. However, by the crossing number inequality, there are formula_50 crossings; in order to satisfy both bounds, formula_48 must be formula_52. It is often convenient to study line arrangements not in the Euclidean plane but in the projective plane, due to the fact that in projective geometry every pair of lines has a crossing point. In the projective plane, we may no longer define arrangements using sides of lines (a line in the projective plane does not separate the plane into two distinct sides), but we may still define the cells of an arrangement to be the connected components of the points not belonging to any line, the edges to be the connected components of sets of points belonging to a single line, and the vertices to be points where two or more lines cross. A line arrangement in the projective plane differs from its Euclidean counterpart in that the two Euclidean rays at either end of a line are replaced by a single edge in the projective plane that connects the leftmost and rightmost vertices on that line, and in that pairs of unbounded Euclidean cells are replaced in the projective plane by single cells that are crossed by the projective line at infinity. Due to projective duality, many statements about the combinatorial properties of points in the plane may be more easily understood in an equivalent dual form about arrangements of lines. For instance, the Sylvester–Gallai theorem, stating that any non-collinear set of points in the plane has an "ordinary line" containing exactly two points, transforms under projective duality to the statement that any arrangement of lines with more than one vertex has an "ordinary point", a vertex where only two lines cross. The earliest known proof of the Sylvester–Gallai theorem, by , uses the Euler characteristic to show that such a vertex must always exist. An arrangement of lines in the projective plane is said to be "simplicial" if every cell of the arrangement is bounded by exactly three edges; simplicial arrangements were first studied by Melchior. Three infinite families of simplicial line arrangements are known: equations may have. The two known counterexamples to the Dirac–Motzkin conjecture (which states that any formula_10-line arrangement has at least formula_55 ordinary points) are both simplicial. The dual graph of a line arrangement, in which there is one node per cell and one edge linking any pair of cells that share an edge of the arrangement, is a partial cube, a graph in which the nodes can be labeled by bitvectors in such a way that the graph distance equals the Hamming distance between labels; in the case of a line arrangement, each coordinate of the labeling assigns 0 to nodes on one side of one of the lines and 1 to nodes on the other side. Dual graphs of simplicial arrangements have been used to construct infinite Euclidean plane; for some but not all values of formula_10, formula_62 triangles are possible. The dual graph of a simple line arrangement may be represented geometrically as a collection of rhombi, one per vertex of the arrangement, with sides perpendicular to the lines that meet at that vertex. These rhombi may be joined together to form a tiling of a convex polygon in the case of an arrangement of finitely many lines, or of the entire plane in the case of a locally finite arrangement with infinitely many lines. investigated special cases of this construction in which the line arrangement consists of formula_28 sets of equally spaced parallel lines. For two perpendicular families of parallel lines this construction just gives the familiar square tiling of the plane, and an infinite simplicial line arrangement with three parallel families, which has as its dual the hexagonal tiling, and the bisected hexagonal tiling is an infinite simplicial line arrangement with six parallel families and two line spacings, dual to the great rhombitrihexagonal tiling. "Constructing" an arrangement means, given as input a list of the lines in the arrangement, computing a representation of the vertices, edges, and cells of the arrangement together with the adjacencies between these objects, for instance as a doubly connected edge list. Due to the zone theorem, arrangements can be constructed efficiently by an incremental algorithm that adds one line at a time to the arrangement of the previously added lines: each new line can be added in time proportional to its zone, resulting in a is typical for urban street grids), but the general problem remains open. A pseudoline arrangement is a family of curves that share similar topological properties with a line arrangement. These can be defined most simply in the projective plane as simple closed curves any two of which meet in a single crossing point. A pseudoline arrangement is said to be "stretchable" if it is combinatorially equivalent to a line arrangement; it is complete for the existential theory of the reals to distinguish stretchable arrangements from non-stretchable ones. Every arrangement of finitely many pseudolines can be extended so that they become lines in a "spread", a type of non-Euclidean incidence geometry in which every two points of a topological plane are connected by a unique line (as in the topological properties as lines such that any two curves in the family either meet in a single crossing point or have no intersection.

Arrangement of lines

A n y f i n i t e s e t f o r m u l a _ 1 o f l i n e s i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e c a n b e u s e d t o c l a s s i f y t h e p o i n t s o f t h e p l a n e a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h s i d e o f e a c h l i n e t h e y a r e o n . I n t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , t w o p o i n t s f o r m u l a _ 2 a n d f o r m u l a _ 3 a r e e q u i v a l e n t i f t h e y a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e s a m e w a y a s e a c h o t h e r b y a l l t h e l i n e s : f o r e a c h l i n e f o r m u l a _ 4 , e i t h e r b o t h p o i n t s b e l o n g t o t h e s a m e o p e n h a l f - p l a n e b o u n d e d b y f o r m u l a _ 4 , o r b o t h p o i n t s l i e o n f o r m u l a _ 4 . T h i s i s a n e q u i v a l e n c e r e l a t i o n , w h o s e e q u i v a l e n c e c l a s s e s a r e s u b s e t s o f e q u i v a l e n t p o i n t s . T h e s e s u b s e t s s u b d i v i d e t h e p l a n e i n t o s h a p e s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e t y p e s : # t h e i n t e r i o r s o f b o u n d e d o r u n b o u n d e d c o n v e x p o l y g o n s ( t h e " c e l l s " o r " c h a m b e r s " o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ) , t h e c o n n e c t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e s u b s e t o f t h e p l a n e n o t c o n t a i n e d i n a n y o f t h e l i n e s o f f o r m u l a _ 1 , # o p e n l i n e s e g m e n t s a n d o p e n i n f i n i t e r a y s ( t h e " e d g e s " o r " p a n e l s " o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ) , t h e c o n n e c t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e p o i n t s o f a s i n g l e l i n e t h a t d o n o t b e l o n g t o a n y o t h e r l i n e s o f f o r m u l a _ 1 , a n d # s i n g l e p o i n t s ( t h e " v e r t i c e s " o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ) , t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f t w o o r m o r e l i n e s o f f o r m u l a _ 1 . T h e s e t h r e e t y p e s o f o b j e c t s , l i n k e d t o g e t h e r b y a b o u n d a r y m a p t h a t t a k e s e a c h e d g e t o i t s e n d p o i n t s a n d e a c h c e l l t o t h e e d g e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c e l l , f o r m a c e l l c o m p l e x c o v e r i n g t h e p l a n e . T w o a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e s a i d t o b e " i s o m o r p h i c " o r " c o m b i n a t o r i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t " i f t h e r e i s a o n e - t o - o n e b o u n d a r y - p r e s e r v i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e o b j e c t s i n t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d c e l l c o m p l e x e s . T h e s a m e t y p e s o f s h a p e s o c c u r f o r i n f i n i t e b u t " l o c a l l y f i n i t e " a r r a n g e m e n t s , i n w h i c h e v e r y b o u n d e d s u b s e t o f t h e p l a n e m a y b e c r o s s e d b y o n l y f i n i t e l y m a n y l i n e s , a l t h o u g h i n t h i s c a s e t h e u n b o u n d e d c e l l s m a y h a v e i n f i n i t e l y m a n y s i d e s . I n f i n i t e s y s t e m s o f l i n e s t h a t a r e n o t l o c a l l y f i n i t e m a y h a v e e q u i v a l e n c e c l a s s e s o f o t h e r s h a p e s ; f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s y s t e m o f t a n g e n t l i n e s t o a u n i t c i r c l e h a s t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e c i r c l e a s o n e o f i t s e q u i v a l e n c e c l a s s e s . T h e s t u d y o f a r r a n g e m e n t s w a s b e g u n b y J a k o b S t e i n e r , w h o p r o v e d t h e f i r s t b o u n d s o n t h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f f e a t u r e s o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s t h a t a n a r r a n g e m e n t m a y h a v e . A n a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h f o r m u l a _ 1 0 l i n e s h a s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 1 1 v e r t i c e s ( a t r i a n g u l a r n u m b e r ) , o n e p e r p a i r o f c r o s s i n g l i n e s . T h i s m a x i m u m i s a c h i e v e d f o r " s i m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t s " , t h o s e i n w h i c h e a c h t w o l i n e s h a s a d i s t i n c t p a i r o f c r o s s i n g p o i n t s . I n a n y a r r a n g e m e n t t h e r e w i l l b e f o r m u l a _ 1 0 i n f i n i t e - d o w n w a r d r a y s , o n e p e r l i n e ; t h e s e r a y s s e p a r a t e f o r m u l a _ 1 3 c e l l s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t a r e u n b o u n d e d i n t h e d o w n w a r d d i r e c t i o n . T h e r e m a i n i n g c e l l s a l l h a v e a u n i q u e b o t t o m m o s t v e r t e x , a n d e a c h v e r t e x i s b o t t o m m o s t f o r a u n i q u e c e l l , s o t h e n u m b e r o f c e l l s i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t i s t h e n u m b e r o f v e r t i c e s p l u s f o r m u l a _ 1 3 , o r a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 1 5 ; s e e l a z y c a t e r e r ' s s e q u e n c e . T h e n u m b e r o f e d g e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t i s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 1 6 , a s m a y b e s e e n e i t h e r b y u s i n g t h e E u l e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o c a l c u l a t e i t f r o m t h e n u m b e r s o f v e r t i c e s a n d c e l l s , o r b y o b s e r v i n g t h a t e a c h l i n e i s p a r t i t i o n e d i n t o a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 1 0 e d g e s b y t h e o t h e r f o r m u l a _ 1 8 l i n e s ; a g a i n , t h i s w o r s t - c a s e b o u n d i s a c h i e v e d f o r s i m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h e " z o n e " o f a l i n e f o r m u l a _ 4 i n a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t i s t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f c e l l s h a v i n g e d g e s b e l o n g i n g t o f o r m u l a _ 4 . T h e z o n e t h e o r e m s t a t e s t h a t t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f e d g e s i n t h e c e l l s o f a s i n g l e z o n e i s l i n e a r . M o r e p r e c i s e l y , t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f e d g e s o f t h e c e l l s b e l o n g i n g t o a s i n g l e s i d e o f l i n e f o r m u l a _ 4 i s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 2 2 , a n d t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f e d g e s o f t h e c e l l s b e l o n g i n g t o b o t h s i d e s o f f o r m u l a _ 4 i s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 2 4 . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , t h e t o t a l c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e c e l l s o f a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t a r e i n t e r s e c t e d b y a n y c o n v e x c u r v e i s f o r m u l a _ 2 5 , w h e r e f o r m u l a _ 2 6 d e n o t e s t h e i n v e r s e A c k e r m a n n f u n c t i o n , a s m a y b e s h o w n u s i n g D a v e n p o r t – S c h i n z e l s e q u e n c e s . S u m m i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f a l l z o n e s , o n e f i n d s t h a t t h e s u m o f s q u a r e s o f c e l l c o m p l e x i t i e s i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t i s f o r m u l a _ 2 7 . T h e f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - " l e v e l " o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t i s t h e p o l y g o n a l c h a i n f o r m e d b y t h e e d g e s t h a t h a v e e x a c t l y f o r m u l a _ 2 8 o t h e r l i n e s d i r e c t l y b e l o w t h e m , a n d t h e f o r m u l a _ 3 0 - l e v e l i s t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t b e l o w t h e f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l . F i n d i n g m a t c h i n g u p p e r a n d l o w e r b o u n d s f o r t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f a f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l r e m a i n s a m a j o r o p e n p r o b l e m i n d i s c r e t e g e o m e t r y ; t h e b e s t u p p e r b o u n d i s f o r m u l a _ 3 3 , w h i l e t h e b e s t l o w e r b o u n d i s f o r m u l a _ 3 4 . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e m a x i m u m c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e f o r m u l a _ 3 0 - l e v e l i s k n o w n t o b e f o r m u l a _ 3 6 . A f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l i s a s p e c i a l c a s e o f a m o n o t o n e p a t h i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t ; t h a t i s , a s e q u e n c e o f e d g e s t h a t i n t e r s e c t s a n y v e r t i c a l l i n e i n a s i n g l e p o i n t . H o w e v e r , m o n o t o n e p a t h s m a y b e m u c h m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l s : t h e r e e x i s t a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d m o n o t o n e p a t h s i n t h e s e a r r a n g e m e n t s w h e r e t h e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s a t w h i c h t h e p a t h c h a n g e s d i r e c t i o n i s f o r m u l a _ 3 9 . A l t h o u g h a s i n g l e c e l l i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t m a y b e b o u n d e d b y a l l f o r m u l a _ 1 0 l i n e s , i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e i n g e n e r a l f o r f o r m u l a _ 4 1 d i f f e r e n t c e l l s t o a l l b e b o u n d e d b y f o r m u l a _ 1 0 l i n e s . R a t h e r , t h e t o t a l c o m p l e x i t y o f f o r m u l a _ 4 1 c e l l s i s a t m o s t f o r m u l a _ 4 4 , a l m o s t t h e s a m e b o u n d a s o c c u r s i n t h e S z e m e r é d i – T r o t t e r t h e o r e m o n p o i n t - l i n e i n c i d e n c e s i n t h e p l a n e . A s i m p l e p r o o f o f t h i s f o l l o w s f r o m t h e c r o s s i n g n u m b e r i n e q u a l i t y : i f f o r m u l a _ 4 1 c e l l s h a v e a t o t a l o f f o r m u l a _ 4 6 e d g e s , o n e c a n f o r m a g r a p h w i t h f o r m u l a _ 4 1 n o d e s ( o n e p e r c e l l ) a n d f o r m u l a _ 4 8 e d g e s ( o n e p e r p a i r o f c o n s e c u t i v e c e l l s o n t h e s a m e l i n e ) . T h e e d g e s o f t h i s g r a p h c a n b e d r a w n a s c u r v e s t h a t d o n o t c r o s s w i t h i n t h e c e l l s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i r e n d p o i n t s , a n d t h e n f o l l o w t h e l i n e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r e f o r m u l a _ 2 7 c r o s s i n g s i n t h i s d r a w i n g . H o w e v e r , b y t h e c r o s s i n g n u m b e r i n e q u a l i t y , t h e r e a r e f o r m u l a _ 5 0 c r o s s i n g s ; i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y b o t h b o u n d s , f o r m u l a _ 4 8 m u s t b e f o r m u l a _ 5 2 . I t i s o f t e n c o n v e n i e n t t o s t u d y l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s n o t i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e b u t i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e , d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n p r o j e c t i v e g e o m e t r y e v e r y p a i r o f l i n e s h a s a c r o s s i n g p o i n t . I n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e , w e m a y n o l o n g e r d e f i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s u s i n g s i d e s o f l i n e s ( a l i n e i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e d o e s n o t s e p a r a t e t h e p l a n e i n t o t w o d i s t i n c t s i d e s ) , b u t w e m a y s t i l l d e f i n e t h e c e l l s o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t t o b e t h e c o n n e c t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e p o i n t s n o t b e l o n g i n g t o a n y l i n e , t h e e d g e s t o b e t h e c o n n e c t e d c o m p o n e n t s o f s e t s o f p o i n t s b e l o n g i n g t o a s i n g l e l i n e , a n d t h e v e r t i c e s t o b e p o i n t s w h e r e t w o o r m o r e l i n e s c r o s s . A l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e d i f f e r s f r o m i t s E u c l i d e a n c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h a t t h e t w o E u c l i d e a n r a y s a t e i t h e r e n d o f a l i n e a r e r e p l a c e d b y a s i n g l e e d g e i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e l e f t m o s t a n d r i g h t m o s t v e r t i c e s o n t h a t l i n e , a n d i n t h a t p a i r s o f u n b o u n d e d E u c l i d e a n c e l l s a r e r e p l a c e d i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e b y s i n g l e c e l l s t h a t a r e c r o s s e d b y t h e p r o j e c t i v e l i n e a t i n f i n i t y . D u e t o p r o j e c t i v e d u a l i t y , m a n y s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e c o m b i n a t o r i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f p o i n t s i n t h e p l a n e m a y b e m o r e e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d i n a n e q u i v a l e n t d u a l f o r m a b o u t a r r a n g e m e n t s o f l i n e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e S y l v e s t e r – G a l l a i t h e o r e m , s t a t i n g t h a t a n y n o n - c o l l i n e a r s e t o f p o i n t s i n t h e p l a n e h a s a n " o r d i n a r y l i n e " c o n t a i n i n g e x a c t l y t w o p o i n t s , t r a n s f o r m s u n d e r p r o j e c t i v e d u a l i t y t o t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t a n y a r r a n g e m e n t o f l i n e s w i t h m o r e t h a n o n e v e r t e x h a s a n " o r d i n a r y p o i n t " , a v e r t e x w h e r e o n l y t w o l i n e s c r o s s . T h e e a r l i e s t k n o w n p r o o f o f t h e S y l v e s t e r – G a l l a i t h e o r e m , b y , u s e s t h e E u l e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o s h o w t h a t s u c h a v e r t e x m u s t a l w a y s e x i s t . A n a r r a n g e m e n t o f l i n e s i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e i s s a i d t o b e " s i m p l i c i a l " i f e v e r y c e l l o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t i s b o u n d e d b y e x a c t l y t h r e e e d g e s ; s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e f i r s t s t u d i e d b y M e l c h i o r . T h r e e i n f i n i t e f a m i l i e s o f s i m p l i c i a l l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e k n o w n : # A " n e a r - p e n c i l " c o n s i s t i n g o f f o r m u l a _ 1 8 l i n e s t h r o u g h a s i n g l e p o i n t , t o g e t h e r w i t h a s i n g l e a d d i t i o n a l l i n e t h a t d o e s n o t g o t h r o u g h t h e s a m e p o i n t , # T h e f a m i l y o f l i n e s f o r m e d b y t h e s i d e s o f a r e g u l a r p o l y g o n t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s a x e s o f s y m m e t r y , a n d # T h e s i d e s a n d a x e s o f s y m m e t r y o f a n e v e n r e g u l a r p o l y g o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e l i n e a t i n f i n i t y . A d d i t i o n a l l y t h e r e a r e m a n y o t h e r e x a m p l e s o f " s p o r a d i c s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s " t h a t d o n o t f i t i n t o a n y k n o w n i n f i n i t e f a m i l y . A s G r ü n b a u m w r i t e s , s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s “ a p p e a r a s e x a m p l e s o r c o u n t e r e x a m p l e s i n m a n y c o n t e x t s o f c o m b i n a t o r i a l g e o m e t r y a n d i t s a p p l i c a t i o n s . ” F o r i n s t a n c e , u s e s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s t o c o n s t r u c t c o u n t e r e x a m p l e s t o a c o n j e c t u r e o n t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d e g r e e o f a s e t o f d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s a n d t h e n u m b e r o f i n v a r i a n t l i n e s t h e e q u a t i o n s m a y h a v e . T h e t w o k n o w n c o u n t e r e x a m p l e s t o t h e D i r a c – M o t z k i n c o n j e c t u r e ( w h i c h s t a t e s t h a t a n y f o r m u l a _ 1 0 - l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t h a s a t l e a s t f o r m u l a _ 5 5 o r d i n a r y p o i n t s ) a r e b o t h s i m p l i c i a l . T h e d u a l g r a p h o f a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t , i n w h i c h t h e r e i s o n e n o d e p e r c e l l a n d o n e e d g e l i n k i n g a n y p a i r o f c e l l s t h a t s h a r e a n e d g e o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , i s a p a r t i a l c u b e , a g r a p h i n w h i c h t h e n o d e s c a n b e l a b e l e d b y b i t v e c t o r s i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e g r a p h d i s t a n c e e q u a l s t h e H a m m i n g d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n l a b e l s ; i n t h e c a s e o f a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t , e a c h c o o r d i n a t e o f t h e l a b e l i n g a s s i g n s 0 t o n o d e s o n o n e s i d e o f o n e o f t h e l i n e s a n d 1 t o n o d e s o n t h e o t h e r s i d e . D u a l g r a p h s o f s i m p l i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s h a v e b e e n u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t i n f i n i t e f a m i l i e s o f 3 - r e g u l a r p a r t i a l c u b e s , i s o m o r p h i c t o t h e g r a p h s o f s i m p l e z o n o h e d r a . I t i s a l s o o f i n t e r e s t t o s t u d y t h e e x t r e m a l n u m b e r s o f t r i a n g u l a r c e l l s i n a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t m a y n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e s i m p l i c i a l . I n a n y a r r a n g e m e n t , t h e r e m u s t b e a t l e a s t f o r m u l a _ 1 0 t r i a n g l e s ; e v e r y a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t h a s o n l y f o r m u l a _ 1 0 t r i a n g l e s m u s t b e s i m p l e . T h e m a x i m u m p o s s i b l e n u m b e r o f t r i a n g l e s i n a s i m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t i s k n o w n t o b e u p p e r b o u n d e d b y f o r m u l a _ 5 8 a n d l o w e r b o u n d e d b y f o r m u l a _ 5 9 ; t h e l o w e r b o u n d i s a c h i e v e d b y c e r t a i n s u b s e t s o f t h e d i a g o n a l s o f a r e g u l a r f o r m u l a _ 6 0 - g o n . F o r n o n - s i m p l e a r r a n g e m e n t s t h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f t r i a n g l e s i s s i m i l a r b u t m o r e t i g h t l y b o u n d e d . T h e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d K o b o n t r i a n g l e p r o b l e m a s k s f o r t h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f n o n - o v e r l a p p i n g f i n i t e t r i a n g l e s ( n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f a c e s ) i n a n a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e ; f o r s o m e b u t n o t a l l v a l u e s o f f o r m u l a _ 1 0 , f o r m u l a _ 6 2 t r i a n g l e s a r e p o s s i b l e . T h e d u a l g r a p h o f a s i m p l e l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t m a y b e r e p r e s e n t e d g e o m e t r i c a l l y a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f r h o m b i , o n e p e r v e r t e x o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , w i t h s i d e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l i n e s t h a t m e e t a t t h a t v e r t e x . T h e s e r h o m b i m a y b e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r t o f o r m a t i l i n g o f a c o n v e x p o l y g o n i n t h e c a s e o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t o f f i n i t e l y m a n y l i n e s , o r o f t h e e n t i r e p l a n e i n t h e c a s e o f a l o c a l l y f i n i t e a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h i n f i n i t e l y m a n y l i n e s . i n v e s t i g a t e d s p e c i a l c a s e s o f t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t c o n s i s t s o f f o r m u l a _ 2 8 s e t s o f e q u a l l y s p a c e d p a r a l l e l l i n e s . F o r t w o p e r p e n d i c u l a r f a m i l i e s o f p a r a l l e l l i n e s t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n j u s t g i v e s t h e f a m i l i a r s q u a r e t i l i n g o f t h e p l a n e , a n d f o r t h r e e f a m i l i e s o f l i n e s a t 1 2 0 - d e g r e e a n g l e s f r o m e a c h o t h e r ( t h e m s e l v e s f o r m i n g a t r i h e x a g o n a l t i l i n g ) t h i s p r o d u c e s t h e r h o m b i l l e t i l i n g . H o w e v e r , f o r m o r e f a m i l i e s o f l i n e s t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o d u c e s a p e r i o d i c t i l i n g s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , f o r f i v e f a m i l i e s o f l i n e s a t e q u a l a n g l e s t o e a c h o t h e r ( o r , a s d e B r u i j n c a l l s t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t , a " p e n t a g r i d " ) i t p r o d u c e s a f a m i l y o f t i l i n g s t h a t i n c l u d e t h e r h o m b i c v e r s i o n o f t h e P e n r o s e t i l i n g s . T h e t e t r a k i s s q u a r e t i l i n g i s a n i n f i n i t e a r r a n g e m e n t o f l i n e s f o r m i n g a p e r i o d i c t i l i n g t h a t r e s e m b l e s a m u l t i g r i d w i t h f o u r p a r a l l e l f a m i l i e s , b u t i n w h i c h t w o o f t h e f a m i l i e s a r e m o r e w i d e l y s p a c e d t h a n t h e o t h e r t w o , a n d i n w h i c h t h e a r r a n g e m e n t i s s i m p l i c i a l r a t h e r t h a n s i m p l e . I t s d u a l i s t h e t r u n c a t e d s q u a r e t i l i n g . S i m i l a r l y , t h e t r i a n g u l a r t i l i n g i s a n i n f i n i t e s i m p l i c i a l l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h t h r e e p a r a l l e l f a m i l i e s , w h i c h h a s a s i t s d u a l t h e h e x a g o n a l t i l i n g , a n d t h e b i s e c t e d h e x a g o n a l t i l i n g i s a n i n f i n i t e s i m p l i c i a l l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h s i x p a r a l l e l f a m i l i e s a n d t w o l i n e s p a c i n g s , d u a l t o t h e g r e a t r h o m b i t r i h e x a g o n a l t i l i n g . " C o n s t r u c t i n g " a n a r r a n g e m e n t m e a n s , g i v e n a s i n p u t a l i s t o f t h e l i n e s i n t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , c o m p u t i n g a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e v e r t i c e s , e d g e s , a n d c e l l s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a d j a c e n c i e s b e t w e e n t h e s e o b j e c t s , f o r i n s t a n c e a s a d o u b l y c o n n e c t e d e d g e l i s t . D u e t o t h e z o n e t h e o r e m , a r r a n g e m e n t s c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d e f f i c i e n t l y b y a n i n c r e m e n t a l a l g o r i t h m t h a t a d d s o n e l i n e a t a t i m e t o t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y a d d e d l i n e s : e a c h n e w l i n e c a n b e a d d e d i n t i m e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o i t s z o n e , r e s u l t i n g i n a t o t a l c o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e o f f o r m u l a _ 2 7 . H o w e v e r , t h e m e m o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h i s a l g o r i t h m a r e h i g h , s o i t m a y b e m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o r e p o r t a l l f e a t u r e s o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t b y a n a l g o r i t h m t h a t d o e s n o t k e e p t h e e n t i r e a r r a n g e m e n t i n m e m o r y a t o n c e . T h i s m a y a g a i n b e d o n e e f f i c i e n t l y , i n t i m e f o r m u l a _ 2 7 a n d s p a c e f o r m u l a _ 6 6 , b y a n a l g o r i t h m i c t e c h n i q u e k n o w n a s " t o p o l o g i c a l s w e e p i n g " . C o m p u t i n g a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t e x a c t l y r e q u i r e s a n u m e r i c a l p r e c i s i o n s e v e r a l t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e i n p u t c o o r d i n a t e s : i f a l i n e i s s p e c i f i e d b y t w o p o i n t s o n i t , t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t v e r t i c e s m a y n e e d f o u r t i m e s a s m u c h p r e c i s i o n a s t h e s e i n p u t p o i n t s . T h e r e f o r e , c o m p u t a t i o n a l g e o m e t e r s h a v e a l s o s t u d i e d a l g o r i t h m s f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s e f f i c i e n t l y w i t h l i m i t e d n u m e r i c a l p r e c i s i o n . A s w e l l , r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e s t u d i e d e f f i c i e n t a l g o r i t h m s f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g s m a l l e r p o r t i o n s o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t , s u c h a s z o n e s , f o r m u l a _ 2 8 - l e v e l s , o r t h e s e t o f c e l l s c o n t a i n i n g a g i v e n s e t o f p o i n t s . T h e p r o b l e m o f f i n d i n g t h e a r r a n g e m e n t v e r t e x w i t h t h e m e d i a n f o r m u l a _ 4 8 - c o o r d i n a t e a r i s e s ( i n a d u a l f o r m ) i n r o b u s t s t a t i s t i c s a s t h e p r o b l e m o f c o m p u t i n g t h e T h e i l – S e n e s t i m a t o r o f a s e t o f p o i n t s . M a r c v a n K r e v e l d s u g g e s t e d t h e a l g o r i t h m i c p r o b l e m o f c o m p u t i n g s h o r t e s t p a t h s b e t w e e n v e r t i c e s i n a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t , w h e r e t h e p a t h s a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o f o l l o w t h e e d g e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , m o r e q u i c k l y t h a n t h e q u a d r a t i c t i m e t h a t i t w o u l d t a k e t o a p p l y a s h o r t e s t p a t h a l g o r i t h m t o t h e w h o l e a r r a n g e m e n t g r a p h . A n a p p r o x i m a t i o n a l g o r i t h m i s k n o w n , a n d t h e p r o b l e m m a y b e s o l v e d e f f i c i e n t l y f o r l i n e s t h a t f a l l i n t o a s m a l l n u m b e r o f p a r a l l e l f a m i l i e s ( a s i s t y p i c a l f o r u r b a n s t r e e t g r i d s ) , b u t t h e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m r e m a i n s o p e n . A p s e u d o l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t i s a f a m i l y o f c u r v e s t h a t s h a r e s i m i l a r t o p o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s w i t h a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e s e c a n b e d e f i n e d m o s t s i m p l y i n t h e p r o j e c t i v e p l a n e a s s i m p l e c l o s e d c u r v e s a n y t w o o f w h i c h m e e t i n a s i n g l e c r o s s i n g p o i n t . A p s e u d o l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t i s s a i d t o b e " s t r e t c h a b l e " i f i t i s c o m b i n a t o r i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o a l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t ; i t i s c o m p l e t e f o r t h e e x i s t e n t i a l t h e o r y o f t h e r e a l s t o d i s t i n g u i s h s t r e t c h a b l e a r r a n g e m e n t s f r o m n o n - s t r e t c h a b l e o n e s . E v e r y a r r a n g e m e n t o f f i n i t e l y m a n y p s e u d o l i n e s c a n b e e x t e n d e d s o t h a t t h e y b e c o m e l i n e s i n a " s p r e a d " , a t y p e o f n o n - E u c l i d e a n i n c i d e n c e g e o m e t r y i n w h i c h e v e r y t w o p o i n t s o f a t o p o l o g i c a l p l a n e a r e c o n n e c t e d b y a u n i q u e l i n e ( a s i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e ) b u t i n w h i c h o t h e r a x i o m s o f E u c l i d e a n g e o m e t r y m a y n o t a p p l y . A n o t h e r t y p e o f n o n - E u c l i d e a n g e o m e t r y i s t h e h y p e r b o l i c p l a n e , a n d a r r a n g e m e n t s o f h y p e r b o l i c l i n e s i n t h i s g e o m e t r y h a v e a l s o b e e n s t u d i e d . A n y f i n i t e s e t o f l i n e s i n t h e E u c l i d e a n p l a n e h a s a c o m b i n a t o r i a l l y e q u i v a l e n t a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e h y p e r b o l i c p l a n e ( e . g . b y e n c l o s i n g t h e v e r t i c e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t b y a l a r g e c i r c l e a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e c i r c l e a s a K l e i n m o d e l o f t h e h y p e r b o l i c p l a n e ) . H o w e v e r , i n h y p e r b o l i c l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s l i n e s m a y a v o i d c r o s s i n g e a c h o t h e r w i t h o u t b e i n g p a r a l l e l ; t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n g r a p h o f t h e l i n e s i n a h y p e r b o l i c a r r a n g e m e n t i s a c i r c l e g r a p h . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n c e p t t o h y p e r b o l i c l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r p s e u d o l i n e s i s a " w e a k p s e u d o l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t " , a f a m i l y o f c u r v e s h a v i n g t h e s a m e t o p o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a s l i n e s s u c h t h a t a n y t w o c u r v e s i n t h e f a m i l y e i t h e r m e e t i n a s i n g l e c r o s s i n g p o i n t o r h a v e n o i n t e r s e c t i o n .

Algorithms

The study of algorithms for text arrangements focuses on the zone theorem, which states that the total number of edges in the cells of a single zone is linear. The complexity of the cells of a line arrangement that are intersected by any convex curve is formula_25. The level of an arrangement is the polygonal chain formed by the edges that have exactly formula_28 other lines directly below them. Finding matching upper and lower bounds for the complexity of a level remains a major open problem in discrete geometry.

is achieved for simple arrangements. The "zone" of a line formula_4 in a line arrangement is the collection of cells having edges belonging to formula_4. The zone theorem states that the total number of edges in the cells of a single zone is linear. More precisely, the total number of edges of the cells belonging to a single side of line formula_4 is at most formula_22, and the total number of edges of the cells belonging to both sides of formula_4 is at most formula_24. More generally, the total complexity of the cells of a line arrangement that are intersected by any convex curve is formula_25, where formula_26 denotes the inverse Ackermann function, as may be shown using Davenport–Schinzel sequences. Summing the complexities of all zones, one finds that the sum of squares of cell complexities in an arrangement is formula_27. The formula_28-"level" of an arrangement is the polygonal chain formed by the edges that have exactly formula_28 other lines directly below them, and the formula_30-level is the portion of the arrangement below the formula_28-level. Finding matching upper and lower bounds for the complexity of a formula_28-level remains a major open problem in discrete geometry; the best upper bound is formula_33, while the best lower bound is formula_34. In contrast, the maximum complexity of the formula_30-level is known to be formula_36. A formula_28-level is a special case of a monotone path in an arrangement; that is, a sequence of edges that intersects any vertical line in a single point. However, monotone paths may be much more complicated than formula_28-levels: there exist arrangements and monotone paths in these arrangements where the number of points at which the path changes direction is formula_39. Although a single cell in an arrangement may be bounded by all formula_10 lines, it is not possible in general for formula_41 different cells to all be bounded by formula_10 lines. Rather, the total complexity of formula_41 cells is at most formula_44, almost the same bound as occurs in the Szemerédi–Trotter theorem on point-line incidences in the plane. A simple proof of this follows from the crossing number inequality: if formula_41 cells have a total of formula_46 edges, one can form a graph with formula_41 nodes (one per cell) and formula_48 edges (one per pair of consecutive cells on the same line). The equations may have. The two known counterexamples to the Dirac–Motzkin conjecture (which states that any formula_10-line arrangement has at least formula_55 ordinary points) are both simplicial. The dual graph of a line arrangement, in which there is one node per cell and one edge linking any pair of cells that share an edge of the arrangement, is a partial cube, a graph in which the nodes can be labeled by bitvectors in such a way that the graph distance equals the Hamming distance between labels; in the case of a line arrangement, each coordinate of the labeling assigns 0 to nodes on one side of one of the lines and 1 to nodes on the other side. Dual graphs of simplicial arrangements have been used to construct infinite an infinite simplicial line arrangement with three parallel families, which has as its dual the hexagonal tiling, and the bisected hexagonal tiling is an infinite simplicial line arrangement with six parallel families and two line spacings, dual to the great rhombitrihexagonal tiling. "Constructing" an arrangement means, given as input a list of the lines in the arrangement, computing a representation of the vertices, edges, and cells of the arrangement together with the adjacencies between these objects, for instance as a doubly connected edge list. Due to the zone theorem, arrangements can be constructed efficiently by an incremental algorithm that adds one line at a time to the arrangement of the previously added lines: each new line can be added in time proportional to its zone, resulting in a total construction time of formula_27. However, the memory requirements of this algorithm are high, so it may be more convenient to report all features of an arrangement by an algorithm that does not keep the entire arrangement in memory at once. This may again be done efficiently, in time formula_27 and space formula_66, by an algorithmic technique known as "topological sweeping". Computing a line arrangement exactly requires a numerical precision several times greater than that of the input coordinates: if a line is specified by two points on it, the coordinates of the arrangement vertices may need four times as much precision as these input points. Therefore, computational geometers have also studied algorithms for constructing arrangements efficiently with limited numerical precision. As well, researchers have studied efficient algorithms for constructing smaller portions of an arrangement, such as zones, formula_28-levels, or the set of cells containing a given set of points. The problem of finding the arrangement vertex with the median formula_48-coordinate arises (in a dual form) in robust statistics as the problem of computing the Theil–Sen estimator of a set of points. Marc van Kreveld suggested the algorithmic problem of computing shortest paths between vertices in a line arrangement, where the paths are restricted to follow the edges of the arrangement, more quickly than the quadratic time that it would take to apply a shortest path algorithm to the whole arrangement graph. An approximation algorithm is known, and the problem may be solved efficiently for lines that fall into a small number of parallel families (as topological properties as lines such that any two curves in the family either meet in a single crossing point or have no intersection.

Elbert D. Thomas

T h o m a s w a s b o r n i n S a l t L a k e C i t y , U t a h T e r r i t o r y o n J u n e 1 7 , 1 8 8 3 t o C a r o l i n e S t o c k d a l e a n d R i c h a r d K e n d a l l T h o m a s . H e w a s t h e f i f t h o f 1 2 c h i l d r e n . H i s p a r e n t s l o v e d t h e a r t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e t h e a t e r . T h e y b u i l t t h e f i r s t C h i l d r e n ' s P l a y h o u s e w e s t o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r i n a b a r n o n t h e i r p r o p e r t y , w h i c h t h e y n a m e d t h e B a r n a c l e . E l b e r t w a s i n v o l v e d i n m a n y p l a y s h e l d f o r t h e p u b l i c i n t h e B a r n a c l e . H i s f a t h e r w a s i n v o l v e d i n l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d h e l d c o n v e n t i o n s a n d p o l i t i c a l r a l l i e s a t t h e B a r n a c l e . H i s f a m i l y l a t e r m o v e d t o a h o m e a c r o s s f r o m w h a t i s n o w t h e C o n f e r e n c e C e n t e r o f T h e C h u r c h o f J e s u s C h r i s t o f L a t t e r - d a y S a i n t s ( L D S C h u r c h ) . T h i s h o m e i s l i s t e d o n t h e N a t i o n a l R e g i s t e r o f H i s t o r i c P l a c e s . W h i l e a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h , T h o m a s h e l p e d f o u n d t h e A m i c i F i d i s s i m i S o c i e t y i n 1 9 0 2 . T h e A F S o c i e t y w a s a m e n ' s f r a t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w h i c h l a t e r a f f i l i a t e d w i t h P h i D e l t a T h e t a f r a t e r n i t y , a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o l l e g e f r a t e r n i t y , i n 1 9 1 4 , b e c o m i n g t h e U t a h A l p h a C h a p t e r o f t h e F r a t e r n i t y . E l b e r t w a s t h e f i r s t i n i t i a t e i n t o P h i D e l t a T h e t a a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h . T h o m a s m a r r i e d E d n a H a r k e r o n J u n e 2 5 , 1 9 0 7 , i n t h e S a l t L a k e T e m p l e a n d t h e y h a d t h r e e d a u g h t e r s t o g e t h e r . E d n a d i e d i n 1 9 4 2 , a n d E l b e r t l a t e r m a r r i e d E t h e l E v a n s i n 1 9 4 6 i n t h e S a l t L a k e T e m p l e . T h o m a s s e r v e d a m i s s i o n t o J a p a n f o r t h e L D S C h u r c h w i t h h i s f i r s t w i f e , f r o m 1 9 0 7 t o 1 9 1 2 . H e w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t L D S m i s s i o n a r i e s s e n t t o J a p a n , a n d h i s f i r s t d a u g h t e r , C h i y o , w a s b o r n t h e r e . E l b e r t d e v e l o p e d a d e e p l o v e f o r t h e J a p a n e s e p e o p l e a n d l e a r n e d t o s p e a k J a p a n e s e f l u e n t l y . H e w a s t h e a u t h o r o f " S u k u i N o M i c h i " , t h e J a p a n e s e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e M o r m o n t r a c t " W a y o f S a l v a t i o n " . F o r p a r t o f h i s f i v e - y e a r m i s s i o n , T h o m a s w a s t h e p r e s i d e n t o f t h e J a p a n e s e M i s s i o n . O n h i s r e t u r n f r o m J a p a n , h e b e c a m e a P r o f e s s o r o f P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e a n d H i s t o r y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h ( w h e r e h e h a d r e c e i v e d h i s B . A . i n 1 9 0 6 ) . H e t a u g h t L a t i n , G r e e k a n d J a p a n e s e c u l t u r e , a s w e l l a s b e i n g a P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e a n d H i s t o r y p r o f e s s o r a n d e v e n t u a l l y a n A d m i n i s t r a t o r o n t h e B o a r d o f R e g e n t s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h f o r m a n y y e a r s . T h o m a s w a s f i r s t e l e c t e d t o t h e S e n a t e a s a D e m o c r a t i n 1 9 3 2 , d e f e a t i n g R e p u b l i c a n R e e d S m o o t . H e s e r v e d o n t h e C o m m i t t e e o n E d u c a t i o n a n d L a b o r ( o f w h i c h h e w a s t h e C h a i r m a n ) , t h e C o m m i t t e e o n M i l i t a r y A f f a i r s , t h e M i n e s a n d M i n i n g C o m m i t t e e , a n d t h e C o m m i t t e e o n L a b o r a n d P u b l i c W e l f a r e . I n A p r i l 1 9 4 3 a c o n f i d e n t i a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e S e n a t e F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s C o m m i t t e e b y B r i t i s h s c h o l a r I s a i a h B e r l i n f o r t h e B r i t i s h F o r e i g n O f f i c e c h a r a c t e r i z e d T h o m a s a s : T h o m a s w a s a m o n g t w e l v e n o m i n a t e d a t t h e 1 9 4 4 D e m o c r a t i c N a t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n t o s e r v e a s F r a n k l i n D . R o o s e v e l t ' s r u n n i n g m a t e i n t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n t h a t y e a r . H e s e r v e d t h r e e t e r m s b e f o r e b e i n g d e f e a t e d f o r r e e l e c t i o n b y W a l l a c e F . B e n n e t t i n 1 9 5 0 . I n 1 9 5 1 , h e w a s a p p o i n t e d H i g h C o m m i s s i o n e r o v e r t h e T r u s t T e r r i t o r y o f t h e P a c i f i c I s l a n d s . E l b e r t d i e d i n H o n o l u l u , H a w a i i T e r r i t o r y o n F e b r u a r y 1 1 , 1 9 5 3 . H e w a s b u r i e d i n t h e T h o m a s f a m i l y p l o t i n t h e S a l t L a k e C i t y C e m e t e r y . T h e G i b b s - T h o m a s H o u s e , i n S a l t L a k e C i t y , w h i c h w a s T h o m a s ' s o l e r e s i d e n c e i n U t a h , w a s l i s t e d o n t h e N a t i o n a l R e g i s t e r o f H i s t o r i c P l a c e s i n 1 9 8 4 i n l a r g e p a r t t o r e c o g n i z e h i s a s s o c i a t i o n .

Political office

Elbert Thomas was a politician who served as a US Senator from Utah from 1933 to 1950. Born in Salt Lake City in 1883, Thomas grew up in a family that valued the arts and was involved in local politics. He attended the University of Utah, where he founded the Amici Fidissimi Society, which later became affiliated with Phi Delta Theta fraternity. Thomas served a mission to Japan for the LDS Church and later became a professor of political science and history at the University of Utah. He was elected to the Senate as a Democrat in 1932 and served on several committees, including education and labor, military affairs, and mines and mining. Thomas was considered as a potential running mate for Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1944 and later served as High Commissioner over the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1951 until his death in 1953.

Thomas was born in Salt Lake City, Utah Territory on June 17, 1883 to Caroline Stockdale and Richard Kendall Thomas. He was the fifth of 12 children. His parents loved the arts, especially the theater. They built the first Children's Playhouse west of the Mississippi River in a barn on their property, which they named the Barnacle. Elbert was involved in many plays held for the public in the Barnacle. His father was involved in local government and held conventions and political rallies at the Barnacle. His family later moved to a home across from what is now the Conference Center of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). This home is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. While an undergraduate student at the University of Utah, Thomas helped found the Amici Fidissimi Society in 1902. The AF Society was a men's fraternal organization which later affiliated with Phi Delta Theta fraternity, an international college fraternity, in 1914, becoming the Utah Alpha Chapter of the Fraternity. Elbert was the first initiate into Phi Delta Theta at the University of Utah. Thomas married Edna Harker on June 25, 1907, in the Salt Lake Temple and they had three daughters together. Edna died in 1942, and Elbert later married Ethel Evans in 1946 in the Salt Lake Temple. Thomas served a mission to Japan for the LDS Church with his first wife, from 1907 to 1912. He was one of the first LDS missionaries sent to Japan, and his first daughter, Chiyo, was born there. Elbert developed a deep love for the Japanese people and learned to speak Japanese fluently. He was the author of "Sukui No Michi", the Japanese translation of the Mormon tract "Way of Salvation". For part of his five-year mission, Thomas was the president of the Japanese Mission. On his return from Japan, he became a Professor of Political Science and History at the University of Utah (where he had received his B.A. in 1906). He taught Latin, Greek and Japanese culture, as well as being a Political Science and History professor and eventually an Administrator on the Board of Regents at the University of Utah for many years. Thomas was first elected to the Senate as a Democrat in 1932, defeating Republican Reed Smoot. He served on the Committee on Education and Labor (of which he was the Chairman), the Committee on Military Affairs, the Mines and Mining Committee, and the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare. In April 1943 a confidential analysis of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee by British scholar Isaiah Berlin for the British Foreign Office characterized Thomas as: Thomas was among twelve nominated at the 1944 Democratic National Convention to serve as Franklin D. Roosevelt's running mate in the presidential election that year. He served three terms before being defeated for reelection by Wallace F. Bennett in 1950. In 1951, he was appointed High Commissioner over the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Elbert died in Honolulu, Hawaii Territory on February 11, 1953. He was buried in the Thomas family plot in the Salt Lake City Cemetery. The Gibbs-Thomas House, in Salt Lake City, which was Thomas' sole residence in Utah, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 in large part to recognize his association.

Cape Nordkinn

C a p e N o r d k i n n i s t h e n o r t h e r n t i p o f t h e f r a c t a l p e n i n s u l a w i t h i n t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t p a r t o f t h e N o r d k i n n P e n i n s u l a , a b o u t i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e n o r t h w e s t f r o m t h e v i l l a g e o f M e h a m n . T h e f a m o u s N o r t h C a p e ( o r m o r e p r e c i s e l y ) a t , i s a b o u t f u r t h e r n o r t h t h a n C a p e N o r d k i n n , a n d i t i s b r a n d e d a s E u r o p e ' s " o f f i c i a l " n o r t h e r n m o s t p o i n t , a l t h o u g h i t i s o n a n i s l a n d . I n s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o N o r t h C a p e w i t h i t s e x t e n s i v e t o u r i s t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d b u s l o a d s o f v i s i t o r s , C a p e N o r d k i n n i s a l o n e l y b u t i m p r e s s i v e p l a c e t h a t c a n o n l y b e v i s i t e d f o l l o w i n g a t l e a s t a f u l l - d a y h i k e f r o m M e h a m n a n d o n e d a y b a c k . T h e t e r r a i n i s s u f f i c i e n t l y d i f f i c u l t f o r h i k i n g , c o n s i s t i n g l a r g e l y o f s e v e r a l k i l o m e t e r s l o n g r o c k f i e l d s , t h a t i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o p r e p a r e f o r m o r e t h a n t w o d a y s f o r t h e r o u n d t r i p , s i n c e i t i s o n e w a y . T h e r e i s n o a c t u a l t r a i l , o n l y e r e c t e d p o l e s a n d c a i r n s a t r a t h e r l o n g d i s t a n c e s a p a r t . I t i s a d v i s a b l e n o t t o t r a v e l i n r a i n y w e a t h e r , a s t h e s l i p p e r y s t o n e s m a k e t h e t e r r a i n v e r y d i f f i c u l t , w i t h s u d d e n f o g s a n d a s s o c i a t e d w h i t e o u t . I n f o g t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o n t h e h i g h l a n d s o u t h o f t h e c a p e c a n b e i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t a G P S . T h e r e i s m o b i l e p h o n e c o v e r a g e i n t h e a r e a , e x c e p t o n w e s t f a c i n g s l o p e s . T h e c a p e c a n a l s o b e r e a c h e d b y b o a t t o u r s . T h e t o u r i s t b u r e a u o f G a m v i k m u n i c i p a l i t y p r o v i d e s t o u r i s t i n f o r m a t i o n . H u r t i g r u t e n s h i p s c a l l a t M e h a m n a n d K j ø l l e f j o r d t o t h e s o u t h w e s t o f t h e c a p e , p r o v i d i n g a s i g h t i n g o p p o r t u n i t y f o r v i s i t o r s o n t h e w a y .

Geography

Located on the Nordkinn Peninsula, Cape Nordkinn is a remote and rugged location that requires a challenging 2-day hike from Mehamn to reach. Unlike North Cape, it lacks tourist infrastructure and receives few visitors. The terrain features rocky fields and steep slopes, making it essential to prepare for the journey and avoid traveling during rainy weather. Mobile phone coverage is available, except on west-facing slopes, and GPS navigation may be necessary in foggy conditions. Boat tours are also an option to visit the cape.

Cape Nordkinn is the northern tip of the fractal peninsula within the northernmost part of the Nordkinn Peninsula, about in a straight line northwest from the village of Mehamn. The famous North Cape ( or more precisely ) at , is about further north than Cape Nordkinn, and it is branded as Europe's "official" northernmost point, although it is on an island. In sharp contrast to North Cape with its extensive tourist infrastructure and busloads of visitors, Cape Nordkinn is a lonely but impressive place that can only be visited following at least a full-day hike from Mehamn and one day back. The terrain is sufficiently difficult for hiking, consisting largely of several kilometers long rock fields, that it is advisable to prepare for more than two days for the round trip, since it is one way. There is no actual trail, only erected poles and cairns at rather long distances apart. It is advisable not to travel in rainy weather, as the slippery stones make the terrain very difficult, with sudden fogs and associated whiteout. In fog the orientation on the highland south of the cape can be impossible without a GPS. There is mobile phone coverage in the area, except on west facing slopes. The cape can also be reached by boat tours. The tourist bureau of Gamvik municipality provides tourist information. Hurtigruten ships call at Mehamn and Kjøllefjord to the southwest of the cape, providing a sighting opportunity for visitors on the way.

Piano Trio (Tchaikovsky)

T h e p i e c e i s m a r k e d b y a t r a g i c p e r s p e c t i v e a n d i s i n t w o m o v e m e n t s : I . P e z z o e l e g i a c o ( M o d e r a t o a s s a i   – A l l e g r o g i u s t o ) ( i n A m i n o r ) ( a p p r o x 2 0 : 0 0 ) I I . ( A ) T e m a c o n v a r i a z i o n i : A n d a n t e c o n m o t o ( i n E m a j o r ) – ( B ) V a r i a z i o n e f i n a l e e c o d a ( i n A m a j o r – A m i n o r ) ( a p p r o x 2 7 : 0 0 ) T o t a l t i m i n g : a p p r o x . 4 7 : 0 0 T h e v a r i a t i o n s a r e a s f o l l o w s : V a r I V a r I I : P i ù m o s s o V a r I I I : A l l e g r o m o d e r a t o V a r I V : L ' i s t e s s o t e m p o ( A l l e g r o m o d e r a t o ) V a r V : L ' i s t e s s o t e m p o V a r V I : T e m p o d i V a l s e V a r V I I : A l l e g r o m o d e r a t o V a r V I I I : F u g a ( A l l e g r o m o d e r a t o ) V a r I X : A n d a n t e f l e b i l e , m a n o n t a n t o V a r X : T e m p o d i m a z u r k a V a r X I : M o d e r a t o V a r i a z i o n i f i n a l e e c o d a : A l l e g r o r i s o l u t o e c o n f u o c o C o d a : A n d a n t e c o n m o t o   – L u g u b r e ( L ' i s t e s s o t e m p o ) T h e " P e z z o e l e g i a c o " i s a d a r k l y b r o o d i n g a n d r a t h e r c o n v e n t i o n a l r o m a n t i c f i r s t m o v e m e n t w i t h a b e a u t i f u l o p e n i n g c e l l o s o l o w i t h a t h e m e t h a t r e t u r n s f o r a f i n a l f u n e r a l m a r c h . T h e s e c o n d m o v e m e n t i s r a t h e r m o r e u n u s u a l : i t o p e n s w i t h a n a l m o s t c l a s s i c a l m e l o d y , m u c h l i k e T c h a i k o v s k y ' s " V a r i a t i o n s o n a R o c o c o T h e m e " f o r c e l l o , a n d t h e n p r o c e e d s w i t h a n a s s u r e d s e t o f v a r i a t i o n s , a l s o l i k e t h e " R o c o c o V a r i a t i o n s " . A f t e r w o r k i n g i t s e l f i n t o m o r e a n d m o r e e c s t a t i c h e i g h t s c u l m i n a t i n g w i t h t h e f i n a l v a r i a t i o n , i t s u d d e n l y g o e s t h r o u g h a s u r p r i s i n g m o d u l a t i o n t o t h e o r i g i n a l m i n o r k e y , a n d t h e t h e m e f r o m t h e f i r s t m o v e m e n t r e t u r n s w i t h a n e v e n g r e a t e r g r a v i t y , a n d t h e e n t i r e p i e c e c o n c l u d e s w i t h y e t a n o t h e r d e a t h m a r c h . T h i s w a s t h e o n l y w o r k T c h a i k o v s k y e v e r w r o t e f o r t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f p i a n o , v i o l i n , a n d c e l l o . I n 1 8 8 0 , h i s b e n e f a c t r e s s N a d e z h d a v o n M e c k , h a d a s k e d f o r s u c h a p i e c e , b u t h e r e f u s e d , s a y i n g i n h i s l e t t e r t o h e r o f 5   N o v e m b e r 1 8 8 0 : Y o u a s k w h y I h a v e n e v e r w r i t t e n a t r i o . F o r g i v e m e , d e a r f r i e n d ; I w o u l d d o a n y t h i n g t o g i v e y o u p l e a s u r e , b u t t h i s i s b e y o n d m e . . . I s i m p l y c a n n o t e n d u r e t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f p i a n o w i t h v i o l i n o r c e l l o . T o m y m i n d t h e t i m b r e o f t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s w i l l n o t b l e n d . . . i t i s t o r t u r e f o r m e t o h a v e t o l i s t e n t o a s t r i n g t r i o o r a s o n a t a o f a n y k i n d f o r p i a n o a n d s t r i n g s . T o m y m i n d , t h e p i a n o c a n b e e f f e c t i v e i n o n l y t h r e e s i t u a t i o n s : a l o n e , i n c o n t e x t w i t h t h e o r c h e s t r a , o r a s a c c o m p a n i m e n t , i . e . , t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f a p i c t u r e . A y e a r l a t e r , h e c o m p o s e d t h e p i a n o t r i o w i t h o u t b e i n g a s k e d t o d o s o , w h e n a n y n u m b e r o f o t h e r g e n r e s o r i n s t r u m e n t a l c o m b i n a t i o n s w e r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e t o h i m . I n a l e t t e r t o v o n M e c k o f 2 7 D e c e m b e r 1 8 8 1 , h e a g a i n r e f e r r e d t o h i s " a n t i p a t h y f o r t h i s c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s t r u m e n t s " . H e w r o t e : " . . . i n s p i t e o f t h i s a n t i p a t h y , I a m t h i n k i n g o f e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h t h i s s o r t o f m u s i c , w h i c h s o f a r I h a v e n o t t o u c h e d . I h a v e a l r e a d y w r i t t e n t h e s t a r t o f a t r i o . W h e t h e r I s h a l l f i n i s h i t a n d w h e t h e r i t w i l l c o m e o u t s u c c e s s f u l l y I d o n o t k n o w , b u t I w o u l d l i k e v e r y m u c h t o b r i n g w h a t I h a v e b e g u n t o a s u c c e s s f u l c o n c l u s i o n . . . I w o n ' t h i d e f r o m y o u t h e g r e a t e f f o r t o f w i l l r e q u i r e d t o s e t d o w n m y m u s i c a l i d e a s i n t h i s n e w a n d u n u s u a l f o r m . B u t I s h o u l d l i k e t o o v e r c o m e a l l t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s . . . H e c o m p l e t e d h i s r o u g h s k e t c h e s o n 2 0 J a n u a r y 1 8 8 2 , a n d c o m p l e t e d t h e s c o r i n g b y 2 5 J a n u a r y . O n t h a t d a y h e w r o t e t o v o n M e c k a g a i n : " T h e T r i o i s f i n i s h e d . . . n o w I c a n s a y w i t h s o m e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t m y w o r k i s n o t a l l b a d . B u t I a m a f r a i d , h a v i n g w r i t t e n a l l m y l i f e f o r o r c h e s t r a , a n d o n l y t a k e n l a t e i n l i f e t o c h a m b e r m u s i c , I m a y h a v e f a i l e d t o a d a p t t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c o m b i n a t i o n s t o m y m u s i c a l t h o u g h t s . I n s h o r t , I f e a r I m a y h a v e a r r a n g e d m u s i c o f a s y m p h o n i c c h a r a c t e r a s a t r i o , i n s t e a d o f w r i t i n g d i r e c t l y f o r t h e i n s t r u m e n t s . I h a v e t r i e d t o a v o i d t h i s , b u t I a m n o t s u r e w h e t h e r I h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l . " H e p u t t h e f i n i s h i n g t o u c h e s t o t h e T r i o b y 9 F e b r u a r y ( t h e s c o r e i s a n n o t a t e d " R o m e 2 8 J a n u a r y – 9 F e b r u a r y 1 8 8 2 " ) , a n d s e n t i t t o h i s p u b l i s h e r s o n 1 1 F e b r u a r y , a s k i n g t h a t S e r g e i T a n e y e v a p p e a r a s p i a n o s o l o i s t a t t h e f i r s t p e r f o r m a n c e . T a n e y e v , t h e c e l l i s t W i l h e l m F i t z e n h a g e n a n d t h e v i o l i n i s t J a n H ř í m a l ý w e r e g i v e n a c c e s s t o t h e s c o r e , a n d t h e y m a d e a n u m b e r o f s u g g e s t i o n s f o r i m p r o v e m e n t , w h i c h T c h a i k o v s k y a c c e p t e d . A p r i v a t e p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h t h e a b o v e - n a m e d s o l o i s t s w a s h e l d a t t h e M o s c o w C o n s e r v a t o r y o n 2 3 M a r c h , t h e f i r s t a n n i v e r s a r y o f N i k o l a i R u b i n s t e i n ' s d e a t h , w h i l e T c h a i k o v s k y w a s i n I t a l y . H e r e t u r n e d t o R u s s i a i n A p r i l a n d h e a r d t h e T r i o f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , a t a n o t h e r p r i v a t e p e r f o r m a n c e , a f t e r w h i c h h e m a d e r e v i s i o n s . T h e s e i n c l u d e d i n s e r t i n g a b r e a k b e f o r e t h e " A n d a n t e " c o d a a n d r e w r i t i n g t h e p i a n o p a r t i n t h e F i n a l e . T a n e y e v a l s o r e w r o t e V a r i a t i o n V I I I , a c h a n g e T c h a i k o v s k y a p p r o v e d . T h e w o r k w a s p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g T c h a i k o v s k y ' s v i s i t t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1 8 9 1 , a t a r e c e p t i o n f o r t h e c o m p o s e r a t t h e R u s s i a n e m b a s s y i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . M u s i c f r o m t h e s e c o n d m o v e m e n t w a s u s e d f o r J o h n T a r a s ' 1 9 4 8 b a l l e t " D e s i g n s w i t h S t r i n g s " .

Background

The Piano Trio in A minor, Op. 50, is a two-movement work marked by a tragic perspective. It was composed in 1881-82, despite Tchaikovsky's initial reluctance due to his dislike of the piano-violin-cello combination. The first movement, "Pezzo elegiaco", features a beautiful cello solo and a return of the theme in a final funeral march. The second movement consists of a theme with eleven variations, concluding with a surprise modulation back to the minor key and a reprise of the first movement's theme, ending with another death march.

The piece is marked by a tragic perspective and is in two movements: I. Pezzo elegiaco (Moderato assai – Allegro giusto) (in A minor) (approx 20:00) II. (A) Tema con variazioni: Andante con moto (in E major) – (B) Variazione finale e coda (in A major – A minor) (approx 27:00) Total timing: approx. 47:00 The variations are as follows: Var I Var II: Più mosso Var III: Allegro moderato Var IV: L'istesso tempo (Allegro moderato) Var V: L'istesso tempo Var VI: Tempo di Valse Var VII: Allegro moderato Var VIII: Fuga (Allegro moderato) Var IX: Andante flebile, ma non tanto Var X: Tempo di mazurka Var XI: Moderato Variazioni finale e coda: Allegro risoluto e con fuoco Coda: Andante con moto – Lugubre (L'istesso tempo) The "Pezzo elegiaco" is a darkly brooding and rather conventional romantic first movement with a beautiful opening cello solo with a theme that returns for a final funeral march. The second movement is rather more unusual: it opens with an almost classical melody, much like Tchaikovsky's "Variations on a Rococo Theme" for cello, and then proceeds with an assured set of variations, also like the "Rococo Variations". After working itself into more and more ecstatic heights culminating with the final variation, it suddenly goes through a surprising modulation to the original minor key, and the theme from the first movement returns with an even greater gravity, and the entire piece concludes with yet another death march. This was the only work Tchaikovsky ever wrote for the combination of piano, violin, and cello. In 1880, his benefactress Nadezhda von Meck, had asked for such a piece, but he refused, saying in his letter to her of 5 November 1880: You ask why I have never written a trio. Forgive me, dear friend; I would do anything to give you pleasure, but this is beyond me ... I simply cannot endure the combination of piano with violin or cello. To my mind the timbre of these instruments will not blend ... it is torture for me to have to listen to a string trio or a sonata of any kind for piano and strings. To my mind, the piano can be effective in only three situations: alone, in context with the orchestra, or as accompaniment, i.e., the background of a picture. A year later, he composed the piano trio without being asked to do so, when any number of other genres or instrumental combinations were also available to him. In a letter to von Meck of 27 December 1881, he again referred to his "antipathy for this combination of instruments". He wrote: "... in spite of this antipathy, I am thinking of experimenting with this sort of music, which so far I have not touched. I have already written the start of a trio. Whether I shall finish it and whether it will come out successfully I do not know, but I would like very much to bring what I have begun to a successful conclusion ... I won't hide from you the great effort of will required to set down my musical ideas in this new and unusual form. But I should like to overcome all these difficulties ... He completed his rough sketches on 20 January 1882, and completed the scoring by 25 January. On that day he wrote to von Meck again: "The Trio is finished ... now I can say with some conviction that my work is not all bad. But I am afraid, having written all my life for orchestra, and only taken late in life to chamber music, I may have failed to adapt the instrumental combinations to my musical thoughts. In short, I fear I may have arranged music of a symphonic character as a trio, instead of writing directly for the instruments. I have tried to avoid this, but I am not sure whether I have been successful. " He put the finishing touches to the Trio by 9 February (the score is annotated "Rome 28 January – 9 February 1882"), and sent it to his publishers on 11 February, asking that Sergei Taneyev appear as piano soloist at the first performance. Taneyev, the cellist Wilhelm Fitzenhagen and the violinist Jan Hřímalý were given access to the score, and they made a number of suggestions for improvement, which Tchaikovsky accepted. A private performance with the above-named soloists was held at the Moscow Conservatory on 23 March, the first anniversary of Nikolai Rubinstein's death, while Tchaikovsky was in Italy. He returned to Russia in April and heard the Trio for the first time, at another private performance, after which he made revisions. These included inserting a break before the "Andante" coda and rewriting the piano part in the Finale. Taneyev also rewrote Variation VIII, a change Tchaikovsky approved. The work was performed during Tchaikovsky's visit to the United States in 1891, at a reception for the composer at the Russian embassy in Washington, D.C. Music from the second movement was used for John Taras' 1948 ballet "Designs with Strings".

Chasle LMC-1 Sprintair

Y v e s C h a s l e w o r k e d a s a n A é r o s p a t i a l e s t r e s s e n g i n e e r a n d i n d e p e n d e n t l y d e s i g n e d s e v e r a l l i g h t a i r c r a f t , s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e C h a s l e Y C - 1 2 T o u r b i l l o n . B e g i n n i n g i n 1 9 7 3 h e d e s i g n e d t h e L M C - 1 S p r i n t a i r , a n a l l - m e t a l , s i d e - b y - s i d e t w o - s e a t e r . T h e f i r s t p r o t o t y p e w a s b u i l t b y a b o u t t w e n t y m e m b e r s o f t h e L é o n - M o r a n e C l u b , h e n c e t h e m o d e l i n i t i a l s . M o s t c l u b m e m b e r s w e r e S O C A T A e m p l o y e e s , b a s e d i n T a r b e s . T h e S p r i n t a i r h a s a l o w , c a n t i l e v e r , u n s w e p t , c o n s t a n t - c h o r d w i n g , m o u n t e d w i t h 4 ° o f d i h e d r a l a n d w i t h s q u a r e t i p s w h i c h h a v e s l i g h t l y r o u n d e d l e a d i n g e d g e s . S t r u c t u r a l l y , t h e w i n g i s a t o r s i o n b o x w i t h a s i n g l e m a i n s p a r a t 3 0 % c h o r d a n d a l i g h t e r r e a r a u x i l i a r y s p a r . A l m o s t t h e w h o l e t r a i l i n g e d g e i s o c c u p i e d b y a c o n t r o l s u r f a c e , t h e o u t e r p a r t s h i n g e d a s a i l e r o n s a n d t h e i n n e r h a l v e s a s t h r e e p o s i t i o n f l a p s . T h e f u s e l a g e i s a m e t a l s e m i - m o n o c o q u e w i t h a R o l l s - R o y c e C o n t i n e n t a l O - 2 0 0 - A a i r - c o o l e d f l a t f o u r a i r c r a f t e n g i n e i n t h e n o s e , d r i v i n g a t w o - b l a d e p r o p e l l e r . T h e t w o s e a t s a r e o v e r t h e w i n g u n d e r a o n e - p i e c e , f o r w a r d - h i n g e d c a n o p y w h i c h e x t e n d s a h e a d o f t h e l e a d i n g e d g e . T h e r e i s a f i x e d r e a r t r a n s p a r e n c y t h a t d r o p s d o w n t o t h e f u s e l a g e . A t t h e r e a r , t h e t a l l v e r t i c a l t a i l i s s t r a i g h t - e d g e d w i t h s w e e p o n b o t h f i n a n d r u d d e r ; o v e r a l l s w e e p i s 3 0 ° . T h e t a i l p l a n e i s m o u n t e d o n t o p o f t h e e x t r e m e r e a r f u s e l a g e a n d , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e e l e v a t o r , i s r e c t a n g u l a r a p a r t f r o m a p r o j e c t i n g , c o c k p i t - a d j u s t a b l e t r i m t a b . B o t h t h e t a i l p l a n e a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e a n d a r u d d e r t r i m t a b a r e a d j u s t a b l e o n t h e g r o u n d . T h e S p r i n t a i r h a s f i x e d t r i c y c l e l a n d i n g g e a r w i t h m a i n w h e e l s o n f a i r e d l e g s m o u n t e d o n t h e l o w e r f u s e l a g e a n d a n u n f a i r e d , t e l e s c o p i c , s p r u n g , s t e e r a b l e n o s e w h e e l . T h e L é o n - M o r a n e b u i l t f i r s t p r o t o t y p e w a s f i r s t f l o w n o n 1 8 J u n e 1 9 7 5 a n d r e m a i n e d t h e r e u n t i l w r i t t e n o f f a t T a r b e s i n 1 9 8 4 . A t l e a s t t w o m o r e , p o s s i b l y t h r e e , w e r e c o m p l e t e d f r o m p l a n s p r o v i d e d b y C h a s l e ; o n e o f t h e m w a s s t i l l a c t i v e a t T o u l o u s e i n 2 0 0 8 .

Design and development

The LMC-1 Sprintair is a lightweight, all-metal, two-seat aircraft designed by Yves Chasle. It features a unique design with a low-mounted wing, a metal semi-monocoque fuselage, and a Continental O-200-A engine. The aircraft has a distinctive appearance with its square-tipped wings, rectangular tailplane, and tricycle landing gear. Despite only a few being built, the Sprintair remains an interesting example of amateur aircraft design and construction.

Yves Chasle worked as an Aérospatiale stress engineer and independently designed several light aircraft, starting with the Chasle YC-12 Tourbillon. Beginning in 1973 he designed the LMC-1 Sprintair, an all-metal, side-by-side two-seater. The first prototype was built by about twenty members of the Léon-Morane Club, hence the model initials. Most club members were SOCATA employees, based in Tarbes. The Sprintair has a low, cantilever, unswept, constant-chord wing, mounted with 4° of dihedral and with square tips which have slightly rounded leading edges. Structurally, the wing is a torsion box with a single main spar at 30% chord and a lighter rear auxiliary spar. Almost the whole trailing edge is occupied by a control surface, the outer parts hinged as ailerons and the inner halves as three position flaps. The fuselage is a metal semi-monocoque with a Rolls-Royce Continental O-200-A air-cooled flat four aircraft engine in the nose, driving a two-blade propeller. The two seats are over the wing under a one-piece, forward-hinged canopy which extends ahead of the leading edge. There is a fixed rear transparency that drops down to the fuselage. At the rear, the tall vertical tail is straight-edged with sweep on both fin and rudder; overall sweep is 30°. The tailplane is mounted on top of the extreme rear fuselage and, together with the elevator, is rectangular apart from a projecting, cockpit-adjustable trim tab. Both the tailplane angle of incidence and a rudder trim tab are adjustable on the ground. The Sprintair has fixed tricycle landing gear with main wheels on faired legs mounted on the lower fuselage and an unfaired, telescopic, sprung, steerable nosewheel. The Léon-Morane built first prototype was first flown on 18 June 1975 and remained there until written off at Tarbes in 1984. At least two more, possibly three, were completed from plans provided by Chasle; one of them was still active at Toulouse in 2008.

Anja Nissen

N i s s e n w a s r a i s e d i n W i n m a l e e , T h e B l u e M o u n t a i n s , N e w S o u t h W a l e s , A u s t r a l i a t o D a n i s h - b o r n p a r e n t s . H e r m o t h e r a n d f a t h e r e m i g r a t e d f r o m D e n m a r k t o A u s t r a l i a w h e n t h e y w e r e 1 1 a n d 2 2 y e a r s o l d , r e s p e c t i v e l y . N i s s e n g r e w u p o n h e r p a r e n t s ' c o u n t r y p r o p e r t y i n t h e L o w e r B l u e M o u n t a i n s w i t h h e r o l d e r s i s t e r . S h e a t t e n d e d W i n m a l e e H i g h S c h o o l , w h e r e s h e o b t a i n e d h e r H S C i n 2 0 1 3 . T h r o u g h o u t h i g h s c h o o l A n j a w a s p a r t o f t h e e x c l u s i v e T a l e n t D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m ( T D P ) a n d c o m p e t e d i n a n u m b e r o f s i n g i n g c o m p e t i t i o n s . I n 2 0 0 8 , N i s s e n m a d e i t t o t h e s e m i - f i n a l s o f S e a s o n 2 o f p o p u l a r t a l e n t - s e a r c h T V s h o w , " A u s t r a l i a ' s G o t T a l e n t " , a g e d 1 2 . S i n c e t h e n s h e h a s a p p e a r e d o n a n u m b e r o f T V s h o w s , i n c l u d i n g " Y o u n g T a l e n t T i m e " , " M o r n i n g s w i t h K e r r i - A n n e " a n d t h e a n n u a l S c h o o l s S p e c t a c u l a r . S h e a l s o p e r f o r m e d t h e D a n i s h N a t i o n a l A n t h e m i n t h e c o m p a n y o f C r o w n P r i n c e s s M a r y o f D e n m a r k . I n 2 0 1 4 , N i s s e n w a s a c o n t e s t a n t o n t h e t h i r d s e r i e s o f " T h e V o i c e A u s t r a l i a " . S h e w a s a m e m b e r o f T e a m w i l l . i . a m , a n d w e n t o n t o w i n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n . N i s s e n ' s d e b u t s e l f - t i t l e d a l b u m c o n s i s t e d o f s o n g s f r o m " T h e V o i c e " . I t w a s n o t p r o m o t e d b y a r a d i o s i n g l e a t t h e t i m e , w h i c h i m p a c t e d s a l e s . N i s s e n l a t e r r e c o r d e d a c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h w i l l . i . a m a n d C o d y W i s e t i t l e d " I ' m S o E x c i t e d " , w h i c h r e c e i v e d a m i x e d r e s p o n s e . S o o n a f t e r i t s r e l e a s e , N i s s e n b e g a n w r i t i n g m a t e r i a l i n L o s A n g e l e s a n d D e n m a r k f o r h e r e v e n t u a l f o l l o w u p E P . d e n o t e s w i n n e r . O n 1 9 M a y 2 0 1 5 , N i s s e n r e l e a s e d h e r f o l l o w - u p s i n g l e o f B a c h a r a c h a n d D a v i d ' s " A n y o n e W h o H a d a H e a r t " a s a p a r t o f N i n e N e t w o r k ' s h i t t e l e v i s i o n p r o g r a m " L o v e C h i l d " . T h e s o n g a c h i e v e d o v e r 7 0 , 0 0 0 v i e w s o n Y o u T u b e . O n 4 A u g u s t 2 0 1 5 , N i s s e n r e l e a s e d h e r t h i r d s i n g l e " T r i u m p h " . S h e p e r f o r m e d h e r s i n g l e o n " T h e V o i c e A u s t r a l i a " 2 0 1 5 t o o v e r 1 . 6 m i l l i o n v i e w e r s n a t i o n w i d e . T h e s o n g h a s o v e r 1 5 , 0 0 0 + v i e w s o n l i n e . A n j a w a s a l s o f e a t u r e d o n " W e L o v e D i s n e y " ( 2 0 1 4 ) a l b u m s i n g i n g " A D r e a m i s a W i s h Y o u r H e a r t M a k e s " f r o m " C i n d e r e l l a " . H e r r e n d i t i o n o f " J o y t o t h e W o r l d " w a s r e l e a s e d o n T h e S a l v a t i o n A r m y ' s " S p i r i t o f C h r i s t m a s 2 0 1 4 " a l b u m . O n 1 0 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 6 , N i s s e n w a s c o n f i r m e d t o b e t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e " D a n s k M e l o d i G r a n d P r i x 2 0 1 6 " , D e n m a r k ' s n a t i o n a l s e l e c t i o n f o r t h e E u r o v i s i o n S o n g C o n t e s t 2 0 1 6 , w i t h t h e s o n g " N e v e r A l o n e " . T h e s o n g w a s w r i t t e n b y D a n i s h E u r o v i s i o n w i n n e r E m m e l i e d e F o r e s t , p r o d u c e r R u n e W e s t b e r g , a n d A m e r i c a n s i n g e r a n d s o n g w r i t e r M o Z e l l a . S h e e n d e d u p p l a c i n g s e c o n d i n t h e f i n a l w i t h 3 6 % o f t h e f i n a l v o t e , b e h i n d w i n n e r s L i g h t h o u s e X . T h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , s h e r e t u r n e d t o t h e " D a n s k M e l o d i G r a n d P r i x " w i t h t h e s o n g " W h e r e I A m " , w h i c h w a s w r i t t e n b y N i s s e n h e r s e l f , a l o n g w i t h A n g e l T u p a i a n d M i c h a e l D ' A r c y . N i s s e n w e n t o n t o w i n , g e t t i n g 6 4 % o f t h e f i n a l v o t e , a n d r e p r e s e n t e d D e n m a r k i n t h e E u r o v i s i o n S o n g C o n t e s t 2 0 1 7 . I n M a y , N i s s e n r e l e a s e d a 6 - t r a c k E P t i t l e d " W h e r e I A m " . A s o f 2 0 1 7 , N i s s e n i s l i v i n g i n L o s A n g e l e s , w h e r e s h e i s s t u d y i n g K e y b o a r d T e c h n o l o g y a n d M u s i c T h e o r y . I n J u n e 2 0 2 0 , N i s s e n r e l e a s e d a n e w s i n g l e ; h e r f i r s t i n t h r e e y e a r s , t i t l e d " I f W e O n l y H a d T o n i g h t " T h i s w a s f o l l o w e d b y " C a n ' t D o T h i s " i n O c t o b e r 2 0 2 0 . T h e A u s t r a l i a n E n t e r t a i n m e n t M o A w a r d s ( c o m m o n l y k n o w n i n f o r m a l l y a s t h e M o A w a r d s ) , w e r e a n n u a l A u s t r a l i a n e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n d u s t r y a w a r d s . T h e y r e c o g n i s e a c h i e v e m e n t s i n l i v e e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n A u s t r a l i a f r o m 1 9 7 5 t o 2 0 1 6 . A n j a N i s s e n w o n o n e a w a r d s i n t h a t t i m e . ( w i n s o n l y )

Life and career

Anja Nissen is an Australian-Danish singer-songwriter born to Danish parents in Australia. She rose to fame after winning season 3 of The Voice Australia in 2014. Following her win, she released her debut album and collaborated with will.i.am. She has since released several singles, including "Anyone Who Had a Heart" and "Triumph", and represented Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017. Currently residing in Los Angeles, Nissen continues to pursue music, releasing new singles in 2020.

Nissen was raised in Winmalee, The Blue Mountains, New South Wales, Australia to Danish-born parents. Her mother and father emigrated from Denmark to Australia when they were 11 and 22 years old, respectively. Nissen grew up on her parents' country property in the Lower Blue Mountains with her older sister. She attended Winmalee High School, where she obtained her HSC in 2013. Throughout high school Anja was part of the exclusive Talent Development Program (TDP) and competed in a number of singing competitions. In 2008, Nissen made it to the semi-finals of Season 2 of popular talent-search TV show, "Australia's Got Talent", aged 12. Since then she has appeared on a number of TV shows, including "Young Talent Time", "Mornings with Kerri-Anne" and the annual Schools Spectacular. She also performed the Danish National Anthem in the company of Crown Princess Mary of Denmark. In 2014, Nissen was a contestant on the third series of "The Voice Australia". She was a member of Team will.i.am, and went on to win the competition. Nissen's debut self-titled album consisted of songs from "The Voice". It was not promoted by a radio single at the time, which impacted sales. Nissen later recorded a collaboration with will.i.am and Cody Wise titled "I'm So Excited", which received a mixed response. Soon after its release, Nissen began writing material in Los Angeles and Denmark for her eventual follow up EP. denotes winner. On 19 May 2015, Nissen released her follow-up single of Bacharach and David's "Anyone Who Had a Heart" as a part of Nine Network's hit television program "Love Child". The song achieved over 70,000 views on YouTube. On 4 August 2015, Nissen released her third single "Triumph". She performed her single on "The Voice Australia" 2015 to over 1.6 million viewers nationwide. The song has over 15,000+ views online. Anja was also featured on "We Love Disney" (2014) album singing "A Dream is a Wish Your Heart Makes" from "Cinderella". Her rendition of "Joy to the World" was released on The Salvation Army's "Spirit of Christmas 2014" album. On 10 January 2016, Nissen was confirmed to be taking part in the "Dansk Melodi Grand Prix 2016", Denmark's national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest 2016, with the song "Never Alone". The song was written by Danish Eurovision winner Emmelie de Forest, producer Rune Westberg, and American singer and songwriter MoZella. She ended up placing second in the final with 36% of the final vote, behind winners Lighthouse X. The following year, she returned to the "Dansk Melodi Grand Prix" with the song "Where I Am", which was written by Nissen herself, along with Angel Tupai and Michael D'Arcy. Nissen went on to win, getting 64% of the final vote, and represented Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017. In May, Nissen released a 6-track EP titled "Where I Am". As of 2017, Nissen is living in Los Angeles, where she is studying Keyboard Technology and Music Theory. In June 2020, Nissen released a new single; her first in three years, titled "If We Only Had Tonight" This was followed by "Can't Do This" in October 2020. The Australian Entertainment Mo Awards (commonly known informally as the Mo Awards), were annual Australian entertainment industry awards. They recognise achievements in live entertainment in Australia from 1975 to 2016. Anja Nissen won one awards in that time. (wins only)

Anja Nissen

N i s s e n w a s r a i s e d i n W i n m a l e e , T h e B l u e M o u n t a i n s , N e w S o u t h W a l e s , A u s t r a l i a t o D a n i s h - b o r n p a r e n t s . H e r m o t h e r a n d f a t h e r e m i g r a t e d f r o m D e n m a r k t o A u s t r a l i a w h e n t h e y w e r e 1 1 a n d 2 2 y e a r s o l d , r e s p e c t i v e l y . N i s s e n g r e w u p o n h e r p a r e n t s ' c o u n t r y p r o p e r t y i n t h e L o w e r B l u e M o u n t a i n s w i t h h e r o l d e r s i s t e r . S h e a t t e n d e d W i n m a l e e H i g h S c h o o l , w h e r e s h e o b t a i n e d h e r H S C i n 2 0 1 3 . T h r o u g h o u t h i g h s c h o o l A n j a w a s p a r t o f t h e e x c l u s i v e T a l e n t D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m ( T D P ) a n d c o m p e t e d i n a n u m b e r o f s i n g i n g c o m p e t i t i o n s . I n 2 0 0 8 , N i s s e n m a d e i t t o t h e s e m i - f i n a l s o f S e a s o n 2 o f p o p u l a r t a l e n t - s e a r c h T V s h o w , " A u s t r a l i a ' s G o t T a l e n t " , a g e d 1 2 . S i n c e t h e n s h e h a s a p p e a r e d o n a n u m b e r o f T V s h o w s , i n c l u d i n g " Y o u n g T a l e n t T i m e " , " M o r n i n g s w i t h K e r r i - A n n e " a n d t h e a n n u a l S c h o o l s S p e c t a c u l a r . S h e a l s o p e r f o r m e d t h e D a n i s h N a t i o n a l A n t h e m i n t h e c o m p a n y o f C r o w n P r i n c e s s M a r y o f D e n m a r k . I n 2 0 1 4 , N i s s e n w a s a c o n t e s t a n t o n t h e t h i r d s e r i e s o f " T h e V o i c e A u s t r a l i a " . S h e w a s a m e m b e r o f T e a m w i l l . i . a m , a n d w e n t o n t o w i n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n . N i s s e n ' s d e b u t s e l f - t i t l e d a l b u m c o n s i s t e d o f s o n g s f r o m " T h e V o i c e " . I t w a s n o t p r o m o t e d b y a r a d i o s i n g l e a t t h e t i m e , w h i c h i m p a c t e d s a l e s . N i s s e n l a t e r r e c o r d e d a c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h w i l l . i . a m a n d C o d y W i s e t i t l e d " I ' m S o E x c i t e d " , w h i c h r e c e i v e d a m i x e d r e s p o n s e . S o o n a f t e r i t s r e l e a s e , N i s s e n b e g a n w r i t i n g m a t e r i a l i n L o s A n g e l e s a n d D e n m a r k f o r h e r e v e n t u a l f o l l o w u p E P . d e n o t e s w i n n e r . O n 1 9 M a y 2 0 1 5 , N i s s e n r e l e a s e d h e r f o l l o w - u p s i n g l e o f B a c h a r a c h a n d D a v i d ' s " A n y o n e W h o H a d a H e a r t " a s a p a r t o f N i n e N e t w o r k ' s h i t t e l e v i s i o n p r o g r a m " L o v e C h i l d " . T h e s o n g a c h i e v e d o v e r 7 0 , 0 0 0 v i e w s o n Y o u T u b e . O n 4 A u g u s t 2 0 1 5 , N i s s e n r e l e a s e d h e r t h i r d s i n g l e " T r i u m p h " . S h e p e r f o r m e d h e r s i n g l e o n " T h e V o i c e A u s t r a l i a " 2 0 1 5 t o o v e r 1 . 6 m i l l i o n v i e w e r s n a t i o n w i d e . T h e s o n g h a s o v e r 1 5 , 0 0 0 + v i e w s o n l i n e . A n j a w a s a l s o f e a t u r e d o n " W e L o v e D i s n e y " ( 2 0 1 4 ) a l b u m s i n g i n g " A D r e a m i s a W i s h Y o u r H e a r t M a k e s " f r o m " C i n d e r e l l a " . H e r r e n d i t i o n o f " J o y t o t h e W o r l d " w a s r e l e a s e d o n T h e S a l v a t i o n A r m y ' s " S p i r i t o f C h r i s t m a s 2 0 1 4 " a l b u m . O n 1 0 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 6 , N i s s e n w a s c o n f i r m e d t o b e t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e " D a n s k M e l o d i G r a n d P r i x 2 0 1 6 " , D e n m a r k ' s n a t i o n a l s e l e c t i o n f o r t h e E u r o v i s i o n S o n g C o n t e s t 2 0 1 6 , w i t h t h e s o n g " N e v e r A l o n e " . T h e s o n g w a s w r i t t e n b y D a n i s h E u r o v i s i o n w i n n e r E m m e l i e d e F o r e s t , p r o d u c e r R u n e W e s t b e r g , a n d A m e r i c a n s i n g e r a n d s o n g w r i t e r M o Z e l l a . S h e e n d e d u p p l a c i n g s e c o n d i n t h e f i n a l w i t h 3 6 % o f t h e f i n a l v o t e , b e h i n d w i n n e r s L i g h t h o u s e X . T h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , s h e r e t u r n e d t o t h e " D a n s k M e l o d i G r a n d P r i x " w i t h t h e s o n g " W h e r e I A m " , w h i c h w a s w r i t t e n b y N i s s e n h e r s e l f , a l o n g w i t h A n g e l T u p a i a n d M i c h a e l D ' A r c y . N i s s e n w e n t o n t o w i n , g e t t i n g 6 4 % o f t h e f i n a l v o t e , a n d r e p r e s e n t e d D e n m a r k i n t h e E u r o v i s i o n S o n g C o n t e s t 2 0 1 7 . I n M a y , N i s s e n r e l e a s e d a 6 - t r a c k E P t i t l e d " W h e r e I A m " . A s o f 2 0 1 7 , N i s s e n i s l i v i n g i n L o s A n g e l e s , w h e r e s h e i s s t u d y i n g K e y b o a r d T e c h n o l o g y a n d M u s i c T h e o r y . I n J u n e 2 0 2 0 , N i s s e n r e l e a s e d a n e w s i n g l e ; h e r f i r s t i n t h r e e y e a r s , t i t l e d " I f W e O n l y H a d T o n i g h t " T h i s w a s f o l l o w e d b y " C a n ' t D o T h i s " i n O c t o b e r 2 0 2 0 . T h e A u s t r a l i a n E n t e r t a i n m e n t M o A w a r d s ( c o m m o n l y k n o w n i n f o r m a l l y a s t h e M o A w a r d s ) , w e r e a n n u a l A u s t r a l i a n e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n d u s t r y a w a r d s . T h e y r e c o g n i s e a c h i e v e m e n t s i n l i v e e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n A u s t r a l i a f r o m 1 9 7 5 t o 2 0 1 6 . A n j a N i s s e n w o n o n e a w a r d s i n t h a t t i m e . ( w i n s o n l y )

Life and career ; 2014–2016: "The Voice Australia"

Anja Nissen is an Australian-Danish singer-songwriter who rose to fame after winning season 3 of "The Voice Australia" in 2014. Born to Danish parents in Australia, Nissen grew up in the Blue Mountains and developed a passion for music from a young age. She has since released several singles, collaborated with notable artists, and represented Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017.

Nissen was raised in Winmalee, The Blue Mountains, New South Wales, Australia to Danish-born parents. Her mother and father emigrated from Denmark to Australia when they were 11 and 22 years old, respectively. Nissen grew up on her parents' country property in the Lower Blue Mountains with her older sister. She attended Winmalee High School, where she obtained her HSC in 2013. Throughout high school Anja was part of the exclusive Talent Development Program (TDP) and competed in a number of singing competitions. In 2008, Nissen made it to the semi-finals of Season 2 of popular talent-search TV show, "Australia's Got Talent", aged 12. Since then she has appeared on a number of TV shows, including "Young Talent Time", "Mornings with Kerri-Anne" and the annual Schools Spectacular. She also performed the Danish National Anthem in the company of Crown Princess Mary of Denmark. In 2014, Nissen was a contestant on the third series of "The Voice Australia". She was a member of Team will.i.am, and went on to win the competition. Nissen's debut self-titled album consisted of songs from "The Voice". It was not promoted by a radio single at the time, which impacted sales. Nissen later recorded a collaboration with will.i.am and Cody Wise titled "I'm So Excited", which received a mixed response. Soon after its release, Nissen began writing material in Los Angeles and Denmark for her eventual follow up EP. denotes winner. On 19 May 2015, Nissen released her follow-up single of Bacharach and David's "Anyone Who Had a Heart" as a part of Nine Network's hit television program "Love Child". The song achieved over 70,000 views on YouTube. On 4 August 2015, Nissen released her third single "Triumph". She performed her single on "The Voice Australia" 2015 to over 1.6 million viewers nationwide. The song has over 15,000+ views online. Anja was also featured on "We Love Disney" (2014) album singing "A Dream is a Wish Your Heart Makes" from "Cinderella". Her rendition of "Joy to the World" was released on The Salvation Army's "Spirit of Christmas 2014" album. On 10 January 2016, Nissen was confirmed to be taking part in the "Dansk Melodi Grand Prix 2016", Denmark's national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest 2016, with the song "Never Alone". The song was written by Danish Eurovision winner Emmelie de Forest, producer Rune Westberg, and American singer and songwriter MoZella. She ended up placing second in the final with 36% of the final vote, behind winners Lighthouse X. The following year, she returned to the "Dansk Melodi Grand Prix" with the song "Where I Am", which was written by Nissen herself, along with Angel Tupai and Michael D'Arcy. Nissen went on to win, getting 64% of the final vote, and represented Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017. In May, Nissen released a 6-track EP titled "Where I Am". As of 2017, Nissen is living in Los Angeles, where she is studying Keyboard Technology and Music Theory. In June 2020, Nissen released a new single; her first in three years, titled "If We Only Had Tonight" This was followed by "Can't Do This" in October 2020. The Australian Entertainment Mo Awards (commonly known informally as the Mo Awards), were annual Australian entertainment industry awards. They recognise achievements in live entertainment in Australia from 1975 to 2016. Anja Nissen won one awards in that time. (wins only)

Anja Nissen

N i s s e n w a s r a i s e d i n W i n m a l e e , T h e B l u e M o u n t a i n s , N e w S o u t h W a l e s , A u s t r a l i a t o D a n i s h - b o r n p a r e n t s . H e r m o t h e r a n d f a t h e r e m i g r a t e d f r o m D e n m a r k t o A u s t r a l i a w h e n t h e y w e r e 1 1 a n d 2 2 y e a r s o l d , r e s p e c t i v e l y . N i s s e n g r e w u p o n h e r p a r e n t s ' c o u n t r y p r o p e r t y i n t h e L o w e r B l u e M o u n t a i n s w i t h h e r o l d e r s i s t e r . S h e a t t e n d e d W i n m a l e e H i g h S c h o o l , w h e r e s h e o b t a i n e d h e r H S C i n 2 0 1 3 . T h r o u g h o u t h i g h s c h o o l A n j a w a s p a r t o f t h e e x c l u s i v e T a l e n t D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m ( T D P ) a n d c o m p e t e d i n a n u m b e r o f s i n g i n g c o m p e t i t i o n s . I n 2 0 0 8 , N i s s e n m a d e i t t o t h e s e m i - f i n a l s o f S e a s o n 2 o f p o p u l a r t a l e n t - s e a r c h T V s h o w , " A u s t r a l i a ' s G o t T a l e n t " , a g e d 1 2 . S i n c e t h e n s h e h a s a p p e a r e d o n a n u m b e r o f T V s h o w s , i n c l u d i n g " Y o u n g T a l e n t T i m e " , " M o r n i n g s w i t h K e r r i - A n n e " a n d t h e a n n u a l S c h o o l s S p e c t a c u l a r . S h e a l s o p e r f o r m e d t h e D a n i s h N a t i o n a l A n t h e m i n t h e c o m p a n y o f C r o w n P r i n c e s s M a r y o f D e n m a r k . I n 2 0 1 4 , N i s s e n w a s a c o n t e s t a n t o n t h e t h i r d s e r i e s o f " T h e V o i c e A u s t r a l i a " . S h e w a s a m e m b e r o f T e a m w i l l . i . a m , a n d w e n t o n t o w i n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n . N i s s e n ' s d e b u t s e l f - t i t l e d a l b u m c o n s i s t e d o f s o n g s f r o m " T h e V o i c e " . I t w a s n o t p r o m o t e d b y a r a d i o s i n g l e a t t h e t i m e , w h i c h i m p a c t e d s a l e s . N i s s e n l a t e r r e c o r d e d a c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h w i l l . i . a m a n d C o d y W i s e t i t l e d " I ' m S o E x c i t e d " , w h i c h r e c e i v e d a m i x e d r e s p o n s e . S o o n a f t e r i t s r e l e a s e , N i s s e n b e g a n w r i t i n g m a t e r i a l i n L o s A n g e l e s a n d D e n m a r k f o r h e r e v e n t u a l f o l l o w u p E P . d e n o t e s w i n n e r . O n 1 9 M a y 2 0 1 5 , N i s s e n r e l e a s e d h e r f o l l o w - u p s i n g l e o f B a c h a r a c h a n d D a v i d ' s " A n y o n e W h o H a d a H e a r t " a s a p a r t o f N i n e N e t w o r k ' s h i t t e l e v i s i o n p r o g r a m " L o v e C h i l d " . T h e s o n g a c h i e v e d o v e r 7 0 , 0 0 0 v i e w s o n Y o u T u b e . O n 4 A u g u s t 2 0 1 5 , N i s s e n r e l e a s e d h e r t h i r d s i n g l e " T r i u m p h " . S h e p e r f o r m e d h e r s i n g l e o n " T h e V o i c e A u s t r a l i a " 2 0 1 5 t o o v e r 1 . 6 m i l l i o n v i e w e r s n a t i o n w i d e . T h e s o n g h a s o v e r 1 5 , 0 0 0 + v i e w s o n l i n e . A n j a w a s a l s o f e a t u r e d o n " W e L o v e D i s n e y " ( 2 0 1 4 ) a l b u m s i n g i n g " A D r e a m i s a W i s h Y o u r H e a r t M a k e s " f r o m " C i n d e r e l l a " . H e r r e n d i t i o n o f " J o y t o t h e W o r l d " w a s r e l e a s e d o n T h e S a l v a t i o n A r m y ' s " S p i r i t o f C h r i s t m a s 2 0 1 4 " a l b u m . O n 1 0 J a n u a r y 2 0 1 6 , N i s s e n w a s c o n f i r m e d t o b e t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e " D a n s k M e l o d i G r a n d P r i x 2 0 1 6 " , D e n m a r k ' s n a t i o n a l s e l e c t i o n f o r t h e E u r o v i s i o n S o n g C o n t e s t 2 0 1 6 , w i t h t h e s o n g " N e v e r A l o n e " . T h e s o n g w a s w r i t t e n b y D a n i s h E u r o v i s i o n w i n n e r E m m e l i e d e F o r e s t , p r o d u c e r R u n e W e s t b e r g , a n d A m e r i c a n s i n g e r a n d s o n g w r i t e r M o Z e l l a . S h e e n d e d u p p l a c i n g s e c o n d i n t h e f i n a l w i t h 3 6 % o f t h e f i n a l v o t e , b e h i n d w i n n e r s L i g h t h o u s e X . T h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , s h e r e t u r n e d t o t h e " D a n s k M e l o d i G r a n d P r i x " w i t h t h e s o n g " W h e r e I A m " , w h i c h w a s w r i t t e n b y N i s s e n h e r s e l f , a l o n g w i t h A n g e l T u p a i a n d M i c h a e l D ' A r c y . N i s s e n w e n t o n t o w i n , g e t t i n g 6 4 % o f t h e f i n a l v o t e , a n d r e p r e s e n t e d D e n m a r k i n t h e E u r o v i s i o n S o n g C o n t e s t 2 0 1 7 . I n M a y , N i s s e n r e l e a s e d a 6 - t r a c k E P t i t l e d " W h e r e I A m " . A s o f 2 0 1 7 , N i s s e n i s l i v i n g i n L o s A n g e l e s , w h e r e s h e i s s t u d y i n g K e y b o a r d T e c h n o l o g y a n d M u s i c T h e o r y . I n J u n e 2 0 2 0 , N i s s e n r e l e a s e d a n e w s i n g l e ; h e r f i r s t i n t h r e e y e a r s , t i t l e d " I f W e O n l y H a d T o n i g h t " T h i s w a s f o l l o w e d b y " C a n ' t D o T h i s " i n O c t o b e r 2 0 2 0 . T h e A u s t r a l i a n E n t e r t a i n m e n t M o A w a r d s ( c o m m o n l y k n o w n i n f o r m a l l y a s t h e M o A w a r d s ) , w e r e a n n u a l A u s t r a l i a n e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n d u s t r y a w a r d s . T h e y r e c o g n i s e a c h i e v e m e n t s i n l i v e e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n A u s t r a l i a f r o m 1 9 7 5 t o 2 0 1 6 . A n j a N i s s e n w o n o n e a w a r d s i n t h a t t i m e . ( w i n s o n l y )

Life and career ; 2017–2019: Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest

Anja Nissen is an Australian-Danish singer-songwriter born to Danish parents in Australia. She rose to fame after winning The Voice Australia in 2014. She has since released several singles and an EP, and represented Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017.

Nissen was raised in Winmalee, The Blue Mountains, New South Wales, Australia to Danish-born parents. Her mother and father emigrated from Denmark to Australia when they were 11 and 22 years old, respectively. Nissen grew up on her parents' country property in the Lower Blue Mountains with her older sister. She attended Winmalee High School, where she obtained her HSC in 2013. Throughout high school Anja was part of the exclusive Talent Development Program (TDP) and competed in a number of singing competitions. In 2008, Nissen made it to the semi-finals of Season 2 of popular talent-search TV show, "Australia's Got Talent", aged 12. Since then she has appeared on a number of TV shows, including "Young Talent Time", "Mornings with Kerri-Anne" and the annual Schools Spectacular. She also performed the Danish National Anthem in the company of Crown Princess Mary of Denmark. In 2014, Nissen was a contestant on the third series of "The Voice Australia". She was a member of Team will.i.am, and went on to win the competition. Nissen's debut self-titled album consisted of songs from "The Voice". It was not promoted by a radio single at the time, which impacted sales. Nissen later recorded a collaboration with will.i.am and Cody Wise titled "I'm So Excited", which received a mixed response. Soon after its release, Nissen began writing material in Los Angeles and Denmark for her eventual follow up EP. denotes winner. On 19 May 2015, Nissen released her follow-up single of Bacharach and David's "Anyone Who Had a Heart" as a part of Nine Network's hit television program "Love Child". The song achieved over 70,000 views on YouTube. On 4 August 2015, Nissen released her third single "Triumph". She performed her single on "The Voice Australia" 2015 to over 1.6 million viewers nationwide. The song has over 15,000+ views online. Anja was also featured on "We Love Disney" (2014) album singing "A Dream is a Wish Your Heart Makes" from "Cinderella". Her rendition of "Joy to the World" was released on The Salvation Army's "Spirit of Christmas 2014" album. On 10 January 2016, Nissen was confirmed to be taking part in the "Dansk Melodi Grand Prix 2016", Denmark's national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest 2016, with the song "Never Alone". The song was written by Danish Eurovision winner Emmelie de Forest, producer Rune Westberg, and American singer and songwriter MoZella. She ended up placing second in the final with 36% of the final vote, behind winners Lighthouse X. The following year, she returned to the "Dansk Melodi Grand Prix" with the song "Where I Am", which was written by Nissen herself, along with Angel Tupai and Michael D'Arcy. Nissen went on to win, getting 64% of the final vote, and represented Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017. In May, Nissen released a 6-track EP titled "Where I Am". As of 2017, Nissen is living in Los Angeles, where she is studying Keyboard Technology and Music Theory. In June 2020, Nissen released a new single; her first in three years, titled "If We Only Had Tonight" This was followed by "Can't Do This" in October 2020. The Australian Entertainment Mo Awards (commonly known informally as the Mo Awards), were annual Australian entertainment industry awards. They recognise achievements in live entertainment in Australia from 1975 to 2016. Anja Nissen won one awards in that time. (wins only)

I'm Not the Only One

A f t e r t h e s u c c e s s o f p r e v i o u s s i n g l e s , " M o n e y o n M y M i n d " a n d " S t a y w i t h M e " o n t h e U K S i n g l e s C h a r t - w i t h b o t h b e c o m i n g n u m b e r - o n e s i n g l e s , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r a w o r l d w i d e h i t - S m i t h a n n o u n c e d t h a t " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " w a s g o i n g t o b e t h e a l b u m ' s t h i r d s i n g l e a n d t h a t i t w o u l d b e r e l e a s e d o n 3 1 A u g u s t 2 0 1 4 t o d i g i t a l d o w n l o a d i n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m . T h e y c h o s e t h e s o n g t o b e r e l e a s e d a s a s i n g l e s i n c e i t w a s o n e o f t h e s o n g s t h a t b o t h t h e y a n d t h e i r f a n s l o v e d . T h e y c o m m e n t e d : " I j u s t w a n t e d t o b r i n g o u t a s o n g t h a t i s c l a s s i c a n d t h a t h a d l o n g e v i t y t o i t . I f y o u l i s t e n t o t h e r e c o r d , t h e r e ' s a f e w s o n g s o n t h e r e I a c t u a l l y t h i n k w o u l d b e s a f e r b e t s t o g o i n t e r m s o f r a d i o , b u t I w a n t e d t o m a k e a s t a t e m e n t . I a l s o w a n t p e o p l e t o k n o w t h a t I ' m n o t j u s t d o i n g i t t o h a v e b i g r a d i o h i t s . I w a n t p e o p l e t o b u y i n t o t h e a l b u m a n d I f e e l l i k e ' I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e ' i s a n a l b u m - s e l l e r . " O n 1 0 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4 , a r e m i x v e r s i o n o f t h e s o n g f e a t u r i n g A m e r i c a n r a p p e r A $ A P R o c k y w a s r e l e a s e d w o r l d w i d e t h r o u g h o n l i n e m u s i c s t o r e s . S m i t h r e c a l l e d t h a t Z a n e L o w e c a l l e d t h e m a n d l e f t a v o i c e m a i l o n t h e i r p h o n e t e l l i n g t h e m t h e s o n g w a s a h i p - h o p t r a c k a n d t h a t h e n e e d e d a r a p p e r o n i t , a n d i n s p i r e d t h e m t o g e t a r a p p e r a n d s h o w a d i f f e r e n t s i d e o f t h e m u s i c . T h e s o n g w a s r e l e a s e d a s t h e s e c o n d s i n g l e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b e i n g s e r v i c e d f i r s t t o a d u l t a l t e r n a t i v e r a d i o o n 2 4 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4 a n d l a t e r o n 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 t o h o t a d u l t c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y h i t r a d i o . I n B r a z i l , t h e s o n g w a s p a r t o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o u n d t r a c k t o t h e t e l e n o v e l a " B a b i l ô n i a " ( 2 0 1 5 ) . " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " w a s w r i t t e n b y S a m S m i t h w i t h J i m m y N a p e s , w h o w a s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s o n g ' s p r o d u c t i o n a l o n g w i t h S t e v e F i t z m a u r i c e . T h e l a t t e r a l s o r e c o r d e d a n d m i x e d t h e s o n g a t T h e P i e r c e s R o o m , L o n d o n , w h i l e t h e s o n g ' s s t r i n g s w e r e a r r a n g e d a n d c o n d u c t e d b y S i m o n H a l e . T h e p i a n o - l e d , m a r c h i n g m i d t e m p o s o u l b a l l a d h a s s t r i n g s , d r u m s , p i a n o , p e r c u s s i o n , b a s s g u i t a r a n d g u i t a r a s i t s m a i n i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n w i t h a g o s p e l s t r u c t u r e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s h e e t m u s i c p u b l i s h e d a t M u s i c n o t e s . c o m b y U n i v e r s a l M u s i c P u b l i s h i n g G r o u p , t h e s o n g i s c o m p o s e d i n t h e k e y o f F m a j o r w i t h a t e m p o o f 8 2 b e a t s p e r m i n u t e . S m i t h s ' s v o c a l s r a n g e f r o m t h e n o t e o f F 3 t o C 5 . T h e y a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e y r e c o r d e d t h e s o n g w h e n t h e y w e r e h u n g o v e r , c a l l i n g t h e i r v o c a l s " h u n g o v e r v o c a l s " . A s S m i t h e x p l a i n e d i n a t r a c k - b y - t r a c k c o m m e n t a r y f o r " D i g i t a l S p y " , " N a p e s p l a y e d t h e c h o r d s o n e d a y a n d I w a s o b s e s s e d w i t h t h e m . W e w r o t e a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t s o n g o n t o p o f t h o s e c h o r d s a n d i t w a s n ' t v e r y g o o d , s o w e s c r a p p e d i t . T h e n t w o w e e k s l a t e r , I j u s t l o v e d t h e c h o r d s s o w e r e t u r n e d t o t h e m , a n d t h e n w e w r o t e ' I ' m N o t T h e O n l y O n e ' i n l i k e a n h o u r . " L y r i c a l l y , " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " t a l k s a b o u t i n f i d e l i t y a n d b e t r a y a l i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h e r e s o m e o n e d e c i d e s t o s t a y w i t h a p a r t n e r t h e y k n o w w a s c h e a t i n g o n t h e m . I n t h e c h o r u s , S m i t h a d m i t s : " Y o u s a y I ' m c r a z y / ' C a u s e y o u d o n ' t t h i n k I k n o w w h a t y o u ' v e d o n e / B u t w h e n y o u c a l l m e b a b y / I k n o w I ' m n o t t h e o n l y o n e " . S m i t h r e v e a l e d t o L e w i s C o r n e r t h a t t h e s o n g w a s t h e o n l y o n e o n t h e a l b u m t h a t i s n o t a b o u t t h e i r l i f e , b u t a m a r r i a g e t h e y o b s e r v e d f i r s t - h a n d , w h e r e t h e y p u t t h e m s e l v e s i n t o t h e w o m a n ' s s h o e s . T h e y a d d e d : I t c a m e r e a l l y n a t u r a l l y ! T h e p e r s o n I w r o t e i t w i t h , w e b o t h k n e w t h e m a n d w e j u s t v i b e d o f f e a c h o t h e r . W e b o t h h a d r e a l l y s t r o n g o p i n i o n s o n w h a t t h e w o m a n w a s d o i n g . I t ' s q u i t e a c o m p l e x s o n g . W h e n y o u l i s t e n t o i t y o u t h i n k i t ' s j u s t b a s h i n g a g u y f o r c h e a t i n g , b u t i t ' s n o t , i t a c t u a l l y t a l k s m o r e a b o u t h o w t h e w o m a n ' s a m u g . S h e k n o w s s h e ' s n o t t h e o n l y o n e , b u t s h e ' s n e v e r g o i n g t o l e a v e . I t h i n k t h a t ' s w r o n g . T h e s o n g r e c e i v e d p o s i t i v e r e v i e w s f r o m m o s t m u s i c c r i t i c s . H a r l e y B r o w n o f " B i l l b o a r d " p r a i s e d t h e t r a c k , c a l l i n g i t " [ t ] h e f i r s t t u r n i n g p o i n t o f t h e r e c o r d [ . . . ] w h e r e S m i t h g o e s h o m e , d r i e s o f f , a n d p i c k s h i m s e l f b a c k u p . " B r o w n a l s o a d d e d t h a t " [ t ] h e v i o l i n s s u r g i n g b e h i n d t h e b r e a k d o w n a r e s o h i g h - p i t c h e d t h e y p r a c t i c a l l y s t i n g . " L i l y M o a y e r i o f " T h e A . V . C l u b " c a l l i n g i t o n e o f t h e a l b u m ' s d r i v i n g f o r c e s , n o t i n g t h a t i t " i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s w i t h s o p h i s t i c a t e d p i a n o a n d e s c a l a t i n g s t r i n g s . " R y a n L a t h a n o f " P o p M a t t e r s " o b s e r v e d t h a t " t h e c h a r m i n g ' I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e ' c o n f i d e n t l y s t r u t s o u t f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e s e t . A n o b v i o u s c a n d i d a t e f o r f u t u r e s i n g l e , i t ’ s t h e t y p e o f t r a c k t h a t e l i c i t s h e a d b o b b i n g a n d f i n g e r s n a p p i n g t h e s e c o n d i t b e g i n s . " J o n D o l a n o f " R o l l i n g S t o n e " c a l l e d i t " g o r g e o u s l y b r u i s i n g " , w h i l e A n d y K e l l m a n o f A l l M u s i c p i c k e d i t a s o n e o f t h e a l b u m ' s b e s t t r a c k s . E r i c D a v i d s o n o f C M J t h o u g h t t h a t " [ t ] h e A l G r e e n v i b e o f ' I ' m N o t T h e O n l y O n e ' h a s a v e r g i n g - o n - s t e r n s e n t i m e n t c o u c h e d i n a d e e p e r g r o o v e t h a t s e e m s l i k e a g o o d d i r e c t i o n S m i t h c o u l d h e a d i n . " I n h i s r e v i e w f o r " C o n s e q u e n c e o f S o u n d " , S h e l d o n P e a r c e c a l l e d i t " a t w o - s t e p p i n g d e l i g h t d e s p i t e i t s s o m b e r t o n e . " A d a m W o r k m a n o f " T h e N a t i o n a l " n o t e d t h a t t h e s o n g " r e a l l y s t a n d s o u t a m o n g h a c k n e y e d l y r i c a l c o n t e n t o n l o v e a n d l o n g i n g ; h i s h i g h - p i t c h e d v o c a l e x t r e m e s a n d f a i r l y b a s i c g r a s p o f r h y m i n g c o u p l e t s b o t h s o o n b e g i n t o r a n k l e , t o o . " B e n K e l l y o f " A t t i t u d e " o p i n e d t h a t t h e s o n g i s " t h e a l b u m ' s b l u e s y m o m e n t " [ . . . ] " e c h o [ i n g ] o f S i t t i n ' o n t h e D o c k o f t h e B a y , w i t h S a m ' s s t r o n g f a l s e t t o r u n n i n g f r e e a s e v e r . " M a e v e H e s l i n o f H o t P r e s s l a b e l l e d i t " l a i d b a c k , f u n k y s o u l a t i t s f i n e s t . " P a u l C a n t o r o f " V i b e " p r a i s e d t h e s o n g ' s " l u s h a n d e x p a n s i v e " a r r a n g e m e n t s , c a l l e d i t a " n o t a b l y h i g h l i g h t " a n d n o t i n g t h a t i t i s " b r o u g h t t o l i f e b y S m i t h ' s c l e v e r v o c a l a r p e g g i a t i o n s a n d p h r a s i n g s . " R a c h e l S o n i s o f " I d o l a t o r " d e f i n e d i t a s " a j a z z y , s o o t h i n g , c o f f e e s h o p - r e a d y n u m b e r t h a t s t i c k s t o t h e a l b u m ' s ' q u i e t m o m e n t s i n l i f e ' t h e m e " , n o t i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s t o A d e l e ' s m e l a n c h o l i c a p p r o a c h a n d p r a i s i n g t h e s o n g f o r " s h o w [ i n g ] o f f h i s p r e c i o u s p i p e s m o r e t h a n e v e r b e f o r e . " F o l l o w i n g t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e i r b r e a k t h r o u g h s i n g l e " S t a y w i t h M e " , " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " f o u n d c h a r t s u c c e s s i n s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s . I n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , t h e s o n g e n t e r e d t h e U K S i n g l e s C h a r t a t n u m b e r n i n e t y - t h r e e , w h e n t h e a l b u m w a s r e l e a s e d o n t h e w e e k o f 1 J u n e 2 0 1 4 , b e f o r e i t r e - e n t e r e d a t n u m b e r s i x t y - n i n e o n t h e w e e k o f 1 0 A u g u s t 2 0 1 4 . I t k e p t c l i m b i n g t h e c h a r t s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w e e k s u n t i l i t r e a c h e d a p e a k o f n u m b e r t h r e e o n t h e w e e k o f 1 4 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4 . B y r e a c h i n g n u m b e r t h r e e , t h e s o n g b e c a m e t h e a l b u m ' s t h i r d t o p - t h r e e h i t f o r t h e s i n g e r , w h o s e l a s t t w o s i n g l e s f r o m t h e a l b u m r e a c h e d n u m b e r - o n e . I n I r e l a n d , t h e s o n g r e a c h e d n u m b e r s i x , b e c o m i n g t h e i r t h i r d t o p - t e n h i t . I n E u r o p e , t h e s o n g a l s o r e a c h e d t h e t o p - t e n i n D e n m a r k , I t a l y a n d N e t h e r l a n d s . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " s h a r e d s i m i l a r s u c c e s s . I t d e b u t e d o n t h e " B i l l b o a r d " H o t 1 0 0 a t n u m b e r s i x t y - n i n e , d u r i n g t h e s a m e w e e k w h e r e " S t a y w i t h M e " w a s i n t h e t o p - t e n a n d " L a t c h " w a s r e a c h i n g t h e t o p - t w e n t y . I t l a t e r r e a p p e a r e d a t n u m b e r n i n e t y - t h r e e , a n d w i t h i n f o u r w e e k s t h e s o n g c l i m b e d t o n u m b e r t w e n t y - f i v e , b e c o m i n g t h a t w e e k ' s b i g g e s t g a i n i n d i g i t a l s a l e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g w e e k , t h e s o n g r e a c h e d n u m b e r t w e n t y , m a r k i n g t h e i r f a s t e s t f l i g h t t o t h e t o p - t w e n t y ( s e v e n w e e k s ) a m o n g h i s f o u r e n t r i e s . F o u r w e e k s l a t e r , t h e s o n g c l i m b e d t o n u m b e r n i n e , t h u s e a r n i n g S m i t h t h e i r t h i r d t o p - t e n s i n g l e i n t h e s a m e y e a r ( 2 0 1 4 ) . W i t h t h r e e t o p t e n s i n g l e s , S m i t h b e c a m e t h e o n l y m a l e t o a c h i e v e t h e f e a t i n 2 0 1 4 a n d t h e t h i r d o v e r a l l a r t i s t w i t h t h e m o s t t o p t e n s i n g l e s o f 2 0 1 4 , a l o n g w i t h I g g y A z a l e a , w h o a l s o s c o r e d t h r e e , a n d b e h i n d A r i a n a G r a n d e , w h o h a d f o u r . I t e v e n t u a l l y p e a k e d a t n u m b e r f i v e , b e c o m i n g t h e i r s e c o n d t o p - f i v e h i t . I n A u s t r a l i a , t h e s o n g f a i l e d t o r e a c h t h e t o p - t e n b y o n e p o s i t i o n , r e a c h i n g i t s p e a k a t n u m b e r e l e v e n , e n d i n g t h e i r s t r e a k o f c o n s e c u t i v e t o p - f i v e s i n g l e s , b u t i n N e w Z e a l a n d t h e s o n g p e a k e d a t n u m b e r t h r e e , e a r n i n g t h e i r s e c o n d c o n s e c u t i v e t o p - t h r e e s i n g l e . I n b o t h c o u n t r i e s , t h e s o n g w a s c e r t i f i e d 2 x p l a t i n u m b y t h e A u s t r a l i a n R e c o r d i n g I n d u s t r y A s s o c i a t i o n a n d t h e R e c o r d e d M u s i c N Z r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n B r a z i l , t h e s o n g w a s t h e i r f i r s t t o p - f o r t y h i t , r e a c h i n g i t s p e a k a t n u m b e r t h i r t y - n i n e . T h e s o n g w a s a l s o s u c c e s s f u l i n S o u t h A f r i c a , w h e r e i t r e a c h e d t h e t o p o f t h e c h a r t s , a n d S o u t h K o r e a , w h e r e t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o n g p e a k e d a t n u m b e r o n e . T h e o f f i c i a l m u s i c v i d e o f o r " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " w a s d i r e c t e d b y L u k e M o n a g h a n , w h o a l s o w o r k e d w i t h S m i t h o n t h e v i d e o f o r " L e a v e Y o u r L o v e r " , a n d i t w a s f i l m e d i n L o s A n g e l e s o n 8 J u l y 2 0 1 4 . T h e m u s i c v i d e o f e a t u r e s " G l e e " s D i a n n a A g r o n a s a s c o r n e d b r i d e a n d " T h e M i n d y P r o j e c t " s C h r i s M e s s i n a a s t h e c a u s e o f a n d c u r e f o r h e r h e a r t a c h e . A s S m i t h r e v e a l e d : " I ’ m a h u g e f a n o f b o t h o f t h e m . I t h o u g h t I h a d m y d r e a m t e a m a r o u n d m e . " A g r o n r e v e a l e d t h a t s h e " t w e e t e d S a m a l o n g t i m e a g o a n d t o l d h i m h o w i m p o r t a n t i t w a s t h a t I d i s c o v e r e d h i s m u s i c . H e t w e e t e d m e b a c k , a n d w e s t a r t e d m e s s a g i n g e a c h o t h e r . T h e n t h e v i d e o h a p p e n e d , a n d w e ' v e b e c o m e f r i e n d s . " S m i t h a l s o c l a i m e d t h e y w a n t e d t o " b r i n g t h e s o n g t o l i f e a b i t m o r e ' " a n d " s t r i k e a n e r v e w i t h a c e r t a i n g r o u p o f p e o p l e " . I t w a s r e l e a s e d t o S m i t h ' s Y o u T u b e / V E V O c h a n n e l o n 1 A u g u s t 2 0 1 4 . T h e c y c l e o f i n f i d e l i t y i s t h e m a i n t h e m e o f b o t h t h e v i d e o a n d t h e s o n g . I t s t a r t s w i t h a s h o t o f t h e c o u p l e ' s h o u s e w i t h A g r o n t e l l i n g M e s s i n a t h a t s h e m a d e h i m b r e a k f a s t , b u t h e s a y s h e i s i n t o o m u c h o f a r u s h t o e a t i t . S h e w a l k s h i m o u t , a n d t h e n h e g o e s s t r a i g h t t o a b a r a n d d o e s s h o t s w i t h h i s m i s t r e s s , w h i l e A g r o n ' s c h a r a c t e r d r i n k s a l c o h o l a n d p i e c e s t o g e t h e r h e r h u s b a n d ' s i n d i s c r e t i o n s . W h i l e S m i t h p e r f o r m s i n t h e s a l o o n , A g r o n p r o c e e d s t o u n c o r k a b o t t l e o f w h i t e w i n e i n t h e m i d d l e o f h e r n e i g h b o u r h o o d l i q u o r s t o r e , d r i n k a w a y h e r p r o b l e m s , a n d t h e n e v e n t u a l l y s e t f i r e t o M e s s i n a ' s p o s s e s s i o n s . A t t h e e n d o f t h e v i d e o , s h e w e l c o m e s h i m b a c k h o m e a s i f n o t h i n g h a d h a p p e n e d . A s o f O c t o b e r 2 0 1 9 , t h e v i d e o h a s r e c e i v e d o v e r 1 . 3 b i l l i o n v i e w s . T h e s o n g i s f e a t u r e d i n t h e t e l e v i s i o n s h o w s " T h e F l a s h " a n d " S u i t s . " # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 3 : 4 2 # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 3 : 2 4 # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 6 : 3 5 # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 6 : 4 7 # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 4 : 0 6

Background and release

Sam Smith's "I'm Not the Only One" was released as the third single from their debut studio album "In the Lonely Hour" after the success of "Money on My Mind" and "Stay with Me". The song received positive reviews from critics, with many praising its classic sound and sophisticated instrumentation. It was a commercial success, peaking at number three in the UK Singles Chart and reaching the top ten in several European countries. The song's music video, featuring Dianna Agron and Luke Messina, explores themes of infidelity and features Smith performing in a saloon.

After the success of previous singles, "Money on My Mind" and "Stay with Me" on the UK Singles Chart - with both becoming number-one singles, while the latter a worldwide hit - Smith announced that "I'm Not the Only One" was going to be the album's third single and that it would be released on 31 August 2014 to digital download in the United Kingdom. They chose the song to be released as a single since it was one of the songs that both they and their fans loved. They commented: "I just wanted to bring out a song that is classic and that had longevity to it. If you listen to the record, there's a few songs on there I actually think would be safer bets to for cheating, but it's not, it actually talks more about how the woman's a mug. She knows she's not the only one, but she's never going to leave. I think that's wrong. The song received positive reviews from most music critics. Harley Brown of "Billboard" praised the track, calling it "[t]he first turning point of the record [...] where Smith goes home, dries off, and picks himself back up." Brown also added that "[t]he violins surging behind the breakdown are so high-pitched they practically sting." Lily Moayeri of "The A.V. Club" calling it one of the album's driving forces, noting that it "illustrates this with sophisticated piano and escalating strings." Ryan Lathan of "PopMatters" observed that "the charming 'I'm Not the Only One' confidently struts out from the rest of the set. An obvious candidate for future single, it’s the type of track that elicits head bobbing and finger snapping the second it begins." Jon Dolan of "Rolling Stone" called it "gorgeously bruising", while Andy Kellman of AllMusic picked it as one of the album's best tracks. Eric Davidson of CMJ thought that "[t]he Al Green vibe of 'I'm Not The Only One' has a verging-on-stern sentiment couched in a deeper groove that seems like a good direction Smith could head in." In his review for "Consequence of Sound", Sheldon Pearce called it "a two-stepping delight despite its somber tone." Adam Workman of "The National" noted that the song "really stands out among hackneyed lyrical content on love and longing; his high-pitched vocal extremes and fairly basic grasp of rhyming couplets both soon begin to rankle, too." Ben Kelly of "Attitude" opined that the song is "the album's bluesy moment" [...] "echo[ing] of Sittin' on the Dock of the Bay, with Sam's strong falsetto running free as ever." Maeve Heslin of Hot Press labelled it "laidback, funky soul at its finest." Paul Cantor of "Vibe" praised the song's "lush and expansive" arrangements, called it a "notably highlight" and noting that it is "brought to life by Smith's clever vocal arpeggiations and phrasings." Rachel Sonis of "Idolator" defined it as "a jazzy, soothing, coffee shop-ready number that sticks to the album's 'quiet moments in life' theme", noting similarities to Adele's melancholic approach and praising the song for "show[ing] off his precious pipes more than ever before. " Following the success of their breakthrough single "Stay with Me", "I'm Not the Only One" found chart success in several countries. In the United Kingdom, the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number ninety-three, when the album was released on the week of 1 June 2014, before it re-entered at number sixty-nine on the week of 10 August 2014. It kept climbing the charts in the following weeks until it reached a peak of number three on the week of 14 September 2014. By reaching number three, the song became the album's third top-three hit for the singer, whose last two singles from the album reached number-one. In Ireland, the song reached number six, becoming their third top-ten hit. In Europe, the song also reached 2014 and the third overall artist with the most top ten singles of 2014, along with Iggy Azalea, who also scored three, and behind Ariana Grande, who had four. It eventually peaked at number five, becoming their second top-five hit. In Australia, the song failed to reach the top-ten by one position, reaching its peak at number eleven, ending their streak of consecutive top-five singles, but in New Zealand the song peaked at number three, earning their second consecutive top-three single. In both countries, the song was certified 2x platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association and the Recorded Music NZ respectively. In Brazil, the song was their first top-forty hit, reaching its peak at number thirty-nine. The song was also successful in South Africa, where it reached started messaging each other. Then the video happened, and we've become friends." Smith also claimed they wanted to "bring the song to life a bit more'" and "strike a nerve with a certain group of people". It was released to Smith's YouTube/VEVO channel on 1 August 2014. The cycle of infidelity is the main theme of both the video and the song. It starts with a shot of the couple's house with Agron telling Messina that she made him breakfast, but he says he is in too much of a rush to eat it. She walks him out, and then he goes straight to a bar and does shots with his mistress, while Agron's character drinks alcohol and pieces together her husband's indiscretions. While Smith performs in the saloon, Agron proceeds to uncork a bottle of white wine in the middle of her neighbourhood liquor store, drink away her problems, and then eventually set fire to Messina's possessions. At the end of the video, she welcomes him back home as if nothing had happened. As of October 2019, the video has received over 1.3 billion views. The song is featured in the television shows "The Flash" and "Suits. " #"I'm Not the Only One" — 3:42 #"I'm Not the Only One" — 3:24 #"I'm Not the Only One" — 6:35 #"I'm Not the Only One" — 6:47 #"I'm Not the Only One" — 4:06

I'm Not the Only One

A f t e r t h e s u c c e s s o f p r e v i o u s s i n g l e s , " M o n e y o n M y M i n d " a n d " S t a y w i t h M e " o n t h e U K S i n g l e s C h a r t - w i t h b o t h b e c o m i n g n u m b e r - o n e s i n g l e s , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r a w o r l d w i d e h i t - S m i t h a n n o u n c e d t h a t " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " w a s g o i n g t o b e t h e a l b u m ' s t h i r d s i n g l e a n d t h a t i t w o u l d b e r e l e a s e d o n 3 1 A u g u s t 2 0 1 4 t o d i g i t a l d o w n l o a d i n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m . T h e y c h o s e t h e s o n g t o b e r e l e a s e d a s a s i n g l e s i n c e i t w a s o n e o f t h e s o n g s t h a t b o t h t h e y a n d t h e i r f a n s l o v e d . T h e y c o m m e n t e d : " I j u s t w a n t e d t o b r i n g o u t a s o n g t h a t i s c l a s s i c a n d t h a t h a d l o n g e v i t y t o i t . I f y o u l i s t e n t o t h e r e c o r d , t h e r e ' s a f e w s o n g s o n t h e r e I a c t u a l l y t h i n k w o u l d b e s a f e r b e t s t o g o i n t e r m s o f r a d i o , b u t I w a n t e d t o m a k e a s t a t e m e n t . I a l s o w a n t p e o p l e t o k n o w t h a t I ' m n o t j u s t d o i n g i t t o h a v e b i g r a d i o h i t s . I w a n t p e o p l e t o b u y i n t o t h e a l b u m a n d I f e e l l i k e ' I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e ' i s a n a l b u m - s e l l e r . " O n 1 0 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4 , a r e m i x v e r s i o n o f t h e s o n g f e a t u r i n g A m e r i c a n r a p p e r A $ A P R o c k y w a s r e l e a s e d w o r l d w i d e t h r o u g h o n l i n e m u s i c s t o r e s . S m i t h r e c a l l e d t h a t Z a n e L o w e c a l l e d t h e m a n d l e f t a v o i c e m a i l o n t h e i r p h o n e t e l l i n g t h e m t h e s o n g w a s a h i p - h o p t r a c k a n d t h a t h e n e e d e d a r a p p e r o n i t , a n d i n s p i r e d t h e m t o g e t a r a p p e r a n d s h o w a d i f f e r e n t s i d e o f t h e m u s i c . T h e s o n g w a s r e l e a s e d a s t h e s e c o n d s i n g l e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b e i n g s e r v i c e d f i r s t t o a d u l t a l t e r n a t i v e r a d i o o n 2 4 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4 a n d l a t e r o n 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 t o h o t a d u l t c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y h i t r a d i o . I n B r a z i l , t h e s o n g w a s p a r t o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o u n d t r a c k t o t h e t e l e n o v e l a " B a b i l ô n i a " ( 2 0 1 5 ) . " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " w a s w r i t t e n b y S a m S m i t h w i t h J i m m y N a p e s , w h o w a s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s o n g ' s p r o d u c t i o n a l o n g w i t h S t e v e F i t z m a u r i c e . T h e l a t t e r a l s o r e c o r d e d a n d m i x e d t h e s o n g a t T h e P i e r c e s R o o m , L o n d o n , w h i l e t h e s o n g ' s s t r i n g s w e r e a r r a n g e d a n d c o n d u c t e d b y S i m o n H a l e . T h e p i a n o - l e d , m a r c h i n g m i d t e m p o s o u l b a l l a d h a s s t r i n g s , d r u m s , p i a n o , p e r c u s s i o n , b a s s g u i t a r a n d g u i t a r a s i t s m a i n i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n w i t h a g o s p e l s t r u c t u r e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s h e e t m u s i c p u b l i s h e d a t M u s i c n o t e s . c o m b y U n i v e r s a l M u s i c P u b l i s h i n g G r o u p , t h e s o n g i s c o m p o s e d i n t h e k e y o f F m a j o r w i t h a t e m p o o f 8 2 b e a t s p e r m i n u t e . S m i t h s ' s v o c a l s r a n g e f r o m t h e n o t e o f F 3 t o C 5 . T h e y a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e y r e c o r d e d t h e s o n g w h e n t h e y w e r e h u n g o v e r , c a l l i n g t h e i r v o c a l s " h u n g o v e r v o c a l s " . A s S m i t h e x p l a i n e d i n a t r a c k - b y - t r a c k c o m m e n t a r y f o r " D i g i t a l S p y " , " N a p e s p l a y e d t h e c h o r d s o n e d a y a n d I w a s o b s e s s e d w i t h t h e m . W e w r o t e a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t s o n g o n t o p o f t h o s e c h o r d s a n d i t w a s n ' t v e r y g o o d , s o w e s c r a p p e d i t . T h e n t w o w e e k s l a t e r , I j u s t l o v e d t h e c h o r d s s o w e r e t u r n e d t o t h e m , a n d t h e n w e w r o t e ' I ' m N o t T h e O n l y O n e ' i n l i k e a n h o u r . " L y r i c a l l y , " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " t a l k s a b o u t i n f i d e l i t y a n d b e t r a y a l i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h e r e s o m e o n e d e c i d e s t o s t a y w i t h a p a r t n e r t h e y k n o w w a s c h e a t i n g o n t h e m . I n t h e c h o r u s , S m i t h a d m i t s : " Y o u s a y I ' m c r a z y / ' C a u s e y o u d o n ' t t h i n k I k n o w w h a t y o u ' v e d o n e / B u t w h e n y o u c a l l m e b a b y / I k n o w I ' m n o t t h e o n l y o n e " . S m i t h r e v e a l e d t o L e w i s C o r n e r t h a t t h e s o n g w a s t h e o n l y o n e o n t h e a l b u m t h a t i s n o t a b o u t t h e i r l i f e , b u t a m a r r i a g e t h e y o b s e r v e d f i r s t - h a n d , w h e r e t h e y p u t t h e m s e l v e s i n t o t h e w o m a n ' s s h o e s . T h e y a d d e d : I t c a m e r e a l l y n a t u r a l l y ! T h e p e r s o n I w r o t e i t w i t h , w e b o t h k n e w t h e m a n d w e j u s t v i b e d o f f e a c h o t h e r . W e b o t h h a d r e a l l y s t r o n g o p i n i o n s o n w h a t t h e w o m a n w a s d o i n g . I t ' s q u i t e a c o m p l e x s o n g . W h e n y o u l i s t e n t o i t y o u t h i n k i t ' s j u s t b a s h i n g a g u y f o r c h e a t i n g , b u t i t ' s n o t , i t a c t u a l l y t a l k s m o r e a b o u t h o w t h e w o m a n ' s a m u g . S h e k n o w s s h e ' s n o t t h e o n l y o n e , b u t s h e ' s n e v e r g o i n g t o l e a v e . I t h i n k t h a t ' s w r o n g . T h e s o n g r e c e i v e d p o s i t i v e r e v i e w s f r o m m o s t m u s i c c r i t i c s . H a r l e y B r o w n o f " B i l l b o a r d " p r a i s e d t h e t r a c k , c a l l i n g i t " [ t ] h e f i r s t t u r n i n g p o i n t o f t h e r e c o r d [ . . . ] w h e r e S m i t h g o e s h o m e , d r i e s o f f , a n d p i c k s h i m s e l f b a c k u p . " B r o w n a l s o a d d e d t h a t " [ t ] h e v i o l i n s s u r g i n g b e h i n d t h e b r e a k d o w n a r e s o h i g h - p i t c h e d t h e y p r a c t i c a l l y s t i n g . " L i l y M o a y e r i o f " T h e A . V . C l u b " c a l l i n g i t o n e o f t h e a l b u m ' s d r i v i n g f o r c e s , n o t i n g t h a t i t " i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s w i t h s o p h i s t i c a t e d p i a n o a n d e s c a l a t i n g s t r i n g s . " R y a n L a t h a n o f " P o p M a t t e r s " o b s e r v e d t h a t " t h e c h a r m i n g ' I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e ' c o n f i d e n t l y s t r u t s o u t f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e s e t . A n o b v i o u s c a n d i d a t e f o r f u t u r e s i n g l e , i t ’ s t h e t y p e o f t r a c k t h a t e l i c i t s h e a d b o b b i n g a n d f i n g e r s n a p p i n g t h e s e c o n d i t b e g i n s . " J o n D o l a n o f " R o l l i n g S t o n e " c a l l e d i t " g o r g e o u s l y b r u i s i n g " , w h i l e A n d y K e l l m a n o f A l l M u s i c p i c k e d i t a s o n e o f t h e a l b u m ' s b e s t t r a c k s . E r i c D a v i d s o n o f C M J t h o u g h t t h a t " [ t ] h e A l G r e e n v i b e o f ' I ' m N o t T h e O n l y O n e ' h a s a v e r g i n g - o n - s t e r n s e n t i m e n t c o u c h e d i n a d e e p e r g r o o v e t h a t s e e m s l i k e a g o o d d i r e c t i o n S m i t h c o u l d h e a d i n . " I n h i s r e v i e w f o r " C o n s e q u e n c e o f S o u n d " , S h e l d o n P e a r c e c a l l e d i t " a t w o - s t e p p i n g d e l i g h t d e s p i t e i t s s o m b e r t o n e . " A d a m W o r k m a n o f " T h e N a t i o n a l " n o t e d t h a t t h e s o n g " r e a l l y s t a n d s o u t a m o n g h a c k n e y e d l y r i c a l c o n t e n t o n l o v e a n d l o n g i n g ; h i s h i g h - p i t c h e d v o c a l e x t r e m e s a n d f a i r l y b a s i c g r a s p o f r h y m i n g c o u p l e t s b o t h s o o n b e g i n t o r a n k l e , t o o . " B e n K e l l y o f " A t t i t u d e " o p i n e d t h a t t h e s o n g i s " t h e a l b u m ' s b l u e s y m o m e n t " [ . . . ] " e c h o [ i n g ] o f S i t t i n ' o n t h e D o c k o f t h e B a y , w i t h S a m ' s s t r o n g f a l s e t t o r u n n i n g f r e e a s e v e r . " M a e v e H e s l i n o f H o t P r e s s l a b e l l e d i t " l a i d b a c k , f u n k y s o u l a t i t s f i n e s t . " P a u l C a n t o r o f " V i b e " p r a i s e d t h e s o n g ' s " l u s h a n d e x p a n s i v e " a r r a n g e m e n t s , c a l l e d i t a " n o t a b l y h i g h l i g h t " a n d n o t i n g t h a t i t i s " b r o u g h t t o l i f e b y S m i t h ' s c l e v e r v o c a l a r p e g g i a t i o n s a n d p h r a s i n g s . " R a c h e l S o n i s o f " I d o l a t o r " d e f i n e d i t a s " a j a z z y , s o o t h i n g , c o f f e e s h o p - r e a d y n u m b e r t h a t s t i c k s t o t h e a l b u m ' s ' q u i e t m o m e n t s i n l i f e ' t h e m e " , n o t i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s t o A d e l e ' s m e l a n c h o l i c a p p r o a c h a n d p r a i s i n g t h e s o n g f o r " s h o w [ i n g ] o f f h i s p r e c i o u s p i p e s m o r e t h a n e v e r b e f o r e . " F o l l o w i n g t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e i r b r e a k t h r o u g h s i n g l e " S t a y w i t h M e " , " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " f o u n d c h a r t s u c c e s s i n s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s . I n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , t h e s o n g e n t e r e d t h e U K S i n g l e s C h a r t a t n u m b e r n i n e t y - t h r e e , w h e n t h e a l b u m w a s r e l e a s e d o n t h e w e e k o f 1 J u n e 2 0 1 4 , b e f o r e i t r e - e n t e r e d a t n u m b e r s i x t y - n i n e o n t h e w e e k o f 1 0 A u g u s t 2 0 1 4 . I t k e p t c l i m b i n g t h e c h a r t s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w e e k s u n t i l i t r e a c h e d a p e a k o f n u m b e r t h r e e o n t h e w e e k o f 1 4 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4 . B y r e a c h i n g n u m b e r t h r e e , t h e s o n g b e c a m e t h e a l b u m ' s t h i r d t o p - t h r e e h i t f o r t h e s i n g e r , w h o s e l a s t t w o s i n g l e s f r o m t h e a l b u m r e a c h e d n u m b e r - o n e . I n I r e l a n d , t h e s o n g r e a c h e d n u m b e r s i x , b e c o m i n g t h e i r t h i r d t o p - t e n h i t . I n E u r o p e , t h e s o n g a l s o r e a c h e d t h e t o p - t e n i n D e n m a r k , I t a l y a n d N e t h e r l a n d s . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " s h a r e d s i m i l a r s u c c e s s . I t d e b u t e d o n t h e " B i l l b o a r d " H o t 1 0 0 a t n u m b e r s i x t y - n i n e , d u r i n g t h e s a m e w e e k w h e r e " S t a y w i t h M e " w a s i n t h e t o p - t e n a n d " L a t c h " w a s r e a c h i n g t h e t o p - t w e n t y . I t l a t e r r e a p p e a r e d a t n u m b e r n i n e t y - t h r e e , a n d w i t h i n f o u r w e e k s t h e s o n g c l i m b e d t o n u m b e r t w e n t y - f i v e , b e c o m i n g t h a t w e e k ' s b i g g e s t g a i n i n d i g i t a l s a l e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g w e e k , t h e s o n g r e a c h e d n u m b e r t w e n t y , m a r k i n g t h e i r f a s t e s t f l i g h t t o t h e t o p - t w e n t y ( s e v e n w e e k s ) a m o n g h i s f o u r e n t r i e s . F o u r w e e k s l a t e r , t h e s o n g c l i m b e d t o n u m b e r n i n e , t h u s e a r n i n g S m i t h t h e i r t h i r d t o p - t e n s i n g l e i n t h e s a m e y e a r ( 2 0 1 4 ) . W i t h t h r e e t o p t e n s i n g l e s , S m i t h b e c a m e t h e o n l y m a l e t o a c h i e v e t h e f e a t i n 2 0 1 4 a n d t h e t h i r d o v e r a l l a r t i s t w i t h t h e m o s t t o p t e n s i n g l e s o f 2 0 1 4 , a l o n g w i t h I g g y A z a l e a , w h o a l s o s c o r e d t h r e e , a n d b e h i n d A r i a n a G r a n d e , w h o h a d f o u r . I t e v e n t u a l l y p e a k e d a t n u m b e r f i v e , b e c o m i n g t h e i r s e c o n d t o p - f i v e h i t . I n A u s t r a l i a , t h e s o n g f a i l e d t o r e a c h t h e t o p - t e n b y o n e p o s i t i o n , r e a c h i n g i t s p e a k a t n u m b e r e l e v e n , e n d i n g t h e i r s t r e a k o f c o n s e c u t i v e t o p - f i v e s i n g l e s , b u t i n N e w Z e a l a n d t h e s o n g p e a k e d a t n u m b e r t h r e e , e a r n i n g t h e i r s e c o n d c o n s e c u t i v e t o p - t h r e e s i n g l e . I n b o t h c o u n t r i e s , t h e s o n g w a s c e r t i f i e d 2 x p l a t i n u m b y t h e A u s t r a l i a n R e c o r d i n g I n d u s t r y A s s o c i a t i o n a n d t h e R e c o r d e d M u s i c N Z r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n B r a z i l , t h e s o n g w a s t h e i r f i r s t t o p - f o r t y h i t , r e a c h i n g i t s p e a k a t n u m b e r t h i r t y - n i n e . T h e s o n g w a s a l s o s u c c e s s f u l i n S o u t h A f r i c a , w h e r e i t r e a c h e d t h e t o p o f t h e c h a r t s , a n d S o u t h K o r e a , w h e r e t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o n g p e a k e d a t n u m b e r o n e . T h e o f f i c i a l m u s i c v i d e o f o r " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " w a s d i r e c t e d b y L u k e M o n a g h a n , w h o a l s o w o r k e d w i t h S m i t h o n t h e v i d e o f o r " L e a v e Y o u r L o v e r " , a n d i t w a s f i l m e d i n L o s A n g e l e s o n 8 J u l y 2 0 1 4 . T h e m u s i c v i d e o f e a t u r e s " G l e e " s D i a n n a A g r o n a s a s c o r n e d b r i d e a n d " T h e M i n d y P r o j e c t " s C h r i s M e s s i n a a s t h e c a u s e o f a n d c u r e f o r h e r h e a r t a c h e . A s S m i t h r e v e a l e d : " I ’ m a h u g e f a n o f b o t h o f t h e m . I t h o u g h t I h a d m y d r e a m t e a m a r o u n d m e . " A g r o n r e v e a l e d t h a t s h e " t w e e t e d S a m a l o n g t i m e a g o a n d t o l d h i m h o w i m p o r t a n t i t w a s t h a t I d i s c o v e r e d h i s m u s i c . H e t w e e t e d m e b a c k , a n d w e s t a r t e d m e s s a g i n g e a c h o t h e r . T h e n t h e v i d e o h a p p e n e d , a n d w e ' v e b e c o m e f r i e n d s . " S m i t h a l s o c l a i m e d t h e y w a n t e d t o " b r i n g t h e s o n g t o l i f e a b i t m o r e ' " a n d " s t r i k e a n e r v e w i t h a c e r t a i n g r o u p o f p e o p l e " . I t w a s r e l e a s e d t o S m i t h ' s Y o u T u b e / V E V O c h a n n e l o n 1 A u g u s t 2 0 1 4 . T h e c y c l e o f i n f i d e l i t y i s t h e m a i n t h e m e o f b o t h t h e v i d e o a n d t h e s o n g . I t s t a r t s w i t h a s h o t o f t h e c o u p l e ' s h o u s e w i t h A g r o n t e l l i n g M e s s i n a t h a t s h e m a d e h i m b r e a k f a s t , b u t h e s a y s h e i s i n t o o m u c h o f a r u s h t o e a t i t . S h e w a l k s h i m o u t , a n d t h e n h e g o e s s t r a i g h t t o a b a r a n d d o e s s h o t s w i t h h i s m i s t r e s s , w h i l e A g r o n ' s c h a r a c t e r d r i n k s a l c o h o l a n d p i e c e s t o g e t h e r h e r h u s b a n d ' s i n d i s c r e t i o n s . W h i l e S m i t h p e r f o r m s i n t h e s a l o o n , A g r o n p r o c e e d s t o u n c o r k a b o t t l e o f w h i t e w i n e i n t h e m i d d l e o f h e r n e i g h b o u r h o o d l i q u o r s t o r e , d r i n k a w a y h e r p r o b l e m s , a n d t h e n e v e n t u a l l y s e t f i r e t o M e s s i n a ' s p o s s e s s i o n s . A t t h e e n d o f t h e v i d e o , s h e w e l c o m e s h i m b a c k h o m e a s i f n o t h i n g h a d h a p p e n e d . A s o f O c t o b e r 2 0 1 9 , t h e v i d e o h a s r e c e i v e d o v e r 1 . 3 b i l l i o n v i e w s . T h e s o n g i s f e a t u r e d i n t h e t e l e v i s i o n s h o w s " T h e F l a s h " a n d " S u i t s . " # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 3 : 4 2 # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 3 : 2 4 # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 6 : 3 5 # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 6 : 4 7 # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 4 : 0 6

Composition

"I'm Not the Only One" is a song by English singer-songwriter Sam Smith, featuring American rapper A$AP Rocky. It was released on 24 September 2014 as the fourth single from Smith's debut studio album, "In the Lonely Hour". The song was written by Smith with Jimmy Napes, who also produced the song alongside Steve Fitzmaurice. The song is a piano-led, marching mid-tempo soul ballad with a gospel structure. Lyrically, it talks about infidelity and betrayal in a relationship. The song received positive reviews from most music critics. It was commercially successful, peaking at number three on the UK Singles Chart and becoming Smith's second top-five hit.

States, being serviced first to adult alternative radio on 24 September 2014 and later on 1 October 2014 to hot adult contemporary and contemporary hit radio. In Brazil, the song was part of the international soundtrack to the telenovela "Babilônia" (2015). "I'm Not the Only One" was written by Sam Smith with Jimmy Napes, who was also responsible for the song's production along with Steve Fitzmaurice. The latter also recorded and mixed the song at The Pierces Room, London, while the song's strings were arranged and conducted by Simon Hale. The piano-led, marching midtempo soul ballad has strings, drums, piano, percussion, bass guitar and guitar as its main instrumentation with a gospel structure. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, the song is composed in the key of F major with a tempo of 82 beats per minute. Smiths's vocals range from the note of F3 to C5. They admitted that they recorded the song when they were hungover, calling their vocals "hungover vocals". As Smith explained in a track-by-track commentary for "Digital Spy", "Napes played the chords one day and I was obsessed with them. We wrote a completely different song on top of those chords and it wasn't very good, so we scrapped it. Then two weeks later, I just loved the chords so we returned to them, and then we wrote 'I'm Not The Only One' in like an hour. " Lyrically, "I'm Not the Only One" talks about infidelity and betrayal in a relationship, where someone for cheating, but it's not, it actually talks more about how the woman's a mug. She knows she's not the only one, but she's never going to leave. I think that's wrong. The song received positive reviews from most music critics. Harley Brown of "Billboard" praised the track, calling it "[t]he first turning point of the record [...] where Smith goes home, dries off, and picks himself back up." Brown also added that "[t]he violins surging behind the breakdown are so high-pitched they practically sting." Lily Moayeri of "The A.V. Club" calling it one of the album's driving forces, noting that it "illustrates this with sophisticated piano and escalating strings." Ryan Lathan of "PopMatters" observed that "the charming 'I'm Not the Only One' confidently struts out from the rest of the set. An obvious candidate for future single, it’s the type of track that elicits head bobbing and finger snapping the second it begins." Jon Dolan of "Rolling Stone" called it "gorgeously bruising", while Andy Kellman of AllMusic picked it as one of the album's best tracks. Eric Davidson of CMJ thought that "[t]he Al Green vibe of 'I'm Not The Only One' has a verging-on-stern sentiment couched in a deeper groove that seems like a good direction Smith could head in." In his review for "Consequence of Sound", Sheldon Pearce called it "a two-stepping delight despite its somber tone." Adam Workman of "The National" noted that the song "really stands out among hackneyed lyrical content on love and longing; his high-pitched vocal extremes and fairly basic grasp of rhyming couplets both soon begin to rankle, too." Ben Kelly of "Attitude" opined that the song is "the album's bluesy moment" [...] "echo[ing] of Sittin' on the Dock of the Bay, with Sam's strong falsetto running free as ever." Maeve Heslin of Hot Press labelled it "laidback, funky soul at its finest." Paul Cantor of "Vibe" praised the song's "lush and expansive" arrangements, called it a "notably highlight" and noting that it is "brought to life by Smith's clever vocal arpeggiations and phrasings." Rachel Sonis of "Idolator" defined it as "a jazzy, soothing, coffee shop-ready number that sticks to the album's 'quiet moments in life' theme", noting similarities to Adele's melancholic approach and praising the song for "show[ing] off his precious pipes more than ever 2014 and the third overall artist with the most top ten singles of 2014, along with Iggy Azalea, who also scored three, and behind Ariana Grande, who had four. It eventually peaked at number five, becoming their second top-five hit. In Australia, the song failed to reach the top-ten by one position, reaching its peak at number eleven, ending their streak of consecutive top-five singles, but in New Zealand the song peaked at number three, earning their second consecutive top-three single. In both countries, the song was certified 2x platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association and the Recorded Music NZ respectively. In Brazil, the song was their first top-forty hit, reaching its peak at number thirty-nine. The song was also successful in South Africa, where it reached started messaging each other. Then the video happened, and we've become friends." Smith also claimed they wanted to "bring the song to life a bit more'" and "strike a nerve with a certain group of people". It was released to Smith's YouTube/VEVO channel on 1 August 2014. The cycle of infidelity is the main theme of both the video and the song. It starts with a shot of the couple's house with Agron telling Messina that she made him breakfast, but he says he is in too much of a rush to eat it. She walks him out, and then he goes straight to a bar and does shots with his mistress, while Agron's character drinks alcohol and pieces together her husband's indiscretions. While Smith performs in the saloon, Agron proceeds to uncork a bottle of white wine in the middle of her neighbourhood liquor store, drink away her problems, and then eventually set fire to Messina's possessions. At the end of the video, she welcomes him back home as if nothing had happened. As of October 2019, the video has received over 1.3 billion views. The song is featured in the television shows "The Flash" and "Suits. " #"I'm Not the Only One" — 3:42 #"I'm Not the Only One" — 3:24 #"I'm Not the Only One" — 6:35 #"I'm Not the Only One" — 6:47 #"I'm Not the Only One" — 4:06

I'm Not the Only One

A f t e r t h e s u c c e s s o f p r e v i o u s s i n g l e s , " M o n e y o n M y M i n d " a n d " S t a y w i t h M e " o n t h e U K S i n g l e s C h a r t - w i t h b o t h b e c o m i n g n u m b e r - o n e s i n g l e s , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r a w o r l d w i d e h i t - S m i t h a n n o u n c e d t h a t " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " w a s g o i n g t o b e t h e a l b u m ' s t h i r d s i n g l e a n d t h a t i t w o u l d b e r e l e a s e d o n 3 1 A u g u s t 2 0 1 4 t o d i g i t a l d o w n l o a d i n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m . T h e y c h o s e t h e s o n g t o b e r e l e a s e d a s a s i n g l e s i n c e i t w a s o n e o f t h e s o n g s t h a t b o t h t h e y a n d t h e i r f a n s l o v e d . T h e y c o m m e n t e d : " I j u s t w a n t e d t o b r i n g o u t a s o n g t h a t i s c l a s s i c a n d t h a t h a d l o n g e v i t y t o i t . I f y o u l i s t e n t o t h e r e c o r d , t h e r e ' s a f e w s o n g s o n t h e r e I a c t u a l l y t h i n k w o u l d b e s a f e r b e t s t o g o i n t e r m s o f r a d i o , b u t I w a n t e d t o m a k e a s t a t e m e n t . I a l s o w a n t p e o p l e t o k n o w t h a t I ' m n o t j u s t d o i n g i t t o h a v e b i g r a d i o h i t s . I w a n t p e o p l e t o b u y i n t o t h e a l b u m a n d I f e e l l i k e ' I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e ' i s a n a l b u m - s e l l e r . " O n 1 0 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4 , a r e m i x v e r s i o n o f t h e s o n g f e a t u r i n g A m e r i c a n r a p p e r A $ A P R o c k y w a s r e l e a s e d w o r l d w i d e t h r o u g h o n l i n e m u s i c s t o r e s . S m i t h r e c a l l e d t h a t Z a n e L o w e c a l l e d t h e m a n d l e f t a v o i c e m a i l o n t h e i r p h o n e t e l l i n g t h e m t h e s o n g w a s a h i p - h o p t r a c k a n d t h a t h e n e e d e d a r a p p e r o n i t , a n d i n s p i r e d t h e m t o g e t a r a p p e r a n d s h o w a d i f f e r e n t s i d e o f t h e m u s i c . T h e s o n g w a s r e l e a s e d a s t h e s e c o n d s i n g l e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b e i n g s e r v i c e d f i r s t t o a d u l t a l t e r n a t i v e r a d i o o n 2 4 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4 a n d l a t e r o n 1 O c t o b e r 2 0 1 4 t o h o t a d u l t c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y h i t r a d i o . I n B r a z i l , t h e s o n g w a s p a r t o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o u n d t r a c k t o t h e t e l e n o v e l a " B a b i l ô n i a " ( 2 0 1 5 ) . " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " w a s w r i t t e n b y S a m S m i t h w i t h J i m m y N a p e s , w h o w a s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s o n g ' s p r o d u c t i o n a l o n g w i t h S t e v e F i t z m a u r i c e . T h e l a t t e r a l s o r e c o r d e d a n d m i x e d t h e s o n g a t T h e P i e r c e s R o o m , L o n d o n , w h i l e t h e s o n g ' s s t r i n g s w e r e a r r a n g e d a n d c o n d u c t e d b y S i m o n H a l e . T h e p i a n o - l e d , m a r c h i n g m i d t e m p o s o u l b a l l a d h a s s t r i n g s , d r u m s , p i a n o , p e r c u s s i o n , b a s s g u i t a r a n d g u i t a r a s i t s m a i n i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n w i t h a g o s p e l s t r u c t u r e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s h e e t m u s i c p u b l i s h e d a t M u s i c n o t e s . c o m b y U n i v e r s a l M u s i c P u b l i s h i n g G r o u p , t h e s o n g i s c o m p o s e d i n t h e k e y o f F m a j o r w i t h a t e m p o o f 8 2 b e a t s p e r m i n u t e . S m i t h s ' s v o c a l s r a n g e f r o m t h e n o t e o f F 3 t o C 5 . T h e y a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e y r e c o r d e d t h e s o n g w h e n t h e y w e r e h u n g o v e r , c a l l i n g t h e i r v o c a l s " h u n g o v e r v o c a l s " . A s S m i t h e x p l a i n e d i n a t r a c k - b y - t r a c k c o m m e n t a r y f o r " D i g i t a l S p y " , " N a p e s p l a y e d t h e c h o r d s o n e d a y a n d I w a s o b s e s s e d w i t h t h e m . W e w r o t e a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t s o n g o n t o p o f t h o s e c h o r d s a n d i t w a s n ' t v e r y g o o d , s o w e s c r a p p e d i t . T h e n t w o w e e k s l a t e r , I j u s t l o v e d t h e c h o r d s s o w e r e t u r n e d t o t h e m , a n d t h e n w e w r o t e ' I ' m N o t T h e O n l y O n e ' i n l i k e a n h o u r . " L y r i c a l l y , " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " t a l k s a b o u t i n f i d e l i t y a n d b e t r a y a l i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h e r e s o m e o n e d e c i d e s t o s t a y w i t h a p a r t n e r t h e y k n o w w a s c h e a t i n g o n t h e m . I n t h e c h o r u s , S m i t h a d m i t s : " Y o u s a y I ' m c r a z y / ' C a u s e y o u d o n ' t t h i n k I k n o w w h a t y o u ' v e d o n e / B u t w h e n y o u c a l l m e b a b y / I k n o w I ' m n o t t h e o n l y o n e " . S m i t h r e v e a l e d t o L e w i s C o r n e r t h a t t h e s o n g w a s t h e o n l y o n e o n t h e a l b u m t h a t i s n o t a b o u t t h e i r l i f e , b u t a m a r r i a g e t h e y o b s e r v e d f i r s t - h a n d , w h e r e t h e y p u t t h e m s e l v e s i n t o t h e w o m a n ' s s h o e s . T h e y a d d e d : I t c a m e r e a l l y n a t u r a l l y ! T h e p e r s o n I w r o t e i t w i t h , w e b o t h k n e w t h e m a n d w e j u s t v i b e d o f f e a c h o t h e r . W e b o t h h a d r e a l l y s t r o n g o p i n i o n s o n w h a t t h e w o m a n w a s d o i n g . I t ' s q u i t e a c o m p l e x s o n g . W h e n y o u l i s t e n t o i t y o u t h i n k i t ' s j u s t b a s h i n g a g u y f o r c h e a t i n g , b u t i t ' s n o t , i t a c t u a l l y t a l k s m o r e a b o u t h o w t h e w o m a n ' s a m u g . S h e k n o w s s h e ' s n o t t h e o n l y o n e , b u t s h e ' s n e v e r g o i n g t o l e a v e . I t h i n k t h a t ' s w r o n g . T h e s o n g r e c e i v e d p o s i t i v e r e v i e w s f r o m m o s t m u s i c c r i t i c s . H a r l e y B r o w n o f " B i l l b o a r d " p r a i s e d t h e t r a c k , c a l l i n g i t " [ t ] h e f i r s t t u r n i n g p o i n t o f t h e r e c o r d [ . . . ] w h e r e S m i t h g o e s h o m e , d r i e s o f f , a n d p i c k s h i m s e l f b a c k u p . " B r o w n a l s o a d d e d t h a t " [ t ] h e v i o l i n s s u r g i n g b e h i n d t h e b r e a k d o w n a r e s o h i g h - p i t c h e d t h e y p r a c t i c a l l y s t i n g . " L i l y M o a y e r i o f " T h e A . V . C l u b " c a l l i n g i t o n e o f t h e a l b u m ' s d r i v i n g f o r c e s , n o t i n g t h a t i t " i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s w i t h s o p h i s t i c a t e d p i a n o a n d e s c a l a t i n g s t r i n g s . " R y a n L a t h a n o f " P o p M a t t e r s " o b s e r v e d t h a t " t h e c h a r m i n g ' I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e ' c o n f i d e n t l y s t r u t s o u t f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e s e t . A n o b v i o u s c a n d i d a t e f o r f u t u r e s i n g l e , i t ’ s t h e t y p e o f t r a c k t h a t e l i c i t s h e a d b o b b i n g a n d f i n g e r s n a p p i n g t h e s e c o n d i t b e g i n s . " J o n D o l a n o f " R o l l i n g S t o n e " c a l l e d i t " g o r g e o u s l y b r u i s i n g " , w h i l e A n d y K e l l m a n o f A l l M u s i c p i c k e d i t a s o n e o f t h e a l b u m ' s b e s t t r a c k s . E r i c D a v i d s o n o f C M J t h o u g h t t h a t " [ t ] h e A l G r e e n v i b e o f ' I ' m N o t T h e O n l y O n e ' h a s a v e r g i n g - o n - s t e r n s e n t i m e n t c o u c h e d i n a d e e p e r g r o o v e t h a t s e e m s l i k e a g o o d d i r e c t i o n S m i t h c o u l d h e a d i n . " I n h i s r e v i e w f o r " C o n s e q u e n c e o f S o u n d " , S h e l d o n P e a r c e c a l l e d i t " a t w o - s t e p p i n g d e l i g h t d e s p i t e i t s s o m b e r t o n e . " A d a m W o r k m a n o f " T h e N a t i o n a l " n o t e d t h a t t h e s o n g " r e a l l y s t a n d s o u t a m o n g h a c k n e y e d l y r i c a l c o n t e n t o n l o v e a n d l o n g i n g ; h i s h i g h - p i t c h e d v o c a l e x t r e m e s a n d f a i r l y b a s i c g r a s p o f r h y m i n g c o u p l e t s b o t h s o o n b e g i n t o r a n k l e , t o o . " B e n K e l l y o f " A t t i t u d e " o p i n e d t h a t t h e s o n g i s " t h e a l b u m ' s b l u e s y m o m e n t " [ . . . ] " e c h o [ i n g ] o f S i t t i n ' o n t h e D o c k o f t h e B a y , w i t h S a m ' s s t r o n g f a l s e t t o r u n n i n g f r e e a s e v e r . " M a e v e H e s l i n o f H o t P r e s s l a b e l l e d i t " l a i d b a c k , f u n k y s o u l a t i t s f i n e s t . " P a u l C a n t o r o f " V i b e " p r a i s e d t h e s o n g ' s " l u s h a n d e x p a n s i v e " a r r a n g e m e n t s , c a l l e d i t a " n o t a b l y h i g h l i g h t " a n d n o t i n g t h a t i t i s " b r o u g h t t o l i f e b y S m i t h ' s c l e v e r v o c a l a r p e g g i a t i o n s a n d p h r a s i n g s . " R a c h e l S o n i s o f " I d o l a t o r " d e f i n e d i t a s " a j a z z y , s o o t h i n g , c o f f e e s h o p - r e a d y n u m b e r t h a t s t i c k s t o t h e a l b u m ' s ' q u i e t m o m e n t s i n l i f e ' t h e m e " , n o t i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s t o A d e l e ' s m e l a n c h o l i c a p p r o a c h a n d p r a i s i n g t h e s o n g f o r " s h o w [ i n g ] o f f h i s p r e c i o u s p i p e s m o r e t h a n e v e r b e f o r e . " F o l l o w i n g t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e i r b r e a k t h r o u g h s i n g l e " S t a y w i t h M e " , " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " f o u n d c h a r t s u c c e s s i n s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s . I n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , t h e s o n g e n t e r e d t h e U K S i n g l e s C h a r t a t n u m b e r n i n e t y - t h r e e , w h e n t h e a l b u m w a s r e l e a s e d o n t h e w e e k o f 1 J u n e 2 0 1 4 , b e f o r e i t r e - e n t e r e d a t n u m b e r s i x t y - n i n e o n t h e w e e k o f 1 0 A u g u s t 2 0 1 4 . I t k e p t c l i m b i n g t h e c h a r t s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w e e k s u n t i l i t r e a c h e d a p e a k o f n u m b e r t h r e e o n t h e w e e k o f 1 4 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 1 4 . B y r e a c h i n g n u m b e r t h r e e , t h e s o n g b e c a m e t h e a l b u m ' s t h i r d t o p - t h r e e h i t f o r t h e s i n g e r , w h o s e l a s t t w o s i n g l e s f r o m t h e a l b u m r e a c h e d n u m b e r - o n e . I n I r e l a n d , t h e s o n g r e a c h e d n u m b e r s i x , b e c o m i n g t h e i r t h i r d t o p - t e n h i t . I n E u r o p e , t h e s o n g a l s o r e a c h e d t h e t o p - t e n i n D e n m a r k , I t a l y a n d N e t h e r l a n d s . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " s h a r e d s i m i l a r s u c c e s s . I t d e b u t e d o n t h e " B i l l b o a r d " H o t 1 0 0 a t n u m b e r s i x t y - n i n e , d u r i n g t h e s a m e w e e k w h e r e " S t a y w i t h M e " w a s i n t h e t o p - t e n a n d " L a t c h " w a s r e a c h i n g t h e t o p - t w e n t y . I t l a t e r r e a p p e a r e d a t n u m b e r n i n e t y - t h r e e , a n d w i t h i n f o u r w e e k s t h e s o n g c l i m b e d t o n u m b e r t w e n t y - f i v e , b e c o m i n g t h a t w e e k ' s b i g g e s t g a i n i n d i g i t a l s a l e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g w e e k , t h e s o n g r e a c h e d n u m b e r t w e n t y , m a r k i n g t h e i r f a s t e s t f l i g h t t o t h e t o p - t w e n t y ( s e v e n w e e k s ) a m o n g h i s f o u r e n t r i e s . F o u r w e e k s l a t e r , t h e s o n g c l i m b e d t o n u m b e r n i n e , t h u s e a r n i n g S m i t h t h e i r t h i r d t o p - t e n s i n g l e i n t h e s a m e y e a r ( 2 0 1 4 ) . W i t h t h r e e t o p t e n s i n g l e s , S m i t h b e c a m e t h e o n l y m a l e t o a c h i e v e t h e f e a t i n 2 0 1 4 a n d t h e t h i r d o v e r a l l a r t i s t w i t h t h e m o s t t o p t e n s i n g l e s o f 2 0 1 4 , a l o n g w i t h I g g y A z a l e a , w h o a l s o s c o r e d t h r e e , a n d b e h i n d A r i a n a G r a n d e , w h o h a d f o u r . I t e v e n t u a l l y p e a k e d a t n u m b e r f i v e , b e c o m i n g t h e i r s e c o n d t o p - f i v e h i t . I n A u s t r a l i a , t h e s o n g f a i l e d t o r e a c h t h e t o p - t e n b y o n e p o s i t i o n , r e a c h i n g i t s p e a k a t n u m b e r e l e v e n , e n d i n g t h e i r s t r e a k o f c o n s e c u t i v e t o p - f i v e s i n g l e s , b u t i n N e w Z e a l a n d t h e s o n g p e a k e d a t n u m b e r t h r e e , e a r n i n g t h e i r s e c o n d c o n s e c u t i v e t o p - t h r e e s i n g l e . I n b o t h c o u n t r i e s , t h e s o n g w a s c e r t i f i e d 2 x p l a t i n u m b y t h e A u s t r a l i a n R e c o r d i n g I n d u s t r y A s s o c i a t i o n a n d t h e R e c o r d e d M u s i c N Z r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n B r a z i l , t h e s o n g w a s t h e i r f i r s t t o p - f o r t y h i t , r e a c h i n g i t s p e a k a t n u m b e r t h i r t y - n i n e . T h e s o n g w a s a l s o s u c c e s s f u l i n S o u t h A f r i c a , w h e r e i t r e a c h e d t h e t o p o f t h e c h a r t s , a n d S o u t h K o r e a , w h e r e t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o n g p e a k e d a t n u m b e r o n e . T h e o f f i c i a l m u s i c v i d e o f o r " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e " w a s d i r e c t e d b y L u k e M o n a g h a n , w h o a l s o w o r k e d w i t h S m i t h o n t h e v i d e o f o r " L e a v e Y o u r L o v e r " , a n d i t w a s f i l m e d i n L o s A n g e l e s o n 8 J u l y 2 0 1 4 . T h e m u s i c v i d e o f e a t u r e s " G l e e " s D i a n n a A g r o n a s a s c o r n e d b r i d e a n d " T h e M i n d y P r o j e c t " s C h r i s M e s s i n a a s t h e c a u s e o f a n d c u r e f o r h e r h e a r t a c h e . A s S m i t h r e v e a l e d : " I ’ m a h u g e f a n o f b o t h o f t h e m . I t h o u g h t I h a d m y d r e a m t e a m a r o u n d m e . " A g r o n r e v e a l e d t h a t s h e " t w e e t e d S a m a l o n g t i m e a g o a n d t o l d h i m h o w i m p o r t a n t i t w a s t h a t I d i s c o v e r e d h i s m u s i c . H e t w e e t e d m e b a c k , a n d w e s t a r t e d m e s s a g i n g e a c h o t h e r . T h e n t h e v i d e o h a p p e n e d , a n d w e ' v e b e c o m e f r i e n d s . " S m i t h a l s o c l a i m e d t h e y w a n t e d t o " b r i n g t h e s o n g t o l i f e a b i t m o r e ' " a n d " s t r i k e a n e r v e w i t h a c e r t a i n g r o u p o f p e o p l e " . I t w a s r e l e a s e d t o S m i t h ' s Y o u T u b e / V E V O c h a n n e l o n 1 A u g u s t 2 0 1 4 . T h e c y c l e o f i n f i d e l i t y i s t h e m a i n t h e m e o f b o t h t h e v i d e o a n d t h e s o n g . I t s t a r t s w i t h a s h o t o f t h e c o u p l e ' s h o u s e w i t h A g r o n t e l l i n g M e s s i n a t h a t s h e m a d e h i m b r e a k f a s t , b u t h e s a y s h e i s i n t o o m u c h o f a r u s h t o e a t i t . S h e w a l k s h i m o u t , a n d t h e n h e g o e s s t r a i g h t t o a b a r a n d d o e s s h o t s w i t h h i s m i s t r e s s , w h i l e A g r o n ' s c h a r a c t e r d r i n k s a l c o h o l a n d p i e c e s t o g e t h e r h e r h u s b a n d ' s i n d i s c r e t i o n s . W h i l e S m i t h p e r f o r m s i n t h e s a l o o n , A g r o n p r o c e e d s t o u n c o r k a b o t t l e o f w h i t e w i n e i n t h e m i d d l e o f h e r n e i g h b o u r h o o d l i q u o r s t o r e , d r i n k a w a y h e r p r o b l e m s , a n d t h e n e v e n t u a l l y s e t f i r e t o M e s s i n a ' s p o s s e s s i o n s . A t t h e e n d o f t h e v i d e o , s h e w e l c o m e s h i m b a c k h o m e a s i f n o t h i n g h a d h a p p e n e d . A s o f O c t o b e r 2 0 1 9 , t h e v i d e o h a s r e c e i v e d o v e r 1 . 3 b i l l i o n v i e w s . T h e s o n g i s f e a t u r e d i n t h e t e l e v i s i o n s h o w s " T h e F l a s h " a n d " S u i t s . " # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 3 : 4 2 # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 3 : 2 4 # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 6 : 3 5 # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 6 : 4 7 # " I ' m N o t t h e O n l y O n e "   — 4 : 0 6

Critical reception

The song "I'm Not the Only One" by Sam Smith received widespread critical acclaim upon release. Critics praised the song's sophisticated piano, escalating strings, and Smith's powerful vocals. The song's lyrics explore themes of infidelity and betrayal in a relationship. The song was commercially successful, peaking at number five on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and achieving multi-platinum certifications in several countries.

is composed in the key of F major with a tempo of 82 beats per minute. Smiths's vocals range from the note of F3 to C5. They admitted that they recorded the song when they were hungover, calling their vocals "hungover vocals". As Smith explained in a track-by-track commentary for "Digital Spy", "Napes played the chords one day and I was obsessed with them. We wrote a completely different song on top of those chords and it wasn't very good, so we scrapped it. Then two weeks later, I just loved the chords so we returned to them, and then we wrote 'I'm Not The Only One' in like an hour. " Lyrically, "I'm Not the Only One" talks about infidelity and betrayal in a relationship, where someone for cheating, but it's not, it actually talks more about how the woman's a mug. She knows she's not the only one, but she's never going to leave. I think that's wrong. The song received positive reviews from most music critics. Harley Brown of "Billboard" praised the track, calling it "[t]he first turning point of the record [...] where Smith goes home, dries off, and picks himself back up." Brown also added that "[t]he violins surging behind the breakdown are so high-pitched they practically sting." Lily Moayeri of "The A.V. Club" calling it one of the album's driving forces, noting that it "illustrates this with sophisticated piano and escalating strings." Ryan Lathan of "PopMatters" observed that "the charming 'I'm Not the Only One' confidently struts out from the rest of the set. An obvious candidate for future single, it’s the type of track that elicits head bobbing and finger snapping the second it begins." Jon Dolan of "Rolling Stone" called it "gorgeously bruising", while Andy Kellman of AllMusic picked it as one of the album's best tracks. Eric Davidson of CMJ thought that "[t]he Al Green vibe of 'I'm Not The Only One' has a verging-on-stern sentiment couched in a deeper groove that seems like a good direction Smith could head in." In his review for "Consequence of Sound", Sheldon Pearce called it "a two-stepping delight despite its somber tone." Adam Workman of "The National" noted that the song "really stands out among hackneyed lyrical content on love and longing; his high-pitched vocal extremes and fairly basic grasp of rhyming couplets both soon begin to rankle, too." Ben Kelly of "Attitude" opined that the song is "the album's bluesy moment" [...] "echo[ing] of Sittin' on the Dock of the Bay, with Sam's strong falsetto running free as ever." Maeve Heslin of Hot Press labelled it "laidback, funky soul at its finest." Paul Cantor of "Vibe" praised the song's "lush and expansive" arrangements, called it a "notably highlight" and noting that it is "brought to life by Smith's clever vocal arpeggiations and phrasings." Rachel Sonis of "Idolator" defined it as "a jazzy, soothing, coffee shop-ready number that sticks to the album's 'quiet moments in life' theme", noting similarities to Adele's melancholic approach and praising the song for "show[ing] off his precious pipes more than ever the top-ten in Denmark, Italy and Netherlands. In the United States, "I'm Not the Only One" shared similar success. It debuted on the "Billboard" Hot 100 at number sixty-nine, during the same week where "Stay with Me" was in the top-ten and "Latch" was reaching the top-twenty. It later reappeared at number ninety-three, and within four weeks the song climbed to number twenty-five, becoming that week's biggest gain in digital sales. The following week, the song reached number twenty, marking their fastest flight to the top-twenty (seven weeks) among his four entries. Four weeks later, the song climbed to number nine, thus earning Smith their third top-ten single in the same year (2014). With three top ten singles, Smith became the only male to achieve the feat in 2014 and the third overall artist with the most top ten singles of 2014, along with Iggy Azalea, who also scored three, and behind Ariana Grande, who had four. It eventually peaked at number five, becoming their second top-five hit. In Australia, the song failed to reach the top-ten by one position, reaching its peak at number eleven, ending their streak of consecutive top-five singles, but in New Zealand the song peaked at number three, earning their second consecutive top-three single. In both countries, the song was certified 2x platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association and the Recorded Music NZ respectively. In Brazil, the song was their first top-forty hit, reaching its peak at number thirty-nine. The song was also successful in South Africa, where it reached started messaging each other. Then the video happened, and we've become friends." Smith also claimed they wanted to "bring the song to life a bit more'" and "strike a nerve with a certain group of people". It was released to Smith's YouTube/VEVO channel on 1 August 2014. The cycle of infidelity is the main theme of both the video and the song. It starts with a shot of the couple's house with Agron telling Messina that she made him breakfast, but he says he is in too much of a rush to eat it. She walks him out, and then he goes straight to a bar and does shots with his mistress, while Agron's character drinks alcohol and pieces together her husband's indiscretions. While Smith performs in the saloon, Agron proceeds to uncork a bottle of white wine in the middle of her neighbourhood liquor store, drink away her problems, and then eventually set fire to Messina's possessions. At the end of the video, she welcomes him back home as if nothing had happened. As of October 2019, the video has received over 1.3 billion views. The song is featured in the television shows "The Flash" and "Suits. " #"I'm Not the Only One" — 3:42 #"I'm Not the Only One" — 3:24 #"I'm Not the Only One" — 6:35 #"I'm Not the Only One" — 6:47 #"I'm Not the Only One" — 4:06

Section 2 (NYSPHSAA)

T h e s e c t i o n i s m a d e u p o f 9 l e a g u e s m o s t l y b a s e d o n l o c a t i o n b u t a l s o b a s e d o n s i z e t o e n s u r e f a i r c o m p e t i t i o n . S c h o o l s m o s t l y c o m p e t e w i t h t h e o t h e r s c h o o l s i n t h e i r l e a g u e b u t w i l l s o m e t i m e s c o m p e t e w i t h s c h o o l s o u t s i d e o f i t . T h i s u s u a l l y h a p p e n s d u r i n g t h e c h a m p i o n s h i p s e a s o n w h e n t e a m s a r e c o m p e t i n g f o r t h e s e c t i o n o r s t a t e t i t l e . T h e f o l l o w i n g i s t h e l i s t o f l e a g u e s w i t h t h e i r m e m b e r s c h o o l s .

Leagues

The section consists of 9 leagues, primarily organized by location and school size, ensuring fair competition among member schools. While schools typically compete within their own league, they may occasionally face off against schools from other leagues during championship seasons.

The section is made up of 9 leagues mostly based on location but also based on size to ensure fair competition. Schools mostly compete with the other schools in their league but will sometimes compete with schools outside of it. This usually happens during the championship season when teams are competing for the section or state title. The following is the list of leagues with their member schools.

Punjab information and culture department

T h e D i r e c t o r a t e G e n e r a l P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s , P u n j a b i s t h e m a i n p u b l i c i t y a r m o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t . I t d e a l s w i t h d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f I n f o r m a t i o n , P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s , f o c u s i n g o n p r o j e c t i o n o f o f f i c i a l p o l i c i e s , a c t i v i t i e s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s a n d m a i n t a i n i n g a c l o s e l i a i s o n w i t h t h e p r e s s . L a h o r e M u s e u m i s t h e l a r g e s t a n d t h e o l d e s t m u s e u m i n P a k i s t a n , i t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 8 9 4 . T h e P u n j a b C o u n c i l o f t h e A r t s i s a n a u t o n o m o u s b o d y e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e P u n j a b C o u n c i l o f t h e A r t s A c t o f 1 9 7 5 . I t a d v i s e s t h e G o v e r n m e n t o n a l l m a t t e r s o f p o l i c y r e l a t i n g t o a r t a n d c u l t u r e a c t i v i t y t h r o u g h i t s D i v i s i o n a l A r t s C o u n c i l s w h i c h i n c l u d e : M u l t a n A r t s C o u n c i l , B a h a w a l p u r A r t s C o u n c i l , D . G . K h a n A r t s C o u n c i l , F a i s a l a b a d A r t s C o u n c i l , R a w a l p i n d i A r t s C o u n c i l , G u j r a n w a l a A r t s C o u n c i l , S a r g o d h a A r t s C o u n c i l , M u r r e e A r t s C o u n c i l , W a r i s S h a h M e m o r i a l C o m p l e x . A n e s t a b l i s h e d ' T r u s t ' f o r t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e v e t e r a n s o f P a k i s t a n M o v e m e n t . T h e C e n t r a l B o a r d o f F i l m C e n s o r s h a s b e e n d e v o l v e d b y v i r t u e o f 1 8 t h A m e n d m e n t i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f P a k i s t a n a n d b r a n c h o f f i c e a t L a h o r e w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e I n f o r m a t i o n & C u l t u r e D e p a r t m e n t , G o v e r n m e n t o f t h e P u n j a b . T h e F e d e r a l L a w “ M o t i o n P i c t u r e O r d i n a n c e , 1 9 7 9 ” h a s b e e n a d o p t e d t h r o u g h a n A c t " P u n j a b M o t i o n P i c t u r e s ( A m e n d m e n t ) A c t , 2 0 1 2 ” ( X o f 2 0 1 3 ) " a f t e r c e r t a i n a m e n d m e n t s . T h e P u n j a b C e n s o r s h i p o f F i l m s R u l e s , 2 0 1 3 h a v e a l s o b e e n f r a m e d . P F C B c e n s o r s f i l m s p r i o r t o e x h i b i t i o n i n P u n j a b . T h e B a b - e - P a k i s t a n T r u s t ( P a k i s t a n ) w a s c o n s t i t u t e d i n L a h o r e i n 1 9 9 2 . T h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e w a s t o s e t u p a c o m p l e x i n m e m o r y o f t h o s e w h o s c a r i f i e d a l l t h e y h a d i n c l u d i n g t h e i r l i v e s t o m a k e P a k i s t a n p o s s i b l e . B a z m - e - I q b a l w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s a u t o n o m o u s b o d y i n M a y , 1 9 5 0 u n d e r t h e s o c i e t i e s R e g i s t r a t i o n A c t , 1 8 6 0 . T h e B a z m c a r r i e s o u t r e s e a r c h a n d p u b l i c a t i o n o n t h e p h i l o s o p h y a n d t e a c h i n g s o f I q b a l . T h e o r g a n i s a t i o n p u b l i s h e s s o m e o f t h e m o s t r e s p e c t e d w o r k s o n t h e h i s t o r y a n d p h i l o s o p h y o f I s l a m .

Institutions

The institutions mentioned are responsible for various aspects of public relations, information dissemination, arts, culture, film censorship, and historical preservation in Punjab, Pakistan. These institutions include the Directorate General Public Relations, Lahore Museum, Punjab Council of the Arts, Central Board of Film Censors, PFCB, Bab-e-Pakistan Trust, and Bazm-e-Iqbal.

The Directorate General Public Relations, Punjab is the main publicity arm of the Government. It deals with dissemination of Information, Public Relations, focusing on projection of official policies, activities and development programmes and maintaining a close liaison with the press. Lahore Museum is the largest and the oldest museum in Pakistan, it was established in 1894. The Punjab Council of the Arts is an autonomous body established under the Punjab Council of the Arts Act of 1975. It advises the Government on all matters of policy relating to art and culture activity through its Divisional Arts Councils which include: Multan Arts Council, Bahawalpur Arts Council, D.G. Khan Arts Council, Faisalabad Arts Council, Rawalpindi Arts Council, Gujranwala Arts Council, Sargodha Arts Council, Murree Arts Council, Waris Shah Memorial Complex. An established 'Trust' for the assistance of the veterans of Pakistan Movement. The Central Board of Film Censors has been devolved by virtue of 18th Amendment in the Constitution of Pakistan and branch office at Lahore was transferred to the Information & Culture Department, Government of the Punjab. The Federal Law “Motion Picture Ordinance, 1979” has been adopted through an Act "Punjab Motion Pictures (Amendment) Act, 2012” (X of 2013)" after certain amendments. The Punjab Censorship of Films Rules, 2013 have also been framed. PFCB censors films prior to exhibition in Punjab. The Bab-e-Pakistan Trust (Pakistan) was constituted in Lahore in 1992. The main objective was to set up a complex in memory of those who scarified all they had including their lives to make Pakistan possible. Bazm-e-Iqbal was established as autonomous body in May, 1950 under the societies Registration Act, 1860. The Bazm carries out research and publication on the philosophy and teachings of Iqbal. The organisation publishes some of the most respected works on the history and philosophy of Islam.

Punjab information and culture department

T h e D i r e c t o r a t e G e n e r a l P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s , P u n j a b i s t h e m a i n p u b l i c i t y a r m o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t . I t d e a l s w i t h d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f I n f o r m a t i o n , P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s , f o c u s i n g o n p r o j e c t i o n o f o f f i c i a l p o l i c i e s , a c t i v i t i e s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s a n d m a i n t a i n i n g a c l o s e l i a i s o n w i t h t h e p r e s s . L a h o r e M u s e u m i s t h e l a r g e s t a n d t h e o l d e s t m u s e u m i n P a k i s t a n , i t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 8 9 4 . T h e P u n j a b C o u n c i l o f t h e A r t s i s a n a u t o n o m o u s b o d y e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e P u n j a b C o u n c i l o f t h e A r t s A c t o f 1 9 7 5 . I t a d v i s e s t h e G o v e r n m e n t o n a l l m a t t e r s o f p o l i c y r e l a t i n g t o a r t a n d c u l t u r e a c t i v i t y t h r o u g h i t s D i v i s i o n a l A r t s C o u n c i l s w h i c h i n c l u d e : M u l t a n A r t s C o u n c i l , B a h a w a l p u r A r t s C o u n c i l , D . G . K h a n A r t s C o u n c i l , F a i s a l a b a d A r t s C o u n c i l , R a w a l p i n d i A r t s C o u n c i l , G u j r a n w a l a A r t s C o u n c i l , S a r g o d h a A r t s C o u n c i l , M u r r e e A r t s C o u n c i l , W a r i s S h a h M e m o r i a l C o m p l e x . A n e s t a b l i s h e d ' T r u s t ' f o r t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e v e t e r a n s o f P a k i s t a n M o v e m e n t . T h e C e n t r a l B o a r d o f F i l m C e n s o r s h a s b e e n d e v o l v e d b y v i r t u e o f 1 8 t h A m e n d m e n t i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f P a k i s t a n a n d b r a n c h o f f i c e a t L a h o r e w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e I n f o r m a t i o n & C u l t u r e D e p a r t m e n t , G o v e r n m e n t o f t h e P u n j a b . T h e F e d e r a l L a w “ M o t i o n P i c t u r e O r d i n a n c e , 1 9 7 9 ” h a s b e e n a d o p t e d t h r o u g h a n A c t " P u n j a b M o t i o n P i c t u r e s ( A m e n d m e n t ) A c t , 2 0 1 2 ” ( X o f 2 0 1 3 ) " a f t e r c e r t a i n a m e n d m e n t s . T h e P u n j a b C e n s o r s h i p o f F i l m s R u l e s , 2 0 1 3 h a v e a l s o b e e n f r a m e d . P F C B c e n s o r s f i l m s p r i o r t o e x h i b i t i o n i n P u n j a b . T h e B a b - e - P a k i s t a n T r u s t ( P a k i s t a n ) w a s c o n s t i t u t e d i n L a h o r e i n 1 9 9 2 . T h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e w a s t o s e t u p a c o m p l e x i n m e m o r y o f t h o s e w h o s c a r i f i e d a l l t h e y h a d i n c l u d i n g t h e i r l i v e s t o m a k e P a k i s t a n p o s s i b l e . B a z m - e - I q b a l w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s a u t o n o m o u s b o d y i n M a y , 1 9 5 0 u n d e r t h e s o c i e t i e s R e g i s t r a t i o n A c t , 1 8 6 0 . T h e B a z m c a r r i e s o u t r e s e a r c h a n d p u b l i c a t i o n o n t h e p h i l o s o p h y a n d t e a c h i n g s o f I q b a l . T h e o r g a n i s a t i o n p u b l i s h e s s o m e o f t h e m o s t r e s p e c t e d w o r k s o n t h e h i s t o r y a n d p h i l o s o p h y o f I s l a m .

Institutions ; Directorate General Public Relations

The Directorate General Public Relations, Punjab handles information dissemination, public relations, and maintains press liaisons. Other institutions include Lahore Museum, Punjab Council of the Arts, arts councils across divisions, a trust for Pakistan Movement veterans, Central Board of Film Censors, Punjab Film Censorship Board, Bab-e-Pakistan Trust, and Bazm-e-Iqbal, which focus on art, culture, film censorship, and research on Islamic philosophy.

The Directorate General Public Relations, Punjab is the main publicity arm of the Government. It deals with dissemination of Information, Public Relations, focusing on projection of official policies, activities and development programmes and maintaining a close liaison with the press. Lahore Museum is the largest and the oldest museum in Pakistan, it was established in 1894. The Punjab Council of the Arts is an autonomous body established under the Punjab Council of the Arts Act of 1975. It advises the Government on all matters of policy relating to art and culture activity through its Divisional Arts Councils which include: Multan Arts Council, Bahawalpur Arts Council, D.G. Khan Arts Council, Faisalabad Arts Council, Rawalpindi Arts Council, Gujranwala Arts Council, Sargodha Arts Council, Murree Arts Council, Waris Shah Memorial Complex. An established 'Trust' for the assistance of the veterans of Pakistan Movement. The Central Board of Film Censors has been devolved by virtue of 18th Amendment in the Constitution of Pakistan and branch office at Lahore was transferred to the Information & Culture Department, Government of the Punjab. The Federal Law “Motion Picture Ordinance, 1979” has been adopted through an Act "Punjab Motion Pictures (Amendment) Act, 2012” (X of 2013)" after certain amendments. The Punjab Censorship of Films Rules, 2013 have also been framed. PFCB censors films prior to exhibition in Punjab. The Bab-e-Pakistan Trust (Pakistan) was constituted in Lahore in 1992. The main objective was to set up a complex in memory of those who scarified all they had including their lives to make Pakistan possible. Bazm-e-Iqbal was established as autonomous body in May, 1950 under the societies Registration Act, 1860. The Bazm carries out research and publication on the philosophy and teachings of Iqbal. The organisation publishes some of the most respected works on the history and philosophy of Islam.

Punjab information and culture department

T h e D i r e c t o r a t e G e n e r a l P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s , P u n j a b i s t h e m a i n p u b l i c i t y a r m o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t . I t d e a l s w i t h d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f I n f o r m a t i o n , P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s , f o c u s i n g o n p r o j e c t i o n o f o f f i c i a l p o l i c i e s , a c t i v i t i e s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s a n d m a i n t a i n i n g a c l o s e l i a i s o n w i t h t h e p r e s s . L a h o r e M u s e u m i s t h e l a r g e s t a n d t h e o l d e s t m u s e u m i n P a k i s t a n , i t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 8 9 4 . T h e P u n j a b C o u n c i l o f t h e A r t s i s a n a u t o n o m o u s b o d y e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e P u n j a b C o u n c i l o f t h e A r t s A c t o f 1 9 7 5 . I t a d v i s e s t h e G o v e r n m e n t o n a l l m a t t e r s o f p o l i c y r e l a t i n g t o a r t a n d c u l t u r e a c t i v i t y t h r o u g h i t s D i v i s i o n a l A r t s C o u n c i l s w h i c h i n c l u d e : M u l t a n A r t s C o u n c i l , B a h a w a l p u r A r t s C o u n c i l , D . G . K h a n A r t s C o u n c i l , F a i s a l a b a d A r t s C o u n c i l , R a w a l p i n d i A r t s C o u n c i l , G u j r a n w a l a A r t s C o u n c i l , S a r g o d h a A r t s C o u n c i l , M u r r e e A r t s C o u n c i l , W a r i s S h a h M e m o r i a l C o m p l e x . A n e s t a b l i s h e d ' T r u s t ' f o r t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e v e t e r a n s o f P a k i s t a n M o v e m e n t . T h e C e n t r a l B o a r d o f F i l m C e n s o r s h a s b e e n d e v o l v e d b y v i r t u e o f 1 8 t h A m e n d m e n t i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f P a k i s t a n a n d b r a n c h o f f i c e a t L a h o r e w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e I n f o r m a t i o n & C u l t u r e D e p a r t m e n t , G o v e r n m e n t o f t h e P u n j a b . T h e F e d e r a l L a w “ M o t i o n P i c t u r e O r d i n a n c e , 1 9 7 9 ” h a s b e e n a d o p t e d t h r o u g h a n A c t " P u n j a b M o t i o n P i c t u r e s ( A m e n d m e n t ) A c t , 2 0 1 2 ” ( X o f 2 0 1 3 ) " a f t e r c e r t a i n a m e n d m e n t s . T h e P u n j a b C e n s o r s h i p o f F i l m s R u l e s , 2 0 1 3 h a v e a l s o b e e n f r a m e d . P F C B c e n s o r s f i l m s p r i o r t o e x h i b i t i o n i n P u n j a b . T h e B a b - e - P a k i s t a n T r u s t ( P a k i s t a n ) w a s c o n s t i t u t e d i n L a h o r e i n 1 9 9 2 . T h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e w a s t o s e t u p a c o m p l e x i n m e m o r y o f t h o s e w h o s c a r i f i e d a l l t h e y h a d i n c l u d i n g t h e i r l i v e s t o m a k e P a k i s t a n p o s s i b l e . B a z m - e - I q b a l w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s a u t o n o m o u s b o d y i n M a y , 1 9 5 0 u n d e r t h e s o c i e t i e s R e g i s t r a t i o n A c t , 1 8 6 0 . T h e B a z m c a r r i e s o u t r e s e a r c h a n d p u b l i c a t i o n o n t h e p h i l o s o p h y a n d t e a c h i n g s o f I q b a l . T h e o r g a n i s a t i o n p u b l i s h e s s o m e o f t h e m o s t r e s p e c t e d w o r k s o n t h e h i s t o r y a n d p h i l o s o p h y o f I s l a m .

Institutions ; Punjab Council of the Arts

The institutions mentioned are responsible for promoting arts, culture, and information in Punjab. They include the Directorate General Public Relations, Lahore Museum, Punjab Council of the Arts, and various divisional arts councils. Additionally, there are institutions focused on film censorship, such as the Central Board of Film Censors and the Punjab Film Censorship Board. Other organizations, like the Bab-e-Pakistan Trust and Bazm-e-Iqbal, work towards preserving Pakistani heritage and promoting the philosophy of Allama Iqbal.

The Directorate General Public Relations, Punjab is the main publicity arm of the Government. It deals with dissemination of Information, Public Relations, focusing on projection of official policies, activities and development programmes and maintaining a close liaison with the press. Lahore Museum is the largest and the oldest museum in Pakistan, it was established in 1894. The Punjab Council of the Arts is an autonomous body established under the Punjab Council of the Arts Act of 1975. It advises the Government on all matters of policy relating to art and culture activity through its Divisional Arts Councils which include: Multan Arts Council, Bahawalpur Arts Council, D.G. Khan Arts Council, Faisalabad Arts Council, Rawalpindi Arts Council, Gujranwala Arts Council, Sargodha Arts Council, Murree Arts Council, Waris Shah Memorial Complex. An established 'Trust' for the assistance of the veterans of Pakistan Movement. The Central Board of Film Censors has been devolved by virtue of 18th Amendment in the Constitution of Pakistan and branch office at Lahore was transferred to the Information & Culture Department, Government of the Punjab. The Federal Law “Motion Picture Ordinance, 1979” has been adopted through an Act "Punjab Motion Pictures (Amendment) Act, 2012” (X of 2013)" after certain amendments. The Punjab Censorship of Films Rules, 2013 have also been framed. PFCB censors films prior to exhibition in Punjab. The Bab-e-Pakistan Trust (Pakistan) was constituted in Lahore in 1992. The main objective was to set up a complex in memory of those who scarified all they had including their lives to make Pakistan possible. Bazm-e-Iqbal was established as autonomous body in May, 1950 under the societies Registration Act, 1860. The Bazm carries out research and publication on the philosophy and teachings of Iqbal. The organisation publishes some of the most respected works on the history and philosophy of Islam.

Punjab information and culture department

T h e D i r e c t o r a t e G e n e r a l P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s , P u n j a b i s t h e m a i n p u b l i c i t y a r m o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t . I t d e a l s w i t h d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f I n f o r m a t i o n , P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s , f o c u s i n g o n p r o j e c t i o n o f o f f i c i a l p o l i c i e s , a c t i v i t i e s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s a n d m a i n t a i n i n g a c l o s e l i a i s o n w i t h t h e p r e s s . L a h o r e M u s e u m i s t h e l a r g e s t a n d t h e o l d e s t m u s e u m i n P a k i s t a n , i t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 8 9 4 . T h e P u n j a b C o u n c i l o f t h e A r t s i s a n a u t o n o m o u s b o d y e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e P u n j a b C o u n c i l o f t h e A r t s A c t o f 1 9 7 5 . I t a d v i s e s t h e G o v e r n m e n t o n a l l m a t t e r s o f p o l i c y r e l a t i n g t o a r t a n d c u l t u r e a c t i v i t y t h r o u g h i t s D i v i s i o n a l A r t s C o u n c i l s w h i c h i n c l u d e : M u l t a n A r t s C o u n c i l , B a h a w a l p u r A r t s C o u n c i l , D . G . K h a n A r t s C o u n c i l , F a i s a l a b a d A r t s C o u n c i l , R a w a l p i n d i A r t s C o u n c i l , G u j r a n w a l a A r t s C o u n c i l , S a r g o d h a A r t s C o u n c i l , M u r r e e A r t s C o u n c i l , W a r i s S h a h M e m o r i a l C o m p l e x . A n e s t a b l i s h e d ' T r u s t ' f o r t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e v e t e r a n s o f P a k i s t a n M o v e m e n t . T h e C e n t r a l B o a r d o f F i l m C e n s o r s h a s b e e n d e v o l v e d b y v i r t u e o f 1 8 t h A m e n d m e n t i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f P a k i s t a n a n d b r a n c h o f f i c e a t L a h o r e w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e I n f o r m a t i o n & C u l t u r e D e p a r t m e n t , G o v e r n m e n t o f t h e P u n j a b . T h e F e d e r a l L a w “ M o t i o n P i c t u r e O r d i n a n c e , 1 9 7 9 ” h a s b e e n a d o p t e d t h r o u g h a n A c t " P u n j a b M o t i o n P i c t u r e s ( A m e n d m e n t ) A c t , 2 0 1 2 ” ( X o f 2 0 1 3 ) " a f t e r c e r t a i n a m e n d m e n t s . T h e P u n j a b C e n s o r s h i p o f F i l m s R u l e s , 2 0 1 3 h a v e a l s o b e e n f r a m e d . P F C B c e n s o r s f i l m s p r i o r t o e x h i b i t i o n i n P u n j a b . T h e B a b - e - P a k i s t a n T r u s t ( P a k i s t a n ) w a s c o n s t i t u t e d i n L a h o r e i n 1 9 9 2 . T h e m a i n o b j e c t i v e w a s t o s e t u p a c o m p l e x i n m e m o r y o f t h o s e w h o s c a r i f i e d a l l t h e y h a d i n c l u d i n g t h e i r l i v e s t o m a k e P a k i s t a n p o s s i b l e . B a z m - e - I q b a l w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s a u t o n o m o u s b o d y i n M a y , 1 9 5 0 u n d e r t h e s o c i e t i e s R e g i s t r a t i o n A c t , 1 8 6 0 . T h e B a z m c a r r i e s o u t r e s e a r c h a n d p u b l i c a t i o n o n t h e p h i l o s o p h y a n d t e a c h i n g s o f I q b a l . T h e o r g a n i s a t i o n p u b l i s h e s s o m e o f t h e m o s t r e s p e c t e d w o r k s o n t h e h i s t o r y a n d p h i l o s o p h y o f I s l a m .

Institutions ; Punjab Film Censor Board (PFCB)

The institutions mentioned are responsible for promoting arts, culture, and information in Punjab. These include the Directorate General Public Relations, Lahore Museum, Punjab Council of the Arts, and various divisional arts councils. Additionally, there are institutions focused on film censorship (Punjab Film Censor Board), preserving Pakistani heritage (Bab-e-Pakistan Trust), and researching Islamic philosophy (Bazm-e-Iqbal).

The Directorate General Public Relations, Punjab is the main publicity arm of the Government. It deals with dissemination of Information, Public Relations, focusing on projection of official policies, activities and development programmes and maintaining a close liaison with the press. Lahore Museum is the largest and the oldest museum in Pakistan, it was established in 1894. The Punjab Council of the Arts is an autonomous body established under the Punjab Council of the Arts Act of 1975. It advises the Government on all matters of policy relating to art and culture activity through its Divisional Arts Councils which include: Multan Arts Council, Bahawalpur Arts Council, D.G. Khan Arts Council, Faisalabad Arts Council, Rawalpindi Arts Council, Gujranwala Arts Council, Sargodha Arts Council, Murree Arts Council, Waris Shah Memorial Complex. An established 'Trust' for the assistance of the veterans of Pakistan Movement. The Central Board of Film Censors has been devolved by virtue of 18th Amendment in the Constitution of Pakistan and branch office at Lahore was transferred to the Information & Culture Department, Government of the Punjab. The Federal Law “Motion Picture Ordinance, 1979” has been adopted through an Act "Punjab Motion Pictures (Amendment) Act, 2012” (X of 2013)" after certain amendments. The Punjab Censorship of Films Rules, 2013 have also been framed. PFCB censors films prior to exhibition in Punjab. The Bab-e-Pakistan Trust (Pakistan) was constituted in Lahore in 1992. The main objective was to set up a complex in memory of those who scarified all they had including their lives to make Pakistan possible. Bazm-e-Iqbal was established as autonomous body in May, 1950 under the societies Registration Act, 1860. The Bazm carries out research and publication on the philosophy and teachings of Iqbal. The organisation publishes some of the most respected works on the history and philosophy of Islam.

Utah v. Lafferty

R o n L a f f e r t y a n d h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r D a n w e r e c h a r g e d f o r t h e t h r o a t - s l a s h i n g h o m i c i d e s o f t h e i r s i s t e r - i n - l a w B r e n d a W r i g h t L a f f e r t y a n d h e r 1 5 - m o n t h - o l d d a u g h t e r , E r i c a , t h a t o c c u r r e d o n J u l y 2 4 , 1 9 8 4 . R o n , a s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d p r o p h e t , c l a i m e d t o h a v e r e c e i v e d a r e v e l a t i o n f r o m G o d i n w h i c h h e w a s i n s t r u c t e d t o " r e m o v e " s e v e r a l p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g t h e t w o v i c t i m s . A t t o r n e y s M i c h a e l E s p l i n a n d G a r y W e i g h t w e r e a p p o i n t e d t o s e r v e a s " s t a n d b y " c o u n s e l f o r t h e b r o t h e r s w h e n t h e y w e r e c h a r g e d w i t h h o m i c i d e i n A u g u s t 1 9 8 4 . T h e y r e p r e s e n t e d t h e b r o t h e r s d u r i n g t h e i r c o m p e t e n c y h e a r i n g s . A t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e c o m p e t e n c y e v a l u a t i o n s , a n d w h i l e i n c a r c e r a t e d i n t h e U t a h C o u n t y j a i l , R o n L a f f e r t y a t t e m p t e d s u i c i d e i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 8 4 . T h i s r e s u l t e d i n s e v e r e i n j u r y a n d m e n t a l d a m a g e . F o l l o w i n g t h e s u i c i d e a t t e m p t , R o n w a s h e l d a t t h e U t a h S t a t e H o s p i t a l f o r s e v e r a l m o n t h s . D a n L a f f e r t y r e p r e s e n t e d h i m s e l f d u r i n g h i s t r i a l , a l t h o u g h h e h a d a c c e s s t o t h e s t a n d b y c o u n s e l . T h e j u r y t r i a l r e s u l t e d i n a g u i l t y v e r d i c t , a n d h e w a s s e n t e n c e d t o t w o l i f e s e n t e n c e s t o b e s e r v e d c o n c u r r e n t l y w i t h o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p a r o l e . E s p l i n a n d W e i g h t a p p e a l e d t h e c a s e t o t h e U t a h S u p r e m e C o u r t , w h i c h u p h e l d h i s c o n v i c t i o n . R o n L a f f e r t y w a s f o u n d c o m p e t e n t t o s t a n d t r i a l b y d o c t o r s a t t h e U t a h S t a t e H o s p i t a l . R o n w a s t r i e d i n 1 9 8 5 , c o n v i c t e d , a n d s e n t e n c e d t o d e a t h . T h e p e n a l t y w a s u p h e l d a f t e r a n a p p e a l t o t h e U t a h S u p r e m e C o u r t . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t r e j e c t e d a f u r t h e r a p p e a l . T h e U . S . D i s t r i c t C o u r t f o r U t a h u p h e l d t h e c o n v i c t i o n ; h o w e v e r , t h e 1 0 t h C i r c u i t C o u r t o f A p p e a l s o v e r t u r n e d t h e l o w e r c o u r t ' s v e r d i c t a n d r e v e r s e d t h e c o n v i c t i o n , f i n d i n g t h a t t h e s t a t e a n d t h e l o w e r c o u r t j u d g e h a d c o m m i t t e d e r r o r i n f i n d i n g R o n c o m p e t e n t t o s t a n d t r i a l . T h e s t a t e o f U t a h f i l e d a n a p p e a l w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t , w h i c h w a s t u r n e d d o w n . R o n w a s r e m a n d e d t o t h e F o u r t h D i s t r i c t C o u r t f o r U t a h s o h e c o u l d u n d e r g o c o m p e t e n c y p r o c e e d i n g s , w a s f o u n d i n c o m p e t e n t t o s t a n d t r i a l , a n d w a s s e n t t o t h e U t a h S t a t e H o s p i t a l f o r t r e a t m e n t . T h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , a c o u r t f o u n d t h a t R o n ' s c o m p e t e n c y w a s " r e s t o r e d " a n d i n 1 9 9 6 h e w a s r e t r i e d f o r t h e c r i m e s . A f t e r a t h r e e - w e e k t r i a l , R o n w a s f o u n d g u i l t y o f a c a p i t a l o f f e n s e . F u r t h e r a p p e a l s t o t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t o f U t a h a n d t h e U . S . S u p r e m e C o u r t w e r e d e n i e d . O n A u g u s t 1 2 , 2 0 1 9 , t h e 1 0 t h C i r c u i t C o u r t o f A p p e a l s r e f u s e d t o h e a r R o n ’ s c a s e b y a u n a n i m o u s d e c i s i o n . J u d g e M a r y B e c k B r i s c o e w r o t e : " L a f f e r t y h a s f a i l e d t o m a k e t h i s s h o w i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o a n y o f t h e f o u r c l a i m s o n w h i c h h e s e e k s a C O A [ c e r t i f i c a t e o f a p p e a l a b i l i t y ] , " T h e c o u r t ' s d e c i s i o n g a v e R o n f e w o p t i o n s l e f t t o a p p e a l h i s e x e c u t i o n . R o n e l e c t e d t o b e e x e c u t e d b y f i r i n g s q u a d . H e d i e d i n p r i s o n o f n a t u r a l c a u s e s p r i o r t o h i s e x e c u t i o n d a t e , i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 9 . J o n K r a k a u e r ' s b o o k , " U n d e r t h e B a n n e r o f H e a v e n " , i s p r i m a r i l y b a s e d u p o n i n t e r v i e w s w i t h D a n L a f f e r t y . R o n L a f f e r t y d i e d o f n a t u r a l c a u s e s i n p r i s o n o n N o v e m b e r 1 1 , 2 0 1 9 .

History

In 1984, Ron and Dan Lafferty murdered their sister-in-law and niece, claiming divine instruction. Both brothers were arrested and charged. Ron attempted suicide, causing brain damage, and was deemed incompetent to stand trial. Dan represented himself, was found guilty, and sentenced to life imprisonment. Ron was eventually found competent, retried, and sentenced to death. Despite numerous appeals, his sentence was upheld, but he died of natural causes before his scheduled execution.

Ron Lafferty and his younger brother Dan were charged for the throat-slashing homicides of their sister-in-law Brenda Wright Lafferty and her 15-month-old daughter, Erica, that occurred on July 24, 1984. Ron, a self-proclaimed prophet, claimed to have received a revelation from God in which he was instructed to "remove" several people, including the two victims. Attorneys Michael Esplin and Gary Weight were appointed to serve as "standby" counsel for the brothers when they were charged with homicide in August 1984. They represented the brothers during their competency hearings. At the conclusion of the competency evaluations, and while incarcerated in the Utah County jail, Ron Lafferty attempted suicide in December 1984. This resulted in severe injury and mental damage. Following the suicide attempt, Ron was held at the Utah State Hospital for several months. Dan Lafferty represented himself during his trial, although he had access to the standby counsel. The jury trial resulted in a guilty verdict, and he was sentenced to two life sentences to be served concurrently without the possibility of parole. Esplin and Weight appealed the case to the Utah Supreme Court, which upheld his conviction. Ron Lafferty was found competent to stand trial by doctors at the Utah State Hospital. Ron was tried in 1985, convicted, and sentenced to death. The penalty was upheld after an appeal to the Utah Supreme Court. The United States Supreme Court rejected a further appeal. The U.S. District Court for Utah upheld the conviction; however, the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals overturned the lower court's verdict and reversed the conviction, finding that the state and the lower court judge had committed error in finding Ron competent to stand trial. The state of Utah filed an appeal with the United States Supreme Court, which was turned down. Ron was remanded to the Fourth District Court for Utah so he could undergo competency proceedings, was found incompetent to stand trial, and was sent to the Utah State Hospital for treatment. Three years later, a court found that Ron's competency was "restored" and in 1996 he was retried for the crimes. After a three-week trial, Ron was found guilty of a capital offense. Further appeals to the Supreme Court of Utah and the U.S. Supreme Court were denied. On August 12, 2019, the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals refused to hear Ron’s case by a unanimous decision. Judge Mary Beck Briscoe wrote: "Lafferty has failed to make this showing with respect to any of the four claims on which he seeks a COA [certificate of appealability]," The court's decision gave Ron few options left to appeal his execution. Ron elected to be executed by firing squad. He died in prison of natural causes prior to his execution date, in November 2019. Jon Krakauer's book, "Under the Banner of Heaven", is primarily based upon interviews with Dan Lafferty. Ron Lafferty died of natural causes in prison on November 11, 2019.

Violeta de Outono

F a b i o G o l f e t t i f o u n d e d V i o l e t a d e O u t o n o i n 1 9 8 5 a l o n g s i d e C l á u d i o S o u z a ; b o t h h a d j u s t p a r t e d w a y s w i t h p i o n e e r i n g N e w R o m a n t i c b a n d Z e r o . T h e y w o u l d l a t e r b e j o i n e d b y A n g e l o P a s t o r e l l o , a n d w i t h t h i s l i n e - u p t h e y r e l e a s e d a d e m o t a p e , " M e m o r i e s " , i n t h e s a m e y e a r . T h e t a p e g o t t h e a t t e n t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n t r e c o r d l a b e l W o p - B o p R e c o r d s , t h a t r e l e a s e d t h e i r f i r s t r e c o r d i n g , t h e e x t e n d e d p l a y " R e f l e x o s d a N o i t e " , i n 1 9 8 6 . I n 1 9 8 7 , V i o l e t a d e O u t o n o ' s e p o n y m o u s d e b u t w a s r e l e a s e d t h r o u g h R C A R e c o r d s . I t w a s v e r y w e l l - r e c e i v e d ; p a r t i c u l a r p r a i s e w e n t t o t h e i r c o v e r o f T h e B e a t l e s ' s o n g " T o m o r r o w N e v e r K n o w s " . I n 1 9 8 8 t h e y r e l e a s e d a f o u r - t r a c k E P c a l l e d " T h e E a r l y Y e a r s " , c o n t a i n i n g c o v e r v e r s i o n s o f T h e R o l l i n g S t o n e s ' " C i t a d e l " , P i n k F l o y d ' s " I n t e r s t e l l a r O v e r d r i v e " , T h e B e a t l e s ' " W i t h i n Y o u W i t h o u t Y o u " a n d G o n g ' s " B l u e s f o r F i n d l a y " . T h o s e r e c o r d i n g s t r a c e t o a s f a r a s 1 9 8 5 – 1 9 8 6 . I n t h e n e x t y e a r , t h e i r s e c o n d s t u d i o a l b u m , " E m T o d a P a r t e " , w a s r e l e a s e d b y A r i o l a R e c o r d s . B e g i n n i n g w i t h t h i s a l b u m , V i o l e t a d e O u t o n o w o u l d d r o p t h e i r p r e v i o u s p o s t - p u n k i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , h e a d i n g t o w a r d s a m o r e p r o g r e s s i v e a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l v e i n . I n 1 9 9 0 , C l á u d i o S o u z a l e f t t h e b a n d , a n d w a s r e p l a c e d b y C l á u d i o F o n t e s ( S o u z a w o u l d r e t u r n t o t h e b a n d i n 1 9 9 3 t h o u g h ) . F r o m 1 9 9 3 t o 1 9 9 5 , V i o l e t a d e O u t o n o e n t e r e d a s h o r t h i a t u s p e r i o d ; t h e y r e t u r n e d t o a c t i v e w i t h a l i v e a l b u m , " E c l i p s e " , a n d t h e i r t h i r d f u l l - l e n g t h , " M u l h e r n a M o n t a n h a " , t h a t b e g a n t o b e r e c o r d e d i n 1 9 9 5 b u t w o u l d b e r e l e a s e d o n l y i n 1 9 9 9 . I n 2 0 0 0 , t h e y w o u l d r e l e a s e t h e i r s e c o n d l i v e a l b u m , " L i v e a t R i o A r t R o c k F e s t i v a l ' 9 7 " , a r e c o r d i n g o f t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e a t t h e R i o A r t R o c k F e s t i v a l i n R i o d e J a n e i r o i n 1 9 9 7 . ( A D V D c o n t a i n i n g t h e f o o t a g e o f t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e a t t h e f e s t i v a l w o u l d b e r e l e a s e d 1 5 y e a r s l a t e r . ) D u r i n g V i o l e t a d e O u t o n o ' s h i a t u s , G o l f e t t i r e l e a s e d t h r e e a l b u m s w i t h T h e I n v i s i b l e O p e r a C o m p a n y o f T i b e t ( T r o p i c a l V e r s i o n B r a z i l ) , a s i d e p r o j e c t h e f o r m e d i n 1 9 8 8 ; h o w e v e r , t h e p r o j e c t w a s n o t a s s u c c e s s f u l a n d m e m o r a b l e a s V i o l e t a d e O u t o n o i t s e l f a n d w o u l d c o m e t o a n e n d i n 1 9 9 5 , o n l y t o r e t u r n i n 2 0 1 0 . A l s o i n 2 0 0 0 , V i o l e t a d e O u t o n o c h a n g e d i t s l i n e - u p a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y , w i t h G r e g o r I z i d r o r e p l a c i n g C l á u d i o S o u z a a n d S a n d r o G a r c i a r e p l a c i n g P a s t o r e l l o . H o w e v e r , t h e y w o u l d r e t u r n f o r t h e r e c o r d i n g o f t h e b a n d ' s f o u r t h s t u d i o a l b u m i n 2 0 0 3 , " I l h a s " , t h a t w a s r e l e a s e d i n 2 0 0 5 . " V i o l e t a d e O u t o n o & O r q u e s t r a " , t h e i r f i r s t v i d e o r e l e a s e , c a m e o u t i n 2 0 0 6 , r e c o r d e d d u r i n g a p e r f o r m a n c e i n S ã o P a u l o t w o y e a r s p r i o r , w i t h t h e s p e c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e U S P S y m p h o n i c O r c h e s t r a . I n t h e s a m e y e a r , P a s t o r e l l o l e f t t h e b a n d a n d w a s r e p l a c e d b y G a b r i e l C o s t a , w h i l e n e w m e m b e r F e r n a n d o C a r d o s o a s s u m e d t h e p o s i t i o n o f k e y b o a r d i s t . W i t h t h i s l i n e - u p t h e y r e l e a s e d t h e i r f i f t h f u l l - l e n g t h a l b u m ( a n d s e v e n t h s t u d i o r e l e a s e o v e r a l l ) , " V o l u m e 7 " , i n 2 0 0 7 . I n 2 0 0 9 , C l á u d i o S o u z a l e f t V i o l e t a d e O u t o n o f o r t h e t h i r d t i m e , b u t b e f o r e h a n d t h e y r e c o r d e d a n o t h e r v i d e o r e l e a s e , " S e v e n t h B r i n g s R e t u r n " , i n w h i c h t h e y c o v e r e d s o n g s b y P i n k F l o y d a n d S y d B a r r e t t l i v e , a n d a l s o p l a y e d t h e i r f i r s t s t u d i o a l b u m i n i t s e n t i r e t y i n a s h o w w h i c h t o o k p l a c e i n t h e T h e a t r o M u n i c i p a l i n S ã o P a u l o . S o u z a w a s r e p l a c e d b y F r e d B a r l e y – h o w e v e r , B a r l e y l e f t t h e b a n d i n 2 0 1 1 i n o r d e r t o j o i n O T e r ç o , a n d w a s r e p l a c e d b y J o s é L u i z D i n o l a ( f o r m e r A C h a v e d o S o l m e m b e r ) ; V i o l e t a d e O u t o n o ' s l i n e - u p r e m a i n s u n c h a n g e d e v e r s i n c e . T h e i r s i x t h f u l l - l e n g t h a l b u m , " E s p e c t r o " , w a s r e l e a s e d i n 2 0 1 2 . O n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 , 2 0 1 6 , t h e b a n d a n n o u n c e d t h a t t h e y b e g a n w o r k o n t h e i r s e v e n t h s t u d i o a l b u m , " S p a c e s " , w h i c h w a s e v e n t u a l l y r e l e a s e d o n O c t o b e r 1 4 , 2 0 1 6 .

History

Violeta de Outono is a Brazilian rock band formed in 1985 by Fabio Golfetti and Claudio Souza after leaving Zero. They released several albums throughout the 80s and 90s, experimenting with different sounds and styles. The band underwent lineup changes over the years, with Golfetti being the constant member. They have released seven full-length albums, including "Espectro" in 2012 and "Spaces" in 2016.

Fabio Golfetti founded Violeta de Outono in 1985 alongside Cláudio Souza; both had just parted ways with pioneering New Romantic band Zero. They would later be joined by Angelo Pastorello, and with this line-up they released a demo tape, "Memories", in the same year. The tape got the attention of independent record label Wop-Bop Records, that released their first recording, the extended play "Reflexos da Noite", in 1986. In 1987, Violeta de Outono's eponymous debut was released through RCA Records. It was very well-received; particular praise went to their cover of The Beatles' song "Tomorrow Never Knows". In 1988 they released a four-track EP called "The Early Years", containing cover versions of The Rolling Stones' "Citadel", Pink Floyd's "Interstellar Overdrive", The Beatles' "Within You Without You" and Gong's "Blues for Findlay". Those recordings trace to as far as 1985–1986. In the next year, their second studio album, "Em Toda Parte", was released by Ariola Records. Beginning with this album, Violeta de Outono would drop their previous post-punk instrumentation, heading towards a more progressive and experimental vein. In 1990, Cláudio Souza left the band, and was replaced by Cláudio Fontes (Souza would return to the band in 1993 though). From 1993 to 1995, Violeta de Outono entered a short hiatus period; they returned to active with a live album, "Eclipse", and their third full-length, "Mulher na Montanha", that began to be recorded in 1995 but would be released only in 1999. In 2000, they would release their second live album, "Live at Rio ArtRock Festival '97", a recording of their performance at the Rio ArtRock Festival in Rio de Janeiro in 1997. (A DVD containing the footage of their performance at the festival would be released 15 years later.) During Violeta de Outono's hiatus, Golfetti released three albums with The Invisible Opera Company of Tibet (Tropical Version Brazil), a side project he formed in 1988; however, the project was not as successful and memorable as Violeta de Outono itself and would come to an end in 1995, only to return in 2010. Also in 2000, Violeta de Outono changed its line-up almost completely, with Gregor Izidro replacing Cláudio Souza and Sandro Garcia replacing Pastorello. However, they would return for the recording of the band's fourth studio album in 2003, "Ilhas", that was released in 2005. "Violeta de Outono & Orquestra", their first video release, came out in 2006, recorded during a performance in São Paulo two years prior, with the special participation of the USP Symphonic Orchestra. In the same year, Pastorello left the band and was replaced by Gabriel Costa, while new member Fernando Cardoso assumed the position of keyboardist. With this line-up they released their fifth full-length album (and seventh studio release overall), "Volume 7", in 2007. In 2009, Cláudio Souza left Violeta de Outono for the third time, but beforehand they recorded another video release, "Seventh Brings Return", in which they covered songs by Pink Floyd and Syd Barrett live, and also played their first studio album in its entirety in a show which took place in the Theatro Municipal in São Paulo. Souza was replaced by Fred Barley – however, Barley left the band in 2011 in order to join O Terço, and was replaced by José Luiz Dinola (former A Chave do Sol member); Violeta de Outono's line-up remains unchanged ever since. Their sixth full-length album, "Espectro", was released in 2012. On September 19, 2016, the band announced that they began work on their seventh studio album, "Spaces", which was eventually released on October 14, 2016.

Canvas fingerprinting

C a n v a s f i n g e r p r i n t i n g w o r k s b y e x p l o i t i n g t h e H T M L 5 c a n v a s e l e m e n t . A s d e s c r i b e d b y A c a r e t a l . i n : V a r i a t i o n s i n w h i c h t h e g r a p h i c s p r o c e s s i n g u n i t ( G P U ) , o r t h e g r a p h i c s d r i v e r , i s i n s t a l l e d m a y c a u s e t h e f i n g e r p r i n t v a r i a t i o n . T h e f i n g e r p r i n t c a n b e s t o r e d a n d s h a r e d w i t h a d v e r t i s i n g p a r t n e r s t o i d e n t i f y u s e r s w h e n t h e y v i s i t a f f i l i a t e d w e b s i t e s . A p r o f i l e c a n b e c r e a t e d f r o m t h e u s e r ' s b r o w s i n g a c t i v i t y , a l l o w i n g a d v e r t i s e r s t o t a r g e t a d v e r t i s e t o t h e u s e r ' s i n f e r r e d d e m o g r a p h i c s a n d p r e f e r e n c e s . B y J a n u a r y 2 0 2 2 , t h e c o n c e p t w a s e x t e n d e d t o f i n g e r p r i n t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e g r a p h i c s h a r d w a r e , c a l l e d b y t h e r e s e a r c h e r s . S i n c e t h e f i n g e r p r i n t i s p r i m a r i l y b a s e d o n t h e b r o w s e r , o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m , a n d i n s t a l l e d g r a p h i c s h a r d w a r e , i t d o e s n o t u n i q u e l y i d e n t i f y u s e r s . I n a s m a l l - s c a l e s t u d y w i t h 2 9 4 p a r t i c i p a n t s f r o m A m a z o n ' s M e c h a n i c a l T u r k , a n e x p e r i m e n t a l e n t r o p y o f 5 . 7 b i t s w a s o b s e r v e d . T h e a u t h o r s o f t h e s t u d y s u g g e s t m o r e e n t r o p y c o u l d l i k e l y b e o b s e r v e d i n t h e w i l d a n d w i t h m o r e p a t t e r n s u s e d i n t h e f i n g e r p r i n t . W h i l e n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o i d e n t i f y i n d i v i d u a l u s e r s b y i t s e l f , t h i s f i n g e r p r i n t c o u l d b e c o m b i n e d w i t h o t h e r e n t r o p y s o u r c e s t o p r o v i d e a u n i q u e i d e n t i f i e r . I t i s c l a i m e d t h a t b e c a u s e t h e t e c h n i q u e i s e f f e c t i v e l y f i n g e r p r i n t i n g t h e G P U , t h e e n t r o p y i s " o r t h o g o n a l " t o t h e e n t r o p y o f p r e v i o u s b r o w s e r f i n g e r p r i n t t e c h n i q u e s s u c h a s s c r e e n r e s o l u t i o n a n d b r o w s e r J a v a S c r i p t c a p a b i l i t i e s . M u c h m o r e u n i q u e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e w i t h p u b l i s h e d i n 2 0 2 2 , w h i c h w a s s h o w n t o b o o s t t r a c k i n g d u r a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l f i n g e r p r i n t s b y 6 7 % w h e n u s e d t o e n h a n c e o t h e r m e t h o d s . I n M a y 2 0 1 2 , K e a t o n M o w e r y a n d H o v a v S h a c h a m , r e s e a r c h e r s a t U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n D i e g o , w r o t e a p a p e r " P i x e l P e r f e c t : F i n g e r p r i n t i n g C a n v a s i n H T M L 5 " d e s c r i b i n g h o w t h e H T M L 5 c a n v a s c o u l d b e u s e d t o c r e a t e d i g i t a l f i n g e r p r i n t s o f w e b u s e r s . S o c i a l b o o k m a r k i n g t e c h n o l o g y c o m p a n y A d d T h i s b e g a n e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h c a n v a s f i n g e r p r i n t i n g e a r l y i n 2 0 1 4 a s a p o t e n t i a l r e p l a c e m e n t f o r c o o k i e s . 5 % o f t h e t o p 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 w e b s i t e s u s e d c a n v a s f i n g e r p r i n t i n g w h i l e i t w a s d e p l o y e d . A c c o r d i n g t o A d d T h i s C E O R i c h a r d H a r r i s , t h e c o m p a n y h a s o n l y u s e d d a t a c o l l e c t e d f r o m t h e s e t e s t s t o c o n d u c t i n t e r n a l r e s e a r c h . U s e r s w i l l b e a b l e t o i n s t a l l a n o p t - o u t c o o k i e o n a n y c o m p u t e r t o p r e v e n t b e i n g t r a c k e d b y A d d T h i s w i t h c a n v a s f i n g e r p r i n t i n g . A s o f t w a r e d e v e l o p e r w r i t i n g i n F o r b e s s t a t e d t h a t d e v i c e f i n g e r p r i n t i n g h a s b e e n u t i l i z e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f p r e v e n t i n g u n a u t h o r i z e d a c c e s s t o s y s t e m s l o n g b e f o r e i t w a s u s e d f o r t r a c k i n g u s e r s w i t h o u t t h e i r c o n s e n t . A s o f 2 0 1 4 t h e t e c h n i q u e i s w i d e s p r e a d i n m a n y w e b s i t e s , u s e d b y a t l e a s t a d o z e n h i g h - p r o f i l e w e b a d s a n d u s e r t r a c k i n g s u p p l i e r s . I n 2 0 2 2 , t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f c a n v a s f i n g e r p r i n t i n g w e r e m u c h d e e p e n e d b y t a k i n g m i n u t e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n n o m i n a l l y i d e n t i c a l u n i t s o f t h e s a m e G P U m o d e l i n t o a c c o u n t . T h o s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e r o o t e d i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s , m a k i n g u n i t s m o r e d e t e r m i n i s t i c o v e r t i m e t h a n b e t w e e n i d e n t i c a l c o p i e s . T o r P r o j e c t r e f e r e n c e d o c u m e n t a t i o n s t a t e s , " A f t e r p l u g i n s a n d p l u g i n - p r o v i d e d i n f o r m a t i o n , w e b e l i e v e t h a t t h e H T M L 5 C a n v a s i s t h e s i n g l e l a r g e s t f i n g e r p r i n t i n g t h r e a t b r o w s e r s f a c e t o d a y . " T o r B r o w s e r n o t i f i e s t h e u s e r o f c a n v a s r e a d a t t e m p t s a n d p r o v i d e s t h e o p t i o n t o r e t u r n b l a n k i m a g e d a t a t o p r e v e n t f i n g e r p r i n t i n g . H o w e v e r , T o r B r o w s e r i s c u r r e n t l y u n a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n l e g i t i m a t e u s e s o f t h e c a n v a s e l e m e n t a n d f i n g e r p r i n t i n g e f f o r t s , s o i t s w a r n i n g c a n n o t b e t a k e n a s p r o o f o f a w e b s i t e ' s i n t e n t t o i d e n t i f y a n d t r a c k i t s v i s i t o r s . B r o w s e r a d d - o n s l i k e P r i v a c y B a d g e r , D o N o t T r a c k M e , o r A d b l o c k P l u s m a n u a l l y e n h a n c e d w i t h E a s y P r i v a c y l i s t a r e a b l e t o b l o c k t h i r d - p a r t y a d n e t w o r k t r a c k e r s a n d c a n b e c o n f i g u r e d t o b l o c k c a n v a s f i n g e r p r i n t i n g , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e t r a c k e r i s s e r v e d b y a t h i r d p a r t y s e r v e r ( a s o p p o s e d t o b e i n g i m p l e m e n t e d b y t h e v i s i t e d w e b s i t e i t s e l f ) . " C a n v a s D e f e n d e r " , a b r o w s e r a d d - o n , s p o o f s C a n v a s f i n g e r p r i n t s . T h e L i b r e W o l f b r o w s e r p r o j e c t i n c l u d e s t e c h n o l o g y t o b l o c k a c c e s s t o t h e H T M L 5 c a n v a s b y d e f a u l t , o n l y a l l o w i n g i t i n s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s g r e e n - l i t b y t h e u s e r .

Mitigation

Canvas fingerprinting exploits the HTML5 canvas element to identify users through variations in GPU or graphics driver installations. This method creates a profile of users' browsing activities, enabling targeted advertisements. Although not unique enough to identify individuals alone, combining it with other entropy sources can provide a unique identifier. Researchers have developed ways to enhance canvas fingerprinting, including accounting for minute differences between identical GPU models. Various tools and browser add-ons exist to block or spoof canvas fingerprinting, protecting user privacy.

Canvas fingerprinting works by exploiting the HTML5 canvas element. As described by Acar et al. in: Variations in which the graphics processing unit (GPU), or the graphics driver, is installed may cause the fingerprint variation. The fingerprint can be stored and shared with advertising partners to identify users when they visit affiliated websites. A profile can be created from the user's browsing activity, allowing advertisers to target advertise to the user's inferred demographics and preferences. By January 2022, the concept was extended to fingerprinting performance characteristics of the graphics hardware, called by the researchers. Since the fingerprint is primarily based on the browser, operating system, and installed graphics hardware, it does not uniquely identify users. In a small-scale study with 294 participants from Amazon's Mechanical Turk, an experimental entropy of 5.7 bits was observed. The authors of the study suggest more entropy could likely be observed in the wild and with more patterns used in the fingerprint. While not sufficient to identify individual users by itself, this fingerprint could be combined with other entropy sources to provide a unique identifier. It is claimed that because the technique is effectively fingerprinting the GPU, the entropy is "orthogonal" to the entropy of previous browser fingerprint techniques such as screen resolution and browser JavaScript capabilities. Much more unique identification becomes possible with published in 2022, which was shown to boost tracking duration of individual fingerprints by 67% when used to enhance other methods. In May 2012, Keaton Mowery and Hovav Shacham, researchers at University of California, San Diego, wrote a paper "Pixel Perfect: Fingerprinting Canvas in HTML5" describing how the HTML5 canvas could be used to create digital fingerprints of web users. Social bookmarking technology company AddThis began experimenting with canvas fingerprinting early in 2014 as a potential replacement for cookies. 5% of the top 100,000 websites used canvas fingerprinting while it was deployed. According to AddThis CEO Richard Harris, the company has only used data collected from these tests to conduct internal research. Users will be able to install an opt-out cookie on any computer to prevent being tracked by AddThis with canvas fingerprinting. A software developer writing in Forbes stated that device fingerprinting has been utilized for the purpose of preventing unauthorized access to systems long before it was used for tracking users without their consent. As of 2014 the technique is widespread in many websites, used by at least a dozen high-profile web ads and user tracking suppliers. In 2022, the capabilities of canvas fingerprinting were much deepened by taking minute differences between nominally identical units of the same GPU model into account. Those differences are rooted in the manufacturing process, making units more deterministic over time than between identical copies. Tor Project reference documentation states, "After plugins and plugin-provided information, we believe that the HTML5 Canvas is the single largest fingerprinting threat browsers face today." Tor Browser notifies the user of canvas read attempts and provides the option to return blank image data to prevent fingerprinting. However, Tor Browser is currently unable to distinguish between legitimate uses of the canvas element and fingerprinting efforts, so its warning cannot be taken as proof of a website's intent to identify and track its visitors. Browser add-ons like Privacy Badger, DoNotTrackMe, or Adblock Plus manually enhanced with EasyPrivacy list are able to block third-party ad network trackers and can be configured to block canvas fingerprinting, provided that the tracker is served by a third party server (as opposed to being implemented by the visited website itself). "Canvas Defender", a browser add-on, spoofs Canvas fingerprints. The LibreWolf browser project includes technology to block access to the HTML5 canvas by default, only allowing it in specific instances green-lit by the user.

Perforene

B r u c e S t e r l i n g c o m m e n t e d f o r W i r e d , " i f t h i s g r a p h e n e v a p o r w a r e a c t u a l l y w o r k e d o u t i n p r a c t i c e , w e ’ d h a v e t o f o r g i v e L o c k h e e d M a r t i n f o r e v e r y t h i n g e l s e t h e y ’ v e e v e r d o n e — p l u s m a y b e e v e n g i v e t h e m N o b e l s a n d M c M a n s i o n p a l a c e s i n f o r m e r d e s e r t s . " T h e W a t e r D e s a l i n a t i o n R e p o r t w r i t e s t h a t L o c k h e e d M a r t i n ' s c l a i m s t h a t i t h a d d e v e l o p e d a m e m b r a n e t h a t w i l l d e s a l i n a t e w a t e r “ a t a f r a c t i o n o f t h e c o s t o f i n d u s t r y - s t a n d a r d R O s y s t e m s ” w e r e " r i d i c u l o u s a n d v e r y p r e m a t u r e . "

Media reaction

The media reaction to Lockheed Martin's graphene-based water filtration system has been skeptical, with some calling the claims "ridiculous" and "premature".

Bruce Sterling commented for Wired, "if this graphene vaporware actually worked out in practice, we’d have to forgive Lockheed Martin for everything else they’ve ever done — plus maybe even give them Nobels and McMansion palaces in former deserts. " The Water Desalination Report writes that Lockheed Martin's claims that it had developed a membrane that will desalinate water “at a fraction of the cost of industry-standard RO systems” were "ridiculous and very premature. "

Erechthias lychnopa

I t w a s d e s c r i b e d b y E d w a r d M e y r i c k i n 1 9 2 7 f r o m a s p e c i m e n c o l l e c t e d b y G e o r g e H u d s o n i n N o v e m b e r , i n a k a r a k a g r o v e , n e a r S i n c l a i r H e a d , W e l l i n g t o n . H u d s o n d i s c u s s e d a n d i l l u s t r a t e d t h i s s p e c i e s i n h i s 1 9 2 8 p u b l i c a t i o n " T h e B u t t e r f l i e s a n d M o t h s o f N e w Z e a l a n d . " T h e h o l o t y p e s p e c i m e n i s h e l d a t t h e N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n . M e y r i c k d e s c r i b e d t h e s p e c i e s a s f o l l o w s : I n a p p e a r a n c e t h i s s p e c i e s i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o " E r e c h t h i a s e x t e r n a l l a " h o w e v e r i t c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h i s s p e c i e s a s i t i s m u c h l a r g e r . T h i s s p e c i e s i s e n d e m i c t o N e w Z e a l a n d . I t h a s o n l y b e e n f o u n d a t S i n c l a i r H e a d , i n W e l l i n g t o n . T h e l a r v a e o f t h i s s p e c i e s a r e l i k e l y t o i n h a b i t d e a d w o o d . T h e a d u l t m o t h s a r e o n t h e w i n g i n N o v e m b e r . T h e h a b i t a t t h e s e m o t h s h a v e f r e q u e n t e d i s s c r u b f o r e s t . T h i s s p e c i e s h a s b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s h a v i n g t h e " D a t a D e f i c i e n t " c o n s e r v a t i o n s t a t u s u n d e r t h e N e w Z e a l a n d T h r e a t C l a s s i f i c a t i o n S y s t e m .

Distribution

Erechthias hudsoni is a moth species endemic to New Zealand, specifically found in Wellington's Sinclair Head area. Described by Edward Meyrick in 1927, it resembles E. externalla but is larger. Its larvae likely inhabit dead wood, while adults fly in November, frequenting scrub forests. Classified as "Data Deficient," its conservation status requires further research.

It was described by Edward Meyrick in 1927 from a specimen collected by George Hudson in November, in a karaka grove, near Sinclair Head, Wellington. Hudson discussed and illustrated this species in his 1928 publication "The Butterflies and Moths of New Zealand." The holotype specimen is held at the Natural History Museum, London. Meyrick described the species as follows: In appearance this species is very similar to "Erechthias externalla" however it can be distinguished from this species as it is much larger. This species is endemic to New Zealand. It has only been found at Sinclair Head, in Wellington. The larvae of this species are likely to inhabit dead wood. The adult moths are on the wing in November. The habitat these moths have frequented is scrub forest. This species has been classified as having the "Data Deficient" conservation status under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.

Erechthias lychnopa

I t w a s d e s c r i b e d b y E d w a r d M e y r i c k i n 1 9 2 7 f r o m a s p e c i m e n c o l l e c t e d b y G e o r g e H u d s o n i n N o v e m b e r , i n a k a r a k a g r o v e , n e a r S i n c l a i r H e a d , W e l l i n g t o n . H u d s o n d i s c u s s e d a n d i l l u s t r a t e d t h i s s p e c i e s i n h i s 1 9 2 8 p u b l i c a t i o n " T h e B u t t e r f l i e s a n d M o t h s o f N e w Z e a l a n d . " T h e h o l o t y p e s p e c i m e n i s h e l d a t t h e N a t u r a l H i s t o r y M u s e u m , L o n d o n . M e y r i c k d e s c r i b e d t h e s p e c i e s a s f o l l o w s : I n a p p e a r a n c e t h i s s p e c i e s i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o " E r e c h t h i a s e x t e r n a l l a " h o w e v e r i t c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h i s s p e c i e s a s i t i s m u c h l a r g e r . T h i s s p e c i e s i s e n d e m i c t o N e w Z e a l a n d . I t h a s o n l y b e e n f o u n d a t S i n c l a i r H e a d , i n W e l l i n g t o n . T h e l a r v a e o f t h i s s p e c i e s a r e l i k e l y t o i n h a b i t d e a d w o o d . T h e a d u l t m o t h s a r e o n t h e w i n g i n N o v e m b e r . T h e h a b i t a t t h e s e m o t h s h a v e f r e q u e n t e d i s s c r u b f o r e s t . T h i s s p e c i e s h a s b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s h a v i n g t h e " D a t a D e f i c i e n t " c o n s e r v a t i o n s t a t u s u n d e r t h e N e w Z e a l a n d T h r e a t C l a s s i f i c a t i o n S y s t e m .

Conservation status

Erechthias hudsoni is an endemic moth species in New Zealand, specifically found in Wellington's Sinclair Head area. Its conservation status is Data Deficient, indicating that more information is needed to determine its threat level.

It was described by Edward Meyrick in 1927 from a specimen collected by George Hudson in November, in a karaka grove, near Sinclair Head, Wellington. Hudson discussed and illustrated this species in his 1928 publication "The Butterflies and Moths of New Zealand." The holotype specimen is held at the Natural History Museum, London. Meyrick described the species as follows: In appearance this species is very similar to "Erechthias externalla" however it can be distinguished from this species as it is much larger. This species is endemic to New Zealand. It has only been found at Sinclair Head, in Wellington. The larvae of this species are likely to inhabit dead wood. The adult moths are on the wing in November. The habitat these moths have frequented is scrub forest. This species has been classified as having the "Data Deficient" conservation status under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.

Singapore and the United Nations

B e f o r e i n d e p e n d e n c e , S i n g a p o r e h a d m e r g e d w i t h t h e F e d e r a t i o n o f M a l a y a w i t h N o r t h B o r n e o a n d S a r a w a k t o f o r m M a l a y s i a o n A u g u s t 3 1 , 1 9 6 3 a n d a t t h a t t i m e , t h e F e d e r a t i o n o f M a l a y a w a s a l r e a d y a m e m b e r o f t h e U N . D u e t o d i s t r u s t a n d i d e o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n l e a d e r s o f t h e S t a t e o f S i n g a p o r e a n d t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t o f M a l a y s i a , S i n g a p o r e b e c a m e a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e a b o u t 2 y e a r s a f t e r t h e u n i o n , o n A u g u s t 9 , 1 9 6 5 . R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r j o i n i n g t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s u n d e r t h e U N C h a r t e r o f t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d s p o n s o r s h i p b y m i n i m u m o f 2 m e m b e r s o n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l , s u p p o r t f r o m t h e m e m b e r s o n t h e c o u n c i l a n d a b o u t 6 7 % o f t h e v o t e s d u r i n g t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y t o b e s u c c e s s f u l l y a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n . A f t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e , S i n g a p o r e a p p l i e d t o j o i n t h e U N o n S e p t e m b e r 2 , 1 9 6 5 w i t h t h e s p o n s o r s h i p o f M a l a y s i a , t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , I v o r y C o a s t a n d J o r d a n . O n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 , 1 9 6 5 , S i n g a p o r e ' s a d m i s s i o n t o t h e U N w a s p u t i n t o v o t e i n t h e s e c u r i t y c o u n c i l a n d t h e r e s u l t o f t h e v o t e w a s u n a n i m o u s . S i n g a p o r e w a s t h e n o f f i c i a l l y r e g i s t e r e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e U N o n S e p t e m b e r 2 1 , 1 9 6 5 , w i t h A b u B a k a r b i n P a w a n c h e e s e r v i n g a s t h e f i r s t p e r m a n e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t o t h e U N . S i n c e t h e n , S i n g a p o r e h a s b e e n a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n U N p e a c e k e e p i n g o p e r a t i o n s . I n 1 9 9 7 , t h e c o u n t r y b e c a m e o n l y t h e s e v e n t h c o u n t r y t o s i g n t h e M e m o r a n d u m o f U n d e r s t a n d i n g o n U N S t a n d b y A r r a n g e m e n t s . D u r i n g t h e 2 0 0 0 U n i t e d N a t i o n s S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l e l e c t i o n , S i n g a p o r e w a s e l e c t e d a s o n e o f t h e f i v e n o n - p e r m a n e n t m e m b e r s o f t h e U N S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l a n d s e r v e d a t w o - y e a r t e r m f r o m 2 0 0 1 t o 2 0 0 2 . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 0 1 a n d M a y 2 0 0 2 , A m b a s s a d o r K i s h o r e M a h b u b a n i , t h e p e r m a n e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f S i n g a p o r e t h e n , s e r v e d a s t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l t o g e t h e r w i t h A m b a s s a d o r S . J a y a k u m a r . D u r i n g S i n g a p o r e ' s t i m e o n t h e s e c u r i t y c o u n c i l , i t m a n a g e d t o l o b b i e d f o r a t i m e e x t e n s i o n f o r t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s T r a n s i t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n E a s t T i m o r u n t i l E a s t T i m o r ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e , d e s p i t e o b j e c t i o n f r o m a p e r m a n e n t m e m b e r o n t h e c o u n c i l . S i n g a p o r e ' s f i r s t p e a c e k e e p i n g m i s s i o n w a s t o o v e r s e e N a m i b i a ’ s t r a n s i t i o n t o i n d e p e n d e n c e , w a s i n r e s p o n s e t o a n u r g e n t c a l l f o r h e l p f r o m t h e n U N G e n e r a l - S e c r e t a r y J a v i e r P e r e z d e C u e l l a r o n 2 9 M a r c h 1 9 8 9 . S i n c e 1 9 8 9 , S i n g a p o r e h a s t a k e n p a r t i n 1 7 p e a c e k e e p i n g a n d o b s e r v e r m i s s i o n s w i t h p e r s o n n e l f r o m t h e S i n g a p o r e A r m e d F o r c e s ( S A F ) a n d S i n g a p o r e P o l i c e F o r c e ( S P F ) . S i n g a p o r e m a i n t a i n s t w o p e r m a n e n t m i s s i o n s t o t h e U N . W i t h o n e i n N e w Y o r k , w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y A m b a s s a d o r B u r h a n G a f o o r a n d o n e i n G e n e v a , w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y A m b a s s a d o r T a n H u n g S e n g .

History

Singapore gained independence from Malaysia on August 9, 1965, and subsequently joined the United Nations on September 21, 1965, with the sponsorship of several countries. Since then, Singapore has actively participated in UN peacekeeping operations, including its first mission in Namibia in 1989. The country has also held non-permanent membership on the UN Security Council and has maintained two permanent missions to the UN in New York and Geneva.

Before independence, Singapore had merged with the Federation of Malaya with North Borneo and Sarawak to form Malaysia on August 31, 1963 and at that time, the Federation of Malaya was already a member of the UN. Due to distrust and ideological differences between leaders of the State of Singapore and the federal government of Malaysia, Singapore became an independent state about 2 years after the union, on August 9, 1965. Requirements for joining the United Nations under the UN Charter of the time required sponsorship by minimum of 2 members on the United Nations Security Council, support from the members on the council and about 67% of the votes during the United Nations General Assembly to be successfully admitted into the organisation. After independence, Singapore applied to join the UN on September 2, 1965 with the sponsorship of Malaysia, the United Kingdom, Ivory Coast and Jordan. On September 20, 1965, Singapore's admission to the UN was put into vote in the security council and the result of the vote was unanimous. Singapore was then officially registered as a member of the UN on September 21, 1965, with Abu Bakar bin Pawanchee serving as the first permanent representative to the UN. Since then, Singapore has been actively participating in UN peacekeeping operations. In 1997, the country became only the seventh country to sign the Memorandum of Understanding on UN Standby Arrangements. During the 2000 United Nations Security Council election, Singapore was elected as one of the five non-permanent members of the UN Security Council and served a two-year term from 2001 to 2002. In January 2001 and May 2002, Ambassador Kishore Mahbubani, the permanent representative of Singapore then, served as the President of the United Nations Security Council together with Ambassador S. Jayakumar. During Singapore's time on the security council, it managed to lobbied for a time extension for the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor until East Timor's independence, despite objection from a permanent member on the council. Singapore's first peacekeeping mission was to oversee Namibia’s transition to independence, was in response to an urgent call for help from then UN General-Secretary Javier Perez de Cuellar on 29 March 1989. Since 1989, Singapore has taken part in 17 peacekeeping and observer missions with personnel from the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) and Singapore Police Force (SPF). Singapore maintains two permanent missions to the UN. With one in New York, which is headed by Ambassador Burhan Gafoor and one in Geneva, which is headed by Ambassador Tan Hung Seng.

Singapore and the United Nations

B e f o r e i n d e p e n d e n c e , S i n g a p o r e h a d m e r g e d w i t h t h e F e d e r a t i o n o f M a l a y a w i t h N o r t h B o r n e o a n d S a r a w a k t o f o r m M a l a y s i a o n A u g u s t 3 1 , 1 9 6 3 a n d a t t h a t t i m e , t h e F e d e r a t i o n o f M a l a y a w a s a l r e a d y a m e m b e r o f t h e U N . D u e t o d i s t r u s t a n d i d e o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n l e a d e r s o f t h e S t a t e o f S i n g a p o r e a n d t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t o f M a l a y s i a , S i n g a p o r e b e c a m e a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e a b o u t 2 y e a r s a f t e r t h e u n i o n , o n A u g u s t 9 , 1 9 6 5 . R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r j o i n i n g t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s u n d e r t h e U N C h a r t e r o f t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d s p o n s o r s h i p b y m i n i m u m o f 2 m e m b e r s o n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l , s u p p o r t f r o m t h e m e m b e r s o n t h e c o u n c i l a n d a b o u t 6 7 % o f t h e v o t e s d u r i n g t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y t o b e s u c c e s s f u l l y a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n . A f t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e , S i n g a p o r e a p p l i e d t o j o i n t h e U N o n S e p t e m b e r 2 , 1 9 6 5 w i t h t h e s p o n s o r s h i p o f M a l a y s i a , t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , I v o r y C o a s t a n d J o r d a n . O n S e p t e m b e r 2 0 , 1 9 6 5 , S i n g a p o r e ' s a d m i s s i o n t o t h e U N w a s p u t i n t o v o t e i n t h e s e c u r i t y c o u n c i l a n d t h e r e s u l t o f t h e v o t e w a s u n a n i m o u s . S i n g a p o r e w a s t h e n o f f i c i a l l y r e g i s t e r e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e U N o n S e p t e m b e r 2 1 , 1 9 6 5 , w i t h A b u B a k a r b i n P a w a n c h e e s e r v i n g a s t h e f i r s t p e r m a n e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t o t h e U N . S i n c e t h e n , S i n g a p o r e h a s b e e n a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n U N p e a c e k e e p i n g o p e r a t i o n s . I n 1 9 9 7 , t h e c o u n t r y b e c a m e o n l y t h e s e v e n t h c o u n t r y t o s i g n t h e M e m o r a n d u m o f U n d e r s t a n d i n g o n U N S t a n d b y A r r a n g e m e n t s . D u r i n g t h e 2 0 0 0 U n i t e d N a t i o n s S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l e l e c t i o n , S i n g a p o r e w a s e l e c t e d a s o n e o f t h e f i v e n o n - p e r m a n e n t m e m b e r s o f t h e U N S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l a n d s e r v e d a t w o - y e a r t e r m f r o m 2 0 0 1 t o 2 0 0 2 . I n J a n u a r y 2 0 0 1 a n d M a y 2 0 0 2 , A m b a s s a d o r K i s h o r e M a h b u b a n i , t h e p e r m a n e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f S i n g a p o r e t h e n , s e r v e d a s t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l t o g e t h e r w i t h A m b a s s a d o r S . J a y a k u m a r . D u r i n g S i n g a p o r e ' s t i m e o n t h e s e c u r i t y c o u n c i l , i t m a n a g e d t o l o b b i e d f o r a t i m e e x t e n s i o n f o r t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s T r a n s i t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n E a s t T i m o r u n t i l E a s t T i m o r ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e , d e s p i t e o b j e c t i o n f r o m a p e r m a n e n t m e m b e r o n t h e c o u n c i l . S i n g a p o r e ' s f i r s t p e a c e k e e p i n g m i s s i o n w a s t o o v e r s e e N a m i b i a ’ s t r a n s i t i o n t o i n d e p e n d e n c e , w a s i n r e s p o n s e t o a n u r g e n t c a l l f o r h e l p f r o m t h e n U N G e n e r a l - S e c r e t a r y J a v i e r P e r e z d e C u e l l a r o n 2 9 M a r c h 1 9 8 9 . S i n c e 1 9 8 9 , S i n g a p o r e h a s t a k e n p a r t i n 1 7 p e a c e k e e p i n g a n d o b s e r v e r m i s s i o n s w i t h p e r s o n n e l f r o m t h e S i n g a p o r e A r m e d F o r c e s ( S A F ) a n d S i n g a p o r e P o l i c e F o r c e ( S P F ) . S i n g a p o r e m a i n t a i n s t w o p e r m a n e n t m i s s i o n s t o t h e U N . W i t h o n e i n N e w Y o r k , w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y A m b a s s a d o r B u r h a n G a f o o r a n d o n e i n G e n e v a , w h i c h i s h e a d e d b y A m b a s s a d o r T a n H u n g S e n g .

Activities

Singapore gained independence from Malaysia in 1965 and joined the UN shortly after, sponsored by four countries. It has since participated actively in UN peacekeeping operations, including its first mission in Namibia in 1989. Singapore has also held positions on the UN Security Council and has maintained two permanent missions to the UN.

Before independence, Singapore had merged with the Federation of Malaya with North Borneo and Sarawak to form Malaysia on August 31, 1963 and at that time, the Federation of Malaya was already a member of the UN. Due to distrust and ideological differences between leaders of the State of Singapore and the federal government of Malaysia, Singapore became an independent state about 2 years after the union, on August 9, 1965. Requirements for joining the United Nations under the UN Charter of the time required sponsorship by minimum of 2 members on the United Nations Security Council, support from the members on the council and about 67% of the votes during the United Nations General Assembly to be successfully admitted into the organisation. After independence, Singapore applied to join the UN on September 2, 1965 with the sponsorship of Malaysia, the United Kingdom, Ivory Coast and Jordan. On September 20, 1965, Singapore's admission to the UN was put into vote in the security council and the result of the vote was unanimous. Singapore was then officially registered as a member of the UN on September 21, 1965, with Abu Bakar bin Pawanchee serving as the first permanent representative to the UN. Since then, Singapore has been actively participating in UN peacekeeping operations. In 1997, the country became only the seventh country to sign the Memorandum of Understanding on UN Standby Arrangements. During the 2000 United Nations Security Council election, Singapore was elected as one of the five non-permanent members of the UN Security Council and served a two-year term from 2001 to 2002. In January 2001 and May 2002, Ambassador Kishore Mahbubani, the permanent representative of Singapore then, served as the President of the United Nations Security Council together with Ambassador S. Jayakumar. During Singapore's time on the security council, it managed to lobbied for a time extension for the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor until East Timor's independence, despite objection from a permanent member on the council. Singapore's first peacekeeping mission was to oversee Namibia’s transition to independence, was in response to an urgent call for help from then UN General-Secretary Javier Perez de Cuellar on 29 March 1989. Since 1989, Singapore has taken part in 17 peacekeeping and observer missions with personnel from the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) and Singapore Police Force (SPF). Singapore maintains two permanent missions to the UN. With one in New York, which is headed by Ambassador Burhan Gafoor and one in Geneva, which is headed by Ambassador Tan Hung Seng.

Thomas Röhler

R ö h l e r b e g a n t a k i n g p a r t i n t r a c k a n d f i e l d a s a c h i l d i n 1 9 9 8 . R a i s e d i n J e n a , h e a t t e n d e d t h e J o h a n n C h r i s t o p h F r i e d r i c h G u t s M u t h s S p o r t s H i g h s c h o o l i n t h e c i t y a n d w e n t o n t o s t u d y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f J e n a . H e f i r s t c o m p e t e d m a i n l y a s a h i g h j u m p e r a n d a t r i p l e j u m p e r . H e b e g a n t o m a k e h i s i m p a c t a s a j u n i o r ( u n d e r - 2 0 ) a t h l e t e i n t h e j a v e l i n t h r o w i n 2 0 1 0 . T h a t y e a r h e t h r e w b e y o n d s e v e n t y m e t r e s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e a n d r e p r e s e n t e d h i s c o u n t r y a t t h e 2 0 1 0 W o r l d J u n i o r C h a m p i o n s h i p s i n A t h l e t i c s , w h e r e h e f i n i s h e d i n n i n t h p l a c e . H e e n d e d t h a t y e a r w i t h a p e r s o n a l b e s t t h r o w o f t o p l a c e s e c o n d a t t h e G e r m a n j u n i o r c h a m p i o n s h i p s . T h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r h e i m p r o v e d t o – a t h r o w w h i c h b r o u g h t h i m s e v e n t h p l a c e a t t h e 2 0 1 1 E u r o p e a n A t h l e t i c s U 2 3 C h a m p i o n s h i p s . H e e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f a s a s e n i o r a t h l e t e i n 2 0 1 2 . H e c l e a r e d e i g h t y m e t r e s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e a t a m e e t i n g i n S a n k t W e n d e l , g e t t i n g a m a r k o f , w h i c h r a n k e d h i m 5 4 t h i n t h e w o r l d t h a t y e a r . M o r e c r u c i a l w a s h i s f i r s t n a t i o n a l t i t l e w i n a t t h e 2 0 1 2 G e r m a n A t h l e t i c s C h a m p i o n s h i p s , w h e r e h e d e f e a t e d t h e m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d T i n o H ä b e r . H i s p e r s o n a l b e s t w a s n o t s u f f i c i e n t f o r e n t r y t o t h e 2 0 1 2 L o n d o n O l y m p i c s , b u t h e w a s s e l e c t e d f o r t h e 2 0 1 2 E u r o p e a n A t h l e t i c s C h a m p i o n s h i p s . O n h i s s e n i o r d e b u t f o r G e r m a n y , h e p l a c e d 1 3 t h i n j a v e l i n q u a l i f y i n g , e q u a l l i n g t h e m a r k o f f i n a l i s t G a b r i e l W a l l i n , b u t m i s s i n g o u t d u e t o h a v i n g a s h o r t e r s e c o n d t h r o w . T h e 2 0 1 3 s e a s o n s a w h i m a c h i e v e h i s f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l m e d a l s a n d h e c o n s i s t e n t l y t h r e w b e y o n d e i g h t y m e t r e s i n c o m p e t i t i o n . A t t h e 2 0 1 3 E u r o p e a n C u p W i n t e r T h r o w i n g i n M a r c h , h e w a s t h e r u n n e r - u p b e h i n d L a t v i a ' s Z i g i s m u n d s S i r m a i s . A t t h e e n d o f M a y , h e t h r e w a t a m e e t i n g i n D e s s a u – a p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t p l a c e d h i m 1 6 t h i n t h e w o r l d t h a t s e a s o n . O n h i s d e b u t o n t h e 2 0 1 3 I A A F D i a m o n d L e a g u e c i r c u i t , h e p l a c e d t o p t h r e e a t t h e B i s l e t t G a m e s . H e w a s t h e s i l v e r m e d a l l i s t a t t h e 2 0 1 3 E u r o p e a n T e a m C h a m p i o n s h i p s a n d r e t a i n e d h i s n a t i o n a l t i t l e a t t h e 2 0 1 3 G e r m a n A t h l e t i c s C h a m p i o n s h i p s . I n a h i g h - q u a l i t y c o m p e t i t i o n a t t h e 2 0 1 3 E u r o p e a n A t h l e t i c s U 2 3 C h a m p i o n s h i p s , h e c a m e t h i r d b e h i n d S i r m a i s a n d G e r m a n t e a m m a t e B e r n h a r d S e i f e r t . R ö h l e r w a s c h o s e n t o c o m p e t e f o r G e r m a n y a t t h e 2 0 1 3 W o r l d C h a m p i o n s h i p s i n A t h l e t i c s a n d o n h i s g l o b a l s e n i o r d e b u t h e d i d n o t p e r f o r m w e l l , h a v i n g h i s w o r s t c o m p e t i t i o n o f t h e y e a r a n d f a i l i n g t o b e t t e r 7 5   m e t r e s . H e e n d e d t h e y e a r w i t h a s e v e n t h - p l a c e f i n i s h a t t h e M e m o r i a l V a n D a m m e D i a m o n d L e a g u e m e e t . H e a n d L a t v i a n r i v a l S i r m a i s r e p e a t e d t h e i r p l a c i n g s a t t h e 2 0 1 4 E u r o p e a n C u p W i n t e r T h r o w i n g , t h e G e r m a n a g a i n f i n i s h i n g s e c o n d . H e m a d e r e g u l a r a p p e a r a n c e s o n t h e 2 0 1 4 I A A F D i a m o n d L e a g u e c i r c u i t : h e w a s f i f t h a t t h e P r e f o n t a i n e C l a s s i c a n d B i s l e t t G a m e s , t h e n t h r e w a b e s t o f f o r t h i r d a t t h e M e e t i n g A r e v a i n P a r i s . H e i m p r o v e d t h i s f u r t h e r a t t h e G l a s g o w G r a n d P r i x , t h r o w i n g t h e j a v e l i n t o t a k e a s u r p r i s e v i c t o r y o v e r r e i g n i n g w o r l d c h a m p i o n V i t e z s l a v V e s e l y . A t t h e 2 0 1 6 S u m m e r O l y m p i c s i n R i o d e J a n e i r o , h e w o n t h e g o l d m e d a l w i t h a t h r o w o f 9 0 . 3 0 m , n a r r o w l y m i s s i n g t h e O l y m p i c r e c o r d o f 9 0 . 5 7 m s e t b y A n d r e a s T h o r k i l d s e n o f N o r w a y d u r i n g t h e 2 0 0 8 B e i j i n g O l y m p i c s . A t t h e 2 0 1 7 I A A F W o r l d C h a m p i o n s h i p s , h e f i n i s h e d f o u r t h w i t h a t h r o w o f 8 8 . 2 6 m , s i x c e n t i m e t r e s b e h i n d t h i r d p l a c e . I n J u l y 2 0 1 8 , h e w o n s i l v e r a t t h e 2 0 1 8 G e r m a n A t h l e t i c s C h a m p i o n s h i p s , w i t h a t h r o w o f 8 8 . 0 9 m . I n A u g u s t , h e w o n g o l d a t t h e 2 0 1 8 E u r o p e a n A t h l e t i c s C h a m p i o n s h i p s w i t h a t h r o w o f 8 9 . 4 7 m . H e w o n a n o t h e r g o l d m e d a l i n S e p t e m b e r , a t t h e 2 0 1 8 I A A F C o n t i n e n t a l C u p , w i t h a n 8 7 . 0 7 m t h r o w . A t t h e 2 0 1 9 W o r l d A t h l e t i c s C h a m p i o n s h i p s , R ö h l e r , w i t h a b e s t t h r o w a t 7 9 . 2 3 m , d i d n o t p r o g r e s s f r o m t h e q u a l i f y i n g r o u n d .

Career

Thomas Röhler is a German javelin thrower who started competing in track and field events as a child in 1998. He initially focused on high jump and triple jump before switching to javelin throw in 2010. Röhler has had a successful career, winning several titles including the 2016 Olympic gold medal, 2018 European Championship gold, and 2018 IAAF Continental Cup gold.

Röhler began taking part in track and field as a child in 1998. Raised in Jena, he attended the Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths Sports High school in the city and went on to study at the University of Jena. He first competed mainly as a high jumper and a triple jumper. He began to make his impact as a junior (under-20) athlete in the javelin throw in 2010. That year he threw beyond seventy metres for the first time and represented his country at the 2010 World Junior Championships in Athletics, where he finished in ninth place. He ended that year with a personal best throw of to place second at the German junior championships. The following year he improved to – a throw which brought him seventh place at the 2011 European Athletics U23 Championships. He established himself as a senior athlete in 2012. He cleared eighty metres for the first time at a meeting in Sankt Wendel, getting a mark of , which ranked him 54th in the world that year. More crucial was his first national title win at the 2012 German Athletics Championships, where he defeated the more experienced Tino Häber. His personal best was not sufficient for entry to the 2012 London Olympics, but he was selected for the 2012 European Athletics Championships. On his senior debut for Germany, he placed 13th in javelin qualifying, equalling the mark of finalist Gabriel Wallin, but missing out due to having a shorter second throw. The 2013 season saw him achieve his first international medals and he consistently threw beyond eighty metres in competition. At the 2013 European Cup Winter Throwing in March, he was the runner-up behind Latvia's Zigismunds Sirmais. At the end of May, he threw at a meeting in Dessau – a performance that placed him 16th in the world that season. On his debut on the 2013 IAAF Diamond League circuit, he placed top three at the Bislett Games. He was the silver medallist at the 2013 European Team Championships and retained his national title at the 2013 German Athletics Championships. In a high-quality competition at the 2013 European Athletics U23 Championships, he came third behind Sirmais and German teammate Bernhard Seifert. Röhler was chosen to compete for Germany at the 2013 World Championships in Athletics and on his global senior debut he did not perform well, having his worst competition of the year and failing to better 75 metres. He ended the year with a seventh-place finish at the Memorial Van Damme Diamond League meet. He and Latvian rival Sirmais repeated their placings at the 2014 European Cup Winter Throwing, the German again finishing second. He made regular appearances on the 2014 IAAF Diamond League circuit: he was fifth at the Prefontaine Classic and Bislett Games, then threw a best of for third at the Meeting Areva in Paris. He improved this further at the Glasgow Grand Prix, throwing the javelin to take a surprise victory over reigning world champion Vitezslav Vesely. At the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, he won the gold medal with a throw of 90.30 m, narrowly missing the Olympic record of 90.57 m set by Andreas Thorkildsen of Norway during the 2008 Beijing Olympics. At the 2017 IAAF World Championships, he finished fourth with a throw of 88.26 m, six centimetres behind third place. In July 2018, he won silver at the 2018 German Athletics Championships, with a throw of 88.09 m. In August, he won gold at the 2018 European Athletics Championships with a throw of 89.47 m. He won another gold medal in September, at the 2018 IAAF Continental Cup, with an 87.07 m throw. At the 2019 World Athletics Championships, Röhler, with a best throw at 79.23 m, did not progress from the qualifying round.

Kristiyan Malinov

M a l i n o v j o i n e d L i t e x L o v e c h ' s A c a d e m y a s a f o u r t e e n - y e a r - o l d a f t e r p l a y i n g j u n i o r f o o t b a l l f o r h i s h o m e - t o w n c l u b B e l a s i t s a P e t r i c h a n d P i r i n 2 0 0 1 . H e p r o g r e s s e d t h r o u g h t h e c l u b ' s y o u t h s y s t e m a n d m a d e h i s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e i n a s e n i o r m a t c h d a y s q u a d i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 1 , s i t t i n g o n t h e b e n c h f o r a n A G r o u p m a t c h a g a i n s t L o k o m o t i v P l o v d i v . I n J u l y 2 0 1 3 , M a l i n o v w a s l o a n e d t o B G r o u p t e a m D o b r u d z h a D o b r i c h f o r t h e 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 s e a s o n . H e m a d e h i s d e b u t i n a 1 – 0 h o m e w i n o v e r A k a d e m i k S v i s h t o v o n 3 A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 . C o a c h e d b y f o r m e r L i t e x ' s f o r w a r d S v e t o s l a v T o d o r o v , M a l i n o v m a d e a n i m m e d i a t e i m p a c t , a p p e a r i n g i n a l l 2 6 l e a g u e m a t c h e s , s c o r i n g f o u r g o a l s . H e w a s s u b s t i t u t e d o n l y o n c e d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e l e a g u e s e a s o n i n t h e s e c o n d d i v i s i o n . M a l i n o v r e t u r n e d t o L i t e x a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n . H e m a d e h i s d e b u t i n t h e t e a m ' s o p e n i n g l e a g u e m a t c h o f t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t C S K A S o f i a o n 2 0 J u l y 2 0 1 4 , p l a y i n g t h e f u l l 9 0 m i n u t e s i n t h e c e n t r e o f m i d f i e l d . O n 1 4 S e p t e m b e r , h e s c o r e d h i s f i r s t g o a l i n a 2 – 0 h o m e w i n o v e r H a s k o v o . O n 2 9 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 4 , M a l i n o v o p e n e d t h e s c o r i n g a g a i n s t L e v s k i S o f i a a t G e o r g i A s p a r u h o v S t a d i u m . L a t e r i n t h e m a t c h L i t e x w e n t 2 – 1 d o w n , b u t M a l i n o v c r e a t e d L i t e x ' s s e c o n d g o a l , w h i c h w a s s c o r e d b y K i r i l D e s p o d o v f o r a 2 – 2 d r a w . I n J u n e 2 0 1 6 M a l i n o v a n d a b i g p a r t o f t h e L i t e x s q u a d m o v e d t o C S K A S o f i a s i n c e t h e t e a m t o o k t h e l i c e n s e o f L i t e x f o r B u l g a r i a n F i r s t L e a g u e . F o r f o u r s e a s o n s h e p l a y e d a t o t a l o f 1 2 9 g a m e s w i t h t h e c l u b i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s , i n w h i c h h e s c o r e d 7 g o a l s a n d r e c o r d e d 1 4 a s s i s t s . M a l i n o v j o i n e d B e l g i a n c l u b O u d - H e v e r l e e L e u v e n o n 1 9 A u g u s t 2 0 2 0 . O n 2 2 A u g u s t , h e m a d e h i s d e b u t i n a 3 – 1 h o m e d e f e a t a g a i n s t C h a r l e r o i , p l a y i n g t h e f u l l 9 0 m i n u t e s . O n 7 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 5 , M a l i n o v m a d e h i s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e f o r B u l g a r i a , i n t h e 0 – 0 d r a w w i t h R o m a n i a i n a n o n - o f f i c i a l f r i e n d l y m a t c h , b e i n g r e p l a c e d i n t h e 6 3 r d m i n u t e b y S t e f a n V e l e v . H e e a r n e d h i s f i r s t c a p o n 8 J u n e 2 0 1 5 , i n t h e 0 – 4 l o s s a g a i n s t T u r k e y i n a n o t h e r e x h i b i t i o n g a m e , a f t e r c o m i n g o n a s a s u b s t i t u t e d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d h a l f .

Career

Malinov began his career at Litex Lovech's Academy before joining Dobrudzha Dobrich on loan. He made his debut for Litex in 2014 and scored several goals, including one against Levski Sofia. In 2016, he transferred to CSKA Sofia, where he played 129 games and scored 7 goals. In 2020, he joined Oud-Heverlee Leuven in Belgium. Malinov also represented Bulgaria in international friendlies, earning his first cap in 2015.

Malinov joined Litex Lovech's Academy as a fourteen-year-old after playing junior football for his home-town club Belasitsa Petrich and Pirin 2001. He progressed through the club's youth system and made his first appearance in a senior match day squad in November 2011, sitting on the bench for an A Group match against Lokomotiv Plovdiv. In July 2013, Malinov was loaned to B Group team Dobrudzha Dobrich for the 2013–14 season. He made his debut in a 1–0 home win over Akademik Svishtov on 3 August 2013. Coached by former Litex's forward Svetoslav Todorov, Malinov made an immediate impact, appearing in all 26 league matches, scoring four goals. He was substituted only once during the entire league season in the second division. Malinov returned to Litex at the end of the season. He made his debut in the team's opening league match of the 2014–15 campaign against CSKA Sofia on 20 July 2014, playing the full 90 minutes in the centre of midfield. On 14 September, he scored his first goal in a 2–0 home win over Haskovo. On 29 November 2014, Malinov opened the scoring against Levski Sofia at Georgi Asparuhov Stadium. Later in the match Litex went 2–1 down, but Malinov created Litex's second goal, which was scored by Kiril Despodov for a 2–2 draw. In June 2016 Malinov and a big part of the Litex squad moved to CSKA Sofia since the team took the license of Litex for Bulgarian First League. For four seasons he played a total of 129 games with the club in all competitions, in which he scored 7 goals and recorded 14 assists. Malinov joined Belgian club Oud-Heverlee Leuven on 19 August 2020. On 22 August, he made his debut in a 3–1 home defeat against Charleroi, playing the full 90 minutes. On 7 February 2015, Malinov made his first appearance for Bulgaria, in the 0–0 draw with Romania in a non-official friendly match, being replaced in the 63rd minute by Stefan Velev. He earned his first cap on 8 June 2015, in the 0–4 loss against Turkey in another exhibition game, after coming on as a substitute during the second half.

Kristiyan Malinov

M a l i n o v j o i n e d L i t e x L o v e c h ' s A c a d e m y a s a f o u r t e e n - y e a r - o l d a f t e r p l a y i n g j u n i o r f o o t b a l l f o r h i s h o m e - t o w n c l u b B e l a s i t s a P e t r i c h a n d P i r i n 2 0 0 1 . H e p r o g r e s s e d t h r o u g h t h e c l u b ' s y o u t h s y s t e m a n d m a d e h i s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e i n a s e n i o r m a t c h d a y s q u a d i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 1 , s i t t i n g o n t h e b e n c h f o r a n A G r o u p m a t c h a g a i n s t L o k o m o t i v P l o v d i v . I n J u l y 2 0 1 3 , M a l i n o v w a s l o a n e d t o B G r o u p t e a m D o b r u d z h a D o b r i c h f o r t h e 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 s e a s o n . H e m a d e h i s d e b u t i n a 1 – 0 h o m e w i n o v e r A k a d e m i k S v i s h t o v o n 3 A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 . C o a c h e d b y f o r m e r L i t e x ' s f o r w a r d S v e t o s l a v T o d o r o v , M a l i n o v m a d e a n i m m e d i a t e i m p a c t , a p p e a r i n g i n a l l 2 6 l e a g u e m a t c h e s , s c o r i n g f o u r g o a l s . H e w a s s u b s t i t u t e d o n l y o n c e d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e l e a g u e s e a s o n i n t h e s e c o n d d i v i s i o n . M a l i n o v r e t u r n e d t o L i t e x a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n . H e m a d e h i s d e b u t i n t h e t e a m ' s o p e n i n g l e a g u e m a t c h o f t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t C S K A S o f i a o n 2 0 J u l y 2 0 1 4 , p l a y i n g t h e f u l l 9 0 m i n u t e s i n t h e c e n t r e o f m i d f i e l d . O n 1 4 S e p t e m b e r , h e s c o r e d h i s f i r s t g o a l i n a 2 – 0 h o m e w i n o v e r H a s k o v o . O n 2 9 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 4 , M a l i n o v o p e n e d t h e s c o r i n g a g a i n s t L e v s k i S o f i a a t G e o r g i A s p a r u h o v S t a d i u m . L a t e r i n t h e m a t c h L i t e x w e n t 2 – 1 d o w n , b u t M a l i n o v c r e a t e d L i t e x ' s s e c o n d g o a l , w h i c h w a s s c o r e d b y K i r i l D e s p o d o v f o r a 2 – 2 d r a w . I n J u n e 2 0 1 6 M a l i n o v a n d a b i g p a r t o f t h e L i t e x s q u a d m o v e d t o C S K A S o f i a s i n c e t h e t e a m t o o k t h e l i c e n s e o f L i t e x f o r B u l g a r i a n F i r s t L e a g u e . F o r f o u r s e a s o n s h e p l a y e d a t o t a l o f 1 2 9 g a m e s w i t h t h e c l u b i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s , i n w h i c h h e s c o r e d 7 g o a l s a n d r e c o r d e d 1 4 a s s i s t s . M a l i n o v j o i n e d B e l g i a n c l u b O u d - H e v e r l e e L e u v e n o n 1 9 A u g u s t 2 0 2 0 . O n 2 2 A u g u s t , h e m a d e h i s d e b u t i n a 3 – 1 h o m e d e f e a t a g a i n s t C h a r l e r o i , p l a y i n g t h e f u l l 9 0 m i n u t e s . O n 7 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 5 , M a l i n o v m a d e h i s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e f o r B u l g a r i a , i n t h e 0 – 0 d r a w w i t h R o m a n i a i n a n o n - o f f i c i a l f r i e n d l y m a t c h , b e i n g r e p l a c e d i n t h e 6 3 r d m i n u t e b y S t e f a n V e l e v . H e e a r n e d h i s f i r s t c a p o n 8 J u n e 2 0 1 5 , i n t h e 0 – 4 l o s s a g a i n s t T u r k e y i n a n o t h e r e x h i b i t i o n g a m e , a f t e r c o m i n g o n a s a s u b s t i t u t e d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d h a l f .

Career ; Litex Lovech

Malinov began his career at Litex Lovech's Academy before progressing through the youth system and making his senior debut in 2011. He was loaned to Dobrudzha Dobrich in 2013, where he impressed, scoring four goals in 26 appearances. Returning to Litex, he became a key player, scoring his first goal in 2014 and helping the team earn draws against top opponents. In 2016, he moved to CSKA Sofia, where he played 129 games across four seasons, scoring seven goals and recording 14 assists. In 2020, he joined Oud-Heverlee Leuven in Belgium, making his debut soon after. At the international level, Malinov has represented Bulgaria, earning his first cap in 2015.

Malinov joined Litex Lovech's Academy as a fourteen-year-old after playing junior football for his home-town club Belasitsa Petrich and Pirin 2001. He progressed through the club's youth system and made his first appearance in a senior match day squad in November 2011, sitting on the bench for an A Group match against Lokomotiv Plovdiv. In July 2013, Malinov was loaned to B Group team Dobrudzha Dobrich for the 2013–14 season. He made his debut in a 1–0 home win over Akademik Svishtov on 3 August 2013. Coached by former Litex's forward Svetoslav Todorov, Malinov made an immediate impact, appearing in all 26 league matches, scoring four goals. He was substituted only once during the entire league season in the second division. Malinov returned to Litex at the end of the season. He made his debut in the team's opening league match of the 2014–15 campaign against CSKA Sofia on 20 July 2014, playing the full 90 minutes in the centre of midfield. On 14 September, he scored his first goal in a 2–0 home win over Haskovo. On 29 November 2014, Malinov opened the scoring against Levski Sofia at Georgi Asparuhov Stadium. Later in the match Litex went 2–1 down, but Malinov created Litex's second goal, which was scored by Kiril Despodov for a 2–2 draw. In June 2016 Malinov and a big part of the Litex squad moved to CSKA Sofia since the team took the license of Litex for Bulgarian First League. For four seasons he played a total of 129 games with the club in all competitions, in which he scored 7 goals and recorded 14 assists. Malinov joined Belgian club Oud-Heverlee Leuven on 19 August 2020. On 22 August, he made his debut in a 3–1 home defeat against Charleroi, playing the full 90 minutes. On 7 February 2015, Malinov made his first appearance for Bulgaria, in the 0–0 draw with Romania in a non-official friendly match, being replaced in the 63rd minute by Stefan Velev. He earned his first cap on 8 June 2015, in the 0–4 loss against Turkey in another exhibition game, after coming on as a substitute during the second half.

Kristiyan Malinov

M a l i n o v j o i n e d L i t e x L o v e c h ' s A c a d e m y a s a f o u r t e e n - y e a r - o l d a f t e r p l a y i n g j u n i o r f o o t b a l l f o r h i s h o m e - t o w n c l u b B e l a s i t s a P e t r i c h a n d P i r i n 2 0 0 1 . H e p r o g r e s s e d t h r o u g h t h e c l u b ' s y o u t h s y s t e m a n d m a d e h i s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e i n a s e n i o r m a t c h d a y s q u a d i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 1 , s i t t i n g o n t h e b e n c h f o r a n A G r o u p m a t c h a g a i n s t L o k o m o t i v P l o v d i v . I n J u l y 2 0 1 3 , M a l i n o v w a s l o a n e d t o B G r o u p t e a m D o b r u d z h a D o b r i c h f o r t h e 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 s e a s o n . H e m a d e h i s d e b u t i n a 1 – 0 h o m e w i n o v e r A k a d e m i k S v i s h t o v o n 3 A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 . C o a c h e d b y f o r m e r L i t e x ' s f o r w a r d S v e t o s l a v T o d o r o v , M a l i n o v m a d e a n i m m e d i a t e i m p a c t , a p p e a r i n g i n a l l 2 6 l e a g u e m a t c h e s , s c o r i n g f o u r g o a l s . H e w a s s u b s t i t u t e d o n l y o n c e d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e l e a g u e s e a s o n i n t h e s e c o n d d i v i s i o n . M a l i n o v r e t u r n e d t o L i t e x a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n . H e m a d e h i s d e b u t i n t h e t e a m ' s o p e n i n g l e a g u e m a t c h o f t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t C S K A S o f i a o n 2 0 J u l y 2 0 1 4 , p l a y i n g t h e f u l l 9 0 m i n u t e s i n t h e c e n t r e o f m i d f i e l d . O n 1 4 S e p t e m b e r , h e s c o r e d h i s f i r s t g o a l i n a 2 – 0 h o m e w i n o v e r H a s k o v o . O n 2 9 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 4 , M a l i n o v o p e n e d t h e s c o r i n g a g a i n s t L e v s k i S o f i a a t G e o r g i A s p a r u h o v S t a d i u m . L a t e r i n t h e m a t c h L i t e x w e n t 2 – 1 d o w n , b u t M a l i n o v c r e a t e d L i t e x ' s s e c o n d g o a l , w h i c h w a s s c o r e d b y K i r i l D e s p o d o v f o r a 2 – 2 d r a w . I n J u n e 2 0 1 6 M a l i n o v a n d a b i g p a r t o f t h e L i t e x s q u a d m o v e d t o C S K A S o f i a s i n c e t h e t e a m t o o k t h e l i c e n s e o f L i t e x f o r B u l g a r i a n F i r s t L e a g u e . F o r f o u r s e a s o n s h e p l a y e d a t o t a l o f 1 2 9 g a m e s w i t h t h e c l u b i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s , i n w h i c h h e s c o r e d 7 g o a l s a n d r e c o r d e d 1 4 a s s i s t s . M a l i n o v j o i n e d B e l g i a n c l u b O u d - H e v e r l e e L e u v e n o n 1 9 A u g u s t 2 0 2 0 . O n 2 2 A u g u s t , h e m a d e h i s d e b u t i n a 3 – 1 h o m e d e f e a t a g a i n s t C h a r l e r o i , p l a y i n g t h e f u l l 9 0 m i n u t e s . O n 7 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 5 , M a l i n o v m a d e h i s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e f o r B u l g a r i a , i n t h e 0 – 0 d r a w w i t h R o m a n i a i n a n o n - o f f i c i a l f r i e n d l y m a t c h , b e i n g r e p l a c e d i n t h e 6 3 r d m i n u t e b y S t e f a n V e l e v . H e e a r n e d h i s f i r s t c a p o n 8 J u n e 2 0 1 5 , i n t h e 0 – 4 l o s s a g a i n s t T u r k e y i n a n o t h e r e x h i b i t i o n g a m e , a f t e r c o m i n g o n a s a s u b s t i t u t e d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d h a l f .

Career ; Litex Lovech ; Loan to Dobrudzha

Malinov began his career at Litex Lovech's academy before joining Dobrudzha on loan. He returned to Litex, making his debut and scoring his first goal. After Litex merged with CSKA Sofia, Malinov played 129 games, scoring 7 goals and recording 14 assists. He then joined Oud-Heverlee Leuven in Belgium. Malinov also represented Bulgaria, earning his first cap in 2015.

Malinov joined Litex Lovech's Academy as a fourteen-year-old after playing junior football for his home-town club Belasitsa Petrich and Pirin 2001. He progressed through the club's youth system and made his first appearance in a senior match day squad in November 2011, sitting on the bench for an A Group match against Lokomotiv Plovdiv. In July 2013, Malinov was loaned to B Group team Dobrudzha Dobrich for the 2013–14 season. He made his debut in a 1–0 home win over Akademik Svishtov on 3 August 2013. Coached by former Litex's forward Svetoslav Todorov, Malinov made an immediate impact, appearing in all 26 league matches, scoring four goals. He was substituted only once during the entire league season in the second division. Malinov returned to Litex at the end of the season. He made his debut in the team's opening league match of the 2014–15 campaign against CSKA Sofia on 20 July 2014, playing the full 90 minutes in the centre of midfield. On 14 September, he scored his first goal in a 2–0 home win over Haskovo. On 29 November 2014, Malinov opened the scoring against Levski Sofia at Georgi Asparuhov Stadium. Later in the match Litex went 2–1 down, but Malinov created Litex's second goal, which was scored by Kiril Despodov for a 2–2 draw. In June 2016 Malinov and a big part of the Litex squad moved to CSKA Sofia since the team took the license of Litex for Bulgarian First League. For four seasons he played a total of 129 games with the club in all competitions, in which he scored 7 goals and recorded 14 assists. Malinov joined Belgian club Oud-Heverlee Leuven on 19 August 2020. On 22 August, he made his debut in a 3–1 home defeat against Charleroi, playing the full 90 minutes. On 7 February 2015, Malinov made his first appearance for Bulgaria, in the 0–0 draw with Romania in a non-official friendly match, being replaced in the 63rd minute by Stefan Velev. He earned his first cap on 8 June 2015, in the 0–4 loss against Turkey in another exhibition game, after coming on as a substitute during the second half.

Kristiyan Malinov

M a l i n o v j o i n e d L i t e x L o v e c h ' s A c a d e m y a s a f o u r t e e n - y e a r - o l d a f t e r p l a y i n g j u n i o r f o o t b a l l f o r h i s h o m e - t o w n c l u b B e l a s i t s a P e t r i c h a n d P i r i n 2 0 0 1 . H e p r o g r e s s e d t h r o u g h t h e c l u b ' s y o u t h s y s t e m a n d m a d e h i s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e i n a s e n i o r m a t c h d a y s q u a d i n N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 1 , s i t t i n g o n t h e b e n c h f o r a n A G r o u p m a t c h a g a i n s t L o k o m o t i v P l o v d i v . I n J u l y 2 0 1 3 , M a l i n o v w a s l o a n e d t o B G r o u p t e a m D o b r u d z h a D o b r i c h f o r t h e 2 0 1 3 – 1 4 s e a s o n . H e m a d e h i s d e b u t i n a 1 – 0 h o m e w i n o v e r A k a d e m i k S v i s h t o v o n 3 A u g u s t 2 0 1 3 . C o a c h e d b y f o r m e r L i t e x ' s f o r w a r d S v e t o s l a v T o d o r o v , M a l i n o v m a d e a n i m m e d i a t e i m p a c t , a p p e a r i n g i n a l l 2 6 l e a g u e m a t c h e s , s c o r i n g f o u r g o a l s . H e w a s s u b s t i t u t e d o n l y o n c e d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e l e a g u e s e a s o n i n t h e s e c o n d d i v i s i o n . M a l i n o v r e t u r n e d t o L i t e x a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n . H e m a d e h i s d e b u t i n t h e t e a m ' s o p e n i n g l e a g u e m a t c h o f t h e 2 0 1 4 – 1 5 c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t C S K A S o f i a o n 2 0 J u l y 2 0 1 4 , p l a y i n g t h e f u l l 9 0 m i n u t e s i n t h e c e n t r e o f m i d f i e l d . O n 1 4 S e p t e m b e r , h e s c o r e d h i s f i r s t g o a l i n a 2 – 0 h o m e w i n o v e r H a s k o v o . O n 2 9 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 4 , M a l i n o v o p e n e d t h e s c o r i n g a g a i n s t L e v s k i S o f i a a t G e o r g i A s p a r u h o v S t a d i u m . L a t e r i n t h e m a t c h L i t e x w e n t 2 – 1 d o w n , b u t M a l i n o v c r e a t e d L i t e x ' s s e c o n d g o a l , w h i c h w a s s c o r e d b y K i r i l D e s p o d o v f o r a 2 – 2 d r a w . I n J u n e 2 0 1 6 M a l i n o v a n d a b i g p a r t o f t h e L i t e x s q u a d m o v e d t o C S K A S o f i a s i n c e t h e t e a m t o o k t h e l i c e n s e o f L i t e x f o r B u l g a r i a n F i r s t L e a g u e . F o r f o u r s e a s o n s h e p l a y e d a t o t a l o f 1 2 9 g a m e s w i t h t h e c l u b i n a l l c o m p e t i t i o n s , i n w h i c h h e s c o r e d 7 g o a l s a n d r e c o r d e d 1 4 a s s i s t s . M a l i n o v j o i n e d B e l g i a n c l u b O u d - H e v e r l e e L e u v e n o n 1 9 A u g u s t 2 0 2 0 . O n 2 2 A u g u s t , h e m a d e h i s d e b u t i n a 3 – 1 h o m e d e f e a t a g a i n s t C h a r l e r o i , p l a y i n g t h e f u l l 9 0 m i n u t e s . O n 7 F e b r u a r y 2 0 1 5 , M a l i n o v m a d e h i s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e f o r B u l g a r i a , i n t h e 0 – 0 d r a w w i t h R o m a n i a i n a n o n - o f f i c i a l f r i e n d l y m a t c h , b e i n g r e p l a c e d i n t h e 6 3 r d m i n u t e b y S t e f a n V e l e v . H e e a r n e d h i s f i r s t c a p o n 8 J u n e 2 0 1 5 , i n t h e 0 – 4 l o s s a g a i n s t T u r k e y i n a n o t h e r e x h i b i t i o n g a m e , a f t e r c o m i n g o n a s a s u b s t i t u t e d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d h a l f .

Career ; CSKA Sofia

Malinov began his career at Litex Lovech's Academy before joining Dobrudzha Dobrich on loan. He made his debut for Litex in 2014 and later transferred to CSKA Sofia in 2016. After four seasons, he joined Oud-Heverlee Leuven in Belgium. Malinov also represented Bulgaria in several friendly matches.

Malinov joined Litex Lovech's Academy as a fourteen-year-old after playing junior football for his home-town club Belasitsa Petrich and Pirin 2001. He progressed through the club's youth system and made his first appearance in a senior match day squad in November 2011, sitting on the bench for an A Group match against Lokomotiv Plovdiv. In July 2013, Malinov was loaned to B Group team Dobrudzha Dobrich for the 2013–14 season. He made his debut in a 1–0 home win over Akademik Svishtov on 3 August 2013. Coached by former Litex's forward Svetoslav Todorov, Malinov made an immediate impact, appearing in all 26 league matches, scoring four goals. He was substituted only once during the entire league season in the second division. Malinov returned to Litex at the end of the season. He made his debut in the team's opening league match of the 2014–15 campaign against CSKA Sofia on 20 July 2014, playing the full 90 minutes in the centre of midfield. On 14 September, he scored his first goal in a 2–0 home win over Haskovo. On 29 November 2014, Malinov opened the scoring against Levski Sofia at Georgi Asparuhov Stadium. Later in the match Litex went 2–1 down, but Malinov created Litex's second goal, which was scored by Kiril Despodov for a 2–2 draw. In June 2016 Malinov and a big part of the Litex squad moved to CSKA Sofia since the team took the license of Litex for Bulgarian First League. For four seasons he played a total of 129 games with the club in all competitions, in which he scored 7 goals and recorded 14 assists. Malinov joined Belgian club Oud-Heverlee Leuven on 19 August 2020. On 22 August, he made his debut in a 3–1 home defeat against Charleroi, playing the full 90 minutes. On 7 February 2015, Malinov made his first appearance for Bulgaria, in the 0–0 draw with Romania in a non-official friendly match, being replaced in the 63rd minute by Stefan Velev. He earned his first cap on 8 June 2015, in the 0–4 loss against Turkey in another exhibition game, after coming on as a substitute during the second half.

Akhil Iyer

B o r n i n O c t o b e r 1 9 8 7 , A k h i l g r e w u p i n B a n g a l o r e , R a m I y e r , i s a n o r t h o p a e d i c s u r g e o n w h i l e h i s m o t h e r , A s h a I y e r , i s a g y n a e c o l o g i s t . A k h i l h a s o n e b r o t h e r . A k h i l d i d h i s s c h o o l i n g a t S t . J o s e p h ' s B o y s ' H i g h S c h o o l , B a n g a l o r e w h e r e h e p l a y e d c r i c k e t a t t h e z o n a l l e v e l . A k h i l w e n t o n t o f i n i s h h i s e d u c a t i o n i n c o m p u t e r s c i e n c e e n g i n e e r i n g f r o m P . E . S . I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y , B a n g a l o r e S o u t h C a m p u s ( f o r m e r l y k n o w n a s P E S S c h o o l o f E n g i n e e r i n g , B a n g a l o r e ) A k h i l s t a r t e d h i s c a r e e r i n B o l l y w o o d w i t h t h e f i l m " L e k a r H u m D e e w a n a D i l " p l a y i n g t h e r o l e o f M a h e s h f o r w h i c h h e r e c e i v e d c r i t i c a l p r a i s e . W h i l e h e w a s b a s e d o u t o f B a n g a l o r e , A k h i l p u r s u e d h i s p a s s i o n f o r a c t i n g w i t h t h e a t r e g r o u p s l i k e D r a m a n o n & A r t i s t s R e p e r t o i r e T h e a t r e u p t i l 2 0 1 1 . H e t h e n m o v e d t o C h e n n a i w h e r e h e s i g n e d I r u v a r O n d r a n a l & N i j a m a N i z h a l a w h i c h a r e c u r r e n t l y i n p o s t - p r o d u c t i o n . I n 2 0 1 3 , A k h i l m a d e t h e m o v e t o M u m b a i a f t e r s i g n i n g " L e k a r H u m D e e w a n a D i l " .

Career

Akhil Iyer began his career in Bollywood with the film "Lekar Hum Deewana Dil", receiving critical acclaim for his role as Mahesh. Prior to this, he was involved in theatre groups in Bangalore and Chennai, performing in plays such as "Iruvar Ondranal" and "Nijama Nizhala".

Born in October 1987, Akhil grew up in Bangalore, Ram Iyer, is an orthopaedic surgeon while his mother, Asha Iyer, is a gynaecologist. Akhil has one brother. Akhil did his schooling at St. Joseph's Boys' High School, Bangalore where he played cricket at the zonal level. Akhil went on to finish his education in computer science engineering from P.E.S. Institute of Technology, Bangalore South Campus (formerly known as PES School of Engineering, Bangalore) Akhil started his career in Bollywood with the film "Lekar Hum Deewana Dil" playing the role of Mahesh for which he received critical praise. While he was based out of Bangalore, Akhil pursued his passion for acting with theatre groups like Dramanon & Artists Repertoire Theatre up til 2011. He then moved to Chennai where he signed Iruvar Ondranal & Nijama Nizhala which are currently in post-production. In 2013, Akhil made the move to Mumbai after signing "Lekar Hum Deewana Dil".

Georgia Conservancy

T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y w a s f o u n d e d i n 1 9 6 7 a f t e r J a m e s M a c K a y , a f o r m e r U . S . c o n g r e s s m a n f r o m D e c a t u r , G e o r g i a , g a t h e r e d a g r o u p o f G e o r g i a n s t o d i s c u s s w a y s t o p r o t e c t t h e s t a t e ' s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n w a s c r e a t e d a s a n o n - p a r t i s a n b o d y “ o r g a n i z e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o p r o m o t e f e l l o w s h i p a n d g o o d f u n a m o n g i t s m e m b e r s ” . T h e g r o u p ' s e a r l i e s t c o n s e r v a t i o n e f f o r t s w e r e l a r g e l y f o c u s e d o n p r o t e c t i n g e n d a n g e r e d p l a c e s a r o u n d t h e s t a t e . B y 1 9 6 8 , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y h a d a l r e a d y b e g u n t o i n f l u e n c e c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d p l a n n i n g d e c i s i o n s a l o n g G e o r g i a ' s c o a s t s . C o n c e r n e d b y t h e l i n k t h a t h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n a u t o m o b i l e e m i s s i o n s a n d a i r p o l l u t i o n , l e a d e r s w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n b e g a n c a l l i n g f o r m e t r o A t l a n t a t o w o r k o n i t s p u b l i c t r a n s i t s y s t e m i n 1 9 7 1 . I n 1 9 7 4 , T h e C o n s e r v a n c y c e l e b r a t e d a l a n d m a r k d e c i s i o n b y t h e G e o r g i a S u p r e m e C o u r t i n t h e “ b e a c h c a s e , ” G e o r g i a v . A s h m o r e , d e c i d e d i n f a v o r o f t h e s t a t e a n d g r a n t i n g i t t h e a u t h o r i t y t o p r o t e c t m a r s h e s a n d t i d a l r i v e r s a n d g u a r a n t e e i n g p u b l i c a c c e s s t o a l l o f G e o r g i a ' s b e a c h e s . A l s o i n 1 9 7 4 , t h e g r o u p h e l p e d t o g e t t h e C h a t t o o g a R i v e r d e s i g n a t e d a s a W i l d a n d S c e n i c r i v e r . T h e a r e a w o u l d l a t e r b e f e a t u r e d i n t h e h i t f i l m " D e l i v e r a n c e " . W o r k i n g c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y w i t h o t h e r g r o u p s , b o t h f r o m G e o r g i a a n d a c r o s s t h e n a t i o n , T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y w a s a b l e t o p r o t e c t f o u r k e y n a t u r e a r e a s a r o u n d t h e s t a t e o n l y a f e w y e a r s a f t e r i t s f o u n d a t i o n . I n 1 9 7 6 , C o n s e r v a n c y c h a m p i o n a n d c h a r t e r m e m b e r J i m m y C a r t e r w a s e l e c t e d a s p r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e 1 9 7 0 s , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y u t i l i z e d a d v o c a c y a s a m e a n s o f m a x i m i z i n g i t s s t a t e w i d e , a n d , i n s o m e c a s e s , n a t i o n a l , e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y ' s e f f o r t s r e m a i n e d f o c u s e d o n G e o r g i a ' s w a t e r w a y s , i n c l u d i n g i t s r i v e r s , c r e e k s a n d l a k e s , b u t a l s o o n G e o r g i a ' s b a r r i e r i s l a n d s a n d c o a s t a l c o m m u n i t i e s . I n 2 0 1 8 t h e g r o u p s u p p o r t e d a n a m e n d m e n t t h a t w o u l d d e d i c a t e f u n d s t o c o n s e r v a t i o n . W o r k i n g w i t h o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s a c r o s s G e o r g i a a n d t h e U . S . d u r i n g t h e 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y p u s h e d f o r i n c r e a s e d s u p p o r t f o r t h r e a t e n e d s p e c i e s a l o n g t h e c o a s t , g r e a t e r w e t l a n d s p r o t e c t i o n , t h e r e a u t h o r i z a t i o n o f t h e C l e a n A i r A c t , t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e G e o r g i a S u p e r f u n d p r o g r a m , a n d a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y - f r i e n d l y 1 9 9 6 s u m m e r O l y m p i c G a m e s i n A t l a n t a . I n 1 9 9 3 , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y l a u n c h e d “ G r e e n P e a c h e s ” ( k n o w n t o d a y a s G e n e r a t i o n G r e e n ) , a n o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y c o n s c i o u s y o u n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s . I n 1 9 9 6 , T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y l a u n c h e d i t s w e b s i t e g e o r g i a c o n s e r v a n c y . o r g . I t i s s t i l l t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s c u r r e n t w e b a d d r e s s . T h e C o n s e r v a n c y ' s s u s t a i n a b l e g r o w t h e f f o r t s l a u n c h e d i n 1 9 9 8 a s p a r t o f S m a r t G r o w t h c o n f e r e n c e h o s t e d a l o n g w i t h t h e E P A , U r b a n L a n d I n s t i t u t e , a n d t h e S u c c e s s f u l C o m m u n i t i e s P a r t n e r s . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y r e m a i n s f o c u s e d o n a d v o c a c y , l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n , s u s t a i n a b l e g r o w t h , c o a s t a l p r o t e c t i o n , a n d s t e w a r d s h i p t r i p s . T h e C o n s e r v a n c y ' s a d v o c a c y t e a m h a s d e c a d e s o f e x p e r i e n c e i n s t a t e p o l i t i c s a n d i s d e d i c a t e d t o u s i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s t o h e l p w o r k y e a r - r o u n d o n k e y i s s u e s s u c h a s w a t e r r e s o u r c e s , h a b i t a t p r o t e c t i o n a n d l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n . T h e g r o u p ' s a d v o c a c y p r o g r a m h a s s c o r e d s o m e k e y s u c c e s s e s : T h e C o n s e r v a n c y w a s p a r t o f t h e t e a m t h a t w o r k e d w i t h t h e n - g o v e r n o r S o n n y P e r d u e a n d t h e s t a t e L e g i s l a t u r e d u r i n g t h e 2 0 1 0 G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y t o c r a f t a n d p a s s t h e n a t i o n ' s m o s t p r o g r e s s i v e w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n l a w . I n 2 0 1 2 , t h e a d v o c a c y t e a m h e l p e d t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e p e r m a n e n t p r o t e c t i o n o f B o y l e ' s I s l a n d o n t h e A l t a m a h a R i v e r . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y ' s l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o g r a m w a s l a u n c h e d i n 2 0 1 1 . T h e C o n s e r v a n c y b e l i e v e s t h a t l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n i s a k e y t o p r o t e c t i n g G e o r g i a ' s w a t e r r e s o u r c e s , i t s p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s , a n d i t s c i t i z e n s . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y a d v o c a t e s f o r l o c a l , s t a t e a n d f e d e r a l p o l i c i e s t h a t e n c o u r a g e l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n . T h e a d v o c a c y t e a m m e e t s w i t h p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s a n d t h e i r s t a f f a t a l l l e v e l s o f g o v e r n m e n t t o s e c u r e t h e i r s u p p o r t , o r t o t h a n k t h e m f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t o f l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n f u n d i n g a n d l e g i s l a t i o n . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y a l s o w o r k s w i t h l a n d o w n e r s t o e n c o u r a g e t h e m t o p l a c e t h e i r l a n d i n p e r m a n e n t p r o t e c t i o n t h r o u g h c o n s e r v a t i o n e a s e m e n t s o r t h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n v a r i o u s o t h e r s t a t e a n d f e d e r a l p r o g r a m s t h a t p r o v i d e f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e s f o r l a n d p r o t e c t i o n . I n 2 0 1 8 , G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y w o r k e d w i t h o f f i c i a l s f r o m M i l t o n , G e o r g i a t o p r i o r i t i z e c o n s e r v a t i o n l a n d s i n c l u d i n g a 1 0 9 - a c r e t r a c t s e t t o b e p r o t e c t e d . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y ' s S u s t a i n a b l e G r o w t h p r o g r a m w o r k s t o f o s t e r s m a r t , s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t a c r o s s G e o r g i a . T h e t e a m u s e s f o u r d i f f e r e n t p r o g r a m s t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s B l u e p r i n t s f o r S u s t a i n a b l e C o m m u n i t i e s , a p r o g r a m d e s i g n e d t o s t e e r c i t i e s t o w a r d t h o u g h t f u l l a n d u s e d e c i s i o n s w i t h r e g a r d s f o r b o t h e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s a n d p r e s e r v i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . C u r r e n t l y , B l u e p r i n t s i s f o c u s e d o n a m u l t i - y e a r s t u d y o f s e a - r i s e o n G e o r g i a ' s c o a s t . B l u e p r i n t s w i l l c e l e b r a t e i t s 2 0 t h y e a r i n 2 0 1 5 . G o o d U r b a n i s m s e m i n a r s t e a c h p l a n n i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s , g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s a n d n e i g h b o r h o o d r e s i d e n t s a b o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s u s t a i n a b l e g r o w t h . S c h o o l S i t i n g w o r k s h o p s b r i n g t o g e t h e r d i v e r s e s t a k e h o l d e r s t o l e a r n m o r e a b o u t t h e E P A ' s g u i d e l i n e s f o r s c h o o l s i t i n g . B a n t a m T o w n s I n T h e D e e p S o u t h i s a n o n g o i n g r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t t h a t l o o k s a t t h e h u n d r e d s o f t i n y , r u r a l t o w n s s c a t t e r e d a c r o s s t h e D e e p S o u t h f o r a n s w e r s o n h o w t h e y m i g h t t h e y b e r e i n v i g o r a t e d w i t h n e w e c o n o m i c p u r p o s e . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y m a i n t a i n s a n o f f i c e i n h i s t o r i c d o w n t o w n S a v a n n a h , h e a d e d b y C o a s t a l D i r e c t o r C h a r l e s M c M i l l a n , a n d i s w o r k i n g o n a r a n g e o f p r o j e c t s t o p r o t e c t t h e n e a r l y 1 0 0 m i l e s o f c o a s t l i n e t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n p a r t n e r e d w i t h t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f G e o r g i a ' s R i v e r B a s i n C e n t e r a n d t h e C o a s t a l R e s o u r c e s D i v i s i o n o f t h e G e o r g i a D e p a r t m e n t o f N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s o n a t h r e e - y e a r s t u d y o f t h e i m p a c t s o f s e a l e v e l r i s e o n c o a s t a l G e o r g i a . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y i s a m e m b e r o f t h e C o a s t a l G e o r g i a L a n d C o n s e r v a t i o n I n i t i a t i v e ( C G L C I ) , w h i c h w o r k s w i t h p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s t o c o n s e r v e c r i t i c a l c o a s t a l l a n d s a n d h e a l t h y e c o s y s t e m s w h i l e p r o m o t i n g s u s t a i n a b l e e c o n o m i c g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . S i n c e 1 9 6 7 , t h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y h a s b e e n g u i d i n g t r i p s a c r o s s t h e s t a t e t h a t h i g h l i g h t G e o r g i a ' s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s a n d p r o v i d e t h e p u b l i c w i t h t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o a d v o c a t e f o r t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n . T h e g r o u p u s e s i t s n e t w o r k o f p a r t n e r s a n d p e e r s t o p r o v i d e p u b l i c a c c e s s t o b a r r i e r i s l a n d s , r i v e r s y s t e m s a n d n a t u r e p r e s e r v e s t h a t a r e n o r m a l l y i n a c c e s s i b l e o r o f f - l i m i t s t o t h e p u b l i c . W h a t s t a r t e d o u t a s s i x t r i p s p e r y e a r f o r a h a n d f u l o f C o n s e r v a n c y m e m b e r s h a s g r o w n i n t o a p r o g r a m t h a t n o w s e r v e s h u n d r e d s o f p e o p l e e a c h w e e k e n d , m a n y f r o m c o m m u n i t i e s o f c o l o r t h a t h a v e h i s t o r i c a l l y n o t b e e n i n c l u d e d i n o u t d o o r r e c r e a t i o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s . I n 2 0 1 9 , T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y w i l l h o s t m o r e t h a n t w o d o z e n s t e w a r d s h i p t r i p s a n d e v e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e . T h e t r i p s i n v o l v e a m i x t u r e o f s e r v i c e a n d s i g h t s e e i n g . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y ' s t r i p s l a s t n o m o r e t h a n t h r e e d a y s , a n d a r e u s u a l l y o n w e e k e n d s . M a n y o f t h e t r i p s a r e f a m i l y - f r i e n d l y , a s w e l l . D e s t i n a t i o n s i n c l u d e S a p e l o I s l a n d a l o n g t h e c o a s t , T h e O k e f e n o k e e S w a m p i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e s t a t e , t h e C h a t t a h o o c h e e R i v e r n e a r A t l a n t a a n d C h a r l e s M c M i l l a n b e c a m e t h e g r o u p ' s c o a s t a l d i r e c t o r i n 2 0 1 5 . G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y p r e s e n t s t h e L o n g l e a f A w a r d a n n u a l l y . I n 2 0 1 8 , a t t h e 1 0 t h a n n u a l a w a r d c e r e m o n y , i t p r e s e n t e d t h e a w a r d t o K a t h e r i n e K e n n e d y o f C o n c r e t e J u n g l e .

Early Years

The Georgia Conservancy was founded in 1967 by James MacKay, a former U.S. congressman, to protect Georgia's natural resources. In its early years, the organization focused on conserving endangered places, influencing coastal planning decisions, and advocating for public transportation. Notable achievements include the 1974 "beach case" which granted the state authority to protect marshes and tidal rivers, and designating the Chattooga River as a Wild and Scenic river.

The Georgia Conservancy was founded in 1967 after James MacKay, a former U.S. congressman from Decatur, Georgia, gathered a group of Georgians to discuss ways to protect the state's natural resources. The organization was created as a non-partisan body “organized specifically to promote fellowship and good fun among its members”. The group's earliest conservation efforts were largely focused on protecting endangered places around the state. By 1968, the Conservancy had already begun to influence conservation and planning decisions along Georgia's coasts. Concerned by the link that had been established between automobile emissions and air pollution, leaders within the organization began calling for metro Atlanta to work on its public transit system in 1971. In 1974, The Conservancy celebrated a landmark decision by the Georgia Supreme Court in the “beach case,” Georgia v. Ashmore, decided in favor of the state and granting it the authority to protect marshes and tidal rivers and guaranteeing public access to all of Georgia's beaches. Also in 1974, the group helped to get the Chattooga River designated as a Wild and Scenic river. The area would later be featured in the hit film "Deliverance". Working collaboratively with other groups, both from Georgia and across the nation, The Georgia Conservancy was able to protect four key nature areas around the state only a few years after its foundation. In 1976, Conservancy champion and charter member Jimmy Carter was elected as president of the United States. In the latter part of the 1970s, the Conservancy utilized advocacy as a means of maximizing its statewide, and, in some cases, national, environmental impact. During the period, the Conservancy's efforts remained focused on Georgia's waterways, including its rivers, creeks and lakes, but also on Georgia's barrier islands and coastal communities. In 2018 the group supported an amendment that would dedicate funds to conservation. Working with other organizations across Georgia and the U.S. during the 1980s and 1990s, the Conservancy pushed for increased support for threatened species along the coast, greater wetlands protection, the reauthorization of the Clean Air Act, the creation of the Georgia Superfund program, and an environmentally-friendly 1996 summer Olympic Games in Atlanta. In 1993, the Conservancy launched “Green Peaches” (known today as Generation Green), an organization for environmentally conscious young professionals. In 1996, The Georgia Conservancy launched its website georgiaconservancy.org. It is still the organization's current web address. The Conservancy's sustainable growth efforts launched in 1998 as part of Smart Growth conference hosted along with the EPA, Urban Land Institute, and the Successful Communities Partners. The Georgia Conservancy remains focused on advocacy, land conservation, sustainable growth, coastal protection, and stewardship trips. The Conservancy's advocacy team has decades of experience in state politics and is dedicated to using the political process to help work year-round on key issues such as water resources, habitat protection and land conservation. The group's advocacy program has scored some key successes: The Conservancy was part of the team that worked with then-governor Sonny Perdue and the state Legislature during the 2010 General Assembly to craft and pass the nation's most progressive water conservation law. In 2012, the advocacy team helped to facilitate the permanent protection of Boyle's Island on the Altamaha River. The Georgia Conservancy's land conservation program was launched in 2011. The Conservancy believes that land conservation is a key to protecting Georgia's water resources, its plants and animals, and its citizens. The Georgia Conservancy advocates for local, state and federal policies that encourage land conservation. The advocacy team meets with public officials and their staff at all levels of government to secure their support, or to thank them for their support of land conservation funding and legislation. The Georgia Conservancy also works with landowners to encourage them to place their land in permanent protection through conservation easements or through participation in various other state and federal programs that provide financial incentives for land protection. In 2018, Georgia Conservancy worked with officials from Milton, Georgia to prioritize conservation lands including a 109-acre tract set to be protected. The Georgia Conservancy's Sustainable Growth program works to foster smart, sustainable development across Georgia. The team uses four different programs to accomplish this Blueprints for Sustainable Communities, a program designed to steer cities toward thoughtful land use decisions with regards for both economic interests and preserving the environment. Currently, Blueprints is focused on a multi-year study of sea-rise on Georgia's coast. Blueprints will celebrate its 20th year in 2015. Good Urbanism seminars teach planning professionals, government officials and neighborhood residents about the importance of sustainable growth. School Siting workshops bring together diverse stakeholders to learn more about the EPA's guidelines for school siting. Bantam private interests to conserve critical coastal lands and healthy ecosystems while promoting sustainable economic growth and development. Since 1967, the Georgia Conservancy has been guiding trips across the state that highlight Georgia's natural resources and provide the public with the opportunity to advocate for their protection. The group uses its network of partners and peers to provide public access to barrier islands, river systems and nature preserves that are normally inaccessible or off-limits to the public. What started out as six trips per year for a handful of Conservancy members has grown into a program that now serves hundreds of people each weekend, many from communities of color that have historically not been included in outdoor recreation opportunities. In 2019, The Georgia Conservancy will host more than two dozen stewardship trips and events throughout the state. The trips involve a mixture of service and sightseeing. For the most part, the Conservancy's trips last no more than three days, and are usually on weekends. Many of the trips are family-friendly, as well. Destinations include Sapelo Island along the coast, The Okefenokee Swamp in the southern part of the state, the Chattahoochee River near Atlanta and Charles McMillan became the group's coastal director in 2015. Georgia Conservancy presents the Longleaf Award annually. In 2018, at the 10th annual award ceremony, it presented the award to Katherine Kennedy of Concrete Jungle.

Georgia Conservancy

T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y w a s f o u n d e d i n 1 9 6 7 a f t e r J a m e s M a c K a y , a f o r m e r U . S . c o n g r e s s m a n f r o m D e c a t u r , G e o r g i a , g a t h e r e d a g r o u p o f G e o r g i a n s t o d i s c u s s w a y s t o p r o t e c t t h e s t a t e ' s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n w a s c r e a t e d a s a n o n - p a r t i s a n b o d y “ o r g a n i z e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o p r o m o t e f e l l o w s h i p a n d g o o d f u n a m o n g i t s m e m b e r s ” . T h e g r o u p ' s e a r l i e s t c o n s e r v a t i o n e f f o r t s w e r e l a r g e l y f o c u s e d o n p r o t e c t i n g e n d a n g e r e d p l a c e s a r o u n d t h e s t a t e . B y 1 9 6 8 , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y h a d a l r e a d y b e g u n t o i n f l u e n c e c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d p l a n n i n g d e c i s i o n s a l o n g G e o r g i a ' s c o a s t s . C o n c e r n e d b y t h e l i n k t h a t h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n a u t o m o b i l e e m i s s i o n s a n d a i r p o l l u t i o n , l e a d e r s w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n b e g a n c a l l i n g f o r m e t r o A t l a n t a t o w o r k o n i t s p u b l i c t r a n s i t s y s t e m i n 1 9 7 1 . I n 1 9 7 4 , T h e C o n s e r v a n c y c e l e b r a t e d a l a n d m a r k d e c i s i o n b y t h e G e o r g i a S u p r e m e C o u r t i n t h e “ b e a c h c a s e , ” G e o r g i a v . A s h m o r e , d e c i d e d i n f a v o r o f t h e s t a t e a n d g r a n t i n g i t t h e a u t h o r i t y t o p r o t e c t m a r s h e s a n d t i d a l r i v e r s a n d g u a r a n t e e i n g p u b l i c a c c e s s t o a l l o f G e o r g i a ' s b e a c h e s . A l s o i n 1 9 7 4 , t h e g r o u p h e l p e d t o g e t t h e C h a t t o o g a R i v e r d e s i g n a t e d a s a W i l d a n d S c e n i c r i v e r . T h e a r e a w o u l d l a t e r b e f e a t u r e d i n t h e h i t f i l m " D e l i v e r a n c e " . W o r k i n g c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y w i t h o t h e r g r o u p s , b o t h f r o m G e o r g i a a n d a c r o s s t h e n a t i o n , T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y w a s a b l e t o p r o t e c t f o u r k e y n a t u r e a r e a s a r o u n d t h e s t a t e o n l y a f e w y e a r s a f t e r i t s f o u n d a t i o n . I n 1 9 7 6 , C o n s e r v a n c y c h a m p i o n a n d c h a r t e r m e m b e r J i m m y C a r t e r w a s e l e c t e d a s p r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e 1 9 7 0 s , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y u t i l i z e d a d v o c a c y a s a m e a n s o f m a x i m i z i n g i t s s t a t e w i d e , a n d , i n s o m e c a s e s , n a t i o n a l , e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y ' s e f f o r t s r e m a i n e d f o c u s e d o n G e o r g i a ' s w a t e r w a y s , i n c l u d i n g i t s r i v e r s , c r e e k s a n d l a k e s , b u t a l s o o n G e o r g i a ' s b a r r i e r i s l a n d s a n d c o a s t a l c o m m u n i t i e s . I n 2 0 1 8 t h e g r o u p s u p p o r t e d a n a m e n d m e n t t h a t w o u l d d e d i c a t e f u n d s t o c o n s e r v a t i o n . W o r k i n g w i t h o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s a c r o s s G e o r g i a a n d t h e U . S . d u r i n g t h e 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y p u s h e d f o r i n c r e a s e d s u p p o r t f o r t h r e a t e n e d s p e c i e s a l o n g t h e c o a s t , g r e a t e r w e t l a n d s p r o t e c t i o n , t h e r e a u t h o r i z a t i o n o f t h e C l e a n A i r A c t , t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e G e o r g i a S u p e r f u n d p r o g r a m , a n d a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y - f r i e n d l y 1 9 9 6 s u m m e r O l y m p i c G a m e s i n A t l a n t a . I n 1 9 9 3 , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y l a u n c h e d “ G r e e n P e a c h e s ” ( k n o w n t o d a y a s G e n e r a t i o n G r e e n ) , a n o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y c o n s c i o u s y o u n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s . I n 1 9 9 6 , T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y l a u n c h e d i t s w e b s i t e g e o r g i a c o n s e r v a n c y . o r g . I t i s s t i l l t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s c u r r e n t w e b a d d r e s s . T h e C o n s e r v a n c y ' s s u s t a i n a b l e g r o w t h e f f o r t s l a u n c h e d i n 1 9 9 8 a s p a r t o f S m a r t G r o w t h c o n f e r e n c e h o s t e d a l o n g w i t h t h e E P A , U r b a n L a n d I n s t i t u t e , a n d t h e S u c c e s s f u l C o m m u n i t i e s P a r t n e r s . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y r e m a i n s f o c u s e d o n a d v o c a c y , l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n , s u s t a i n a b l e g r o w t h , c o a s t a l p r o t e c t i o n , a n d s t e w a r d s h i p t r i p s . T h e C o n s e r v a n c y ' s a d v o c a c y t e a m h a s d e c a d e s o f e x p e r i e n c e i n s t a t e p o l i t i c s a n d i s d e d i c a t e d t o u s i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s t o h e l p w o r k y e a r - r o u n d o n k e y i s s u e s s u c h a s w a t e r r e s o u r c e s , h a b i t a t p r o t e c t i o n a n d l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n . T h e g r o u p ' s a d v o c a c y p r o g r a m h a s s c o r e d s o m e k e y s u c c e s s e s : T h e C o n s e r v a n c y w a s p a r t o f t h e t e a m t h a t w o r k e d w i t h t h e n - g o v e r n o r S o n n y P e r d u e a n d t h e s t a t e L e g i s l a t u r e d u r i n g t h e 2 0 1 0 G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y t o c r a f t a n d p a s s t h e n a t i o n ' s m o s t p r o g r e s s i v e w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n l a w . I n 2 0 1 2 , t h e a d v o c a c y t e a m h e l p e d t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e p e r m a n e n t p r o t e c t i o n o f B o y l e ' s I s l a n d o n t h e A l t a m a h a R i v e r . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y ' s l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o g r a m w a s l a u n c h e d i n 2 0 1 1 . T h e C o n s e r v a n c y b e l i e v e s t h a t l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n i s a k e y t o p r o t e c t i n g G e o r g i a ' s w a t e r r e s o u r c e s , i t s p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s , a n d i t s c i t i z e n s . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y a d v o c a t e s f o r l o c a l , s t a t e a n d f e d e r a l p o l i c i e s t h a t e n c o u r a g e l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n . T h e a d v o c a c y t e a m m e e t s w i t h p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s a n d t h e i r s t a f f a t a l l l e v e l s o f g o v e r n m e n t t o s e c u r e t h e i r s u p p o r t , o r t o t h a n k t h e m f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t o f l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n f u n d i n g a n d l e g i s l a t i o n . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y a l s o w o r k s w i t h l a n d o w n e r s t o e n c o u r a g e t h e m t o p l a c e t h e i r l a n d i n p e r m a n e n t p r o t e c t i o n t h r o u g h c o n s e r v a t i o n e a s e m e n t s o r t h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n v a r i o u s o t h e r s t a t e a n d f e d e r a l p r o g r a m s t h a t p r o v i d e f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e s f o r l a n d p r o t e c t i o n . I n 2 0 1 8 , G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y w o r k e d w i t h o f f i c i a l s f r o m M i l t o n , G e o r g i a t o p r i o r i t i z e c o n s e r v a t i o n l a n d s i n c l u d i n g a 1 0 9 - a c r e t r a c t s e t t o b e p r o t e c t e d . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y ' s S u s t a i n a b l e G r o w t h p r o g r a m w o r k s t o f o s t e r s m a r t , s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t a c r o s s G e o r g i a . T h e t e a m u s e s f o u r d i f f e r e n t p r o g r a m s t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s B l u e p r i n t s f o r S u s t a i n a b l e C o m m u n i t i e s , a p r o g r a m d e s i g n e d t o s t e e r c i t i e s t o w a r d t h o u g h t f u l l a n d u s e d e c i s i o n s w i t h r e g a r d s f o r b o t h e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s a n d p r e s e r v i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . C u r r e n t l y , B l u e p r i n t s i s f o c u s e d o n a m u l t i - y e a r s t u d y o f s e a - r i s e o n G e o r g i a ' s c o a s t . B l u e p r i n t s w i l l c e l e b r a t e i t s 2 0 t h y e a r i n 2 0 1 5 . G o o d U r b a n i s m s e m i n a r s t e a c h p l a n n i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s , g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s a n d n e i g h b o r h o o d r e s i d e n t s a b o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s u s t a i n a b l e g r o w t h . S c h o o l S i t i n g w o r k s h o p s b r i n g t o g e t h e r d i v e r s e s t a k e h o l d e r s t o l e a r n m o r e a b o u t t h e E P A ' s g u i d e l i n e s f o r s c h o o l s i t i n g . B a n t a m T o w n s I n T h e D e e p S o u t h i s a n o n g o i n g r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t t h a t l o o k s a t t h e h u n d r e d s o f t i n y , r u r a l t o w n s s c a t t e r e d a c r o s s t h e D e e p S o u t h f o r a n s w e r s o n h o w t h e y m i g h t t h e y b e r e i n v i g o r a t e d w i t h n e w e c o n o m i c p u r p o s e . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y m a i n t a i n s a n o f f i c e i n h i s t o r i c d o w n t o w n S a v a n n a h , h e a d e d b y C o a s t a l D i r e c t o r C h a r l e s M c M i l l a n , a n d i s w o r k i n g o n a r a n g e o f p r o j e c t s t o p r o t e c t t h e n e a r l y 1 0 0 m i l e s o f c o a s t l i n e t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n p a r t n e r e d w i t h t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f G e o r g i a ' s R i v e r B a s i n C e n t e r a n d t h e C o a s t a l R e s o u r c e s D i v i s i o n o f t h e G e o r g i a D e p a r t m e n t o f N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s o n a t h r e e - y e a r s t u d y o f t h e i m p a c t s o f s e a l e v e l r i s e o n c o a s t a l G e o r g i a . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y i s a m e m b e r o f t h e C o a s t a l G e o r g i a L a n d C o n s e r v a t i o n I n i t i a t i v e ( C G L C I ) , w h i c h w o r k s w i t h p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s t o c o n s e r v e c r i t i c a l c o a s t a l l a n d s a n d h e a l t h y e c o s y s t e m s w h i l e p r o m o t i n g s u s t a i n a b l e e c o n o m i c g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . S i n c e 1 9 6 7 , t h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y h a s b e e n g u i d i n g t r i p s a c r o s s t h e s t a t e t h a t h i g h l i g h t G e o r g i a ' s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s a n d p r o v i d e t h e p u b l i c w i t h t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o a d v o c a t e f o r t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n . T h e g r o u p u s e s i t s n e t w o r k o f p a r t n e r s a n d p e e r s t o p r o v i d e p u b l i c a c c e s s t o b a r r i e r i s l a n d s , r i v e r s y s t e m s a n d n a t u r e p r e s e r v e s t h a t a r e n o r m a l l y i n a c c e s s i b l e o r o f f - l i m i t s t o t h e p u b l i c . W h a t s t a r t e d o u t a s s i x t r i p s p e r y e a r f o r a h a n d f u l o f C o n s e r v a n c y m e m b e r s h a s g r o w n i n t o a p r o g r a m t h a t n o w s e r v e s h u n d r e d s o f p e o p l e e a c h w e e k e n d , m a n y f r o m c o m m u n i t i e s o f c o l o r t h a t h a v e h i s t o r i c a l l y n o t b e e n i n c l u d e d i n o u t d o o r r e c r e a t i o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s . I n 2 0 1 9 , T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y w i l l h o s t m o r e t h a n t w o d o z e n s t e w a r d s h i p t r i p s a n d e v e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e . T h e t r i p s i n v o l v e a m i x t u r e o f s e r v i c e a n d s i g h t s e e i n g . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y ' s t r i p s l a s t n o m o r e t h a n t h r e e d a y s , a n d a r e u s u a l l y o n w e e k e n d s . M a n y o f t h e t r i p s a r e f a m i l y - f r i e n d l y , a s w e l l . D e s t i n a t i o n s i n c l u d e S a p e l o I s l a n d a l o n g t h e c o a s t , T h e O k e f e n o k e e S w a m p i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e s t a t e , t h e C h a t t a h o o c h e e R i v e r n e a r A t l a n t a a n d C h a r l e s M c M i l l a n b e c a m e t h e g r o u p ' s c o a s t a l d i r e c t o r i n 2 0 1 5 . G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y p r e s e n t s t h e L o n g l e a f A w a r d a n n u a l l y . I n 2 0 1 8 , a t t h e 1 0 t h a n n u a l a w a r d c e r e m o n y , i t p r e s e n t e d t h e a w a r d t o K a t h e r i n e K e n n e d y o f C o n c r e t e J u n g l e .

Growth in the 1980s and 1990s

The Georgia Conservancy experienced significant growth in the 1980s and 1990s. During this time, they collaborated with other organizations to push for increased support for threatened species along the coast, greater wetlands protection, the reauthorization of the Clean Air Act, the creation of the Georgia Superfund program, and an environmentally-friendly 1996 summer Olympic Games in Atlanta. They also launched "Green Peaches" (now known as Generation Green) in 1993, which aimed to engage environmentally conscious young professionals. Additionally, they launched their website in 1996 and initiated sustainable growth efforts in 1998 as part of the Smart Growth conference.

The Georgia Conservancy was founded in 1967 after James MacKay, a former U.S. congressman from Decatur, Georgia, gathered a group of Georgians to discuss ways to protect the state's natural resources. The organization was created as a non-partisan body “organized specifically to promote fellowship and good fun among its members”. The group's earliest conservation efforts were largely focused on protecting endangered places around the state. By 1968, the Conservancy had already begun to influence conservation and planning decisions along Georgia's coasts. Concerned by the link that had been established between automobile emissions and air pollution, leaders within the organization began calling for metro Atlanta to work on its public transit system in 1971. In 1974, The Conservancy celebrated a landmark decision by the Georgia Supreme Court in the “beach case,” Georgia v. Ashmore, decided in favor of the state and granting it the authority to protect marshes and tidal rivers and guaranteeing public access to all of Georgia's beaches. Also in 1974, the group helped to get the Chattooga River designated as a Wild and Scenic river. The area would later be featured in the hit film "Deliverance". Working collaboratively with other groups, both from Georgia and across the nation, The Georgia Conservancy was able to protect four key nature areas around the state only a few years after its foundation. In 1976, Conservancy champion and charter member Jimmy Carter was elected as president of the United States. In the latter part of the 1970s, the Conservancy utilized advocacy as a means of maximizing its statewide, and, in some cases, national, environmental impact. During the period, the Conservancy's efforts remained focused on Georgia's waterways, including its rivers, creeks and lakes, but also on Georgia's barrier islands and coastal communities. In 2018 the group supported an amendment that would dedicate funds to conservation. Working with other organizations across Georgia and the U.S. during the 1980s and 1990s, the Conservancy pushed for increased support for threatened species along the coast, greater wetlands protection, the reauthorization of the Clean Air Act, the creation of the Georgia Superfund program, and an environmentally-friendly 1996 summer Olympic Games in Atlanta. In 1993, the Conservancy launched “Green Peaches” (known today as Generation Green), an organization for environmentally conscious young professionals. In 1996, The Georgia Conservancy launched its website georgiaconservancy.org. It is still the organization's current web address. The Conservancy's sustainable growth efforts launched in 1998 as part of Smart Growth conference hosted along with the EPA, Urban Land Institute, and the Successful Communities Partners. The Georgia Conservancy remains focused on advocacy, land conservation, sustainable growth, coastal protection, and stewardship trips. The Conservancy's advocacy team has decades of experience in state politics and is dedicated to using the political process to help work year-round on key issues such as water resources, habitat protection and land conservation. The group's advocacy program has scored some key successes: The Conservancy was part of the team that worked with then-governor Sonny Perdue and the state Legislature during the 2010 General Assembly to craft and pass the nation's most progressive water conservation law. In 2012, the advocacy team helped to facilitate the permanent protection of Boyle's Island on the Altamaha River. The Georgia Conservancy's land conservation program was launched in 2011. The Conservancy believes that land conservation is a key to protecting Georgia's water resources, its plants and animals, and its citizens. The Georgia Conservancy advocates for local, state and federal policies that encourage land conservation. The advocacy team meets with public officials and their staff at all levels of government to secure their support, or to thank them for their support of land conservation funding and legislation. The Georgia Conservancy also works with landowners to encourage them to place their land in permanent protection through conservation easements or through participation in various other state and federal programs that provide financial incentives for land protection. In 2018, Georgia Conservancy worked with officials from Milton, Georgia to prioritize conservation lands including a 109-acre tract set to be protected. The Georgia Conservancy's Sustainable Growth program works to foster smart, sustainable development across Georgia. The team uses four different programs to accomplish this Blueprints for Sustainable Communities, a program designed to steer cities toward thoughtful land use decisions with regards for both economic interests and preserving the environment. Currently, Blueprints is focused on a multi-year study of sea-rise on Georgia's coast. Blueprints will celebrate its 20th year in 2015. Good Urbanism seminars teach planning professionals, government officials and neighborhood residents about the importance of sustainable growth. School Siting workshops bring together diverse stakeholders to learn more about the EPA's guidelines for school siting. Bantam private interests to conserve critical coastal lands and healthy ecosystems while promoting sustainable economic growth and development. Since 1967, the Georgia Conservancy has been guiding trips across the state that highlight Georgia's natural resources and provide the public with the opportunity to advocate for their protection. The group uses its network of partners and peers to provide public access to barrier islands, river systems and nature preserves that are normally inaccessible or off-limits to the public. What started out as six trips per year for a handful of Conservancy members has grown into a program that now serves hundreds of people each weekend, many from communities of color that have historically not been included in outdoor recreation opportunities. In 2019, The Georgia Conservancy will host more than two dozen stewardship trips and events throughout the state. The trips involve a mixture of service and sightseeing. For the most part, the Conservancy's trips last no more than three days, and are usually on weekends. Many of the trips are family-friendly, as well. Destinations include Sapelo Island along the coast, The Okefenokee Swamp in the southern part of the state, the Chattahoochee River near Atlanta and Charles McMillan became the group's coastal director in 2015. Georgia Conservancy presents the Longleaf Award annually. In 2018, at the 10th annual award ceremony, it presented the award to Katherine Kennedy of Concrete Jungle.

Georgia Conservancy

T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y w a s f o u n d e d i n 1 9 6 7 a f t e r J a m e s M a c K a y , a f o r m e r U . S . c o n g r e s s m a n f r o m D e c a t u r , G e o r g i a , g a t h e r e d a g r o u p o f G e o r g i a n s t o d i s c u s s w a y s t o p r o t e c t t h e s t a t e ' s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n w a s c r e a t e d a s a n o n - p a r t i s a n b o d y “ o r g a n i z e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o p r o m o t e f e l l o w s h i p a n d g o o d f u n a m o n g i t s m e m b e r s ” . T h e g r o u p ' s e a r l i e s t c o n s e r v a t i o n e f f o r t s w e r e l a r g e l y f o c u s e d o n p r o t e c t i n g e n d a n g e r e d p l a c e s a r o u n d t h e s t a t e . B y 1 9 6 8 , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y h a d a l r e a d y b e g u n t o i n f l u e n c e c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d p l a n n i n g d e c i s i o n s a l o n g G e o r g i a ' s c o a s t s . C o n c e r n e d b y t h e l i n k t h a t h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n a u t o m o b i l e e m i s s i o n s a n d a i r p o l l u t i o n , l e a d e r s w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n b e g a n c a l l i n g f o r m e t r o A t l a n t a t o w o r k o n i t s p u b l i c t r a n s i t s y s t e m i n 1 9 7 1 . I n 1 9 7 4 , T h e C o n s e r v a n c y c e l e b r a t e d a l a n d m a r k d e c i s i o n b y t h e G e o r g i a S u p r e m e C o u r t i n t h e “ b e a c h c a s e , ” G e o r g i a v . A s h m o r e , d e c i d e d i n f a v o r o f t h e s t a t e a n d g r a n t i n g i t t h e a u t h o r i t y t o p r o t e c t m a r s h e s a n d t i d a l r i v e r s a n d g u a r a n t e e i n g p u b l i c a c c e s s t o a l l o f G e o r g i a ' s b e a c h e s . A l s o i n 1 9 7 4 , t h e g r o u p h e l p e d t o g e t t h e C h a t t o o g a R i v e r d e s i g n a t e d a s a W i l d a n d S c e n i c r i v e r . T h e a r e a w o u l d l a t e r b e f e a t u r e d i n t h e h i t f i l m " D e l i v e r a n c e " . W o r k i n g c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y w i t h o t h e r g r o u p s , b o t h f r o m G e o r g i a a n d a c r o s s t h e n a t i o n , T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y w a s a b l e t o p r o t e c t f o u r k e y n a t u r e a r e a s a r o u n d t h e s t a t e o n l y a f e w y e a r s a f t e r i t s f o u n d a t i o n . I n 1 9 7 6 , C o n s e r v a n c y c h a m p i o n a n d c h a r t e r m e m b e r J i m m y C a r t e r w a s e l e c t e d a s p r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e 1 9 7 0 s , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y u t i l i z e d a d v o c a c y a s a m e a n s o f m a x i m i z i n g i t s s t a t e w i d e , a n d , i n s o m e c a s e s , n a t i o n a l , e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y ' s e f f o r t s r e m a i n e d f o c u s e d o n G e o r g i a ' s w a t e r w a y s , i n c l u d i n g i t s r i v e r s , c r e e k s a n d l a k e s , b u t a l s o o n G e o r g i a ' s b a r r i e r i s l a n d s a n d c o a s t a l c o m m u n i t i e s . I n 2 0 1 8 t h e g r o u p s u p p o r t e d a n a m e n d m e n t t h a t w o u l d d e d i c a t e f u n d s t o c o n s e r v a t i o n . W o r k i n g w i t h o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s a c r o s s G e o r g i a a n d t h e U . S . d u r i n g t h e 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y p u s h e d f o r i n c r e a s e d s u p p o r t f o r t h r e a t e n e d s p e c i e s a l o n g t h e c o a s t , g r e a t e r w e t l a n d s p r o t e c t i o n , t h e r e a u t h o r i z a t i o n o f t h e C l e a n A i r A c t , t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e G e o r g i a S u p e r f u n d p r o g r a m , a n d a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y - f r i e n d l y 1 9 9 6 s u m m e r O l y m p i c G a m e s i n A t l a n t a . I n 1 9 9 3 , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y l a u n c h e d “ G r e e n P e a c h e s ” ( k n o w n t o d a y a s G e n e r a t i o n G r e e n ) , a n o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y c o n s c i o u s y o u n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s . I n 1 9 9 6 , T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y l a u n c h e d i t s w e b s i t e g e o r g i a c o n s e r v a n c y . o r g . I t i s s t i l l t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s c u r r e n t w e b a d d r e s s . T h e C o n s e r v a n c y ' s s u s t a i n a b l e g r o w t h e f f o r t s l a u n c h e d i n 1 9 9 8 a s p a r t o f S m a r t G r o w t h c o n f e r e n c e h o s t e d a l o n g w i t h t h e E P A , U r b a n L a n d I n s t i t u t e , a n d t h e S u c c e s s f u l C o m m u n i t i e s P a r t n e r s . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y r e m a i n s f o c u s e d o n a d v o c a c y , l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n , s u s t a i n a b l e g r o w t h , c o a s t a l p r o t e c t i o n , a n d s t e w a r d s h i p t r i p s . T h e C o n s e r v a n c y ' s a d v o c a c y t e a m h a s d e c a d e s o f e x p e r i e n c e i n s t a t e p o l i t i c s a n d i s d e d i c a t e d t o u s i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s t o h e l p w o r k y e a r - r o u n d o n k e y i s s u e s s u c h a s w a t e r r e s o u r c e s , h a b i t a t p r o t e c t i o n a n d l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n . T h e g r o u p ' s a d v o c a c y p r o g r a m h a s s c o r e d s o m e k e y s u c c e s s e s : T h e C o n s e r v a n c y w a s p a r t o f t h e t e a m t h a t w o r k e d w i t h t h e n - g o v e r n o r S o n n y P e r d u e a n d t h e s t a t e L e g i s l a t u r e d u r i n g t h e 2 0 1 0 G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y t o c r a f t a n d p a s s t h e n a t i o n ' s m o s t p r o g r e s s i v e w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n l a w . I n 2 0 1 2 , t h e a d v o c a c y t e a m h e l p e d t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e p e r m a n e n t p r o t e c t i o n o f B o y l e ' s I s l a n d o n t h e A l t a m a h a R i v e r . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y ' s l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o g r a m w a s l a u n c h e d i n 2 0 1 1 . T h e C o n s e r v a n c y b e l i e v e s t h a t l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n i s a k e y t o p r o t e c t i n g G e o r g i a ' s w a t e r r e s o u r c e s , i t s p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s , a n d i t s c i t i z e n s . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y a d v o c a t e s f o r l o c a l , s t a t e a n d f e d e r a l p o l i c i e s t h a t e n c o u r a g e l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n . T h e a d v o c a c y t e a m m e e t s w i t h p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s a n d t h e i r s t a f f a t a l l l e v e l s o f g o v e r n m e n t t o s e c u r e t h e i r s u p p o r t , o r t o t h a n k t h e m f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t o f l a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n f u n d i n g a n d l e g i s l a t i o n . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y a l s o w o r k s w i t h l a n d o w n e r s t o e n c o u r a g e t h e m t o p l a c e t h e i r l a n d i n p e r m a n e n t p r o t e c t i o n t h r o u g h c o n s e r v a t i o n e a s e m e n t s o r t h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n v a r i o u s o t h e r s t a t e a n d f e d e r a l p r o g r a m s t h a t p r o v i d e f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e s f o r l a n d p r o t e c t i o n . I n 2 0 1 8 , G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y w o r k e d w i t h o f f i c i a l s f r o m M i l t o n , G e o r g i a t o p r i o r i t i z e c o n s e r v a t i o n l a n d s i n c l u d i n g a 1 0 9 - a c r e t r a c t s e t t o b e p r o t e c t e d . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y ' s S u s t a i n a b l e G r o w t h p r o g r a m w o r k s t o f o s t e r s m a r t , s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t a c r o s s G e o r g i a . T h e t e a m u s e s f o u r d i f f e r e n t p r o g r a m s t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s B l u e p r i n t s f o r S u s t a i n a b l e C o m m u n i t i e s , a p r o g r a m d e s i g n e d t o s t e e r c i t i e s t o w a r d t h o u g h t f u l l a n d u s e d e c i s i o n s w i t h r e g a r d s f o r b o t h e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s a n d p r e s e r v i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . C u r r e n t l y , B l u e p r i n t s i s f o c u s e d o n a m u l t i - y e a r s t u d y o f s e a - r i s e o n G e o r g i a ' s c o a s t . B l u e p r i n t s w i l l c e l e b r a t e i t s 2 0 t h y e a r i n 2 0 1 5 . G o o d U r b a n i s m s e m i n a r s t e a c h p l a n n i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s , g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s a n d n e i g h b o r h o o d r e s i d e n t s a b o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s u s t a i n a b l e g r o w t h . S c h o o l S i t i n g w o r k s h o p s b r i n g t o g e t h e r d i v e r s e s t a k e h o l d e r s t o l e a r n m o r e a b o u t t h e E P A ' s g u i d e l i n e s f o r s c h o o l s i t i n g . B a n t a m T o w n s I n T h e D e e p S o u t h i s a n o n g o i n g r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t t h a t l o o k s a t t h e h u n d r e d s o f t i n y , r u r a l t o w n s s c a t t e r e d a c r o s s t h e D e e p S o u t h f o r a n s w e r s o n h o w t h e y m i g h t t h e y b e r e i n v i g o r a t e d w i t h n e w e c o n o m i c p u r p o s e . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y m a i n t a i n s a n o f f i c e i n h i s t o r i c d o w n t o w n S a v a n n a h , h e a d e d b y C o a s t a l D i r e c t o r C h a r l e s M c M i l l a n , a n d i s w o r k i n g o n a r a n g e o f p r o j e c t s t o p r o t e c t t h e n e a r l y 1 0 0 m i l e s o f c o a s t l i n e t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n p a r t n e r e d w i t h t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f G e o r g i a ' s R i v e r B a s i n C e n t e r a n d t h e C o a s t a l R e s o u r c e s D i v i s i o n o f t h e G e o r g i a D e p a r t m e n t o f N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s o n a t h r e e - y e a r s t u d y o f t h e i m p a c t s o f s e a l e v e l r i s e o n c o a s t a l G e o r g i a . T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y i s a m e m b e r o f t h e C o a s t a l G e o r g i a L a n d C o n s e r v a t i o n I n i t i a t i v e ( C G L C I ) , w h i c h w o r k s w i t h p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s t o c o n s e r v e c r i t i c a l c o a s t a l l a n d s a n d h e a l t h y e c o s y s t e m s w h i l e p r o m o t i n g s u s t a i n a b l e e c o n o m i c g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . S i n c e 1 9 6 7 , t h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y h a s b e e n g u i d i n g t r i p s a c r o s s t h e s t a t e t h a t h i g h l i g h t G e o r g i a ' s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s a n d p r o v i d e t h e p u b l i c w i t h t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o a d v o c a t e f o r t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n . T h e g r o u p u s e s i t s n e t w o r k o f p a r t n e r s a n d p e e r s t o p r o v i d e p u b l i c a c c e s s t o b a r r i e r i s l a n d s , r i v e r s y s t e m s a n d n a t u r e p r e s e r v e s t h a t a r e n o r m a l l y i n a c c e s s i b l e o r o f f - l i m i t s t o t h e p u b l i c . W h a t s t a r t e d o u t a s s i x t r i p s p e r y e a r f o r a h a n d f u l o f C o n s e r v a n c y m e m b e r s h a s g r o w n i n t o a p r o g r a m t h a t n o w s e r v e s h u n d r e d s o f p e o p l e e a c h w e e k e n d , m a n y f r o m c o m m u n i t i e s o f c o l o r t h a t h a v e h i s t o r i c a l l y n o t b e e n i n c l u d e d i n o u t d o o r r e c r e a t i o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s . I n 2 0 1 9 , T h e G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y w i l l h o s t m o r e t h a n t w o d o z e n s t e w a r d s h i p t r i p s a n d e v e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e . T h e t r i p s i n v o l v e a m i x t u r e o f s e r v i c e a n d s i g h t s e e i n g . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , t h e C o n s e r v a n c y ' s t r i p s l a s t n o m o r e t h a n t h r e e d a y s , a n d a r e u s u a l l y o n w e e k e n d s . M a n y o f t h e t r i p s a r e f a m i l y - f r i e n d l y , a s w e l l . D e s t i n a t i o n s i n c l u d e S a p e l o I s l a n d a l o n g t h e c o a s t , T h e O k e f e n o k e e S w a m p i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e s t a t e , t h e C h a t t a h o o c h e e R i v e r n e a r A t l a n t a a n d C h a r l e s M c M i l l a n b e c a m e t h e g r o u p ' s c o a s t a l d i r e c t o r i n 2 0 1 5 . G e o r g i a C o n s e r v a n c y p r e s e n t s t h e L o n g l e a f A w a r d a n n u a l l y . I n 2 0 1 8 , a t t h e 1 0 t h a n n u a l a w a r d c e r e m o n y , i t p r e s e n t e d t h e a w a r d t o K a t h e r i n e K e n n e d y o f C o n c r e t e J u n g l e .

Present Day

Today, the Georgia Conservancy continues to focus on advocacy, land conservation, sustainable growth, coastal protection, and stewardship trips. Its advocacy team has decades of experience in state politics and is dedicated to using the political process to help work year-round on key issues such as water resources, habitat protection, and land conservation. The group's land conservation program was launched in 2011 and encourages landowners to place their land in permanent protection through conservation easements or participation in state and federal programs. The Sustainable Growth program fosters smart, sustainable development across Georgia through four different programs. The Conservancy also hosts stewardship trips and events throughout the state, providing public access to barrier islands, river systems, and nature preserves.

The Georgia Conservancy was founded in 1967 after James MacKay, a former U.S. congressman from Decatur, Georgia, gathered a group of Georgians to discuss ways to protect the state's natural resources. The organization was created as a non-partisan body “organized specifically to promote fellowship and good fun among its members”. The group's earliest conservation efforts were largely focused on protecting endangered places around the state. By 1968, the Conservancy had already begun to influence conservation and planning decisions along Georgia's coasts. Concerned by the link that had been established between automobile emissions and air pollution, leaders within the organization began calling for metro Atlanta to work on its public transit system in 1971. In 1974, The Conservancy celebrated a landmark decision by the Georgia Supreme Court in the “beach case,” Georgia v. Ashmore, decided in favor of the state and granting it the authority to protect marshes and tidal rivers and guaranteeing public access to all of Georgia's beaches. Also in 1974, the group helped to get the Chattooga River designated as a Wild and Scenic river. The area would later be featured in the hit film "Deliverance". Working collaboratively with other groups, both from Georgia and across the nation, The Georgia Conservancy was able to protect four key nature areas around the state only a few years after its foundation. In 1976, Conservancy champion and charter member Jimmy Carter was elected as president of the United States. In the latter part of the 1970s, the Conservancy utilized advocacy as a means of maximizing its statewide, and, in some cases, national, environmental impact. During the period, the Conservancy's efforts remained focused on Georgia's waterways, including its rivers, creeks and lakes, but also on Georgia's barrier islands and coastal communities. In 2018 the group supported an amendment that would dedicate funds to conservation. Working with other organizations across Georgia and the U.S. during the 1980s and 1990s, the Conservancy pushed for increased support for threatened species along the coast, greater wetlands protection, the reauthorization of the Clean Air Act, the creation of the Georgia Superfund program, and an environmentally-friendly 1996 summer Olympic Games in Atlanta. In 1993, the Conservancy launched “Green Peaches” (known today as Generation Green), an organization for environmentally conscious young professionals. In 1996, The Georgia Conservancy launched its website georgiaconservancy.org. It is still the organization's current web address. The Conservancy's sustainable growth efforts launched in 1998 as part of Smart Growth conference hosted along with the EPA, Urban Land Institute, and the Successful Communities Partners. The Georgia Conservancy remains focused on advocacy, land conservation, sustainable growth, coastal protection, and stewardship trips. The Conservancy's advocacy team has decades of experience in state politics and is dedicated to using the political process to help work year-round on key issues such as water resources, habitat protection and land conservation. The group's advocacy program has scored some key successes: The Conservancy was part of the team that worked with then-governor Sonny Perdue and the state Legislature during the 2010 General Assembly to craft and pass the nation's most progressive water conservation law. In 2012, the advocacy team helped to facilitate the permanent protection of Boyle's Island on the Altamaha River. The Georgia Conservancy's land conservation program was launched in 2011. The Conservancy believes that land conservation is a key to protecting Georgia's water resources, its plants and animals, and its citizens. The Georgia Conservancy advocates for local, state and federal policies that encourage land conservation. The advocacy team meets with public officials and their staff at all levels of government to secure their support, or to thank them for their support of land conservation funding and legislation. The Georgia Conservancy also works with landowners to encourage them to place their land in permanent protection through conservation easements or through participation in various other state and federal programs that provide financial incentives for land protection. In 2018, Georgia Conservancy worked with officials from Milton, Georgia to prioritize conservation lands including a 109-acre tract set to be protected. The Georgia Conservancy's Sustainable Growth program works to foster smart, sustainable development across Georgia. The team uses four different programs to accomplish this Blueprints for Sustainable Communities, a program designed to steer cities toward thoughtful land use decisions with regards for both economic interests and preserving the environment. Currently, Blueprints is focused on a multi-year study of sea-rise on Georgia's coast. Blueprints will celebrate its 20th year in 2015. Good Urbanism seminars teach planning professionals, government officials and neighborhood residents about the importance of sustainable growth. School Siting workshops bring together diverse stakeholders to learn more about the EPA's guidelines for school siting. Bantam private interests to conserve critical coastal lands and healthy ecosystems while promoting sustainable economic growth and development. Since 1967, the Georgia Conservancy has been guiding trips across the state that highlight Georgia's natural resources and provide the public with the opportunity to advocate for their protection. The group uses its network of partners and peers to provide public access to barrier islands, river systems and nature preserves that are normally inaccessible or off-limits to the public. What started out as six trips per year for a handful of Conservancy members has grown into a program that now serves hundreds of people each weekend, many from communities of color that have historically not been included in outdoor recreation opportunities. In 2019, The Georgia Conservancy will host more than two dozen stewardship trips and events throughout the state. The trips involve a mixture of service and sightseeing. For the most part, the Conservancy's trips last no more than three days, and are usually on weekends. Many of the trips are family-friendly, as well. Destinations include Sapelo Island along the coast, The Okefenokee Swamp in the southern part of the state, the Chattahoochee River near Atlanta and Charles McMillan became the group's coastal director in 2015. Georgia Conservancy presents the Longleaf Award annually. In 2018, at the 10th annual award ceremony, it presented the award to Katherine Kennedy of Concrete Jungle.

John Stockdale Hardy

B o r n a t L e i c e s t e r 7 O c t o b e r 1 7 9 3 , h e w a s t h e o n l y c h i l d o f W i l l i a m H a r d y , a m a n u f a c t u r e r t h e r e . A f t e r e d u c a t i o n i n a p r i v a t e s c h o o l i n L e i c e s t e r , h e w a s a d m i t t e d a p r o c t o r a n d n o t a r y p u b l i c , a n d b e c a m e a p r a c t i t i o n e r i n t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c o u r t s . O n t h e d e a t h o f h i s m a t e r n a l u n c l e W i l l i a m H a r r i s o n , H a r d y s u c c e e d e d h i m a s r e g i s t r a r o f t h e a r c h d e a c o n r y c o u r t o f L e i c e s t e r , o f t h e c o u r t o f t h e c o m m i s s a r y o f t h e B i s h o p o f L i n c o l n , a n d o f t h e c o u r t o f t h e p e c u l i a r a n d e x e m p t j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e m a n o r a n d s o k e o f R o t h l e y . I n 1 8 2 6 h e w a s e l e c t e d a F e l l o w o f t h e S o c i e t y o f A n t i q u a r i e s o f L o n d o n . H a r d y w a s k n o w n f o r h i s a n t i - C a t h o l i c p o l e m i c s . I n 1 8 2 8 G e o r g e K e n y o n , 2 n d B a r o n K e n y o n a n d L o r d H o w e u s e d h i m a s a c a m p a i g n e r , i n a n e f f o r t t o t u r n L e i c e s t e r s h i r e a g a i n s t C a t h o l i c e m a n c i p a t i o n . H e r e t a i n e d a l l h i s l e g a l a p p o i n t m e n t s t i l l h i s d e a t h a t L e i c e s t e r o n 1 9 J u l y 1 8 4 9 . H a r d y ' s " L i t e r a r y R e m a i n s " w e r e c o l l e c t e d b y J o h n G o u g h N i c h o l s , a n d p u b l i s h e d a t W e s t m i n s t e r i n 1 8 5 2 . T h e y i n c l u d e d e s s a y s o n e c c l e s i a s t i c a l l a w , e s s a y s a n d s p e e c h e s o n p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s , a n d b i o g r a p h i c a l , l i t e r a r y , a n d m i s c e l l a n e o u s e s s a y s . A t t r i b u t i o n

Life

Thomas Hardy (not to be confused with the novelist) was born in Leicester in 1793. He worked as a lawyer and held various positions in the ecclesiastical courts. He was also a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London and wrote anti-Catholic pamphlets. He died in 1849, and his writings were later collected and published in 1852.

Born at Leicester 7 October 1793, he was the only child of William Hardy, a manufacturer there. After education in a private school in Leicester, he was admitted a proctor and notary public, and became a practitioner in the ecclesiastical courts. On the death of his maternal uncle William Harrison, Hardy succeeded him as registrar of the archdeaconry court of Leicester, of the court of the commissary of the Bishop of Lincoln, and of the court of the peculiar and exempt jurisdiction of the manor and soke of Rothley. In 1826 he was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Hardy was known for his anti-Catholic polemics. In 1828 George Kenyon, 2nd Baron Kenyon and Lord Howe used him as a campaigner, in an effort to turn Leicestershire against Catholic emancipation. He retained all his legal appointments till his death at Leicester on 19 July 1849. Hardy's "Literary Remains" were collected by John Gough Nichols, and published at Westminster in 1852. They included essays on ecclesiastical law, essays and speeches on political questions, and biographical, literary, and miscellaneous essays. Attribution

Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act

A d o p t i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m a y b e e i t h e r d o m e s t i c o r f r o m a n o t h e r c o u n t r y . D o m e s t i c a d o p t i o n s c a n b e a r r a n g e d e i t h e r t h r o u g h a d o p t i o n a g e n c y o r i n d e p e n d e n t l y . A d o p t i o n a g e n c i e s m u s t b e l i c e n s e d b y t h e s t a t e i n w h i c h t h e y o p e r a t e . T h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t m a i n t a i n s a w e b s i t e , C h i l d W e l f a r e I n f o r m a t i o n G a t e w a y , w h i c h l i s t s e a c h s t a t e ' s l i c e n s e d a g e n c i e s . T h e r e a r e b o t h p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c a d o p t i o n a g e n c i e s . P r i v a t e a d o p t i o n a g e n c i e s o f t e n f o c u s o n i n f a n t a d o p t i o n s , w h i l e p u b l i c a d o p t i o n a g e n c i e s t y p i c a l l y h e l p f i n d h o m e s f o r w a i t i n g c h i l d r e n , m a n y o f t h e m p r e s e n t l y i n f o s t e r c a r e a n d i n n e e d o f a p e r m a n e n t l o v i n g h o m e . T o a s s i s t i n t h e a d o p t i o n o f w a i t i n g c h i l d r e n , t h e r e i s a U . S . g o v e r n m e n t - a f f i l i a t e d w e b s i t e , A d o p t U S K i d s . o r g , a s s i s t i n g i n s h a r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s e c h i l d r e n w i t h p o t e n t i a l a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . T h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l o n A d o p t a b l e C h i l d r e n p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n o n f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e t o a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s ( c a l l e d a d o p t i o n s u b s i d i e s ) w h e n a d o p t i n g a c h i l d w i t h s p e c i a l n e e d s . I n d e p e n d e n t a d o p t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y a r r a n g e d b y a t t o r n e y s a n d t y p i c a l l y i n v o l v e n e w b o r n c h i l d r e n . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 5 % o f a l l U . S . n e w b o r n a d o p t i o n s a r e c o m p l e t e d v i a i n d e p e n d e n t a d o p t i o n . T h e 2 0 0 0 c e n s u s w a s t h e f i r s t c e n s u s i n w h i c h a d o p t i o n s t a t i s t i c s w e r e c o l l e c t e d . T h e e s t i m a t e d n u m b e r o f c h i l d r e n a d o p t e d i n t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0 w a s s l i g h t l y o v e r 1 2 8 , 0 0 0 , b r i n g i n g t h e t o t a l U . S . p o p u l a t i o n o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n t o 2 , 0 5 8 , 9 1 5 . I n 2 0 0 8 t h e n u m b e r o f c h i l d r e n a d o p t e d i n c r e a s e d t o n e a r l y 1 3 6 , 0 0 0 . P r o v i s i o n s f o r r e c o v e r y o f c h i l d s u p p o r t a r e a s u b j e c t o f s t a t e - l a w ( r a t h e r t h a n f e d e r a l l a w ) i n t h e U S . F o r t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o v e r y o f c h i l d s u p p o r t , b i l a t e r a l a g r e e m e n t s a r e i n p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e U S a n d a n u m b e r o f c o u n t r i e s , a n d c e r t a i n U S S t a t e s h a v e b i l a t e r a l a g r e e m e n t s w i t h c o u n t r i e s i n p l a c e . I n 2 0 0 7 t h e H a g u e M a i n t e n a n c e C o n v e n t i o n w a s a d o p t e d w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e H a g u e C o n f e r e n c e o n P r i v a t e I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w , a i m e d a t r e c o v e r y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a i n t e n a n c e . T h e c o n v e n t i o n r e q u i r e s c o u n t r i e s t o s e t u p C e n t r a l A u t h o r i t i e s t o c o o r d i n a t e r e c o v e r y o f m a i n t e n a n c e , a n d p r o v i d e s f o r r e c o g n i t i o n a n d e n f o r c e m e n t m e a s u r e s o f j u d i c i a l m a i n t e n a n c e d e c i s i o n s . T h e U S w a s t h e f i r s t t o s i g n t h e c o n v e n t i o n i n 2 0 0 7 a n d t h e S e n a t e a p p r o v e d i t s e v e r a l y e a r s l a t e r . R a t i f i c a t i o n b y t h e U S c o u l d n o t t a k e p l a c e b e c a u s e d o m e s t i c l e g i s l a t i o n n e e d s t o b e a m e n d e d . M e a n w h i l e t h e a g r e e m e n t h a s e n t e r e d i n t o f o r c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n a n d 5 o t h e r E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s : A l b a n i a , B o s n i a a n d H e r z e g o v i n a , N o r w a y a n d U k r a i n e . " T h i s s u m m a r y i s b a s e d l a r g e l y o n t h e s u m m a r y p r o v i d e d b y t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e , a p u b l i c d o m a i n s o u r c e . " T h e P r e v e n t i n g S e x T r a f f i c k i n g a n d S t r e n g t h e n i n g F a m i l i e s A c t w o u l d a m e n d p a r t E ( F o s t e r C a r e a n d A d o p t i o n A s s i s t a n c e ) o f t i t l e I V o f t h e S o c i a l S e c u r i t y A c t ( S S A ) t o r e q u i r e t h e s t a t e p l a n f o r f o s t e r c a r e a n d a d o p t i o n a s s i s t a n c e t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e s t a t e a g e n c y h a s d e v e l o p e d p o l i c i e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s f o r i d e n t i f y i n g , d o c u m e n t i n g i n a g e n c y r e c o r d s , a n d d e t e r m i n i n g a p p r o p r i a t e s e r v i c e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o , a n y c h i l d o r y o u t h o v e r w h o m t h e s t a t e a g e n c y h a s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p l a c e m e n t , c a r e , o r s u p e r v i s i o n w h o t h e s t a t e h a s r e a s o n a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e i s , o r i s a t r i s k o f b e i n g , a v i c t i m o f s e x t r a f f i c k i n g o r a s e v e r e f o r m o f t r a f f i c k i n g i n p e r s o n s . T h e b i l l w o u l d a u t h o r i z e a s t a t e , a t i t s o p t i o n , t o i d e n t i f y a n d d o c u m e n t a n y i n d i v i d u a l u n d e r a g e 2 6 w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o w h e t h e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s o r w a s i n f o s t e r c a r e u n d e r s t a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . T h e b i l l w o u l d a d d a s s t a t e p l a n r e q u i r e m e n t s : ( 1 ) t h e r e p o r t i n g t o l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a u t h o r i t i e s o f i n s t a n c e s o f s e x t r a f f i c k i n g , a s w e l l a s ( 2 ) t h e l o c a t i n g o f a n d r e s p o n d i n g t o c h i l d r e n w h o h a v e r u n a w a y f r o m f o s t e r c a r e . T h e b i l l w o u l d i n c l u d e s e x t r a f f i c k i n g d a t a i n t h e a d o p t i o n a n d f o s t e r c a r e a n a l y s i s a n d r e p o r t i n g s y s t e m ( A F C A R S ) . T h e b i l l w o u l d d i r e c t t h e s t a t e a g e n c y t o r e p o r t i m m e d i a t e l y i n f o r m a t i o n o n m i s s i n g o r a b d u c t e d c h i l d r e n o r y o u t h t o l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a u t h o r i t i e s f o r e n t r y i n t o t h e N a t i o n a l C r i m e I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t e r ( N C I C ) d a t a b a s e o f t h e F e d e r a l B u r e a u o f I n v e s t i g a t i o n ( F B I ) a n d t o t h e N a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r M i s s i n g a n d E x p l o i t e d C h i l d r e n . T h e b i l l w o u l d r e q u i r e t h e d e s i g n a t e d s t a t e a u t h o r i t y o r a u t h o r i t i e s t o : ( 1 ) d e v e l o p a r e a s o n a b l e a n d p r u d e n t p a r e n t s t a n d a r d f o r t h e c h i l d ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a g e o r d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r , e n r i c h m e n t , c u l t u r a l , a n d s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s ; a n d ( 2 ) a p p l y t h i s s t a n d a r d t o a n y f o s t e r f a m i l y h o m e o r c h i l d c a r e i n s t i t u t i o n r e c e i v i n g f u n d s u n d e r t i t l e I V p a r t E . T h e b i l l w o u l d d i r e c t t h e S e c r e t a r y t o p r o v i d e a s s i s t a n c e t o s t a t e s o n b e s t p r a c t i c e s f o r d e v i s i n g s t r a t e g i e s t o a s s i s t f o s t e r p a r e n t s i n a p p l y i n g a r e a s o n a b l e a n d p r u d e n t p a r e n t s t a n d a r d i n a s p e c i f i e d m a n n e r . T h e b i l l w o u l d m a k e i t a p u r p o s e o f t h e J o h n H . C h a f e e F o s t e r C a r e I n d e p e n d e n c e P r o g r a m t o e n s u r e t h a t c h i l d r e n w h o a r e l i k e l y t o r e m a i n i n f o s t e r c a r e u n t i l a g e 1 8 h a v e r e g u l a r , o n g o i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o e n g a g e i n a g e o r d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y - a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i v i t i e s . A u t h o r i z e s i n c r e a s e d a p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r t h e p r o g r a m b e g i n n i n g i n F Y 2 0 2 0 . T h e b i l l w o u l d l i m i t t o c h i l d r e n a g e 1 6 o r o l d e r t h e o p t i o n , i n a n i n i t i a l p e r m a n e n c y h e a r i n g , o f b e i n g p l a c e d i n a p l a n n e d p e r m a n e n t l i v i n g a r r a n g e m e n t o t h e r t h a n a r e t u r n t o h o m e , r e f e r r a l f o r t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r e n t a l r i g h t s , o r p l a c e m e n t f o r a d o p t i o n , w i t h a f i t a n d w i l l i n g r e l a t i v e ( i n c l u d i n g a n a d u l t s i b l i n g ) , o r w i t h a l e g a l g u a r d i a n . P r e s c r i b e s d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r s u c h a n o p t i o n . T h e b i l l w o u l d g i v e c h i l d r e n a g e 1 4 a n d o l d e r a u t h o r i t y t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n : ( 1 ) t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i r o w n c a s e p l a n s , i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h u p t o t w o m e m b e r s o f t h e c a s e p l a n n i n g t e a m ; a s w e l l a s ( 2 ) t r a n s i t i o n a l p l a n n i n g f o r a s u c c e s s f u l a d u l t h o o d . S p e c i f i e s a d d i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a c a s e p l a n . T h e b i l l w o u l d r e q u i r e t h e c a s e r e v i e w s y s t e m t o a s s u r e t h a t f o s t e r c h i l d r e n l e a v i n g f o s t e r c a r e b e c a u s e o f h a v i n g a t t a i n e d a g e 1 8 ( o r a g r e a t e r a g e t h e s t a t e h a s e l e c t e d ) , u n l e s s i n f o s t e r c a r e l e s s t h a n s i x m o n t h s , a r e n o t d i s c h a r g e d w i t h o u t b e i n g p r o v i d e d w i t h a c o p y o f t h e i r b i r t h c e r t i f i c a t e , S o c i a l S e c u r i t y c a r d , h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e i n f o r m a t i o n , c o p y o f m e d i c a l r e c o r d s , a n d a d r i v e r ' s l i c e n s e o r e q u i v a l e n t s t a t e - i s s u e d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c a r d . T h e b i l l w o u l d a m e n d S S A t i t l e X I t o e s t a b l i s h t h e N a t i o n a l A d v i s o r y C o m m i t t e e o n t h e S e x T r a f f i c k i n g o f C h i l d r e n a n d Y o u t h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e b i l l w o u l d a m e n d S S A t i t l e I V p a r t E t o e x t e n d t h r o u g h F Y 2 0 1 6 r e v i s e c e r t a i n r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e a d o p t i o n i n c e n t i v e p r o g r a m , r e n a m i n g i t t h e a d o p t i o n a n d l e g a l g u a r d i a n s h i p i n c e n t i v e p a y m e n t s p r o g r a m . T h e b i l l w o u l d r e q u i r e s t a t e s t o r e p o r t a n n u a l l y t o t h e S e c r e t a r y o n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n a n d u s e o f s a v i n g s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e p h a s e - o u t o f e l i g i b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a d o p t i o n a s s i s t a n c e . T h e b i l l w o u l d p r e s e r v e t h e e l i g i b i l i t y o f a c h i l d f o r k i n s h i p g u a r d i a n s h i p a s s i s t a n c e p a y m e n t s w h e n a g u a r d i a n i s r e p l a c e d w i t h a s u c c e s s o r g u a r d i a n . T h e b i l l w o u l d r e q u i r e n o t i f i c a t i o n o f p a r e n t s o f a s i b l i n g , w h e r e t h e p a r e n t h a s l e g a l c u s t o d y o f t h e s i b l i n g , w h e n a c h i l d i s r e m o v e d f r o m p a r e n t a l c u s t o d y . T h e b i l l w o u l d e x t e n d t h e f a m i l y c o n n e c t i o n g r a n t p r o g r a m t h r o u g h F Y 2 0 1 4 . T h e b i l l w o u l d r e v i s e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c h i l d s u p p o r t r e c o v e r y , f o r m i n g t h e f e d e r a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e 2 0 0 7 H a g u e M a i n t e n a n c e C o n v e n t i o n . T h e p r o v i s i o n s e n t e r i n t o f o r c e a f t e r a r e v i s e d v e r s i o n o f U I F S A h a s b e e n p a s s e d i n a l l s t a t e s , a n d p l a c e a p e n a l t y o n t h o s e s t a t e s t h a t d o n ' t d o s o i n t h e q u a r t e r f o l l o w i n g t h e i r n e x t l e g i s l a t i v e y e a r . T h e b i l l w o u l d g r a n t I n d i a n t r i b e s a c c e s s t o t h e F e d e r a l P a r e n t L o c a t o r S e r v i c e ( F P L S ) . T h e b i l l w o u l d e x p r e s s t h e s e n s e o f t h e C o n g r e s s a b o u t t h e o f f e r i n g o f v o l u n t a r y p a r e n t i n g t i m e a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h e b i l l w o u l d s e t f o r t h r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r d a t a e x c h a n g e s t a n d a r d s f o r i m p r o v e d i n t e r o p e r a b i l i t y . T h e b i l l w o u l d a m e n d p a r t D ( C h i l d S u p p o r t a n d E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f P a t e r n i t y ) o f S S A t i t l e I V t o g i v e t h e e m p l o y e r t h e o p t i o n o f u s i n g e l e c t r o n i c t r a n s m i s s i o n m e t h o d s p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e S e c r e t a r y f o r i n c o m e w i t h h o l d i n g i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n a n d d i s b u r s e m e n t o f c h i l d s u p p o r t p a y m e n t s . T h e P r e v e n t i n g S e x T r a f f i c k i n g a n d S t r e n g t h e n i n g F a m i l i e s A c t w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o n J u n e 2 6 , 2 0 1 4 b y R e p . D a v e C a m p ( R , M I - 4 ) . I t w a s r e f e r r e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s H o u s e C o m m i t t e e o n W a y s a n d M e a n s a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s H o u s e C o m m i t t e e o n t h e B u d g e t . O n J u l y 2 3 , 2 0 1 4 , t h e H o u s e v o t e d t o p a s s t h e b i l l i n a v o i c e v o t e . A c c o r d i n g t o R e p . C a m p , w h o s p o n s o r e d t h e b i l l , " w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n g r e a t p r o g r e s s i n i n c r e a s i n g a d o p t i o n s s i n c e ( t h e A d o p t i o n I n c e n t i v e s p r o g r a m ) w a s c r e a t e d i n 1 9 9 7 , a n d i t i s o u r h o p e t o c o n t i n u e t h i s p r o g r e s s w i t h t h i s b i l l . " T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n F i r s t F o c u s C a m p a i g n f o r C h i l d r e n s u p p o r t e d t h e b i l l , w r i t i n g a l e t t e r t h a t " u r g e s H o u s e l e a d e r s h i p t o b r i n g t h i s b i l l t o t h e f l o o r a n d e n s u r e i t s s w i f t p a s s a g e s o t h a t v u l n e r a b l e y o u t h a n d c h i l d r e n c a n b e n e f i t f r o m t h e s e i m p o r t a n t r e f o r m s . "

Provisions of the bill

This bill aims to prevent sex trafficking and strengthen families by amending the Social Security Act. Key provisions include: * Requiring states to identify and document victims of sex trafficking among foster care children * Reporting instances of sex trafficking to law enforcement and locating missing children * Developing a "reasonable and prudent parent" standard for foster care * Providing assistance to states on best practices for supporting foster parents * Limiting options for children aged 16+ in permanency hearings * Giving children aged 14+ more autonomy in case planning * Establishing a national advisory committee on sex trafficking of children and youth * Extending and revising various programs related to adoption, kinship guardianship, and child support."

by the Congressional Research Service, a public domain source. " The Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act would amend part E (Foster Care and Adoption Assistance) of title IV of the Social Security Act (SSA) to require the state plan for foster care and adoption assistance to demonstrate that the state agency has developed policies and procedures for identifying, documenting in agency records, and determining appropriate services with respect to, any child or youth over whom the state agency has responsibility for placement, care, or supervision who the state has reasonable cause to believe is, or is at risk of being, a victim of sex trafficking or a severe form of trafficking in persons. The bill would authorize a state, at its option, to identify and document any individual under age 26 without regard to whether the individual is or was in foster care under state responsibility. The bill would add as state plan requirements: (1) the reporting to law enforcement authorities of instances of sex trafficking, as well as (2) the locating of and responding to children who have run away from foster care. The bill would include sex trafficking data in the adoption and foster care analysis and reporting system (AFCARS). The bill would direct the state agency to report immediately information on missing or abducted children or youth to law enforcement authorities for entry into the National Crime Information Center (NCIC) database of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. The bill would require the designated state authority or authorities to: (1) develop a reasonable and prudent parent standard for the child's participation in age or developmentally appropriate extracurricular, enrichment, cultural, and social activities; and (2) apply this standard to any foster family home or child care institution receiving funds under title IV part E. The bill would direct the Secretary to provide assistance to states on best practices for devising strategies to assist foster parents in applying a reasonable and prudent parent standard in a specified manner. The bill would make it a purpose of the John H. Chafee Foster Care Independence Program to ensure that children who are likely to remain in foster care until age 18 have regular, ongoing opportunities to engage in age or developmentally-appropriate activities. Authorizes increased appropriations for the program beginning in FY2020. The bill would limit to children age 16 or older the option, in an initial permanency hearing, of being placed in a planned permanent living arrangement other than a return to home, referral for termination of parental rights, or placement for adoption, with a fit and willing relative (including an adult sibling), or with a legal guardian. Prescribes documentation and determination requirements for such an option. The bill would give children age 14 and older authority to participate in: (1) the development of their own case plans, in consultation with up to two members of the case planning team; as well as (2) transitional planning for a successful adulthood. Specifies additional requirements for a case plan. The bill would require the case review system to assure that foster children leaving foster care because of having attained age 18 (or a greater age the state has elected), unless in foster care less than six months, are not discharged without being provided with a copy of their birth certificate, Social Security card, health insurance information, copy of medical records, and a driver's license or equivalent state-issued identification card. The bill would amend SSA title XI to establish the National Advisory Committee on the Sex Trafficking of Children and Youth in the United States. The bill would amend SSA title IV part E to extend through FY2016 revise certain requirements for the adoption incentive program, renaming it the adoption and legal guardianship incentive payments program. The bill would require states to report annually to the Secretary on the calculation and use of savings resulting from the phase-out of eligibility requirements for adoption assistance. The bill would preserve the eligibility of a child for kinship guardianship assistance payments when a guardian is replaced with a successor guardian. The bill would require notification of parents of a sibling, where the parent has legal custody of the sibling, when a child is removed from parental custody. The bill would extend the family connection grant program through FY2014. The bill would revise requirements for international child support recovery, forming the federal implementation required for ratification of the 2007 Hague Maintenance Convention. The provisions enter into force after a revised version of UIFSA has been passed in all states, and place a penalty on those states that don't do so in the quarter following their next legislative year. The bill would grant Indian tribes access to the Federal Parent Locator Service (FPLS). The bill would express the sense of the Congress about the offering of voluntary parenting time arrangements. The bill would set forth requirements for data exchange standards for improved interoperability. The bill would amend part D (Child Support and Establishment of Paternity) of SSA title IV to give the employer the option of using electronic transmission methods prescribed by the Secretary for income withholding in the collection and disbursement of child support payments. The Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act was introduced into the United States House of Representatives on June 26, 2014 by Rep. Dave Camp (R, MI-4). It was referred to the United States House Committee on Ways and Means and the United States House Committee on the Budget. On July 23, 2014, the House voted to pass the bill in a voice vote. According to Rep. Camp, who sponsored the bill, "we have already seen great progress in increasing adoptions since (the Adoption Incentives program) was created in 1997, and it is our hope to continue this progress with this bill. " The organization First Focus Campaign for Children supported the bill, writing a letter that "urges House leadership to bring this bill to the floor and ensure its swift passage so that vulnerable youth and children can benefit from these important reforms. "

Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act

A d o p t i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m a y b e e i t h e r d o m e s t i c o r f r o m a n o t h e r c o u n t r y . D o m e s t i c a d o p t i o n s c a n b e a r r a n g e d e i t h e r t h r o u g h a d o p t i o n a g e n c y o r i n d e p e n d e n t l y . A d o p t i o n a g e n c i e s m u s t b e l i c e n s e d b y t h e s t a t e i n w h i c h t h e y o p e r a t e . T h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t m a i n t a i n s a w e b s i t e , C h i l d W e l f a r e I n f o r m a t i o n G a t e w a y , w h i c h l i s t s e a c h s t a t e ' s l i c e n s e d a g e n c i e s . T h e r e a r e b o t h p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c a d o p t i o n a g e n c i e s . P r i v a t e a d o p t i o n a g e n c i e s o f t e n f o c u s o n i n f a n t a d o p t i o n s , w h i l e p u b l i c a d o p t i o n a g e n c i e s t y p i c a l l y h e l p f i n d h o m e s f o r w a i t i n g c h i l d r e n , m a n y o f t h e m p r e s e n t l y i n f o s t e r c a r e a n d i n n e e d o f a p e r m a n e n t l o v i n g h o m e . T o a s s i s t i n t h e a d o p t i o n o f w a i t i n g c h i l d r e n , t h e r e i s a U . S . g o v e r n m e n t - a f f i l i a t e d w e b s i t e , A d o p t U S K i d s . o r g , a s s i s t i n g i n s h a r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s e c h i l d r e n w i t h p o t e n t i a l a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s . T h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l o n A d o p t a b l e C h i l d r e n p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n o n f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e t o a d o p t i v e p a r e n t s ( c a l l e d a d o p t i o n s u b s i d i e s ) w h e n a d o p t i n g a c h i l d w i t h s p e c i a l n e e d s . I n d e p e n d e n t a d o p t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y a r r a n g e d b y a t t o r n e y s a n d t y p i c a l l y i n v o l v e n e w b o r n c h i l d r e n . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 5 % o f a l l U . S . n e w b o r n a d o p t i o n s a r e c o m p l e t e d v i a i n d e p e n d e n t a d o p t i o n . T h e 2 0 0 0 c e n s u s w a s t h e f i r s t c e n s u s i n w h i c h a d o p t i o n s t a t i s t i c s w e r e c o l l e c t e d . T h e e s t i m a t e d n u m b e r o f c h i l d r e n a d o p t e d i n t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0 w a s s l i g h t l y o v e r 1 2 8 , 0 0 0 , b r i n g i n g t h e t o t a l U . S . p o p u l a t i o n o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n t o 2 , 0 5 8 , 9 1 5 . I n 2 0 0 8 t h e n u m b e r o f c h i l d r e n a d o p t e d i n c r e a s e d t o n e a r l y 1 3 6 , 0 0 0 . P r o v i s i o n s f o r r e c o v e r y o f c h i l d s u p p o r t a r e a s u b j e c t o f s t a t e - l a w ( r a t h e r t h a n f e d e r a l l a w ) i n t h e U S . F o r t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o v e r y o f c h i l d s u p p o r t , b i l a t e r a l a g r e e m e n t s a r e i n p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e U S a n d a n u m b e r o f c o u n t r i e s , a n d c e r t a i n U S S t a t e s h a v e b i l a t e r a l a g r e e m e n t s w i t h c o u n t r i e s i n p l a c e . I n 2 0 0 7 t h e H a g u e M a i n t e n a n c e C o n v e n t i o n w a s a d o p t e d w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e H a g u e C o n f e r e n c e o n P r i v a t e I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w , a i m e d a t r e c o v e r y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a i n t e n a n c e . T h e c o n v e n t i o n r e q u i r e s c o u n t r i e s t o s e t u p C e n t r a l A u t h o r i t i e s t o c o o r d i n a t e r e c o v e r y o f m a i n t e n a n c e , a n d p r o v i d e s f o r r e c o g n i t i o n a n d e n f o r c e m e n t m e a s u r e s o f j u d i c i a l m a i n t e n a n c e d e c i s i o n s . T h e U S w a s t h e f i r s t t o s i g n t h e c o n v e n t i o n i n 2 0 0 7 a n d t h e S e n a t e a p p r o v e d i t s e v e r a l y e a r s l a t e r . R a t i f i c a t i o n b y t h e U S c o u l d n o t t a k e p l a c e b e c a u s e d o m e s t i c l e g i s l a t i o n n e e d s t o b e a m e n d e d . M e a n w h i l e t h e a g r e e m e n t h a s e n t e r e d i n t o f o r c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n a n d 5 o t h e r E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s : A l b a n i a , B o s n i a a n d H e r z e g o v i n a , N o r w a y a n d U k r a i n e . " T h i s s u m m a r y i s b a s e d l a r g e l y o n t h e s u m m a r y p r o v i d e d b y t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e , a p u b l i c d o m a i n s o u r c e . " T h e P r e v e n t i n g S e x T r a f f i c k i n g a n d S t r e n g t h e n i n g F a m i l i e s A c t w o u l d a m e n d p a r t E ( F o s t e r C a r e a n d A d o p t i o n A s s i s t a n c e ) o f t i t l e I V o f t h e S o c i a l S e c u r i t y A c t ( S S A ) t o r e q u i r e t h e s t a t e p l a n f o r f o s t e r c a r e a n d a d o p t i o n a s s i s t a n c e t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e s t a t e a g e n c y h a s d e v e l o p e d p o l i c i e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s f o r i d e n t i f y i n g , d o c u m e n t i n g i n a g e n c y r e c o r d s , a n d d e t e r m i n i n g a p p r o p r i a t e s e r v i c e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o , a n y c h i l d o r y o u t h o v e r w h o m t h e s t a t e a g e n c y h a s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p l a c e m e n t , c a r e , o r s u p e r v i s i o n w h o t h e s t a t e h a s r e a s o n a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e i s , o r i s a t r i s k o f b e i n g , a v i c t i m o f s e x t r a f f i c k i n g o r a s e v e r e f o r m o f t r a f f i c k i n g i n p e r s o n s . T h e b i l l w o u l d a u t h o r i z e a s t a t e , a t i t s o p t i o n , t o i d e n t i f y a n d d o c u m e n t a n y i n d i v i d u a l u n d e r a g e 2 6 w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o w h e t h e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s o r w a s i n f o s t e r c a r e u n d e r s t a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . T h e b i l l w o u l d a d d a s s t a t e p l a n r e q u i r e m e n t s : ( 1 ) t h e r e p o r t i n g t o l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a u t h o r i t i e s o f i n s t a n c e s o f s e x t r a f f i c k i n g , a s w e l l a s ( 2 ) t h e l o c a t i n g o f a n d r e s p o n d i n g t o c h i l d r e n w h o h a v e r u n a w a y f r o m f o s t e r c a r e . T h e b i l l w o u l d i n c l u d e s e x t r a f f i c k i n g d a t a i n t h e a d o p t i o n a n d f o s t e r c a r e a n a l y s i s a n d r e p o r t i n g s y s t e m ( A F C A R S ) . T h e b i l l w o u l d d i r e c t t h e s t a t e a g e n c y t o r e p o r t i m m e d i a t e l y i n f o r m a t i o n o n m i s s i n g o r a b d u c t e d c h i l d r e n o r y o u t h t o l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a u t h o r i t i e s f o r e n t r y i n t o t h e N a t i o n a l C r i m e I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t e r ( N C I C ) d a t a b a s e o f t h e F e d e r a l B u r e a u o f I n v e s t i g a t i o n ( F B I ) a n d t o t h e N a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r M i s s i n g a n d E x p l o i t e d C h i l d r e n . T h e b i l l w o u l d r e q u i r e t h e d e s i g n a t e d s t a t e a u t h o r i t y o r a u t h o r i t i e s t o : ( 1 ) d e v e l o p a r e a s o n a b l e a n d p r u d e n t p a r e n t s t a n d a r d f o r t h e c h i l d ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a g e o r d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r , e n r i c h m e n t , c u l t u r a l , a n d s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s ; a n d ( 2 ) a p p l y t h i s s t a n d a r d t o a n y f o s t e r f a m i l y h o m e o r c h i l d c a r e i n s t i t u t i o n r e c e i v i n g f u n d s u n d e r t i t l e I V p a r t E . T h e b i l l w o u l d d i r e c t t h e S e c r e t a r y t o p r o v i d e a s s i s t a n c e t o s t a t e s o n b e s t p r a c t i c e s f o r d e v i s i n g s t r a t e g i e s t o a s s i s t f o s t e r p a r e n t s i n a p p l y i n g a r e a s o n a b l e a n d p r u d e n t p a r e n t s t a n d a r d i n a s p e c i f i e d m a n n e r . T h e b i l l w o u l d m a k e i t a p u r p o s e o f t h e J o h n H . C h a f e e F o s t e r C a r e I n d e p e n d e n c e P r o g r a m t o e n s u r e t h a t c h i l d r e n w h o a r e l i k e l y t o r e m a i n i n f o s t e r c a r e u n t i l a g e 1 8 h a v e r e g u l a r , o n g o i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o e n g a g e i n a g e o r d e v e l o p m e n t a l l y - a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i v i t i e s . A u t h o r i z e s i n c r e a s e d a p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r t h e p r o g r a m b e g i n n i n g i n F Y 2 0 2 0 . T h e b i l l w o u l d l i m i t t o c h i l d r e n a g e 1 6 o r o l d e r t h e o p t i o n , i n a n i n i t i a l p e r m a n e n c y h e a r i n g , o f b e i n g p l a c e d i n a p l a n n e d p e r m a n e n t l i v i n g a r r a n g e m e n t o t h e r t h a n a r e t u r n t o h o m e , r e f e r r a l f o r t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r e n t a l r i g h t s , o r p l a c e m e n t f o r a d o p t i o n , w i t h a f i t a n d w i l l i n g r e l a t i v e ( i n c l u d i n g a n a d u l t s i b l i n g ) , o r w i t h a l e g a l g u a r d i a n . P r e s c r i b e s d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r s u c h a n o p t i o n . T h e b i l l w o u l d g i v e c h i l d r e n a g e 1 4 a n d o l d e r a u t h o r i t y t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n : ( 1 ) t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i r o w n c a s e p l a n s , i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h u p t o t w o m e m b e r s o f t h e c a s e p l a n n i n g t e a m ; a s w e l l a s ( 2 ) t r a n s i t i o n a l p l a n n i n g f o r a s u c c e s s f u l a d u l t h o o d . S p e c i f i e s a d d i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a c a s e p l a n . T h e b i l l w o u l d r e q u i r e t h e c a s e r e v i e w s y s t e m t o a s s u r e t h a t f o s t e r c h i l d r e n l e a v i n g f o s t e r c a r e b e c a u s e o f h a v i n g a t t a i n e d a g e 1 8 ( o r a g r e a t e r a g e t h e s t a t e h a s e l e c t e d ) , u n l e s s i n f o s t e r c a r e l e s s t h a n s i x m o n t h s , a r e n o t d i s c h a r g e d w i t h o u t b e i n g p r o v i d e d w i t h a c o p y o f t h e i r b i r t h c e r t i f i c a t e , S o c i a l S e c u r i t y c a r d , h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e i n f o r m a t i o n , c o p y o f m e d i c a l r e c o r d s , a n d a d r i v e r ' s l i c e n s e o r e q u i v a l e n t s t a t e - i s s u e d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c a r d . T h e b i l l w o u l d a m e n d S S A t i t l e X I t o e s t a b l i s h t h e N a t i o n a l A d v i s o r y C o m m i t t e e o n t h e S e x T r a f f i c k i n g o f C h i l d r e n a n d Y o u t h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h e b i l l w o u l d a m e n d S S A t i t l e I V p a r t E t o e x t e n d t h r o u g h F Y 2 0 1 6 r e v i s e c e r t a i n r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e a d o p t i o n i n c e n t i v e p r o g r a m , r e n a m i n g i t t h e a d o p t i o n a n d l e g a l g u a r d i a n s h i p i n c e n t i v e p a y m e n t s p r o g r a m . T h e b i l l w o u l d r e q u i r e s t a t e s t o r e p o r t a n n u a l l y t o t h e S e c r e t a r y o n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n a n d u s e o f s a v i n g s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e p h a s e - o u t o f e l i g i b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a d o p t i o n a s s i s t a n c e . T h e b i l l w o u l d p r e s e r v e t h e e l i g i b i l i t y o f a c h i l d f o r k i n s h i p g u a r d i a n s h i p a s s i s t a n c e p a y m e n t s w h e n a g u a r d i a n i s r e p l a c e d w i t h a s u c c e s s o r g u a r d i a n . T h e b i l l w o u l d r e q u i r e n o t i f i c a t i o n o f p a r e n t s o f a s i b l i n g , w h e r e t h e p a r e n t h a s l e g a l c u s t o d y o f t h e s i b l i n g , w h e n a c h i l d i s r e m o v e d f r o m p a r e n t a l c u s t o d y . T h e b i l l w o u l d e x t e n d t h e f a m i l y c o n n e c t i o n g r a n t p r o g r a m t h r o u g h F Y 2 0 1 4 . T h e b i l l w o u l d r e v i s e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c h i l d s u p p o r t r e c o v e r y , f o r m i n g t h e f e d e r a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e 2 0 0 7 H a g u e M a i n t e n a n c e C o n v e n t i o n . T h e p r o v i s i o n s e n t e r i n t o f o r c e a f t e r a r e v i s e d v e r s i o n o f U I F S A h a s b e e n p a s s e d i n a l l s t a t e s , a n d p l a c e a p e n a l t y o n t h o s e s t a t e s t h a t d o n ' t d o s o i n t h e q u a r t e r f o l l o w i n g t h e i r n e x t l e g i s l a t i v e y e a r . T h e b i l l w o u l d g r a n t I n d i a n t r i b e s a c c e s s t o t h e F e d e r a l P a r e n t L o c a t o r S e r v i c e ( F P L S ) . T h e b i l l w o u l d e x p r e s s t h e s e n s e o f t h e C o n g r e s s a b o u t t h e o f f e r i n g o f v o l u n t a r y p a r e n t i n g t i m e a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h e b i l l w o u l d s e t f o r t h r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r d a t a e x c h a n g e s t a n d a r d s f o r i m p r o v e d i n t e r o p e r a b i l i t y . T h e b i l l w o u l d a m e n d p a r t D ( C h i l d S u p p o r t a n d E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f P a t e r n i t y ) o f S S A t i t l e I V t o g i v e t h e e m p l o y e r t h e o p t i o n o f u s i n g e l e c t r o n i c t r a n s m i s s i o n m e t h o d s p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e S e c r e t a r y f o r i n c o m e w i t h h o l d i n g i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n a n d d i s b u r s e m e n t o f c h i l d s u p p o r t p a y m e n t s . T h e P r e v e n t i n g S e x T r a f f i c k i n g a n d S t r e n g t h e n i n g F a m i l i e s A c t w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s H o u s e o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o n J u n e 2 6 , 2 0 1 4 b y R e p . D a v e C a m p ( R , M I - 4 ) . I t w a s r e f e r r e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s H o u s e C o m m i t t e e o n W a y s a n d M e a n s a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s H o u s e C o m m i t t e e o n t h e B u d g e t . O n J u l y 2 3 , 2 0 1 4 , t h e H o u s e v o t e d t o p a s s t h e b i l l i n a v o i c e v o t e . A c c o r d i n g t o R e p . C a m p , w h o s p o n s o r e d t h e b i l l , " w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n g r e a t p r o g r e s s i n i n c r e a s i n g a d o p t i o n s s i n c e ( t h e A d o p t i o n I n c e n t i v e s p r o g r a m ) w a s c r e a t e d i n 1 9 9 7 , a n d i t i s o u r h o p e t o c o n t i n u e t h i s p r o g r e s s w i t h t h i s b i l l . " T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n F i r s t F o c u s C a m p a i g n f o r C h i l d r e n s u p p o r t e d t h e b i l l , w r i t i n g a l e t t e r t h a t " u r g e s H o u s e l e a d e r s h i p t o b r i n g t h i s b i l l t o t h e f l o o r a n d e n s u r e i t s s w i f t p a s s a g e s o t h a t v u l n e r a b l e y o u t h a n d c h i l d r e n c a n b e n e f i t f r o m t h e s e i m p o r t a n t r e f o r m s . "

Procedural history

This act aims to prevent sex trafficking and strengthen families by amending various sections of the Social Security Act. It focuses on improving foster care, adoption, and child support systems, while also addressing issues related to sex trafficking and exploitation of children.

certain US States have bilateral agreements with countries in place. In 2007 the Hague Maintenance Convention was adopted within the framework of the Hague Conference on Private International Law, aimed at recovery of international maintenance. The convention requires countries to set up Central Authorities to coordinate recovery of maintenance, and provides for recognition and enforcement measures of judicial maintenance decisions. The US was the first to sign the convention in 2007 and the Senate approved it several years later. Ratification by the US could not take place because domestic legislation needs to be amended. Meanwhile the agreement has entered into force with respect to the European Union and 5 other European countries: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Norway and Ukraine. "This summary is based largely on the summary provided by the Congressional Research Service, a public domain source. " The Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act would amend part E (Foster Care and Adoption Assistance) of title IV of the Social Security Act (SSA) to require the state plan for foster care and adoption assistance to demonstrate that the state agency has developed policies and procedures for identifying, documenting in agency records, and determining appropriate services with respect to, any child or youth over whom the state agency has responsibility for placement, care, or supervision who the state has reasonable cause to believe is, or is at risk of being, a victim of sex trafficking or a severe form of trafficking in persons. The bill would authorize a state, at its option, to identify and document any individual under age 26 without regard to whether the individual is or was in foster care under state responsibility. The bill would add as state plan requirements: (1) the reporting to law enforcement authorities of instances of sex trafficking, as well as (2) the locating of and responding to children who have run away from foster care. The bill would include sex trafficking data in the adoption and foster care analysis and reporting system (AFCARS). The bill would direct the state agency to report immediately information on missing or abducted children or youth to law enforcement authorities for entry into the National Crime Information Center (NCIC) database of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. The bill would require the designated state authority or authorities to: (1) develop a reasonable and prudent parent standard for the child's participation in age or developmentally appropriate extracurricular, enrichment, cultural, and social activities; and (2) apply this standard to any foster family home or child care institution receiving funds under title IV part E. The bill would direct the Secretary to provide assistance to states on best practices for devising strategies to assist foster parents in applying a reasonable and prudent parent standard in a specified manner. The bill would make it a purpose of the John H. Chafee Foster Care Independence Program to ensure that children who are likely to remain in foster care until age 18 have regular, ongoing opportunities to engage in age or developmentally-appropriate activities. Authorizes increased appropriations for the program beginning in FY2020. The bill would limit to children age 16 or older the option, in an initial permanency hearing, of being placed in a planned permanent living arrangement other than a return to home, referral for termination of parental rights, or placement for adoption, with a fit and willing relative (including an adult sibling), or with a legal guardian. Prescribes documentation and determination requirements for such an option. The bill would give children age 14 and older authority to participate in: (1) the development of their own case plans, in consultation with up to two members of the case planning team; as well as (2) transitional planning for a successful adulthood. Specifies additional requirements for a case plan. The bill would require the case review system to assure that foster children leaving foster care because of having attained age 18 (or a greater age the state has elected), unless in foster care less than six months, are not discharged without being provided with a copy of their birth certificate, Social Security card, health insurance information, copy of medical records, and a driver's license or equivalent state-issued identification card. The bill would amend SSA title XI to establish the National Advisory Committee on the Sex Trafficking of Children and Youth in the United States. The bill would amend SSA title IV part E to extend through FY2016 revise certain requirements for the adoption incentive program, renaming it the adoption and legal guardianship incentive payments program. The bill would require states to report annually to the Secretary on the calculation and use of savings resulting from the phase-out of eligibility requirements for adoption assistance. The bill would preserve the eligibility of a child for kinship guardianship assistance payments when a guardian is replaced with a successor guardian. The bill would require notification of parents of a sibling, where the parent has legal custody of the sibling, when a child is removed from parental custody. The bill would extend the family connection grant program through FY2014. The bill would revise requirements for international child support recovery, forming the federal implementation required for ratification of the 2007 Hague Maintenance Convention. The provisions enter into force after a revised version of UIFSA has been passed in all states, and place a penalty on those states that don't do so in the quarter following their next legislative year. The bill would grant Indian tribes access to the Federal Parent Locator Service (FPLS). The bill would express the sense of the Congress about the offering of voluntary parenting time arrangements. The bill would set forth requirements for data exchange standards for improved interoperability. The bill would amend part D (Child Support and Establishment of Paternity) of SSA title IV to give the employer the option of using electronic transmission methods prescribed by the Secretary for income withholding in the collection and disbursement of child support payments. The Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act was introduced into the United States House of Representatives on June 26, 2014 by Rep. Dave Camp (R, MI-4).

Barry Voight

B o r n i n 1 9 3 7 , V o i g h t g r e w u p i n Y o n k e r s , N e w Y o r k . H i s b r o t h e r s a r e a c t o r J o n V o i g h t a n d s o n g w r i t e r C h i p T a y l o r , a c t r e s s A n g e l i n a J o l i e i s h i s n i e c e , a n d m u s i c i a n J a m e s H a v e n i s h i s n e p h e w . B a r r y a n d h i s w i f e M a r y A n n e ( n é e V e r d i s c o ) h a v e t w o d a u g h t e r s , L i s a a n d B a r b a r a . V o i g h t ' s f a t h e r w a s p r o f e s s i o n a l g o l f p l a y e r E l m e r " E l m o " V o i g h t ( 1 9 0 9 – 1 9 7 3 ) , a l e a d e r i n t h e e f f o r t t o b r e a k t h e c o l o r b a r r i e r i n g o l f , a n d h i s m o t h e r B a r b a r a ( 1 9 1 0 – 1 9 9 5 ) w a s a t e a c h e r a n d s w i m i n s t r u c t o r . V o i g h t a n d h i s b r o t h e r s g r e w u p p l a y i n g g o l f , a n d B a r r y a l s o d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e r e s t i n s w i m m i n g . V o i g h t g r a d u a t e d f r o m A r c h b i s h o p S t e p i n a c H i g h S c h o o l i n 1 9 5 5 . A f t e r h i g h s c h o o l , V o i g h t p u r s u e d a 5 - y e a r i n t e n s i v e d u a l - d e g r e e p r o g r a m a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e , s t u d y i n g l a n d s l i p s a l o n g L a k e M i c h i g a n a n d r e c e i v i n g u n d e r g r a d u a t e d e g r e e s i n g e o l o g y i n 1 9 5 9 a n d i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g i n 1 9 6 0 . H e e a r n e d h i s m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g f r o m N o t r e D a m e i n 1 9 6 1 . V o i g h t a t t r i b u t e s h i s i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n c e t o h i s m e n t o r s a t N o t r e D a m e , p r o f e s s o r s R a y G u t s c h i c k a n d E r h a r d W i n k l e r . A f t e r s p e n d i n g o n e y e a r s t u d y i n g a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , V o i g h t t r a n s f e r r e d t o C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , w h e r e h e g r a d u a t e d w i t h a P h . D . i n g e o l o g y i n 1 9 6 5 , s t u d y i n g r o c k m e c h a n i c s a n d s t r u c t u r a l g e o l o g y u n d e r F r e d D o n a t h . W h i l e a t C o l u m b i a , V o i g h t w a s n a m e d a P r e s i d e n t ' s F e l l o w , a n d t a u g h t a l e c t u r e c o u r s e c a l l e d " G e o l o g y f o r E n g i n e e r s " . V o i g h t b e g a n t e a c h i n g i n 1 9 6 1 , s e r v i n g a s a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e w h i l e p u r s u i n g h i s m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g . F r o m 1 9 6 1 t o 1 9 6 3 , h e s e r v e d a s a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t C o r n e l l a n d C o l u m b i a . I n 1 9 6 4 , h e j o i n e d t h e f a c u l t y a t P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ( P e n n S t a t e ) a s a n a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r o f g e o l o g y , b e c o m i n g a f u l l p r o f e s s o r o f g e o l o g y a n d g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g i n 1 9 7 8 . V o i g h t t a u g h t a t P e n n S t a t e f o r m o r e t h a n f o u r d e c a d e s , r e t i r i n g f r o m t e a c h i n g i n J u n e 2 0 0 5 b u t c o n t i n u i n g h i s r e s e a r c h . W h i l e a t P e n n S t a t e , V o i g h t h a d a j o i n t a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h t h e s c h o o l ' s D e p a r t m e n t o f M i n e r a l E n g i n e e r i n g a n d t a u g h t c o u r s e s i n p h y s i c a l g e o l o g y , m e c h a n i c s o f g e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s , a n d v o l c a n o l o g y . D u r i n g h i s c a r e e r , h e a l s o l e c t u r e d a s a g u e s t p r o f e s s o r a t t h e D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h n o l o g y i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s i n 1 9 7 2 , w o r k i n g u n d e r J a c q u e s D o z y , a n d s e r v e d a s a v i s i t i n g p r o f e s s o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o i n 1 9 7 3 a n d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a , i n 1 9 8 1 . S t i l l a n e m e r i t u s p r o f e s s o r a t P e n n S t a t e , h e i n i t i a t e d a n e n d o w m e n t u n d e r h i s n a m e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e d u c a t i o n o f v o l c a n i c h a z a r d s p e c i a l i s t s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . V o i g h t p e r f o r m e d w o r k i n 1 9 7 1 – 1 9 7 3 f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s B u r e a u o f M i n e s . I n 1 9 7 8 , h e p u b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t v o l u m e o f a t r e a t i s e o n a v a l a n c h e s , t i t l e d " R o c k s l i d e s a n d A v a l a n c h e s " . A f t e r t h e s e c o n d v o l u m e w a s r e l e a s e d i n 1 9 8 0 , t h e w o r k b e c a m e a b e n c h m a r k i n s t u d y i n g a v a l a n c h e s a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f m a s s m o v e m e n t . A m o n t h p r i o r t o t h e 1 9 8 0 e r u p t i o n o f M o u n t S t . H e l e n s , V o i g h t w a s c o n t a c t e d b y R o c k y C r a n d e l l , a U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ( U S G S ) e m p l o y e e w o r k i n g i n t h e V a n c o u v e r o f f i c e n e a r t h e m o u n t a i n . C r a n d e l l s o u g h t V o i g h t ' s e x p e r t i s e i n l a n d s l i d e s , h o p i n g V o i g h t w o u l d o p i n e o n a g r o w i n g b u l g e , l o n g , w h i c h h a d e m e r g e d o n t h e m o u n t a i n ' s n o r t h f a c e . I n h i s r e p o r t i n g t o C r a n d e l l a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s , V o i g h t s a i d t h a t t h e b u l g e c o u l d f a i l a n d c o l l a p s e t h e v o l c a n o ' s e n t i r e n o r t h s e c t o r . H e s u g g e s t e d t h e y b e g i n m o n i t o r i n g t h e r a t e o f m o v e m e n t o f t h e b u l g e , w o r r i e d t h a t t h e c o l l a p s e c o u l d t r i g g e r a n e r u p t i o n . H e a l s o a d v i s e d h i r i n g a l o c a l s u r v e y o r t o t a k e m e a s u r e m e n t s , o f f e n d i n g s e v e r a l o f t h e g e o l o g i s t s . S h o r t l y a f t e r , V o i g h t l e f t t h e m o u n t a i n a n d r e t u r n e d t o t e a c h i n g c l a s s e s a t P e n n S t a t e . B e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n , h e h a d s e n t h i s f u l l r e p o r t t o t h e U S G S , s u m m a r i z i n g h i s p r e d i c t i o n s , d e p i c t i n g t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e b u l g e a n d t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e m o u n t a i n ' s n o r t h s i d e f o l l o w e d b y a v i o l e n t e r u p t i o n . A f t e r a m a g n i t u d e 5 . 1 e a r t h q u a k e c e n t e r e d d i r e c t l y b e l o w t h e n o r t h s l o p e c a u s e d t h a t p a r t o f t h e v o l c a n o t o s l i d e , M o u n t S t . H e l e n s e r u p t e d , c a u s i n g $ 1 . 1 b i l l i o n i n d a m a g e a n d k i l l i n g 5 7 p e o p l e . A f t e r t h e e r u p t i o n , V o i g h t a c c e p t e d a p o s i t i o n a s a c o n s u l t a n t f o r t h e U S G S . H e l e d t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e v o l c a n o d e b r i s a v a l a n c h e w h i c h h a d o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e e r u p t i o n , g u i d i n g o t h e r v o l c a n o l o g i s t s i n c l u d i n g H a r r y G l i c k e n , w h o b u i l t u p o n V o i g h t ' s p r e l i m i n a r y r e s e a r c h t o c r e a t e h i s r e p o r t " R o c k s l i d e - D e b r i s A v a l a n c h e o f M a y 1 8 , 1 9 8 0 , M o u n t S t . H e l e n s V o l c a n o , W a s h i n g t o n " ( 1 9 9 6 ) . V o i g h t ' s w o r k w o n h i m i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e n o w n , a n d h e l a t e r c i t e d h i s e x p e r i e n c e s t h e r e a s " c a r e e r - c h a n g i n g " . A l t h o u g h V o i g h t a l r e a d y h a d a b u r g e o n i n g i n t e r e s t i n v o l c a n o l o g y , t h e e r u p t i o n a t M o u n t S t . H e l e n s p r o p e l l e d h i m t o d e d i c a t e h i m s e l f t o t h e f i e l d . H i s w o r k h e l p e d r e i n v i g o r a t e w i d e s p r e a d i n t e r e s t i n l a n d s l i d e s a n d o t h e r p h e n o m e n a a t v o l c a n o e s t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y p o s e a t h r e a t t o l i f e . A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g h i s r e s e a r c h a t M o u n t S t . H e l e n s , V o i g h t b e g a n a n a l y z i n g t h e v o l c a n i c h a z a r d s f r o m s e v e r a l o t h e r a c t i v e v o l c a n o e s . I n 1 9 8 5 , V o i g h t b l a m e d h u m a n e r r o r f o r t h e A r m e r o t r a g e d y i n C o l o m b i a , w h e r e m o r e t h a n 2 3 , 0 0 0 d i e d f r o m a n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e N e v a d o d e l R u i z v o l c a n o . H e s t a t e d t h a t w h i l e c a t e g o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s o f v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s w e r e i m p o s s i b l e , u n p r e p a r e d n e s s f o r t h e d i s a s t e r e x a c e r b a t e d t h e d e a t h t o l l . I n J a n u a r y 1 9 8 6 , V o i g h t v i s i t e d N e v a d o d e l R u i z r e s p o n d i n g t o c o n c e r n s f r o m t h e C o l o m b i a n g o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n s e c t i o n o f t h e v o l c a n o m i g h t c a v e i n , c a u s i n g a n o t h e r e r u p t i o n . H e e s t a b l i s h e d a m o n i t o r i n g n e t w o r k o f r e f l e c t o r s a n d u s e d l a s e r r a n g i n g t o t r a c k h o w t h e d i s t a n c e s t o t h e s e r e f l e c t o r s c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e . W h e n o n e r e f l e c t o r i n d i c a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t m o v e m e n t , a n d l a r g e c r a c k s b e c a m e v i s i b l e f r o m t h e a i r , V o i g h t c o n t e m p l a t e d i n i t i a t i n g a n e v a c u a t i o n , b u t w a i t e d . B y M a r c h 1 9 8 6 , h e r e a l i z e d t h e w i d e n i n g c r a c k s w e r e c a u s e d b y t h e c r e e p , o r g r a d u a l s h i f t i n g , o f o n e o f t h e v o l c a n o ' s g l a c i e r s , r a t h e r t h a n r o c k m o v e m e n t . A f t e r l e a v i n g C o l o m b i a , V o i g h t c o m p i l e d t h e 1 4 - p a g e r e p o r t " C o u n t d o w n t o C a t a s t r o p h e " ( 1 9 8 8 ) , w h i c h a n a l y z e d h o w v o l c a n i c h a z a r d m a n a g e m e n t h a d f a i l e d a t A r m e r o . W h e n V o i g h t b e g a n r e s e a r c h a t M o u n t M e r a p i i n J a v a , I n d o n e s i a , i n 1 9 8 8 , i t w a s l a r g e l y u n k n o w n t o v o l c a n o l o g i s t s . I t h a d b e e n o m i t t e d i n t h e S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n ' s 1 9 8 1 p u b l i c a t i o n " V o l c a n o e s o f t h e W o r l d " , d e s p i t e b e i n g d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d , h a v i n g c l o s e t o a m i l l i o n p e o p l e o n i t s s l o p e s a s o f 1 9 9 6 . V o i g h t s e t u p m e t e r s t o r e c o r d m o v e m e n t w i t h i n t h e v o l c a n o , a n d e d u c a t e d l o c a l s c i e n t i s t s o n v o l c a n i c m o n i t o r i n g . I n J u l y 1 9 8 9 , h e o b t a i n e d a $ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 g r a n t f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n ' s D i v i s i o n o f N a t u r a l a n d M a n m a d e H a z a r d M i t i g a t i o n f o r h i s p r o p o s a l t o p r e d i c t e r u p t i o n s a t M e r a p i . A f t e r h i s f u n d i n g r a n o u t , h e t e m p o r a r i l y a b a n d o n e d h i s r e s e a r c h . A n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e v o l c a n o i n 1 9 9 4 p r o d u c e d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s t h a t k i l l e d 6 3 p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g g u e s t s a t a w e d d i n g c e r e m o n y . R e t u r n i n g t o M e r a p i t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , V o i g h t c o m p a r e d d a t a f r o m t h e d e a d a n d s u r v i v o r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r b u r n a r e a s , c l o t h i n g w o r n , a n d l u n g d a m a g e . H e c o n c l u d e d t h a t p r o t e c t i v e , l o n g - s l e e v e d c l o t h i n g a n d m a s k s e n h a n c e c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l w h e n e x p o s e d t o e r u p t i v e a c t i v i t y . I n A p r i l 1 9 8 9 , V o i g h t r e t u r n e d t o C o l o m b i a t o t h e v o l c a n o G a l e r a s a f t e r b e i n g c o n t a c t e d b y t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s D i s a s t e r R e l i e f O r g a n i z a t i o n . P e o p l e i n P a s t o , l o c a t e d a t t h e f o o t o f t h e v o l c a n o , h a d b e c o m e a l a r m e d b y n o i s e s a n d s h a k i n g f r o m G a l e r a s . W h i l e G a l e r a s p r o v e d f a r e a s i e r t o c l i m b t h a n N e v a d o d e l R u i z , l a n d m i n e s p l a n t e d t o h i n d e r g u e r r i l l a f o r c e s d o t t e d t h e s l o p e s o f t h e m o u n t a i n . W i t h U S G S g e o l o g i s t D i c k J a n d a , V o i g h t d r e w a h a z a r d m a p t h a t i n c l u d e d s e v e r a l p o p u l a t e d a r e a s w i t h i n t h e d a n g e r z o n e . B e f o r e V o i g h t l e f t G a l e r a s , t h e v o l c a n o u n d e r w e n t a n u n e x p e c t e d p h r e a t i c e r u p t i o n , w h i c h V o i g h t a n d h i s t e a m f a i l e d t o p r e d i c t . A l t h o u g h P a s t o w a s u n a f f e c t e d , s i x s c i e n t i s t s a t t e n d i n g a U n i t e d N a t i o n s w o r k s h o p f o r n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r r e l i e f w e r e k i l l e d . A f t e r r e v i e w i n g d e f o r m a t i o n d a t a f r o m t h e d a y b e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n , V o i g h t d i s c o v e r e d t h a t n o a c c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e d e f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s h a d o c c u r r e d . H e s u r m i s e d t h a t p h r e a t i c e r u p t i o n s d o n o t e x h i b i t a n a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d e f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e t a k i n g p l a c e a n d l e f t a f t e r c o n f i r m i n g t h a t t h e v o l c a n o ' s m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m f u n c t i o n e d p r o p e r l y . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s , V o i g h t p e r f o r m e d v o l c a n i c h a z a r d a s s e s s m e n t s a t C o t o p a x i i n E c u a d o r a n d a t N e v a d o d e l H u i l a i n C o l o m b i a , w h e r e h i s r e s e a r c h w a s i m p e d e d b y g u e r r i l l a f a c t i o n s a n d d r u g c a r t e l o p e r a t i o n s . H e a l s o a s s i s t e d w i t h a s s e s s m e n t a c t i v i t y a t M o u n t P i n a t u b o i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , M o u n t R e d o u b t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , M o u n t B a n d a i , M o u n t U n z e n , a n d M o u n t O n t a k e i n J a p a n , a n d B e z y m i a n n y a n d S h i v e l u c h i n t h e K a m c h a t k a P e n i n s u l a , R u s s i a . V o i g h t ' s s u c c e s s f u l p r e d i c t i o n t h a t a n a v a l a n c h e a t S t . H e l e n s c o u l d p r o v o k e a l a t e r a l e r u p t i o n , a n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e v o l c a n o ' s f l a n k r a t h e r t h a n i t s s u m m i t , a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f M o n t s e r r a t i n M a r c h 1 9 9 6 . W o r r i e d a b o u t a n e x p a n d i n g l a v a d o m e a t t h e S o u f r i è r e H i l l s v o l c a n o , t h e i s l a n d ' s g o v e r n m e n t a s k e d V o i g h t t o a s s e s s i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r a n a v a l a n c h e t h a t c o u l d g e n e r a t e a n e r u p t i o n . V o i g h t t h o u g h t i t w a s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e c r a t e r w o u l d c o l l a p s e , b u t e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n o v e r a p o s s i b l e p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w t h a t c o u l d r e a c h t h e c i t y o f P l y m o u t h i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e m i n u t e s . T h e c i t y a n d a v i l l a g e o n t h e m o u n t a i n w e r e e v a c u a t e d , a n d w i t h i n t h r e e y e a r s , p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s o v e r t o o k t h e a b a n d o n e d s i t e s . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e e r u p t i o n s , V o i g h t s e r v e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e R i s k A s s e s s m e n t P a n e l t h a t a d v i s e d M o n t s e r r a t ' s g o v e r n m e n t , a n d h e c o - e s t a b l i s h e d t h e C a r i b b e a n A n d e s i t e L a v a I s l a n d P r e c i s i o n S e i s m o - g e o d e t i c O b s e r v a t o r y ( C A L I P S O ) w i t h a t e a m o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i s t s . H e c o n t i n u e d r e s e a r c h a t t h e i s l a n d w i t h S t e v e n S p a r k s , a g e o s c i e n t i s t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i s t o l , e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e S E A - C A L I P S O s y s t e m t o a n a l y z e S o u f r i è r e H i l l s b y u s i n g s e i s m i c w a v e s a n d e x p l o s i o n s i n t h e o c e a n . A m o n g o t h e r f i n d i n g s , t h i s e f f o r t d e t e c t e d a m a j o r f a u l t t r e n d i n g n o r t h - t o - w e s t u n d e r M o n t s e r r a t ' s w e s t e r n s i d e . V o i g h t s t i l l o v e r s e e s h a z a r d a s s e s s m e n t s a t t h e v o l c a n o , p r o v i d i n g h i s i n p u t d u r i n g e r u p t i v e p e r i o d s i n 2 0 0 6 a n d 2 0 1 0 . W i t h h i s s t u d e n t s , V o i g h t h a s a n a l y z e d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s , v o l c a n i c a l l y i n d u c e d s e i s m i c i t y , v o l c a n i c d e b r i s a v a l a n c h e s , a n d v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n p r e d i c t i o n . V o i g h t h a s a l s o s e r v e d a s a c o n s u l t a n t g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r f o r d a m s , t u n n e l s , a n d n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s , h e l p i n g p l a n e n g i n e e r i n g p r o j e c t s i n F r a n c e , I n d i a , I r e l a n d , S o m a l i a , P a p u a N e w G u i n e a , C a n a d a , a n d T u r k e y , a s w e l l a s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . V o i g h t ' s r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n l a v a d o m e c o l l a p s e s , s t r a t o v o l c a n o e s , m o n i t o r i n g o f a c t i v e v o l c a n o e s , a n d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s h a v e b r o u g h t h i m t o I c e l a n d , I n d o n e s i a , t h e W e s t I n d i e s , I t a l y , a n d C h i l e . C o m b i n i n g h i s k n o w l e d g e o f e n g i n e e r i n g a n d g e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s , V o i g h t d e v e l o p e d t h e w i d e l y u s e d a n e l a s t i c s t r a i n r e c o v e r y ( A S R ) m e t h o d f o r m e a s u r i n g s t r e s s o n d e e p r o c k . W i t h a t e a m o f g e o l o g i s t s , h e a l s o d e r i v e d t h e m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e f o r e c a s t m e t h o d ( F F M ) , w h i c h p r e d i c t s e r u p t i o n t i m e s f o r v o l c a n o e s b a s e d o n c h a n g e s i n t h e m o u n t a i n ' s s u r r o u n d i n g s e i s m i c a n d d e f o r m a t i o n d a t a . H e c u r r e n t l y s e r v e s a s a m e m b e r o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ' s V o l c a n o H a z a r d s R e s p o n s e T e a m , a n d h a s r e s p o n d e d t o p o t e n t i a l l y e r u p t i v e v o l c a n o e s i n J a p a n , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , I n d o n e s i a , a n d C h i l e . T h r o u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r , V o i g h t h a s r e c e i v e d m u l t i p l e a c c o l a d e s a n d c i t a t i o n s f o r h i s r e s e a r c h a s a p r o f e s s o r a n d f o r h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k a s a g e o l o g i s t a n d v o l c a n o l o g i s t . I n 1 9 8 4 , t h e I n s t i t u t i o n o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s a w a r d e d h i m t h e G e o r g e S t e p h e n s o n M e d a l , r e c o g n i z i n g o n e o f h i s a r t i c l e s a s a m o n g " t h e b e s t w o r k p u b l i s h e d i n [ t h e i r ] j o u r n a l s " . T h e s a m e y e a r , V o i g h t e a r n e d a n a w a r d f o r " s i g n i f i c a n t o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o r e s e a r c h i n r o c k m e c h a n i c s " f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o n R o c k M e c h a n i c s . F o r h i s h e l p m o n i t o r i n g t h e M a y o n V o l c a n o i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n 1 9 8 5 , h e w a s g r a n t e d a k e y t o L e g a z p i , A l b a y , w h i c h h a d b e e n t h r e a t e n e d b y M a y o n ' s i m p e n d i n g e r u p t i o n . 1 9 8 9 s a w a n o t h e r m a j o r y e a r o f h o n o r s f o r V o i g h t , a s h e w a s n a m e d a M a c Q u a r i e R e s e a r c h S c h o l a r a n d a g a i n g a r n e r e d a n a w a r d f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o n R o c k M e c h a n i c s f o r h i s o r i g i n a l f i n d i n g s . V o i g h t h a s a p p e a r e d a s a d i s t i n g u i s h e d l e c t u r e r s e v e r a l t i m e s , i n c l u d i n g a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h ' s C o l l e g e o f M i n i n g E n g i n e e r i n g ( 1 9 9 0 ) , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a ( 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l & E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g i s t s ( 1 9 9 2 ) . F o r h i s s e r v i c e a s a p r o f e s s o r a t P e n n S t a t e , V o i g h t h a s b e e n g i v e n t w o a w a r d s , s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r h i s r e s e a r c h . I n 1 9 9 0 , h e r e c e i v e d t h e W i l s o n R e s e a r c h A w a r d f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f E a r t h a n d M i n e r a l S c i e n c e s f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n r e s e a r c h . I n 1 9 9 1 , h e g a i n e d a F a c u l t y S c h o l a r M e d a l f o r " O u t s t a n d i n g A c h i e v e m e n t i n t h e P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s a n d E n g i n e e r i n g " . I n 2 0 0 8 , V o i g h t w a s a p p o i n t e d a U n i o n F e l l o w o f t h e A m e r i c a n G e o p h y s i c a l U n i o n f o r " f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f v o l c a n o d e f o r m a t i o n , a s s e s s m e n t o f v o l c a n o h a z a r d s , a n d f o r e c a s t i n g " , a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , h e w a s a w a r d e d t h e S c h u s t e r M e d a l b y t h e C a n a d i a n G e o t e c h n i c a l S o c i e t y f o r " o u t s t a n d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t s i n r e s e a r c h o n g e o l o g i c h a z a r d s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a " . F o r " h i s r e s e a r c h , t e a c h i n g a n d c o n s u l t i n g w o r k " , t h e E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g y D i v i s i o n o f t h e G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y o f A m e r i c a p r e s e n t e d h i m w i t h t h e i r 2 0 1 0 D i s t i n g u i s h e d P r a c t i c e A w a r d . V o i g h t r e c e i v e d t h e T h o r a r i n s s o n M e d a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f V o l c a n o l o g y a n d C h e m i s t r y o f t h e E a r t h ' s I n t e r i o r i n 2 0 1 3 , g r a n t e d t o a " s c i e n t i s t o f o u t s t a n d i n g d i s t i n c t i o n w h o h a s m a d e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o r e s e a r c h i n v o l c a n o l o g y " , a n d i n 2 0 1 7 h e w a s e l e c t e d a s a M e m b e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y o f E n g i n e e r i n g f o r " c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d m i t i g a t i o n o f g e o l o g i c h a z a r d s . " R e c a l l i n g a c o n f e r e n c e w h e r e V o i g h t a p p e a r e d , B i l l M c G u i r e , E m e r i t u s P r o f e s s o r o f G e o p h y s i c a l & C l i m a t e H a z a r d s a t U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e L o n d o n , d e s c r i b e d h i m a s " a n i l l u s t r i o u s e x p e r t o n v o l c a n o i n s t a b i l i t y a n d l a n d s l i d e s " . C i t i n g V o i g h t f o r h i s D i s t i n g u i s h e d P r a c t i c e A w a r d , c o l l e a g u e R i c h a r d G r a y n a m e d h i m a m o n g h i s " p r o f e s s i o n ' s b r i g h t e s t a n d p r o d u c t i v e m e m b e r s " . W h e n V o i g h t p u b l i s h e d h i s f a i l u r e f o r e c a s t p r e d i c t i o n m e c h a n i s m , U S G S g e o l o g i s t R o b e r t I . T i l l i n g p r a i s e d i t a s " a s i g n i f i c a n t r e f i n e m e n t i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m o n i t o r i n g d a t a " . A c c o r d i n g t o V o i g h t ' s c u r r i c u l u m v i t a e f r o m P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , h e h a s p u b l i s h e d m o r e t h a n 4 0 0 p a p e r s o r a b s t r a c t s a n d e d i t e d 1 5 b o o k s , a n d h i s w o r k s h a v e b e e n c i t e d m o r e t h a n 9 , 0 0 0 t i m e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s , V o i g h t h a s w r i t t e n o r h e l p e d w r i t e a t l e a s t 2 1 b o o k s a n d m o n o g r a p h s s i n c e 1 9 6 5 ; h i s c o - a u t h o r s i n c l u d e R . S . J . S p a r k s , A . N e r i , D . E l s w o r t h , A . B e l o u s o v , a n d G . M a t t i o l i . H i s m o s t r e c e n t b o o k , " T h e E r u p t i o n o f S o u f r i è r e H i l l s V o l c a n o , M o n t s e r r a t f r o m 2 0 0 0 t o 2 0 1 0 " , w a s p u b l i s h e d i n 2 0 1 4 . H e c o n t i n u e s t o p u b l i s h a r t i c l e s , a c c o r d i n g t o h i s G o o g l e S c h o l a r p r o f i l e .

Personal life and education

Barry Voight is a renowned geologist who holds undergraduate degrees in geology and civil engineering from Notre Dame. He earned his Ph.D. in geology from Columbia University in 1965. Voight taught at Pennsylvania State University for over four decades, retiring in 2005. Throughout his career, he has made significant contributions to the field of volcanology, including predicting eruptions and developing the anelastic strain recovery (ASR) method. He has worked on numerous projects worldwide, including monitoring volcanic activity in Colombia, Indonesia, and Montserrat. Voight has received numerous awards for his research and teaching, including the Schuster Medal and the Distinguished Practice Award.

undergraduate degrees in geology in 1959 and in civil engineering in 1960. He earned his master's degree in civil engineering from Notre Dame in 1961. Voight attributes his interest in science to his mentors at Notre Dame, professors Ray Gutschick and Erhard Winkler. After spending one year studying at Cornell University, Voight transferred to Columbia University, where he graduated with a Ph.D. in geology in 1965, studying rock mechanics and structural geology under Fred Donath. While at Columbia, Voight was named a President's Fellow, and taught a lecture course called "Geology for Engineers". Voight began teaching in 1961, serving as a teaching assistant at the University of Notre Dame while pursuing his master's degree in civil engineering. From 1961 to 1963, he served as a teaching assistant at Cornell and Columbia. In 1964, he joined the faculty at Pennsylvania State University (Penn State) as an assistant professor of geology, becoming a full professor of geology and geotechnical engineering in 1978. Voight taught at Penn State for more than four decades, retiring from teaching in June 2005 but continuing his research. While at Penn State, Voight had a joint affiliation with the school's Department of Mineral Engineering and taught courses in physical geology, mechanics of geological materials, and volcanology. During his career, he also lectured as a guest professor at the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands in 1972, working under Jacques Dozy, and served as a visiting professor at the University of Toronto in 1973 and at the University of California, Santa Barbara, in 1981. the National Science Foundation's Division of Natural and Manmade Hazard Mitigation for his proposal to predict eruptions at Merapi. After his funding ran out, he temporarily abandoned his research. An eruption from the volcano in 1994 produced pyroclastic flows that killed 63 people, including guests at a wedding ceremony. Returning to Merapi the following year, Voight compared data from the dead and survivors, including the extent of their burn areas, clothing worn, and lung damage. He concluded that protective, long-sleeved clothing and masks enhance chances of survival when exposed to eruptive activity. In April 1989, Voight returned to Colombia to the volcano Galeras after being contacted by the United Nations Disaster Relief Organization. People in Pasto, located at the foot of the volcano, had become alarmed by noises and shaking from Galeras. While Galeras proved far easier to climb than Nevado del Ruiz, land mines planted to hinder guerrilla forces dotted the slopes of the mountain. With USGS geologist Dick Janda, Voight drew a hazard map that included several populated areas within the danger zone. Before Voight left Galeras, the volcano underwent an unexpected phreatic eruption, which Voight and his team failed to predict. Although Pasto was unaffected, six scientists attending a United Nations workshop for natural disaster relief were killed. After reviewing deformation data from the day before the eruption, Voight discovered that no acceleration in the deformation process had occurred. He surmised that phreatic eruptions do not exhibit an acceleration in deformation before taking place and left after confirming that the volcano's monitoring system a major fault trending north-to-west under Montserrat's western side. Voight still oversees hazard assessments at the volcano, providing his input during eruptive periods in 2006 and 2010. With his students, Voight has analyzed pyroclastic flows, volcanically induced seismicity, volcanic debris avalanches, and volcanic eruption prediction. Voight has also served as a consultant geotechnical engineer for dams, tunnels, and nuclear power plants, helping plan engineering projects in France, India, Ireland, Somalia, Papua New Guinea, Canada, and Turkey, as well as in the United States. Voight's research interests in lava dome collapses, stratovolcanoes, monitoring of active volcanoes, and pyroclastic flows have brought him to Iceland, Indonesia, the West Indies, Italy, and Chile. Combining his knowledge of engineering and geological concepts, Voight developed the widely used anelastic strain recovery (ASR) method "significant original contribution to research in rock mechanics" from the United States National Committee on Rock Mechanics. For his help monitoring the Mayon Volcano in the Philippines in 1985, he was granted a key to Legazpi, Albay, which had been threatened by Mayon's impending eruption. 1989 saw another major year of honors for Voight, as he was named a MacQuarie Research Scholar and again garnered an award from the United States National Committee on Rock Mechanics for his original findings. Voight has appeared as a distinguished lecturer several times, including at the University of Utah's College of Mining Engineering (1990), the University of California, Santa Barbara (1992), and the Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists (1992). For his service as a professor at Penn State, Voight has been given two awards, specifically for his research. In 1990, he received the Wilson Research Award from the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences for excellence in research. In 1991, he gained a Faculty Scholar Medal for "Outstanding Achievement in the Physical Sciences and Engineering". In 2008, Voight was appointed a Union Fellow of the American Geophysical Union for "fundamental contributions to the understanding of volcano deformation, assessment of volcano hazards, and forecasting", and the following year, he was awarded the Schuster Medal by the Canadian Geotechnical Society for "outstanding achievements in research on geologic hazards in North America". For "his research, teaching and consulting work", the Engineering Geology Division of the Geological Society of America presented him with their 2010 Distinguished Practice Award. Voight received the Thorarinsson Medal of monitoring data". According to Voight's curriculum vitae from Pennsylvania State University, he has published more than 400 papers or abstracts and edited 15 books, and his works have been cited more than 9,000 times. In addition to journal articles, Voight has written or helped write at least 21 books and monographs since 1965; his co-authors include R.S.J. Sparks, A. Neri, D. Elsworth, A. Belousov, and G. Mattioli. His most recent book, "The Eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat from 2000 to 2010", was published in 2014. He continues to publish articles, according to his Google Scholar profile.

Barry Voight

B o r n i n 1 9 3 7 , V o i g h t g r e w u p i n Y o n k e r s , N e w Y o r k . H i s b r o t h e r s a r e a c t o r J o n V o i g h t a n d s o n g w r i t e r C h i p T a y l o r , a c t r e s s A n g e l i n a J o l i e i s h i s n i e c e , a n d m u s i c i a n J a m e s H a v e n i s h i s n e p h e w . B a r r y a n d h i s w i f e M a r y A n n e ( n é e V e r d i s c o ) h a v e t w o d a u g h t e r s , L i s a a n d B a r b a r a . V o i g h t ' s f a t h e r w a s p r o f e s s i o n a l g o l f p l a y e r E l m e r " E l m o " V o i g h t ( 1 9 0 9 – 1 9 7 3 ) , a l e a d e r i n t h e e f f o r t t o b r e a k t h e c o l o r b a r r i e r i n g o l f , a n d h i s m o t h e r B a r b a r a ( 1 9 1 0 – 1 9 9 5 ) w a s a t e a c h e r a n d s w i m i n s t r u c t o r . V o i g h t a n d h i s b r o t h e r s g r e w u p p l a y i n g g o l f , a n d B a r r y a l s o d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e r e s t i n s w i m m i n g . V o i g h t g r a d u a t e d f r o m A r c h b i s h o p S t e p i n a c H i g h S c h o o l i n 1 9 5 5 . A f t e r h i g h s c h o o l , V o i g h t p u r s u e d a 5 - y e a r i n t e n s i v e d u a l - d e g r e e p r o g r a m a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e , s t u d y i n g l a n d s l i p s a l o n g L a k e M i c h i g a n a n d r e c e i v i n g u n d e r g r a d u a t e d e g r e e s i n g e o l o g y i n 1 9 5 9 a n d i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g i n 1 9 6 0 . H e e a r n e d h i s m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g f r o m N o t r e D a m e i n 1 9 6 1 . V o i g h t a t t r i b u t e s h i s i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n c e t o h i s m e n t o r s a t N o t r e D a m e , p r o f e s s o r s R a y G u t s c h i c k a n d E r h a r d W i n k l e r . A f t e r s p e n d i n g o n e y e a r s t u d y i n g a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , V o i g h t t r a n s f e r r e d t o C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , w h e r e h e g r a d u a t e d w i t h a P h . D . i n g e o l o g y i n 1 9 6 5 , s t u d y i n g r o c k m e c h a n i c s a n d s t r u c t u r a l g e o l o g y u n d e r F r e d D o n a t h . W h i l e a t C o l u m b i a , V o i g h t w a s n a m e d a P r e s i d e n t ' s F e l l o w , a n d t a u g h t a l e c t u r e c o u r s e c a l l e d " G e o l o g y f o r E n g i n e e r s " . V o i g h t b e g a n t e a c h i n g i n 1 9 6 1 , s e r v i n g a s a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e w h i l e p u r s u i n g h i s m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g . F r o m 1 9 6 1 t o 1 9 6 3 , h e s e r v e d a s a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t C o r n e l l a n d C o l u m b i a . I n 1 9 6 4 , h e j o i n e d t h e f a c u l t y a t P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ( P e n n S t a t e ) a s a n a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r o f g e o l o g y , b e c o m i n g a f u l l p r o f e s s o r o f g e o l o g y a n d g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g i n 1 9 7 8 . V o i g h t t a u g h t a t P e n n S t a t e f o r m o r e t h a n f o u r d e c a d e s , r e t i r i n g f r o m t e a c h i n g i n J u n e 2 0 0 5 b u t c o n t i n u i n g h i s r e s e a r c h . W h i l e a t P e n n S t a t e , V o i g h t h a d a j o i n t a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h t h e s c h o o l ' s D e p a r t m e n t o f M i n e r a l E n g i n e e r i n g a n d t a u g h t c o u r s e s i n p h y s i c a l g e o l o g y , m e c h a n i c s o f g e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s , a n d v o l c a n o l o g y . D u r i n g h i s c a r e e r , h e a l s o l e c t u r e d a s a g u e s t p r o f e s s o r a t t h e D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h n o l o g y i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s i n 1 9 7 2 , w o r k i n g u n d e r J a c q u e s D o z y , a n d s e r v e d a s a v i s i t i n g p r o f e s s o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o i n 1 9 7 3 a n d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a , i n 1 9 8 1 . S t i l l a n e m e r i t u s p r o f e s s o r a t P e n n S t a t e , h e i n i t i a t e d a n e n d o w m e n t u n d e r h i s n a m e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e d u c a t i o n o f v o l c a n i c h a z a r d s p e c i a l i s t s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . V o i g h t p e r f o r m e d w o r k i n 1 9 7 1 – 1 9 7 3 f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s B u r e a u o f M i n e s . I n 1 9 7 8 , h e p u b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t v o l u m e o f a t r e a t i s e o n a v a l a n c h e s , t i t l e d " R o c k s l i d e s a n d A v a l a n c h e s " . A f t e r t h e s e c o n d v o l u m e w a s r e l e a s e d i n 1 9 8 0 , t h e w o r k b e c a m e a b e n c h m a r k i n s t u d y i n g a v a l a n c h e s a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f m a s s m o v e m e n t . A m o n t h p r i o r t o t h e 1 9 8 0 e r u p t i o n o f M o u n t S t . H e l e n s , V o i g h t w a s c o n t a c t e d b y R o c k y C r a n d e l l , a U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ( U S G S ) e m p l o y e e w o r k i n g i n t h e V a n c o u v e r o f f i c e n e a r t h e m o u n t a i n . C r a n d e l l s o u g h t V o i g h t ' s e x p e r t i s e i n l a n d s l i d e s , h o p i n g V o i g h t w o u l d o p i n e o n a g r o w i n g b u l g e , l o n g , w h i c h h a d e m e r g e d o n t h e m o u n t a i n ' s n o r t h f a c e . I n h i s r e p o r t i n g t o C r a n d e l l a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s , V o i g h t s a i d t h a t t h e b u l g e c o u l d f a i l a n d c o l l a p s e t h e v o l c a n o ' s e n t i r e n o r t h s e c t o r . H e s u g g e s t e d t h e y b e g i n m o n i t o r i n g t h e r a t e o f m o v e m e n t o f t h e b u l g e , w o r r i e d t h a t t h e c o l l a p s e c o u l d t r i g g e r a n e r u p t i o n . H e a l s o a d v i s e d h i r i n g a l o c a l s u r v e y o r t o t a k e m e a s u r e m e n t s , o f f e n d i n g s e v e r a l o f t h e g e o l o g i s t s . S h o r t l y a f t e r , V o i g h t l e f t t h e m o u n t a i n a n d r e t u r n e d t o t e a c h i n g c l a s s e s a t P e n n S t a t e . B e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n , h e h a d s e n t h i s f u l l r e p o r t t o t h e U S G S , s u m m a r i z i n g h i s p r e d i c t i o n s , d e p i c t i n g t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e b u l g e a n d t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e m o u n t a i n ' s n o r t h s i d e f o l l o w e d b y a v i o l e n t e r u p t i o n . A f t e r a m a g n i t u d e 5 . 1 e a r t h q u a k e c e n t e r e d d i r e c t l y b e l o w t h e n o r t h s l o p e c a u s e d t h a t p a r t o f t h e v o l c a n o t o s l i d e , M o u n t S t . H e l e n s e r u p t e d , c a u s i n g $ 1 . 1 b i l l i o n i n d a m a g e a n d k i l l i n g 5 7 p e o p l e . A f t e r t h e e r u p t i o n , V o i g h t a c c e p t e d a p o s i t i o n a s a c o n s u l t a n t f o r t h e U S G S . H e l e d t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e v o l c a n o d e b r i s a v a l a n c h e w h i c h h a d o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e e r u p t i o n , g u i d i n g o t h e r v o l c a n o l o g i s t s i n c l u d i n g H a r r y G l i c k e n , w h o b u i l t u p o n V o i g h t ' s p r e l i m i n a r y r e s e a r c h t o c r e a t e h i s r e p o r t " R o c k s l i d e - D e b r i s A v a l a n c h e o f M a y 1 8 , 1 9 8 0 , M o u n t S t . H e l e n s V o l c a n o , W a s h i n g t o n " ( 1 9 9 6 ) . V o i g h t ' s w o r k w o n h i m i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e n o w n , a n d h e l a t e r c i t e d h i s e x p e r i e n c e s t h e r e a s " c a r e e r - c h a n g i n g " . A l t h o u g h V o i g h t a l r e a d y h a d a b u r g e o n i n g i n t e r e s t i n v o l c a n o l o g y , t h e e r u p t i o n a t M o u n t S t . H e l e n s p r o p e l l e d h i m t o d e d i c a t e h i m s e l f t o t h e f i e l d . H i s w o r k h e l p e d r e i n v i g o r a t e w i d e s p r e a d i n t e r e s t i n l a n d s l i d e s a n d o t h e r p h e n o m e n a a t v o l c a n o e s t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y p o s e a t h r e a t t o l i f e . A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g h i s r e s e a r c h a t M o u n t S t . H e l e n s , V o i g h t b e g a n a n a l y z i n g t h e v o l c a n i c h a z a r d s f r o m s e v e r a l o t h e r a c t i v e v o l c a n o e s . I n 1 9 8 5 , V o i g h t b l a m e d h u m a n e r r o r f o r t h e A r m e r o t r a g e d y i n C o l o m b i a , w h e r e m o r e t h a n 2 3 , 0 0 0 d i e d f r o m a n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e N e v a d o d e l R u i z v o l c a n o . H e s t a t e d t h a t w h i l e c a t e g o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s o f v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s w e r e i m p o s s i b l e , u n p r e p a r e d n e s s f o r t h e d i s a s t e r e x a c e r b a t e d t h e d e a t h t o l l . I n J a n u a r y 1 9 8 6 , V o i g h t v i s i t e d N e v a d o d e l R u i z r e s p o n d i n g t o c o n c e r n s f r o m t h e C o l o m b i a n g o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n s e c t i o n o f t h e v o l c a n o m i g h t c a v e i n , c a u s i n g a n o t h e r e r u p t i o n . H e e s t a b l i s h e d a m o n i t o r i n g n e t w o r k o f r e f l e c t o r s a n d u s e d l a s e r r a n g i n g t o t r a c k h o w t h e d i s t a n c e s t o t h e s e r e f l e c t o r s c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e . W h e n o n e r e f l e c t o r i n d i c a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t m o v e m e n t , a n d l a r g e c r a c k s b e c a m e v i s i b l e f r o m t h e a i r , V o i g h t c o n t e m p l a t e d i n i t i a t i n g a n e v a c u a t i o n , b u t w a i t e d . B y M a r c h 1 9 8 6 , h e r e a l i z e d t h e w i d e n i n g c r a c k s w e r e c a u s e d b y t h e c r e e p , o r g r a d u a l s h i f t i n g , o f o n e o f t h e v o l c a n o ' s g l a c i e r s , r a t h e r t h a n r o c k m o v e m e n t . A f t e r l e a v i n g C o l o m b i a , V o i g h t c o m p i l e d t h e 1 4 - p a g e r e p o r t " C o u n t d o w n t o C a t a s t r o p h e " ( 1 9 8 8 ) , w h i c h a n a l y z e d h o w v o l c a n i c h a z a r d m a n a g e m e n t h a d f a i l e d a t A r m e r o . W h e n V o i g h t b e g a n r e s e a r c h a t M o u n t M e r a p i i n J a v a , I n d o n e s i a , i n 1 9 8 8 , i t w a s l a r g e l y u n k n o w n t o v o l c a n o l o g i s t s . I t h a d b e e n o m i t t e d i n t h e S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n ' s 1 9 8 1 p u b l i c a t i o n " V o l c a n o e s o f t h e W o r l d " , d e s p i t e b e i n g d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d , h a v i n g c l o s e t o a m i l l i o n p e o p l e o n i t s s l o p e s a s o f 1 9 9 6 . V o i g h t s e t u p m e t e r s t o r e c o r d m o v e m e n t w i t h i n t h e v o l c a n o , a n d e d u c a t e d l o c a l s c i e n t i s t s o n v o l c a n i c m o n i t o r i n g . I n J u l y 1 9 8 9 , h e o b t a i n e d a $ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 g r a n t f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n ' s D i v i s i o n o f N a t u r a l a n d M a n m a d e H a z a r d M i t i g a t i o n f o r h i s p r o p o s a l t o p r e d i c t e r u p t i o n s a t M e r a p i . A f t e r h i s f u n d i n g r a n o u t , h e t e m p o r a r i l y a b a n d o n e d h i s r e s e a r c h . A n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e v o l c a n o i n 1 9 9 4 p r o d u c e d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s t h a t k i l l e d 6 3 p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g g u e s t s a t a w e d d i n g c e r e m o n y . R e t u r n i n g t o M e r a p i t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , V o i g h t c o m p a r e d d a t a f r o m t h e d e a d a n d s u r v i v o r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r b u r n a r e a s , c l o t h i n g w o r n , a n d l u n g d a m a g e . H e c o n c l u d e d t h a t p r o t e c t i v e , l o n g - s l e e v e d c l o t h i n g a n d m a s k s e n h a n c e c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l w h e n e x p o s e d t o e r u p t i v e a c t i v i t y . I n A p r i l 1 9 8 9 , V o i g h t r e t u r n e d t o C o l o m b i a t o t h e v o l c a n o G a l e r a s a f t e r b e i n g c o n t a c t e d b y t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s D i s a s t e r R e l i e f O r g a n i z a t i o n . P e o p l e i n P a s t o , l o c a t e d a t t h e f o o t o f t h e v o l c a n o , h a d b e c o m e a l a r m e d b y n o i s e s a n d s h a k i n g f r o m G a l e r a s . W h i l e G a l e r a s p r o v e d f a r e a s i e r t o c l i m b t h a n N e v a d o d e l R u i z , l a n d m i n e s p l a n t e d t o h i n d e r g u e r r i l l a f o r c e s d o t t e d t h e s l o p e s o f t h e m o u n t a i n . W i t h U S G S g e o l o g i s t D i c k J a n d a , V o i g h t d r e w a h a z a r d m a p t h a t i n c l u d e d s e v e r a l p o p u l a t e d a r e a s w i t h i n t h e d a n g e r z o n e . B e f o r e V o i g h t l e f t G a l e r a s , t h e v o l c a n o u n d e r w e n t a n u n e x p e c t e d p h r e a t i c e r u p t i o n , w h i c h V o i g h t a n d h i s t e a m f a i l e d t o p r e d i c t . A l t h o u g h P a s t o w a s u n a f f e c t e d , s i x s c i e n t i s t s a t t e n d i n g a U n i t e d N a t i o n s w o r k s h o p f o r n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r r e l i e f w e r e k i l l e d . A f t e r r e v i e w i n g d e f o r m a t i o n d a t a f r o m t h e d a y b e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n , V o i g h t d i s c o v e r e d t h a t n o a c c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e d e f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s h a d o c c u r r e d . H e s u r m i s e d t h a t p h r e a t i c e r u p t i o n s d o n o t e x h i b i t a n a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d e f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e t a k i n g p l a c e a n d l e f t a f t e r c o n f i r m i n g t h a t t h e v o l c a n o ' s m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m f u n c t i o n e d p r o p e r l y . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s , V o i g h t p e r f o r m e d v o l c a n i c h a z a r d a s s e s s m e n t s a t C o t o p a x i i n E c u a d o r a n d a t N e v a d o d e l H u i l a i n C o l o m b i a , w h e r e h i s r e s e a r c h w a s i m p e d e d b y g u e r r i l l a f a c t i o n s a n d d r u g c a r t e l o p e r a t i o n s . H e a l s o a s s i s t e d w i t h a s s e s s m e n t a c t i v i t y a t M o u n t P i n a t u b o i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , M o u n t R e d o u b t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , M o u n t B a n d a i , M o u n t U n z e n , a n d M o u n t O n t a k e i n J a p a n , a n d B e z y m i a n n y a n d S h i v e l u c h i n t h e K a m c h a t k a P e n i n s u l a , R u s s i a . V o i g h t ' s s u c c e s s f u l p r e d i c t i o n t h a t a n a v a l a n c h e a t S t . H e l e n s c o u l d p r o v o k e a l a t e r a l e r u p t i o n , a n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e v o l c a n o ' s f l a n k r a t h e r t h a n i t s s u m m i t , a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f M o n t s e r r a t i n M a r c h 1 9 9 6 . W o r r i e d a b o u t a n e x p a n d i n g l a v a d o m e a t t h e S o u f r i è r e H i l l s v o l c a n o , t h e i s l a n d ' s g o v e r n m e n t a s k e d V o i g h t t o a s s e s s i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r a n a v a l a n c h e t h a t c o u l d g e n e r a t e a n e r u p t i o n . V o i g h t t h o u g h t i t w a s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e c r a t e r w o u l d c o l l a p s e , b u t e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n o v e r a p o s s i b l e p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w t h a t c o u l d r e a c h t h e c i t y o f P l y m o u t h i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e m i n u t e s . T h e c i t y a n d a v i l l a g e o n t h e m o u n t a i n w e r e e v a c u a t e d , a n d w i t h i n t h r e e y e a r s , p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s o v e r t o o k t h e a b a n d o n e d s i t e s . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e e r u p t i o n s , V o i g h t s e r v e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e R i s k A s s e s s m e n t P a n e l t h a t a d v i s e d M o n t s e r r a t ' s g o v e r n m e n t , a n d h e c o - e s t a b l i s h e d t h e C a r i b b e a n A n d e s i t e L a v a I s l a n d P r e c i s i o n S e i s m o - g e o d e t i c O b s e r v a t o r y ( C A L I P S O ) w i t h a t e a m o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i s t s . H e c o n t i n u e d r e s e a r c h a t t h e i s l a n d w i t h S t e v e n S p a r k s , a g e o s c i e n t i s t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i s t o l , e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e S E A - C A L I P S O s y s t e m t o a n a l y z e S o u f r i è r e H i l l s b y u s i n g s e i s m i c w a v e s a n d e x p l o s i o n s i n t h e o c e a n . A m o n g o t h e r f i n d i n g s , t h i s e f f o r t d e t e c t e d a m a j o r f a u l t t r e n d i n g n o r t h - t o - w e s t u n d e r M o n t s e r r a t ' s w e s t e r n s i d e . V o i g h t s t i l l o v e r s e e s h a z a r d a s s e s s m e n t s a t t h e v o l c a n o , p r o v i d i n g h i s i n p u t d u r i n g e r u p t i v e p e r i o d s i n 2 0 0 6 a n d 2 0 1 0 . W i t h h i s s t u d e n t s , V o i g h t h a s a n a l y z e d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s , v o l c a n i c a l l y i n d u c e d s e i s m i c i t y , v o l c a n i c d e b r i s a v a l a n c h e s , a n d v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n p r e d i c t i o n . V o i g h t h a s a l s o s e r v e d a s a c o n s u l t a n t g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r f o r d a m s , t u n n e l s , a n d n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s , h e l p i n g p l a n e n g i n e e r i n g p r o j e c t s i n F r a n c e , I n d i a , I r e l a n d , S o m a l i a , P a p u a N e w G u i n e a , C a n a d a , a n d T u r k e y , a s w e l l a s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . V o i g h t ' s r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n l a v a d o m e c o l l a p s e s , s t r a t o v o l c a n o e s , m o n i t o r i n g o f a c t i v e v o l c a n o e s , a n d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s h a v e b r o u g h t h i m t o I c e l a n d , I n d o n e s i a , t h e W e s t I n d i e s , I t a l y , a n d C h i l e . C o m b i n i n g h i s k n o w l e d g e o f e n g i n e e r i n g a n d g e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s , V o i g h t d e v e l o p e d t h e w i d e l y u s e d a n e l a s t i c s t r a i n r e c o v e r y ( A S R ) m e t h o d f o r m e a s u r i n g s t r e s s o n d e e p r o c k . W i t h a t e a m o f g e o l o g i s t s , h e a l s o d e r i v e d t h e m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e f o r e c a s t m e t h o d ( F F M ) , w h i c h p r e d i c t s e r u p t i o n t i m e s f o r v o l c a n o e s b a s e d o n c h a n g e s i n t h e m o u n t a i n ' s s u r r o u n d i n g s e i s m i c a n d d e f o r m a t i o n d a t a . H e c u r r e n t l y s e r v e s a s a m e m b e r o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ' s V o l c a n o H a z a r d s R e s p o n s e T e a m , a n d h a s r e s p o n d e d t o p o t e n t i a l l y e r u p t i v e v o l c a n o e s i n J a p a n , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , I n d o n e s i a , a n d C h i l e . T h r o u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r , V o i g h t h a s r e c e i v e d m u l t i p l e a c c o l a d e s a n d c i t a t i o n s f o r h i s r e s e a r c h a s a p r o f e s s o r a n d f o r h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k a s a g e o l o g i s t a n d v o l c a n o l o g i s t . I n 1 9 8 4 , t h e I n s t i t u t i o n o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s a w a r d e d h i m t h e G e o r g e S t e p h e n s o n M e d a l , r e c o g n i z i n g o n e o f h i s a r t i c l e s a s a m o n g " t h e b e s t w o r k p u b l i s h e d i n [ t h e i r ] j o u r n a l s " . T h e s a m e y e a r , V o i g h t e a r n e d a n a w a r d f o r " s i g n i f i c a n t o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o r e s e a r c h i n r o c k m e c h a n i c s " f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o n R o c k M e c h a n i c s . F o r h i s h e l p m o n i t o r i n g t h e M a y o n V o l c a n o i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n 1 9 8 5 , h e w a s g r a n t e d a k e y t o L e g a z p i , A l b a y , w h i c h h a d b e e n t h r e a t e n e d b y M a y o n ' s i m p e n d i n g e r u p t i o n . 1 9 8 9 s a w a n o t h e r m a j o r y e a r o f h o n o r s f o r V o i g h t , a s h e w a s n a m e d a M a c Q u a r i e R e s e a r c h S c h o l a r a n d a g a i n g a r n e r e d a n a w a r d f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o n R o c k M e c h a n i c s f o r h i s o r i g i n a l f i n d i n g s . V o i g h t h a s a p p e a r e d a s a d i s t i n g u i s h e d l e c t u r e r s e v e r a l t i m e s , i n c l u d i n g a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h ' s C o l l e g e o f M i n i n g E n g i n e e r i n g ( 1 9 9 0 ) , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a ( 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l & E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g i s t s ( 1 9 9 2 ) . F o r h i s s e r v i c e a s a p r o f e s s o r a t P e n n S t a t e , V o i g h t h a s b e e n g i v e n t w o a w a r d s , s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r h i s r e s e a r c h . I n 1 9 9 0 , h e r e c e i v e d t h e W i l s o n R e s e a r c h A w a r d f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f E a r t h a n d M i n e r a l S c i e n c e s f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n r e s e a r c h . I n 1 9 9 1 , h e g a i n e d a F a c u l t y S c h o l a r M e d a l f o r " O u t s t a n d i n g A c h i e v e m e n t i n t h e P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s a n d E n g i n e e r i n g " . I n 2 0 0 8 , V o i g h t w a s a p p o i n t e d a U n i o n F e l l o w o f t h e A m e r i c a n G e o p h y s i c a l U n i o n f o r " f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f v o l c a n o d e f o r m a t i o n , a s s e s s m e n t o f v o l c a n o h a z a r d s , a n d f o r e c a s t i n g " , a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , h e w a s a w a r d e d t h e S c h u s t e r M e d a l b y t h e C a n a d i a n G e o t e c h n i c a l S o c i e t y f o r " o u t s t a n d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t s i n r e s e a r c h o n g e o l o g i c h a z a r d s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a " . F o r " h i s r e s e a r c h , t e a c h i n g a n d c o n s u l t i n g w o r k " , t h e E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g y D i v i s i o n o f t h e G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y o f A m e r i c a p r e s e n t e d h i m w i t h t h e i r 2 0 1 0 D i s t i n g u i s h e d P r a c t i c e A w a r d . V o i g h t r e c e i v e d t h e T h o r a r i n s s o n M e d a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f V o l c a n o l o g y a n d C h e m i s t r y o f t h e E a r t h ' s I n t e r i o r i n 2 0 1 3 , g r a n t e d t o a " s c i e n t i s t o f o u t s t a n d i n g d i s t i n c t i o n w h o h a s m a d e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o r e s e a r c h i n v o l c a n o l o g y " , a n d i n 2 0 1 7 h e w a s e l e c t e d a s a M e m b e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y o f E n g i n e e r i n g f o r " c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d m i t i g a t i o n o f g e o l o g i c h a z a r d s . " R e c a l l i n g a c o n f e r e n c e w h e r e V o i g h t a p p e a r e d , B i l l M c G u i r e , E m e r i t u s P r o f e s s o r o f G e o p h y s i c a l & C l i m a t e H a z a r d s a t U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e L o n d o n , d e s c r i b e d h i m a s " a n i l l u s t r i o u s e x p e r t o n v o l c a n o i n s t a b i l i t y a n d l a n d s l i d e s " . C i t i n g V o i g h t f o r h i s D i s t i n g u i s h e d P r a c t i c e A w a r d , c o l l e a g u e R i c h a r d G r a y n a m e d h i m a m o n g h i s " p r o f e s s i o n ' s b r i g h t e s t a n d p r o d u c t i v e m e m b e r s " . W h e n V o i g h t p u b l i s h e d h i s f a i l u r e f o r e c a s t p r e d i c t i o n m e c h a n i s m , U S G S g e o l o g i s t R o b e r t I . T i l l i n g p r a i s e d i t a s " a s i g n i f i c a n t r e f i n e m e n t i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m o n i t o r i n g d a t a " . A c c o r d i n g t o V o i g h t ' s c u r r i c u l u m v i t a e f r o m P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , h e h a s p u b l i s h e d m o r e t h a n 4 0 0 p a p e r s o r a b s t r a c t s a n d e d i t e d 1 5 b o o k s , a n d h i s w o r k s h a v e b e e n c i t e d m o r e t h a n 9 , 0 0 0 t i m e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s , V o i g h t h a s w r i t t e n o r h e l p e d w r i t e a t l e a s t 2 1 b o o k s a n d m o n o g r a p h s s i n c e 1 9 6 5 ; h i s c o - a u t h o r s i n c l u d e R . S . J . S p a r k s , A . N e r i , D . E l s w o r t h , A . B e l o u s o v , a n d G . M a t t i o l i . H i s m o s t r e c e n t b o o k , " T h e E r u p t i o n o f S o u f r i è r e H i l l s V o l c a n o , M o n t s e r r a t f r o m 2 0 0 0 t o 2 0 1 0 " , w a s p u b l i s h e d i n 2 0 1 4 . H e c o n t i n u e s t o p u b l i s h a r t i c l e s , a c c o r d i n g t o h i s G o o g l e S c h o l a r p r o f i l e .

Teaching career

Barry Voight is a renowned geologist and engineer who has had a long and distinguished teaching career. He earned multiple degrees from prestigious universities such as Notre Dame and Columbia. Voight taught at Pennsylvania State University for over four decades, retiring in 2005 but continuing his research. He has lectured as a guest professor at various institutions and has worked on numerous projects related to volcanology, geotechnical engineering, and hazard assessments. Voight's research interests include lava dome collapses, stratovolcanoes, and pyroclastic flows, and he has developed the widely used anelastic strain recovery (ASR) method. He has received numerous awards and honors for his contributions to the field, including being appointed a Union Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and receiving the Schuster Medal and the Thorarinsson Medal.

undergraduate degrees in geology in 1959 and in civil engineering in 1960. He earned his master's degree in civil engineering from Notre Dame in 1961. Voight attributes his interest in science to his mentors at Notre Dame, professors Ray Gutschick and Erhard Winkler. After spending one year studying at Cornell University, Voight transferred to Columbia University, where he graduated with a Ph.D. in geology in 1965, studying rock mechanics and structural geology under Fred Donath. While at Columbia, Voight was named a President's Fellow, and taught a lecture course called "Geology for Engineers". Voight began teaching in 1961, serving as a teaching assistant at the University of Notre Dame while pursuing his master's degree in civil engineering. From 1961 to 1963, he served as a teaching assistant at Cornell and Columbia. In 1964, he joined the faculty at Pennsylvania State University (Penn State) as an assistant professor of geology, becoming a full professor of geology and geotechnical engineering in 1978. Voight taught at Penn State for more than four decades, retiring from teaching in June 2005 but continuing his research. While at Penn State, Voight had a joint affiliation with the school's Department of Mineral Engineering and taught courses in physical geology, mechanics of geological materials, and volcanology. During his career, he also lectured as a guest professor at the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands in 1972, working under Jacques Dozy, and served as a visiting professor at the University of Toronto in 1973 and at the University of California, Santa Barbara, in 1981. mountain's north face. In his reporting to Crandell and his associates, Voight said that the bulge could fail and collapse the volcano's entire north sector. He suggested they begin monitoring the rate of movement of the bulge, worried that the collapse could trigger an eruption. He also advised hiring a local surveyor to take measurements, offending several of the geologists. Shortly after, Voight left the mountain and returned to teaching classes at Penn State. Before the eruption, he had sent his full report to the USGS, summarizing his predictions, depicting the failure of the bulge and the collapse of the mountain's north side followed by a violent eruption. After a magnitude 5.1 earthquake centered directly below the north slope caused that part of the volcano to slide, Mount a major fault trending north-to-west under Montserrat's western side. Voight still oversees hazard assessments at the volcano, providing his input during eruptive periods in 2006 and 2010. With his students, Voight has analyzed pyroclastic flows, volcanically induced seismicity, volcanic debris avalanches, and volcanic eruption prediction. Voight has also served as a consultant geotechnical engineer for dams, tunnels, and nuclear power plants, helping plan engineering projects in France, India, Ireland, Somalia, Papua New Guinea, Canada, and Turkey, as well as in the United States. Voight's research interests in lava dome collapses, stratovolcanoes, monitoring of active volcanoes, and pyroclastic flows have brought him to Iceland, Indonesia, the West Indies, Italy, and Chile. Combining his knowledge of engineering and geological concepts, Voight developed the widely used anelastic strain recovery (ASR) method "significant original contribution to research in rock mechanics" from the United States National Committee on Rock Mechanics. For his help monitoring the Mayon Volcano in the Philippines in 1985, he was granted a key to Legazpi, Albay, which had been threatened by Mayon's impending eruption. 1989 saw another major year of honors for Voight, as he was named a MacQuarie Research Scholar and again garnered an award from the United States National Committee on Rock Mechanics for his original findings. Voight has appeared as a distinguished lecturer several times, including at the University of Utah's College of Mining Engineering (1990), the University of California, Santa Barbara (1992), and the Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists (1992). For his service as a professor at Penn State, Voight has been given two awards, specifically for his research. In 1990, he received the Wilson Research Award from the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences for excellence in research. In 1991, he gained a Faculty Scholar Medal for "Outstanding Achievement in the Physical Sciences and Engineering". In 2008, Voight was appointed a Union Fellow of the American Geophysical Union for "fundamental contributions to the understanding of volcano deformation, assessment of volcano hazards, and forecasting", and the following year, he was awarded the Schuster Medal by the Canadian Geotechnical Society for "outstanding achievements in research on geologic hazards in North America". For "his research, teaching and consulting work", the Engineering Geology Division of the Geological Society of America presented him with their 2010 Distinguished Practice Award. Voight received the Thorarinsson Medal of the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior in 2013, granted to a "scientist of outstanding distinction who has made fundamental contributions to research in volcanology", and in 2017 he was elected as a Member of the National Academy of Engineering for "contributions to the understanding, management, and mitigation of geologic hazards. " Recalling a conference where Voight appeared, Bill McGuire, Emeritus Professor of Geophysical & Climate Hazards at University College London, described him as "an illustrious expert on volcano instability and landslides". Citing Voight for his Distinguished Practice Award, colleague Richard Gray named him among his "profession's brightest and productive members". When Voight published his failure forecast prediction mechanism, USGS geologist Robert I. Tilling praised it as "a significant refinement in the interpretation of monitoring data". According to Voight's curriculum vitae from Pennsylvania State University, he has published more than 400 papers or abstracts and edited 15 books, and his works have been cited more than 9,000 times. In addition to journal articles, Voight has written or helped write at least 21 books and monographs since 1965; his co-authors include R.S.J. Sparks, A. Neri, D. Elsworth, A. Belousov, and G. Mattioli. His most recent book, "The Eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat from 2000 to 2010", was published in 2014. He continues to publish articles, according to his Google Scholar profile.

Barry Voight

B o r n i n 1 9 3 7 , V o i g h t g r e w u p i n Y o n k e r s , N e w Y o r k . H i s b r o t h e r s a r e a c t o r J o n V o i g h t a n d s o n g w r i t e r C h i p T a y l o r , a c t r e s s A n g e l i n a J o l i e i s h i s n i e c e , a n d m u s i c i a n J a m e s H a v e n i s h i s n e p h e w . B a r r y a n d h i s w i f e M a r y A n n e ( n é e V e r d i s c o ) h a v e t w o d a u g h t e r s , L i s a a n d B a r b a r a . V o i g h t ' s f a t h e r w a s p r o f e s s i o n a l g o l f p l a y e r E l m e r " E l m o " V o i g h t ( 1 9 0 9 – 1 9 7 3 ) , a l e a d e r i n t h e e f f o r t t o b r e a k t h e c o l o r b a r r i e r i n g o l f , a n d h i s m o t h e r B a r b a r a ( 1 9 1 0 – 1 9 9 5 ) w a s a t e a c h e r a n d s w i m i n s t r u c t o r . V o i g h t a n d h i s b r o t h e r s g r e w u p p l a y i n g g o l f , a n d B a r r y a l s o d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e r e s t i n s w i m m i n g . V o i g h t g r a d u a t e d f r o m A r c h b i s h o p S t e p i n a c H i g h S c h o o l i n 1 9 5 5 . A f t e r h i g h s c h o o l , V o i g h t p u r s u e d a 5 - y e a r i n t e n s i v e d u a l - d e g r e e p r o g r a m a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e , s t u d y i n g l a n d s l i p s a l o n g L a k e M i c h i g a n a n d r e c e i v i n g u n d e r g r a d u a t e d e g r e e s i n g e o l o g y i n 1 9 5 9 a n d i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g i n 1 9 6 0 . H e e a r n e d h i s m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g f r o m N o t r e D a m e i n 1 9 6 1 . V o i g h t a t t r i b u t e s h i s i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n c e t o h i s m e n t o r s a t N o t r e D a m e , p r o f e s s o r s R a y G u t s c h i c k a n d E r h a r d W i n k l e r . A f t e r s p e n d i n g o n e y e a r s t u d y i n g a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , V o i g h t t r a n s f e r r e d t o C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , w h e r e h e g r a d u a t e d w i t h a P h . D . i n g e o l o g y i n 1 9 6 5 , s t u d y i n g r o c k m e c h a n i c s a n d s t r u c t u r a l g e o l o g y u n d e r F r e d D o n a t h . W h i l e a t C o l u m b i a , V o i g h t w a s n a m e d a P r e s i d e n t ' s F e l l o w , a n d t a u g h t a l e c t u r e c o u r s e c a l l e d " G e o l o g y f o r E n g i n e e r s " . V o i g h t b e g a n t e a c h i n g i n 1 9 6 1 , s e r v i n g a s a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e w h i l e p u r s u i n g h i s m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g . F r o m 1 9 6 1 t o 1 9 6 3 , h e s e r v e d a s a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t C o r n e l l a n d C o l u m b i a . I n 1 9 6 4 , h e j o i n e d t h e f a c u l t y a t P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ( P e n n S t a t e ) a s a n a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r o f g e o l o g y , b e c o m i n g a f u l l p r o f e s s o r o f g e o l o g y a n d g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g i n 1 9 7 8 . V o i g h t t a u g h t a t P e n n S t a t e f o r m o r e t h a n f o u r d e c a d e s , r e t i r i n g f r o m t e a c h i n g i n J u n e 2 0 0 5 b u t c o n t i n u i n g h i s r e s e a r c h . W h i l e a t P e n n S t a t e , V o i g h t h a d a j o i n t a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h t h e s c h o o l ' s D e p a r t m e n t o f M i n e r a l E n g i n e e r i n g a n d t a u g h t c o u r s e s i n p h y s i c a l g e o l o g y , m e c h a n i c s o f g e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s , a n d v o l c a n o l o g y . D u r i n g h i s c a r e e r , h e a l s o l e c t u r e d a s a g u e s t p r o f e s s o r a t t h e D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h n o l o g y i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s i n 1 9 7 2 , w o r k i n g u n d e r J a c q u e s D o z y , a n d s e r v e d a s a v i s i t i n g p r o f e s s o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o i n 1 9 7 3 a n d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a , i n 1 9 8 1 . S t i l l a n e m e r i t u s p r o f e s s o r a t P e n n S t a t e , h e i n i t i a t e d a n e n d o w m e n t u n d e r h i s n a m e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e d u c a t i o n o f v o l c a n i c h a z a r d s p e c i a l i s t s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . V o i g h t p e r f o r m e d w o r k i n 1 9 7 1 – 1 9 7 3 f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s B u r e a u o f M i n e s . I n 1 9 7 8 , h e p u b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t v o l u m e o f a t r e a t i s e o n a v a l a n c h e s , t i t l e d " R o c k s l i d e s a n d A v a l a n c h e s " . A f t e r t h e s e c o n d v o l u m e w a s r e l e a s e d i n 1 9 8 0 , t h e w o r k b e c a m e a b e n c h m a r k i n s t u d y i n g a v a l a n c h e s a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f m a s s m o v e m e n t . A m o n t h p r i o r t o t h e 1 9 8 0 e r u p t i o n o f M o u n t S t . H e l e n s , V o i g h t w a s c o n t a c t e d b y R o c k y C r a n d e l l , a U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ( U S G S ) e m p l o y e e w o r k i n g i n t h e V a n c o u v e r o f f i c e n e a r t h e m o u n t a i n . C r a n d e l l s o u g h t V o i g h t ' s e x p e r t i s e i n l a n d s l i d e s , h o p i n g V o i g h t w o u l d o p i n e o n a g r o w i n g b u l g e , l o n g , w h i c h h a d e m e r g e d o n t h e m o u n t a i n ' s n o r t h f a c e . I n h i s r e p o r t i n g t o C r a n d e l l a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s , V o i g h t s a i d t h a t t h e b u l g e c o u l d f a i l a n d c o l l a p s e t h e v o l c a n o ' s e n t i r e n o r t h s e c t o r . H e s u g g e s t e d t h e y b e g i n m o n i t o r i n g t h e r a t e o f m o v e m e n t o f t h e b u l g e , w o r r i e d t h a t t h e c o l l a p s e c o u l d t r i g g e r a n e r u p t i o n . H e a l s o a d v i s e d h i r i n g a l o c a l s u r v e y o r t o t a k e m e a s u r e m e n t s , o f f e n d i n g s e v e r a l o f t h e g e o l o g i s t s . S h o r t l y a f t e r , V o i g h t l e f t t h e m o u n t a i n a n d r e t u r n e d t o t e a c h i n g c l a s s e s a t P e n n S t a t e . B e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n , h e h a d s e n t h i s f u l l r e p o r t t o t h e U S G S , s u m m a r i z i n g h i s p r e d i c t i o n s , d e p i c t i n g t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e b u l g e a n d t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e m o u n t a i n ' s n o r t h s i d e f o l l o w e d b y a v i o l e n t e r u p t i o n . A f t e r a m a g n i t u d e 5 . 1 e a r t h q u a k e c e n t e r e d d i r e c t l y b e l o w t h e n o r t h s l o p e c a u s e d t h a t p a r t o f t h e v o l c a n o t o s l i d e , M o u n t S t . H e l e n s e r u p t e d , c a u s i n g $ 1 . 1 b i l l i o n i n d a m a g e a n d k i l l i n g 5 7 p e o p l e . A f t e r t h e e r u p t i o n , V o i g h t a c c e p t e d a p o s i t i o n a s a c o n s u l t a n t f o r t h e U S G S . H e l e d t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e v o l c a n o d e b r i s a v a l a n c h e w h i c h h a d o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e e r u p t i o n , g u i d i n g o t h e r v o l c a n o l o g i s t s i n c l u d i n g H a r r y G l i c k e n , w h o b u i l t u p o n V o i g h t ' s p r e l i m i n a r y r e s e a r c h t o c r e a t e h i s r e p o r t " R o c k s l i d e - D e b r i s A v a l a n c h e o f M a y 1 8 , 1 9 8 0 , M o u n t S t . H e l e n s V o l c a n o , W a s h i n g t o n " ( 1 9 9 6 ) . V o i g h t ' s w o r k w o n h i m i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e n o w n , a n d h e l a t e r c i t e d h i s e x p e r i e n c e s t h e r e a s " c a r e e r - c h a n g i n g " . A l t h o u g h V o i g h t a l r e a d y h a d a b u r g e o n i n g i n t e r e s t i n v o l c a n o l o g y , t h e e r u p t i o n a t M o u n t S t . H e l e n s p r o p e l l e d h i m t o d e d i c a t e h i m s e l f t o t h e f i e l d . H i s w o r k h e l p e d r e i n v i g o r a t e w i d e s p r e a d i n t e r e s t i n l a n d s l i d e s a n d o t h e r p h e n o m e n a a t v o l c a n o e s t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y p o s e a t h r e a t t o l i f e . A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g h i s r e s e a r c h a t M o u n t S t . H e l e n s , V o i g h t b e g a n a n a l y z i n g t h e v o l c a n i c h a z a r d s f r o m s e v e r a l o t h e r a c t i v e v o l c a n o e s . I n 1 9 8 5 , V o i g h t b l a m e d h u m a n e r r o r f o r t h e A r m e r o t r a g e d y i n C o l o m b i a , w h e r e m o r e t h a n 2 3 , 0 0 0 d i e d f r o m a n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e N e v a d o d e l R u i z v o l c a n o . H e s t a t e d t h a t w h i l e c a t e g o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s o f v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s w e r e i m p o s s i b l e , u n p r e p a r e d n e s s f o r t h e d i s a s t e r e x a c e r b a t e d t h e d e a t h t o l l . I n J a n u a r y 1 9 8 6 , V o i g h t v i s i t e d N e v a d o d e l R u i z r e s p o n d i n g t o c o n c e r n s f r o m t h e C o l o m b i a n g o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n s e c t i o n o f t h e v o l c a n o m i g h t c a v e i n , c a u s i n g a n o t h e r e r u p t i o n . H e e s t a b l i s h e d a m o n i t o r i n g n e t w o r k o f r e f l e c t o r s a n d u s e d l a s e r r a n g i n g t o t r a c k h o w t h e d i s t a n c e s t o t h e s e r e f l e c t o r s c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e . W h e n o n e r e f l e c t o r i n d i c a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t m o v e m e n t , a n d l a r g e c r a c k s b e c a m e v i s i b l e f r o m t h e a i r , V o i g h t c o n t e m p l a t e d i n i t i a t i n g a n e v a c u a t i o n , b u t w a i t e d . B y M a r c h 1 9 8 6 , h e r e a l i z e d t h e w i d e n i n g c r a c k s w e r e c a u s e d b y t h e c r e e p , o r g r a d u a l s h i f t i n g , o f o n e o f t h e v o l c a n o ' s g l a c i e r s , r a t h e r t h a n r o c k m o v e m e n t . A f t e r l e a v i n g C o l o m b i a , V o i g h t c o m p i l e d t h e 1 4 - p a g e r e p o r t " C o u n t d o w n t o C a t a s t r o p h e " ( 1 9 8 8 ) , w h i c h a n a l y z e d h o w v o l c a n i c h a z a r d m a n a g e m e n t h a d f a i l e d a t A r m e r o . W h e n V o i g h t b e g a n r e s e a r c h a t M o u n t M e r a p i i n J a v a , I n d o n e s i a , i n 1 9 8 8 , i t w a s l a r g e l y u n k n o w n t o v o l c a n o l o g i s t s . I t h a d b e e n o m i t t e d i n t h e S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n ' s 1 9 8 1 p u b l i c a t i o n " V o l c a n o e s o f t h e W o r l d " , d e s p i t e b e i n g d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d , h a v i n g c l o s e t o a m i l l i o n p e o p l e o n i t s s l o p e s a s o f 1 9 9 6 . V o i g h t s e t u p m e t e r s t o r e c o r d m o v e m e n t w i t h i n t h e v o l c a n o , a n d e d u c a t e d l o c a l s c i e n t i s t s o n v o l c a n i c m o n i t o r i n g . I n J u l y 1 9 8 9 , h e o b t a i n e d a $ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 g r a n t f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n ' s D i v i s i o n o f N a t u r a l a n d M a n m a d e H a z a r d M i t i g a t i o n f o r h i s p r o p o s a l t o p r e d i c t e r u p t i o n s a t M e r a p i . A f t e r h i s f u n d i n g r a n o u t , h e t e m p o r a r i l y a b a n d o n e d h i s r e s e a r c h . A n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e v o l c a n o i n 1 9 9 4 p r o d u c e d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s t h a t k i l l e d 6 3 p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g g u e s t s a t a w e d d i n g c e r e m o n y . R e t u r n i n g t o M e r a p i t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , V o i g h t c o m p a r e d d a t a f r o m t h e d e a d a n d s u r v i v o r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r b u r n a r e a s , c l o t h i n g w o r n , a n d l u n g d a m a g e . H e c o n c l u d e d t h a t p r o t e c t i v e , l o n g - s l e e v e d c l o t h i n g a n d m a s k s e n h a n c e c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l w h e n e x p o s e d t o e r u p t i v e a c t i v i t y . I n A p r i l 1 9 8 9 , V o i g h t r e t u r n e d t o C o l o m b i a t o t h e v o l c a n o G a l e r a s a f t e r b e i n g c o n t a c t e d b y t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s D i s a s t e r R e l i e f O r g a n i z a t i o n . P e o p l e i n P a s t o , l o c a t e d a t t h e f o o t o f t h e v o l c a n o , h a d b e c o m e a l a r m e d b y n o i s e s a n d s h a k i n g f r o m G a l e r a s . W h i l e G a l e r a s p r o v e d f a r e a s i e r t o c l i m b t h a n N e v a d o d e l R u i z , l a n d m i n e s p l a n t e d t o h i n d e r g u e r r i l l a f o r c e s d o t t e d t h e s l o p e s o f t h e m o u n t a i n . W i t h U S G S g e o l o g i s t D i c k J a n d a , V o i g h t d r e w a h a z a r d m a p t h a t i n c l u d e d s e v e r a l p o p u l a t e d a r e a s w i t h i n t h e d a n g e r z o n e . B e f o r e V o i g h t l e f t G a l e r a s , t h e v o l c a n o u n d e r w e n t a n u n e x p e c t e d p h r e a t i c e r u p t i o n , w h i c h V o i g h t a n d h i s t e a m f a i l e d t o p r e d i c t . A l t h o u g h P a s t o w a s u n a f f e c t e d , s i x s c i e n t i s t s a t t e n d i n g a U n i t e d N a t i o n s w o r k s h o p f o r n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r r e l i e f w e r e k i l l e d . A f t e r r e v i e w i n g d e f o r m a t i o n d a t a f r o m t h e d a y b e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n , V o i g h t d i s c o v e r e d t h a t n o a c c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e d e f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s h a d o c c u r r e d . H e s u r m i s e d t h a t p h r e a t i c e r u p t i o n s d o n o t e x h i b i t a n a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d e f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e t a k i n g p l a c e a n d l e f t a f t e r c o n f i r m i n g t h a t t h e v o l c a n o ' s m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m f u n c t i o n e d p r o p e r l y . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s , V o i g h t p e r f o r m e d v o l c a n i c h a z a r d a s s e s s m e n t s a t C o t o p a x i i n E c u a d o r a n d a t N e v a d o d e l H u i l a i n C o l o m b i a , w h e r e h i s r e s e a r c h w a s i m p e d e d b y g u e r r i l l a f a c t i o n s a n d d r u g c a r t e l o p e r a t i o n s . H e a l s o a s s i s t e d w i t h a s s e s s m e n t a c t i v i t y a t M o u n t P i n a t u b o i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , M o u n t R e d o u b t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , M o u n t B a n d a i , M o u n t U n z e n , a n d M o u n t O n t a k e i n J a p a n , a n d B e z y m i a n n y a n d S h i v e l u c h i n t h e K a m c h a t k a P e n i n s u l a , R u s s i a . V o i g h t ' s s u c c e s s f u l p r e d i c t i o n t h a t a n a v a l a n c h e a t S t . H e l e n s c o u l d p r o v o k e a l a t e r a l e r u p t i o n , a n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e v o l c a n o ' s f l a n k r a t h e r t h a n i t s s u m m i t , a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f M o n t s e r r a t i n M a r c h 1 9 9 6 . W o r r i e d a b o u t a n e x p a n d i n g l a v a d o m e a t t h e S o u f r i è r e H i l l s v o l c a n o , t h e i s l a n d ' s g o v e r n m e n t a s k e d V o i g h t t o a s s e s s i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r a n a v a l a n c h e t h a t c o u l d g e n e r a t e a n e r u p t i o n . V o i g h t t h o u g h t i t w a s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e c r a t e r w o u l d c o l l a p s e , b u t e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n o v e r a p o s s i b l e p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w t h a t c o u l d r e a c h t h e c i t y o f P l y m o u t h i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e m i n u t e s . T h e c i t y a n d a v i l l a g e o n t h e m o u n t a i n w e r e e v a c u a t e d , a n d w i t h i n t h r e e y e a r s , p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s o v e r t o o k t h e a b a n d o n e d s i t e s . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e e r u p t i o n s , V o i g h t s e r v e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e R i s k A s s e s s m e n t P a n e l t h a t a d v i s e d M o n t s e r r a t ' s g o v e r n m e n t , a n d h e c o - e s t a b l i s h e d t h e C a r i b b e a n A n d e s i t e L a v a I s l a n d P r e c i s i o n S e i s m o - g e o d e t i c O b s e r v a t o r y ( C A L I P S O ) w i t h a t e a m o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i s t s . H e c o n t i n u e d r e s e a r c h a t t h e i s l a n d w i t h S t e v e n S p a r k s , a g e o s c i e n t i s t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i s t o l , e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e S E A - C A L I P S O s y s t e m t o a n a l y z e S o u f r i è r e H i l l s b y u s i n g s e i s m i c w a v e s a n d e x p l o s i o n s i n t h e o c e a n . A m o n g o t h e r f i n d i n g s , t h i s e f f o r t d e t e c t e d a m a j o r f a u l t t r e n d i n g n o r t h - t o - w e s t u n d e r M o n t s e r r a t ' s w e s t e r n s i d e . V o i g h t s t i l l o v e r s e e s h a z a r d a s s e s s m e n t s a t t h e v o l c a n o , p r o v i d i n g h i s i n p u t d u r i n g e r u p t i v e p e r i o d s i n 2 0 0 6 a n d 2 0 1 0 . W i t h h i s s t u d e n t s , V o i g h t h a s a n a l y z e d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s , v o l c a n i c a l l y i n d u c e d s e i s m i c i t y , v o l c a n i c d e b r i s a v a l a n c h e s , a n d v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n p r e d i c t i o n . V o i g h t h a s a l s o s e r v e d a s a c o n s u l t a n t g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r f o r d a m s , t u n n e l s , a n d n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s , h e l p i n g p l a n e n g i n e e r i n g p r o j e c t s i n F r a n c e , I n d i a , I r e l a n d , S o m a l i a , P a p u a N e w G u i n e a , C a n a d a , a n d T u r k e y , a s w e l l a s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . V o i g h t ' s r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n l a v a d o m e c o l l a p s e s , s t r a t o v o l c a n o e s , m o n i t o r i n g o f a c t i v e v o l c a n o e s , a n d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s h a v e b r o u g h t h i m t o I c e l a n d , I n d o n e s i a , t h e W e s t I n d i e s , I t a l y , a n d C h i l e . C o m b i n i n g h i s k n o w l e d g e o f e n g i n e e r i n g a n d g e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s , V o i g h t d e v e l o p e d t h e w i d e l y u s e d a n e l a s t i c s t r a i n r e c o v e r y ( A S R ) m e t h o d f o r m e a s u r i n g s t r e s s o n d e e p r o c k . W i t h a t e a m o f g e o l o g i s t s , h e a l s o d e r i v e d t h e m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e f o r e c a s t m e t h o d ( F F M ) , w h i c h p r e d i c t s e r u p t i o n t i m e s f o r v o l c a n o e s b a s e d o n c h a n g e s i n t h e m o u n t a i n ' s s u r r o u n d i n g s e i s m i c a n d d e f o r m a t i o n d a t a . H e c u r r e n t l y s e r v e s a s a m e m b e r o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ' s V o l c a n o H a z a r d s R e s p o n s e T e a m , a n d h a s r e s p o n d e d t o p o t e n t i a l l y e r u p t i v e v o l c a n o e s i n J a p a n , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , I n d o n e s i a , a n d C h i l e . T h r o u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r , V o i g h t h a s r e c e i v e d m u l t i p l e a c c o l a d e s a n d c i t a t i o n s f o r h i s r e s e a r c h a s a p r o f e s s o r a n d f o r h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k a s a g e o l o g i s t a n d v o l c a n o l o g i s t . I n 1 9 8 4 , t h e I n s t i t u t i o n o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s a w a r d e d h i m t h e G e o r g e S t e p h e n s o n M e d a l , r e c o g n i z i n g o n e o f h i s a r t i c l e s a s a m o n g " t h e b e s t w o r k p u b l i s h e d i n [ t h e i r ] j o u r n a l s " . T h e s a m e y e a r , V o i g h t e a r n e d a n a w a r d f o r " s i g n i f i c a n t o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o r e s e a r c h i n r o c k m e c h a n i c s " f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o n R o c k M e c h a n i c s . F o r h i s h e l p m o n i t o r i n g t h e M a y o n V o l c a n o i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n 1 9 8 5 , h e w a s g r a n t e d a k e y t o L e g a z p i , A l b a y , w h i c h h a d b e e n t h r e a t e n e d b y M a y o n ' s i m p e n d i n g e r u p t i o n . 1 9 8 9 s a w a n o t h e r m a j o r y e a r o f h o n o r s f o r V o i g h t , a s h e w a s n a m e d a M a c Q u a r i e R e s e a r c h S c h o l a r a n d a g a i n g a r n e r e d a n a w a r d f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o n R o c k M e c h a n i c s f o r h i s o r i g i n a l f i n d i n g s . V o i g h t h a s a p p e a r e d a s a d i s t i n g u i s h e d l e c t u r e r s e v e r a l t i m e s , i n c l u d i n g a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h ' s C o l l e g e o f M i n i n g E n g i n e e r i n g ( 1 9 9 0 ) , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a ( 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l & E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g i s t s ( 1 9 9 2 ) . F o r h i s s e r v i c e a s a p r o f e s s o r a t P e n n S t a t e , V o i g h t h a s b e e n g i v e n t w o a w a r d s , s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r h i s r e s e a r c h . I n 1 9 9 0 , h e r e c e i v e d t h e W i l s o n R e s e a r c h A w a r d f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f E a r t h a n d M i n e r a l S c i e n c e s f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n r e s e a r c h . I n 1 9 9 1 , h e g a i n e d a F a c u l t y S c h o l a r M e d a l f o r " O u t s t a n d i n g A c h i e v e m e n t i n t h e P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s a n d E n g i n e e r i n g " . I n 2 0 0 8 , V o i g h t w a s a p p o i n t e d a U n i o n F e l l o w o f t h e A m e r i c a n G e o p h y s i c a l U n i o n f o r " f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f v o l c a n o d e f o r m a t i o n , a s s e s s m e n t o f v o l c a n o h a z a r d s , a n d f o r e c a s t i n g " , a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , h e w a s a w a r d e d t h e S c h u s t e r M e d a l b y t h e C a n a d i a n G e o t e c h n i c a l S o c i e t y f o r " o u t s t a n d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t s i n r e s e a r c h o n g e o l o g i c h a z a r d s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a " . F o r " h i s r e s e a r c h , t e a c h i n g a n d c o n s u l t i n g w o r k " , t h e E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g y D i v i s i o n o f t h e G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y o f A m e r i c a p r e s e n t e d h i m w i t h t h e i r 2 0 1 0 D i s t i n g u i s h e d P r a c t i c e A w a r d . V o i g h t r e c e i v e d t h e T h o r a r i n s s o n M e d a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f V o l c a n o l o g y a n d C h e m i s t r y o f t h e E a r t h ' s I n t e r i o r i n 2 0 1 3 , g r a n t e d t o a " s c i e n t i s t o f o u t s t a n d i n g d i s t i n c t i o n w h o h a s m a d e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o r e s e a r c h i n v o l c a n o l o g y " , a n d i n 2 0 1 7 h e w a s e l e c t e d a s a M e m b e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y o f E n g i n e e r i n g f o r " c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d m i t i g a t i o n o f g e o l o g i c h a z a r d s . " R e c a l l i n g a c o n f e r e n c e w h e r e V o i g h t a p p e a r e d , B i l l M c G u i r e , E m e r i t u s P r o f e s s o r o f G e o p h y s i c a l & C l i m a t e H a z a r d s a t U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e L o n d o n , d e s c r i b e d h i m a s " a n i l l u s t r i o u s e x p e r t o n v o l c a n o i n s t a b i l i t y a n d l a n d s l i d e s " . C i t i n g V o i g h t f o r h i s D i s t i n g u i s h e d P r a c t i c e A w a r d , c o l l e a g u e R i c h a r d G r a y n a m e d h i m a m o n g h i s " p r o f e s s i o n ' s b r i g h t e s t a n d p r o d u c t i v e m e m b e r s " . W h e n V o i g h t p u b l i s h e d h i s f a i l u r e f o r e c a s t p r e d i c t i o n m e c h a n i s m , U S G S g e o l o g i s t R o b e r t I . T i l l i n g p r a i s e d i t a s " a s i g n i f i c a n t r e f i n e m e n t i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m o n i t o r i n g d a t a " . A c c o r d i n g t o V o i g h t ' s c u r r i c u l u m v i t a e f r o m P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , h e h a s p u b l i s h e d m o r e t h a n 4 0 0 p a p e r s o r a b s t r a c t s a n d e d i t e d 1 5 b o o k s , a n d h i s w o r k s h a v e b e e n c i t e d m o r e t h a n 9 , 0 0 0 t i m e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s , V o i g h t h a s w r i t t e n o r h e l p e d w r i t e a t l e a s t 2 1 b o o k s a n d m o n o g r a p h s s i n c e 1 9 6 5 ; h i s c o - a u t h o r s i n c l u d e R . S . J . S p a r k s , A . N e r i , D . E l s w o r t h , A . B e l o u s o v , a n d G . M a t t i o l i . H i s m o s t r e c e n t b o o k , " T h e E r u p t i o n o f S o u f r i è r e H i l l s V o l c a n o , M o n t s e r r a t f r o m 2 0 0 0 t o 2 0 1 0 " , w a s p u b l i s h e d i n 2 0 1 4 . H e c o n t i n u e s t o p u b l i s h a r t i c l e s , a c c o r d i n g t o h i s G o o g l e S c h o l a r p r o f i l e .

Volcanological work and research

Dr. Barry Voight is a renowned volcanologist who has made significant contributions to the field of volcanology through his research and work. He has conducted extensive studies on volcanic hazards, landslides, and pyroclastic flows, and has developed methods such as the anelastic strain recovery (ASR) method and the material failure forecast method (FFM). His work has taken him to various parts of the world, including Colombia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Japan, where he has assessed volcanic hazards and provided critical insights to governments and organizations. Voight has received numerous awards and honors for his research and professional work, including the George Stephenson Medal, the Wilson Research Award, and the Schuster Medal.

Still an emeritus professor at Penn State, he initiated an endowment under his name to contribute to the education of volcanic hazard specialists from developing countries. Voight performed work in 1971–1973 for the United States Bureau of Mines. In 1978, he published the first volume of a treatise on avalanches, titled "Rockslides and Avalanches". After the second volume was released in 1980, the work became a benchmark in studying avalanches and other forms of mass movement. A month prior to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, Voight was contacted by Rocky Crandell, a United States Geological Survey (USGS) employee working in the Vancouver office near the mountain. Crandell sought Voight's expertise in landslides, hoping Voight would opine on a growing bulge, long, which had emerged on the contemplated initiating an evacuation, but waited. By March 1986, he realized the widening cracks were caused by the creep, or gradual shifting, of one of the volcano's glaciers, rather than rock movement. After leaving Colombia, Voight compiled the 14-page report "Countdown to Catastrophe" (1988), which analyzed how volcanic hazard management had failed at Armero. When Voight began research at Mount Merapi in Java, Indonesia, in 1988, it was largely unknown to volcanologists. It had been omitted in the Smithsonian Institution's 1981 publication "Volcanoes of the World", despite being densely populated, having close to a million people on its slopes as of 1996. Voight set up meters to record movement within the volcano, and educated local scientists on volcanic monitoring. In July 1989, he obtained a $250,000 grant from the National Science Foundation's Division of Natural and Manmade Hazard Mitigation for his proposal to predict eruptions at Merapi. After his funding ran out, he temporarily abandoned his research. An eruption from the volcano in 1994 produced pyroclastic flows that killed 63 people, including guests at a wedding ceremony. Returning to Merapi the following year, Voight compared data from the dead and survivors, including the extent of their burn areas, clothing worn, and lung damage. He concluded that protective, long-sleeved clothing and masks enhance chances of survival when exposed to eruptive activity. In April 1989, Voight returned to Colombia to the volcano Galeras after being contacted by the United Nations Disaster Relief Organization. People in Pasto, located at the foot of the volcano, had become alarmed by noises functioned properly. In the early 1990s, Voight performed volcanic hazard assessments at Cotopaxi in Ecuador and at Nevado del Huila in Colombia, where his research was impeded by guerrilla factions and drug cartel operations. He also assisted with assessment activity at Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, Mount Redoubt in the United States, Mount Bandai, Mount Unzen, and Mount Ontake in Japan, and Bezymianny and Shiveluch in the Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia. Voight's successful prediction that an avalanche at St. Helens could provoke a lateral eruption, an eruption from the volcano's flank rather than its summit, attracted the attention of the government of Montserrat in March 1996. Worried about an expanding lava dome at the Soufrière Hills volcano, the island's government asked Voight to assess its potential for an avalanche that could generate an eruption. Voight thought it was unlikely that the crater would collapse, but expressed concern over a possible pyroclastic flow that could reach the city of Plymouth in approximately three minutes. The city and a village on the mountain were evacuated, and within three years, pyroclastic flows overtook the abandoned sites. Following these eruptions, Voight served as a member of the Risk Assessment Panel that advised Montserrat's government, and he co-established the Caribbean Andesite Lava Island Precision Seismo-geodetic Observatory (CALIPSO) with a team of international scientists. He continued research at the island with Steven Sparks, a geoscientist at the University of Bristol, establishing the SEA-CALIPSO system to analyze Soufrière Hills by using seismic waves and explosions in the ocean. Among other findings, this effort detected a major fault trending north-to-west under Montserrat's western side. Voight still oversees hazard assessments at the volcano, providing his input during eruptive periods in 2006 and 2010. With his students, Voight has analyzed pyroclastic flows, volcanically induced seismicity, volcanic debris avalanches, and volcanic eruption prediction. Voight has also served as a consultant geotechnical engineer for dams, tunnels, and nuclear power plants, helping plan engineering projects in France, India, Ireland, Somalia, Papua New Guinea, Canada, and Turkey, as well as in the United States. Voight's research interests in lava dome collapses, stratovolcanoes, monitoring of active volcanoes, and pyroclastic flows have brought him to Iceland, Indonesia, the West Indies, Italy, and Chile. Combining his knowledge of engineering and geological concepts, Voight developed the widely used anelastic strain recovery (ASR) method for measuring stress on deep rock. With a team of geologists, he also derived the material failure forecast method (FFM), which predicts eruption times for volcanoes based on changes in the mountain's surrounding seismic and deformation data. He currently serves as a member of the United States Geological Survey's Volcano Hazards Response Team, and has responded to potentially eruptive volcanoes in Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Chile. Throughout his career, Voight has received multiple accolades and citations for his research as a professor and for his professional work as a geologist and volcanologist. In 1984, the Institution of Civil Engineers awarded him the George Stephenson Medal, recognizing one of his articles as among "the best work published in [their] journals". The same year, Voight earned an award for given two awards, specifically for his research. In 1990, he received the Wilson Research Award from the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences for excellence in research. In 1991, he gained a Faculty Scholar Medal for "Outstanding Achievement in the Physical Sciences and Engineering". In 2008, Voight was appointed a Union Fellow of the American Geophysical Union for "fundamental contributions to the understanding of volcano deformation, assessment of volcano hazards, and forecasting", and the following year, he was awarded the Schuster Medal by the Canadian Geotechnical Society for "outstanding achievements in research on geologic hazards in North America". For "his research, teaching and consulting work", the Engineering Geology Division of the Geological Society of America presented him with their 2010 Distinguished Practice Award. Voight received the Thorarinsson Medal

Barry Voight

B o r n i n 1 9 3 7 , V o i g h t g r e w u p i n Y o n k e r s , N e w Y o r k . H i s b r o t h e r s a r e a c t o r J o n V o i g h t a n d s o n g w r i t e r C h i p T a y l o r , a c t r e s s A n g e l i n a J o l i e i s h i s n i e c e , a n d m u s i c i a n J a m e s H a v e n i s h i s n e p h e w . B a r r y a n d h i s w i f e M a r y A n n e ( n é e V e r d i s c o ) h a v e t w o d a u g h t e r s , L i s a a n d B a r b a r a . V o i g h t ' s f a t h e r w a s p r o f e s s i o n a l g o l f p l a y e r E l m e r " E l m o " V o i g h t ( 1 9 0 9 – 1 9 7 3 ) , a l e a d e r i n t h e e f f o r t t o b r e a k t h e c o l o r b a r r i e r i n g o l f , a n d h i s m o t h e r B a r b a r a ( 1 9 1 0 – 1 9 9 5 ) w a s a t e a c h e r a n d s w i m i n s t r u c t o r . V o i g h t a n d h i s b r o t h e r s g r e w u p p l a y i n g g o l f , a n d B a r r y a l s o d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e r e s t i n s w i m m i n g . V o i g h t g r a d u a t e d f r o m A r c h b i s h o p S t e p i n a c H i g h S c h o o l i n 1 9 5 5 . A f t e r h i g h s c h o o l , V o i g h t p u r s u e d a 5 - y e a r i n t e n s i v e d u a l - d e g r e e p r o g r a m a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e , s t u d y i n g l a n d s l i p s a l o n g L a k e M i c h i g a n a n d r e c e i v i n g u n d e r g r a d u a t e d e g r e e s i n g e o l o g y i n 1 9 5 9 a n d i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g i n 1 9 6 0 . H e e a r n e d h i s m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g f r o m N o t r e D a m e i n 1 9 6 1 . V o i g h t a t t r i b u t e s h i s i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n c e t o h i s m e n t o r s a t N o t r e D a m e , p r o f e s s o r s R a y G u t s c h i c k a n d E r h a r d W i n k l e r . A f t e r s p e n d i n g o n e y e a r s t u d y i n g a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , V o i g h t t r a n s f e r r e d t o C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , w h e r e h e g r a d u a t e d w i t h a P h . D . i n g e o l o g y i n 1 9 6 5 , s t u d y i n g r o c k m e c h a n i c s a n d s t r u c t u r a l g e o l o g y u n d e r F r e d D o n a t h . W h i l e a t C o l u m b i a , V o i g h t w a s n a m e d a P r e s i d e n t ' s F e l l o w , a n d t a u g h t a l e c t u r e c o u r s e c a l l e d " G e o l o g y f o r E n g i n e e r s " . V o i g h t b e g a n t e a c h i n g i n 1 9 6 1 , s e r v i n g a s a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e w h i l e p u r s u i n g h i s m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g . F r o m 1 9 6 1 t o 1 9 6 3 , h e s e r v e d a s a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t C o r n e l l a n d C o l u m b i a . I n 1 9 6 4 , h e j o i n e d t h e f a c u l t y a t P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ( P e n n S t a t e ) a s a n a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r o f g e o l o g y , b e c o m i n g a f u l l p r o f e s s o r o f g e o l o g y a n d g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g i n 1 9 7 8 . V o i g h t t a u g h t a t P e n n S t a t e f o r m o r e t h a n f o u r d e c a d e s , r e t i r i n g f r o m t e a c h i n g i n J u n e 2 0 0 5 b u t c o n t i n u i n g h i s r e s e a r c h . W h i l e a t P e n n S t a t e , V o i g h t h a d a j o i n t a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h t h e s c h o o l ' s D e p a r t m e n t o f M i n e r a l E n g i n e e r i n g a n d t a u g h t c o u r s e s i n p h y s i c a l g e o l o g y , m e c h a n i c s o f g e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s , a n d v o l c a n o l o g y . D u r i n g h i s c a r e e r , h e a l s o l e c t u r e d a s a g u e s t p r o f e s s o r a t t h e D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h n o l o g y i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s i n 1 9 7 2 , w o r k i n g u n d e r J a c q u e s D o z y , a n d s e r v e d a s a v i s i t i n g p r o f e s s o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o i n 1 9 7 3 a n d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a , i n 1 9 8 1 . S t i l l a n e m e r i t u s p r o f e s s o r a t P e n n S t a t e , h e i n i t i a t e d a n e n d o w m e n t u n d e r h i s n a m e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e d u c a t i o n o f v o l c a n i c h a z a r d s p e c i a l i s t s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . V o i g h t p e r f o r m e d w o r k i n 1 9 7 1 – 1 9 7 3 f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s B u r e a u o f M i n e s . I n 1 9 7 8 , h e p u b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t v o l u m e o f a t r e a t i s e o n a v a l a n c h e s , t i t l e d " R o c k s l i d e s a n d A v a l a n c h e s " . A f t e r t h e s e c o n d v o l u m e w a s r e l e a s e d i n 1 9 8 0 , t h e w o r k b e c a m e a b e n c h m a r k i n s t u d y i n g a v a l a n c h e s a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f m a s s m o v e m e n t . A m o n t h p r i o r t o t h e 1 9 8 0 e r u p t i o n o f M o u n t S t . H e l e n s , V o i g h t w a s c o n t a c t e d b y R o c k y C r a n d e l l , a U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ( U S G S ) e m p l o y e e w o r k i n g i n t h e V a n c o u v e r o f f i c e n e a r t h e m o u n t a i n . C r a n d e l l s o u g h t V o i g h t ' s e x p e r t i s e i n l a n d s l i d e s , h o p i n g V o i g h t w o u l d o p i n e o n a g r o w i n g b u l g e , l o n g , w h i c h h a d e m e r g e d o n t h e m o u n t a i n ' s n o r t h f a c e . I n h i s r e p o r t i n g t o C r a n d e l l a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s , V o i g h t s a i d t h a t t h e b u l g e c o u l d f a i l a n d c o l l a p s e t h e v o l c a n o ' s e n t i r e n o r t h s e c t o r . H e s u g g e s t e d t h e y b e g i n m o n i t o r i n g t h e r a t e o f m o v e m e n t o f t h e b u l g e , w o r r i e d t h a t t h e c o l l a p s e c o u l d t r i g g e r a n e r u p t i o n . H e a l s o a d v i s e d h i r i n g a l o c a l s u r v e y o r t o t a k e m e a s u r e m e n t s , o f f e n d i n g s e v e r a l o f t h e g e o l o g i s t s . S h o r t l y a f t e r , V o i g h t l e f t t h e m o u n t a i n a n d r e t u r n e d t o t e a c h i n g c l a s s e s a t P e n n S t a t e . B e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n , h e h a d s e n t h i s f u l l r e p o r t t o t h e U S G S , s u m m a r i z i n g h i s p r e d i c t i o n s , d e p i c t i n g t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e b u l g e a n d t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e m o u n t a i n ' s n o r t h s i d e f o l l o w e d b y a v i o l e n t e r u p t i o n . A f t e r a m a g n i t u d e 5 . 1 e a r t h q u a k e c e n t e r e d d i r e c t l y b e l o w t h e n o r t h s l o p e c a u s e d t h a t p a r t o f t h e v o l c a n o t o s l i d e , M o u n t S t . H e l e n s e r u p t e d , c a u s i n g $ 1 . 1 b i l l i o n i n d a m a g e a n d k i l l i n g 5 7 p e o p l e . A f t e r t h e e r u p t i o n , V o i g h t a c c e p t e d a p o s i t i o n a s a c o n s u l t a n t f o r t h e U S G S . H e l e d t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e v o l c a n o d e b r i s a v a l a n c h e w h i c h h a d o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e e r u p t i o n , g u i d i n g o t h e r v o l c a n o l o g i s t s i n c l u d i n g H a r r y G l i c k e n , w h o b u i l t u p o n V o i g h t ' s p r e l i m i n a r y r e s e a r c h t o c r e a t e h i s r e p o r t " R o c k s l i d e - D e b r i s A v a l a n c h e o f M a y 1 8 , 1 9 8 0 , M o u n t S t . H e l e n s V o l c a n o , W a s h i n g t o n " ( 1 9 9 6 ) . V o i g h t ' s w o r k w o n h i m i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e n o w n , a n d h e l a t e r c i t e d h i s e x p e r i e n c e s t h e r e a s " c a r e e r - c h a n g i n g " . A l t h o u g h V o i g h t a l r e a d y h a d a b u r g e o n i n g i n t e r e s t i n v o l c a n o l o g y , t h e e r u p t i o n a t M o u n t S t . H e l e n s p r o p e l l e d h i m t o d e d i c a t e h i m s e l f t o t h e f i e l d . H i s w o r k h e l p e d r e i n v i g o r a t e w i d e s p r e a d i n t e r e s t i n l a n d s l i d e s a n d o t h e r p h e n o m e n a a t v o l c a n o e s t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y p o s e a t h r e a t t o l i f e . A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g h i s r e s e a r c h a t M o u n t S t . H e l e n s , V o i g h t b e g a n a n a l y z i n g t h e v o l c a n i c h a z a r d s f r o m s e v e r a l o t h e r a c t i v e v o l c a n o e s . I n 1 9 8 5 , V o i g h t b l a m e d h u m a n e r r o r f o r t h e A r m e r o t r a g e d y i n C o l o m b i a , w h e r e m o r e t h a n 2 3 , 0 0 0 d i e d f r o m a n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e N e v a d o d e l R u i z v o l c a n o . H e s t a t e d t h a t w h i l e c a t e g o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s o f v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s w e r e i m p o s s i b l e , u n p r e p a r e d n e s s f o r t h e d i s a s t e r e x a c e r b a t e d t h e d e a t h t o l l . I n J a n u a r y 1 9 8 6 , V o i g h t v i s i t e d N e v a d o d e l R u i z r e s p o n d i n g t o c o n c e r n s f r o m t h e C o l o m b i a n g o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n s e c t i o n o f t h e v o l c a n o m i g h t c a v e i n , c a u s i n g a n o t h e r e r u p t i o n . H e e s t a b l i s h e d a m o n i t o r i n g n e t w o r k o f r e f l e c t o r s a n d u s e d l a s e r r a n g i n g t o t r a c k h o w t h e d i s t a n c e s t o t h e s e r e f l e c t o r s c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e . W h e n o n e r e f l e c t o r i n d i c a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t m o v e m e n t , a n d l a r g e c r a c k s b e c a m e v i s i b l e f r o m t h e a i r , V o i g h t c o n t e m p l a t e d i n i t i a t i n g a n e v a c u a t i o n , b u t w a i t e d . B y M a r c h 1 9 8 6 , h e r e a l i z e d t h e w i d e n i n g c r a c k s w e r e c a u s e d b y t h e c r e e p , o r g r a d u a l s h i f t i n g , o f o n e o f t h e v o l c a n o ' s g l a c i e r s , r a t h e r t h a n r o c k m o v e m e n t . A f t e r l e a v i n g C o l o m b i a , V o i g h t c o m p i l e d t h e 1 4 - p a g e r e p o r t " C o u n t d o w n t o C a t a s t r o p h e " ( 1 9 8 8 ) , w h i c h a n a l y z e d h o w v o l c a n i c h a z a r d m a n a g e m e n t h a d f a i l e d a t A r m e r o . W h e n V o i g h t b e g a n r e s e a r c h a t M o u n t M e r a p i i n J a v a , I n d o n e s i a , i n 1 9 8 8 , i t w a s l a r g e l y u n k n o w n t o v o l c a n o l o g i s t s . I t h a d b e e n o m i t t e d i n t h e S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n ' s 1 9 8 1 p u b l i c a t i o n " V o l c a n o e s o f t h e W o r l d " , d e s p i t e b e i n g d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d , h a v i n g c l o s e t o a m i l l i o n p e o p l e o n i t s s l o p e s a s o f 1 9 9 6 . V o i g h t s e t u p m e t e r s t o r e c o r d m o v e m e n t w i t h i n t h e v o l c a n o , a n d e d u c a t e d l o c a l s c i e n t i s t s o n v o l c a n i c m o n i t o r i n g . I n J u l y 1 9 8 9 , h e o b t a i n e d a $ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 g r a n t f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n ' s D i v i s i o n o f N a t u r a l a n d M a n m a d e H a z a r d M i t i g a t i o n f o r h i s p r o p o s a l t o p r e d i c t e r u p t i o n s a t M e r a p i . A f t e r h i s f u n d i n g r a n o u t , h e t e m p o r a r i l y a b a n d o n e d h i s r e s e a r c h . A n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e v o l c a n o i n 1 9 9 4 p r o d u c e d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s t h a t k i l l e d 6 3 p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g g u e s t s a t a w e d d i n g c e r e m o n y . R e t u r n i n g t o M e r a p i t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , V o i g h t c o m p a r e d d a t a f r o m t h e d e a d a n d s u r v i v o r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r b u r n a r e a s , c l o t h i n g w o r n , a n d l u n g d a m a g e . H e c o n c l u d e d t h a t p r o t e c t i v e , l o n g - s l e e v e d c l o t h i n g a n d m a s k s e n h a n c e c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l w h e n e x p o s e d t o e r u p t i v e a c t i v i t y . I n A p r i l 1 9 8 9 , V o i g h t r e t u r n e d t o C o l o m b i a t o t h e v o l c a n o G a l e r a s a f t e r b e i n g c o n t a c t e d b y t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s D i s a s t e r R e l i e f O r g a n i z a t i o n . P e o p l e i n P a s t o , l o c a t e d a t t h e f o o t o f t h e v o l c a n o , h a d b e c o m e a l a r m e d b y n o i s e s a n d s h a k i n g f r o m G a l e r a s . W h i l e G a l e r a s p r o v e d f a r e a s i e r t o c l i m b t h a n N e v a d o d e l R u i z , l a n d m i n e s p l a n t e d t o h i n d e r g u e r r i l l a f o r c e s d o t t e d t h e s l o p e s o f t h e m o u n t a i n . W i t h U S G S g e o l o g i s t D i c k J a n d a , V o i g h t d r e w a h a z a r d m a p t h a t i n c l u d e d s e v e r a l p o p u l a t e d a r e a s w i t h i n t h e d a n g e r z o n e . B e f o r e V o i g h t l e f t G a l e r a s , t h e v o l c a n o u n d e r w e n t a n u n e x p e c t e d p h r e a t i c e r u p t i o n , w h i c h V o i g h t a n d h i s t e a m f a i l e d t o p r e d i c t . A l t h o u g h P a s t o w a s u n a f f e c t e d , s i x s c i e n t i s t s a t t e n d i n g a U n i t e d N a t i o n s w o r k s h o p f o r n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r r e l i e f w e r e k i l l e d . A f t e r r e v i e w i n g d e f o r m a t i o n d a t a f r o m t h e d a y b e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n , V o i g h t d i s c o v e r e d t h a t n o a c c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e d e f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s h a d o c c u r r e d . H e s u r m i s e d t h a t p h r e a t i c e r u p t i o n s d o n o t e x h i b i t a n a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d e f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e t a k i n g p l a c e a n d l e f t a f t e r c o n f i r m i n g t h a t t h e v o l c a n o ' s m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m f u n c t i o n e d p r o p e r l y . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s , V o i g h t p e r f o r m e d v o l c a n i c h a z a r d a s s e s s m e n t s a t C o t o p a x i i n E c u a d o r a n d a t N e v a d o d e l H u i l a i n C o l o m b i a , w h e r e h i s r e s e a r c h w a s i m p e d e d b y g u e r r i l l a f a c t i o n s a n d d r u g c a r t e l o p e r a t i o n s . H e a l s o a s s i s t e d w i t h a s s e s s m e n t a c t i v i t y a t M o u n t P i n a t u b o i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , M o u n t R e d o u b t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , M o u n t B a n d a i , M o u n t U n z e n , a n d M o u n t O n t a k e i n J a p a n , a n d B e z y m i a n n y a n d S h i v e l u c h i n t h e K a m c h a t k a P e n i n s u l a , R u s s i a . V o i g h t ' s s u c c e s s f u l p r e d i c t i o n t h a t a n a v a l a n c h e a t S t . H e l e n s c o u l d p r o v o k e a l a t e r a l e r u p t i o n , a n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e v o l c a n o ' s f l a n k r a t h e r t h a n i t s s u m m i t , a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f M o n t s e r r a t i n M a r c h 1 9 9 6 . W o r r i e d a b o u t a n e x p a n d i n g l a v a d o m e a t t h e S o u f r i è r e H i l l s v o l c a n o , t h e i s l a n d ' s g o v e r n m e n t a s k e d V o i g h t t o a s s e s s i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r a n a v a l a n c h e t h a t c o u l d g e n e r a t e a n e r u p t i o n . V o i g h t t h o u g h t i t w a s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e c r a t e r w o u l d c o l l a p s e , b u t e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n o v e r a p o s s i b l e p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w t h a t c o u l d r e a c h t h e c i t y o f P l y m o u t h i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e m i n u t e s . T h e c i t y a n d a v i l l a g e o n t h e m o u n t a i n w e r e e v a c u a t e d , a n d w i t h i n t h r e e y e a r s , p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s o v e r t o o k t h e a b a n d o n e d s i t e s . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e e r u p t i o n s , V o i g h t s e r v e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e R i s k A s s e s s m e n t P a n e l t h a t a d v i s e d M o n t s e r r a t ' s g o v e r n m e n t , a n d h e c o - e s t a b l i s h e d t h e C a r i b b e a n A n d e s i t e L a v a I s l a n d P r e c i s i o n S e i s m o - g e o d e t i c O b s e r v a t o r y ( C A L I P S O ) w i t h a t e a m o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i s t s . H e c o n t i n u e d r e s e a r c h a t t h e i s l a n d w i t h S t e v e n S p a r k s , a g e o s c i e n t i s t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i s t o l , e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e S E A - C A L I P S O s y s t e m t o a n a l y z e S o u f r i è r e H i l l s b y u s i n g s e i s m i c w a v e s a n d e x p l o s i o n s i n t h e o c e a n . A m o n g o t h e r f i n d i n g s , t h i s e f f o r t d e t e c t e d a m a j o r f a u l t t r e n d i n g n o r t h - t o - w e s t u n d e r M o n t s e r r a t ' s w e s t e r n s i d e . V o i g h t s t i l l o v e r s e e s h a z a r d a s s e s s m e n t s a t t h e v o l c a n o , p r o v i d i n g h i s i n p u t d u r i n g e r u p t i v e p e r i o d s i n 2 0 0 6 a n d 2 0 1 0 . W i t h h i s s t u d e n t s , V o i g h t h a s a n a l y z e d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s , v o l c a n i c a l l y i n d u c e d s e i s m i c i t y , v o l c a n i c d e b r i s a v a l a n c h e s , a n d v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n p r e d i c t i o n . V o i g h t h a s a l s o s e r v e d a s a c o n s u l t a n t g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r f o r d a m s , t u n n e l s , a n d n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s , h e l p i n g p l a n e n g i n e e r i n g p r o j e c t s i n F r a n c e , I n d i a , I r e l a n d , S o m a l i a , P a p u a N e w G u i n e a , C a n a d a , a n d T u r k e y , a s w e l l a s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . V o i g h t ' s r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n l a v a d o m e c o l l a p s e s , s t r a t o v o l c a n o e s , m o n i t o r i n g o f a c t i v e v o l c a n o e s , a n d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s h a v e b r o u g h t h i m t o I c e l a n d , I n d o n e s i a , t h e W e s t I n d i e s , I t a l y , a n d C h i l e . C o m b i n i n g h i s k n o w l e d g e o f e n g i n e e r i n g a n d g e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s , V o i g h t d e v e l o p e d t h e w i d e l y u s e d a n e l a s t i c s t r a i n r e c o v e r y ( A S R ) m e t h o d f o r m e a s u r i n g s t r e s s o n d e e p r o c k . W i t h a t e a m o f g e o l o g i s t s , h e a l s o d e r i v e d t h e m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e f o r e c a s t m e t h o d ( F F M ) , w h i c h p r e d i c t s e r u p t i o n t i m e s f o r v o l c a n o e s b a s e d o n c h a n g e s i n t h e m o u n t a i n ' s s u r r o u n d i n g s e i s m i c a n d d e f o r m a t i o n d a t a . H e c u r r e n t l y s e r v e s a s a m e m b e r o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ' s V o l c a n o H a z a r d s R e s p o n s e T e a m , a n d h a s r e s p o n d e d t o p o t e n t i a l l y e r u p t i v e v o l c a n o e s i n J a p a n , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , I n d o n e s i a , a n d C h i l e . T h r o u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r , V o i g h t h a s r e c e i v e d m u l t i p l e a c c o l a d e s a n d c i t a t i o n s f o r h i s r e s e a r c h a s a p r o f e s s o r a n d f o r h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k a s a g e o l o g i s t a n d v o l c a n o l o g i s t . I n 1 9 8 4 , t h e I n s t i t u t i o n o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s a w a r d e d h i m t h e G e o r g e S t e p h e n s o n M e d a l , r e c o g n i z i n g o n e o f h i s a r t i c l e s a s a m o n g " t h e b e s t w o r k p u b l i s h e d i n [ t h e i r ] j o u r n a l s " . T h e s a m e y e a r , V o i g h t e a r n e d a n a w a r d f o r " s i g n i f i c a n t o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o r e s e a r c h i n r o c k m e c h a n i c s " f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o n R o c k M e c h a n i c s . F o r h i s h e l p m o n i t o r i n g t h e M a y o n V o l c a n o i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n 1 9 8 5 , h e w a s g r a n t e d a k e y t o L e g a z p i , A l b a y , w h i c h h a d b e e n t h r e a t e n e d b y M a y o n ' s i m p e n d i n g e r u p t i o n . 1 9 8 9 s a w a n o t h e r m a j o r y e a r o f h o n o r s f o r V o i g h t , a s h e w a s n a m e d a M a c Q u a r i e R e s e a r c h S c h o l a r a n d a g a i n g a r n e r e d a n a w a r d f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o n R o c k M e c h a n i c s f o r h i s o r i g i n a l f i n d i n g s . V o i g h t h a s a p p e a r e d a s a d i s t i n g u i s h e d l e c t u r e r s e v e r a l t i m e s , i n c l u d i n g a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h ' s C o l l e g e o f M i n i n g E n g i n e e r i n g ( 1 9 9 0 ) , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a ( 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l & E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g i s t s ( 1 9 9 2 ) . F o r h i s s e r v i c e a s a p r o f e s s o r a t P e n n S t a t e , V o i g h t h a s b e e n g i v e n t w o a w a r d s , s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r h i s r e s e a r c h . I n 1 9 9 0 , h e r e c e i v e d t h e W i l s o n R e s e a r c h A w a r d f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f E a r t h a n d M i n e r a l S c i e n c e s f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n r e s e a r c h . I n 1 9 9 1 , h e g a i n e d a F a c u l t y S c h o l a r M e d a l f o r " O u t s t a n d i n g A c h i e v e m e n t i n t h e P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s a n d E n g i n e e r i n g " . I n 2 0 0 8 , V o i g h t w a s a p p o i n t e d a U n i o n F e l l o w o f t h e A m e r i c a n G e o p h y s i c a l U n i o n f o r " f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f v o l c a n o d e f o r m a t i o n , a s s e s s m e n t o f v o l c a n o h a z a r d s , a n d f o r e c a s t i n g " , a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , h e w a s a w a r d e d t h e S c h u s t e r M e d a l b y t h e C a n a d i a n G e o t e c h n i c a l S o c i e t y f o r " o u t s t a n d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t s i n r e s e a r c h o n g e o l o g i c h a z a r d s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a " . F o r " h i s r e s e a r c h , t e a c h i n g a n d c o n s u l t i n g w o r k " , t h e E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g y D i v i s i o n o f t h e G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y o f A m e r i c a p r e s e n t e d h i m w i t h t h e i r 2 0 1 0 D i s t i n g u i s h e d P r a c t i c e A w a r d . V o i g h t r e c e i v e d t h e T h o r a r i n s s o n M e d a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f V o l c a n o l o g y a n d C h e m i s t r y o f t h e E a r t h ' s I n t e r i o r i n 2 0 1 3 , g r a n t e d t o a " s c i e n t i s t o f o u t s t a n d i n g d i s t i n c t i o n w h o h a s m a d e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o r e s e a r c h i n v o l c a n o l o g y " , a n d i n 2 0 1 7 h e w a s e l e c t e d a s a M e m b e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y o f E n g i n e e r i n g f o r " c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d m i t i g a t i o n o f g e o l o g i c h a z a r d s . " R e c a l l i n g a c o n f e r e n c e w h e r e V o i g h t a p p e a r e d , B i l l M c G u i r e , E m e r i t u s P r o f e s s o r o f G e o p h y s i c a l & C l i m a t e H a z a r d s a t U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e L o n d o n , d e s c r i b e d h i m a s " a n i l l u s t r i o u s e x p e r t o n v o l c a n o i n s t a b i l i t y a n d l a n d s l i d e s " . C i t i n g V o i g h t f o r h i s D i s t i n g u i s h e d P r a c t i c e A w a r d , c o l l e a g u e R i c h a r d G r a y n a m e d h i m a m o n g h i s " p r o f e s s i o n ' s b r i g h t e s t a n d p r o d u c t i v e m e m b e r s " . W h e n V o i g h t p u b l i s h e d h i s f a i l u r e f o r e c a s t p r e d i c t i o n m e c h a n i s m , U S G S g e o l o g i s t R o b e r t I . T i l l i n g p r a i s e d i t a s " a s i g n i f i c a n t r e f i n e m e n t i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m o n i t o r i n g d a t a " . A c c o r d i n g t o V o i g h t ' s c u r r i c u l u m v i t a e f r o m P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , h e h a s p u b l i s h e d m o r e t h a n 4 0 0 p a p e r s o r a b s t r a c t s a n d e d i t e d 1 5 b o o k s , a n d h i s w o r k s h a v e b e e n c i t e d m o r e t h a n 9 , 0 0 0 t i m e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s , V o i g h t h a s w r i t t e n o r h e l p e d w r i t e a t l e a s t 2 1 b o o k s a n d m o n o g r a p h s s i n c e 1 9 6 5 ; h i s c o - a u t h o r s i n c l u d e R . S . J . S p a r k s , A . N e r i , D . E l s w o r t h , A . B e l o u s o v , a n d G . M a t t i o l i . H i s m o s t r e c e n t b o o k , " T h e E r u p t i o n o f S o u f r i è r e H i l l s V o l c a n o , M o n t s e r r a t f r o m 2 0 0 0 t o 2 0 1 0 " , w a s p u b l i s h e d i n 2 0 1 4 . H e c o n t i n u e s t o p u b l i s h a r t i c l e s , a c c o r d i n g t o h i s G o o g l e S c h o l a r p r o f i l e .

Volcanological work and research ; Early assignments

Barry Voight is a renowned volcanologist who has made significant contributions to the field of volcanology through his research and work. He predicted the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens and has worked on numerous volcanic hazard assessments around the world, including Mount Merapi in Indonesia, Cotopaxi in Ecuador, and Soufrière Hills in Montserrat. Voight has developed methods such as the anelastic strain recovery (ASR) method and the material failure forecast method (FFM) to measure stress on deep rock and predict eruption times for volcanoes. He has received numerous awards and accolades for his research and work, including the George Stephenson Medal, the Wilson Research Award, and the Schuster Medal.

Still an emeritus professor at Penn State, he initiated an endowment under his name to contribute to the education of volcanic hazard specialists from developing countries. Voight performed work in 1971–1973 for the United States Bureau of Mines. In 1978, he published the first volume of a treatise on avalanches, titled "Rockslides and Avalanches". After the second volume was released in 1980, the work became a benchmark in studying avalanches and other forms of mass movement. A month prior to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, Voight was contacted by Rocky Crandell, a United States Geological Survey (USGS) employee working in the Vancouver office near the mountain. Crandell sought Voight's expertise in landslides, hoping Voight would opine on a growing bulge, long, which had emerged on the mountain's north face. In his reporting to Crandell and his associates, Voight said that the bulge could fail and collapse the volcano's entire north sector. He suggested they begin monitoring the rate of movement of the bulge, worried that the collapse could trigger an eruption. He also advised hiring a local surveyor to take measurements, offending several of the geologists. Shortly after, Voight left the mountain and returned to teaching classes at Penn State. Before the eruption, he had sent his full report to the USGS, summarizing his predictions, depicting the failure of the bulge and the collapse of the mountain's north side followed by a violent eruption. After a magnitude 5.1 earthquake centered directly below the north slope caused that part of the volcano to slide, Mount contemplated initiating an evacuation, but waited. By March 1986, he realized the widening cracks were caused by the creep, or gradual shifting, of one of the volcano's glaciers, rather than rock movement. After leaving Colombia, Voight compiled the 14-page report "Countdown to Catastrophe" (1988), which analyzed how volcanic hazard management had failed at Armero. When Voight began research at Mount Merapi in Java, Indonesia, in 1988, it was largely unknown to volcanologists. It had been omitted in the Smithsonian Institution's 1981 publication "Volcanoes of the World", despite being densely populated, having close to a million people on its slopes as of 1996. Voight set up meters to record movement within the volcano, and educated local scientists on volcanic monitoring. In July 1989, he obtained a $250,000 grant from functioned properly. In the early 1990s, Voight performed volcanic hazard assessments at Cotopaxi in Ecuador and at Nevado del Huila in Colombia, where his research was impeded by guerrilla factions and drug cartel operations. He also assisted with assessment activity at Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, Mount Redoubt in the United States, Mount Bandai, Mount Unzen, and Mount Ontake in Japan, and Bezymianny and Shiveluch in the Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia. Voight's successful prediction that an avalanche at St. Helens could provoke a lateral eruption, an eruption from the volcano's flank rather than its summit, attracted the attention of the government of Montserrat in March 1996. Worried about an expanding lava dome at the Soufrière Hills volcano, the island's government asked Voight to assess its potential for an avalanche that could generate an eruption. Voight thought it was unlikely that the crater would collapse, but expressed concern over a possible pyroclastic flow that could reach the city of Plymouth in approximately three minutes. The city and a village on the mountain were evacuated, and within three years, pyroclastic flows overtook the abandoned sites. Following these eruptions, Voight served as a member of the Risk Assessment Panel that advised Montserrat's government, and he co-established the Caribbean Andesite Lava Island Precision Seismo-geodetic Observatory (CALIPSO) with a team of international scientists. He continued research at the island with Steven Sparks, a geoscientist at the University of Bristol, establishing the SEA-CALIPSO system to analyze Soufrière Hills by using seismic waves and explosions in the ocean. Among other findings, this effort detected a major fault trending north-to-west under Montserrat's western side. Voight still oversees hazard assessments at the volcano, providing his input during eruptive periods in 2006 and 2010. With his students, Voight has analyzed pyroclastic flows, volcanically induced seismicity, volcanic debris avalanches, and volcanic eruption prediction. Voight has also served as a consultant geotechnical engineer for dams, tunnels, and nuclear power plants, helping plan engineering projects in France, India, Ireland, Somalia, Papua New Guinea, Canada, and Turkey, as well as in the United States. Voight's research interests in lava dome collapses, stratovolcanoes, monitoring of active volcanoes, and pyroclastic flows have brought him to Iceland, Indonesia, the West Indies, Italy, and Chile. Combining his knowledge of engineering and geological concepts, Voight developed the widely used anelastic strain recovery (ASR) method for measuring stress on deep rock. With a team of geologists, he also derived the material failure forecast method (FFM), which predicts eruption times for volcanoes based on changes in the mountain's surrounding seismic and deformation data. He currently serves as a member of the United States Geological Survey's Volcano Hazards Response Team, and has responded to potentially eruptive volcanoes in Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Chile. Throughout his career, Voight has received multiple accolades and citations for his research as a professor and for his professional work as a geologist and volcanologist. In 1984, the Institution of Civil Engineers awarded him the George Stephenson Medal, recognizing one of his articles as among "the best work published in [their] journals". The same year, Voight earned an award for given two awards, specifically for his research. In 1990, he received the Wilson Research Award from the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences for excellence in research. In 1991, he gained a Faculty Scholar Medal for "Outstanding Achievement in the Physical Sciences and Engineering". In 2008, Voight was appointed a Union Fellow of the American Geophysical Union for "fundamental contributions to the understanding of volcano deformation, assessment of volcano hazards, and forecasting", and the following year, he was awarded the Schuster Medal by the Canadian Geotechnical Society for "outstanding achievements in research on geologic hazards in North America". For "his research, teaching and consulting work", the Engineering Geology Division of the Geological Society of America presented him with their 2010 Distinguished Practice Award. Voight received the Thorarinsson Medal

Barry Voight

B o r n i n 1 9 3 7 , V o i g h t g r e w u p i n Y o n k e r s , N e w Y o r k . H i s b r o t h e r s a r e a c t o r J o n V o i g h t a n d s o n g w r i t e r C h i p T a y l o r , a c t r e s s A n g e l i n a J o l i e i s h i s n i e c e , a n d m u s i c i a n J a m e s H a v e n i s h i s n e p h e w . B a r r y a n d h i s w i f e M a r y A n n e ( n é e V e r d i s c o ) h a v e t w o d a u g h t e r s , L i s a a n d B a r b a r a . V o i g h t ' s f a t h e r w a s p r o f e s s i o n a l g o l f p l a y e r E l m e r " E l m o " V o i g h t ( 1 9 0 9 – 1 9 7 3 ) , a l e a d e r i n t h e e f f o r t t o b r e a k t h e c o l o r b a r r i e r i n g o l f , a n d h i s m o t h e r B a r b a r a ( 1 9 1 0 – 1 9 9 5 ) w a s a t e a c h e r a n d s w i m i n s t r u c t o r . V o i g h t a n d h i s b r o t h e r s g r e w u p p l a y i n g g o l f , a n d B a r r y a l s o d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e r e s t i n s w i m m i n g . V o i g h t g r a d u a t e d f r o m A r c h b i s h o p S t e p i n a c H i g h S c h o o l i n 1 9 5 5 . A f t e r h i g h s c h o o l , V o i g h t p u r s u e d a 5 - y e a r i n t e n s i v e d u a l - d e g r e e p r o g r a m a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e , s t u d y i n g l a n d s l i p s a l o n g L a k e M i c h i g a n a n d r e c e i v i n g u n d e r g r a d u a t e d e g r e e s i n g e o l o g y i n 1 9 5 9 a n d i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g i n 1 9 6 0 . H e e a r n e d h i s m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g f r o m N o t r e D a m e i n 1 9 6 1 . V o i g h t a t t r i b u t e s h i s i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n c e t o h i s m e n t o r s a t N o t r e D a m e , p r o f e s s o r s R a y G u t s c h i c k a n d E r h a r d W i n k l e r . A f t e r s p e n d i n g o n e y e a r s t u d y i n g a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , V o i g h t t r a n s f e r r e d t o C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , w h e r e h e g r a d u a t e d w i t h a P h . D . i n g e o l o g y i n 1 9 6 5 , s t u d y i n g r o c k m e c h a n i c s a n d s t r u c t u r a l g e o l o g y u n d e r F r e d D o n a t h . W h i l e a t C o l u m b i a , V o i g h t w a s n a m e d a P r e s i d e n t ' s F e l l o w , a n d t a u g h t a l e c t u r e c o u r s e c a l l e d " G e o l o g y f o r E n g i n e e r s " . V o i g h t b e g a n t e a c h i n g i n 1 9 6 1 , s e r v i n g a s a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e w h i l e p u r s u i n g h i s m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g . F r o m 1 9 6 1 t o 1 9 6 3 , h e s e r v e d a s a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t C o r n e l l a n d C o l u m b i a . I n 1 9 6 4 , h e j o i n e d t h e f a c u l t y a t P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ( P e n n S t a t e ) a s a n a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r o f g e o l o g y , b e c o m i n g a f u l l p r o f e s s o r o f g e o l o g y a n d g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g i n 1 9 7 8 . V o i g h t t a u g h t a t P e n n S t a t e f o r m o r e t h a n f o u r d e c a d e s , r e t i r i n g f r o m t e a c h i n g i n J u n e 2 0 0 5 b u t c o n t i n u i n g h i s r e s e a r c h . W h i l e a t P e n n S t a t e , V o i g h t h a d a j o i n t a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h t h e s c h o o l ' s D e p a r t m e n t o f M i n e r a l E n g i n e e r i n g a n d t a u g h t c o u r s e s i n p h y s i c a l g e o l o g y , m e c h a n i c s o f g e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s , a n d v o l c a n o l o g y . D u r i n g h i s c a r e e r , h e a l s o l e c t u r e d a s a g u e s t p r o f e s s o r a t t h e D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h n o l o g y i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s i n 1 9 7 2 , w o r k i n g u n d e r J a c q u e s D o z y , a n d s e r v e d a s a v i s i t i n g p r o f e s s o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o i n 1 9 7 3 a n d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a , i n 1 9 8 1 . S t i l l a n e m e r i t u s p r o f e s s o r a t P e n n S t a t e , h e i n i t i a t e d a n e n d o w m e n t u n d e r h i s n a m e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e d u c a t i o n o f v o l c a n i c h a z a r d s p e c i a l i s t s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . V o i g h t p e r f o r m e d w o r k i n 1 9 7 1 – 1 9 7 3 f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s B u r e a u o f M i n e s . I n 1 9 7 8 , h e p u b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t v o l u m e o f a t r e a t i s e o n a v a l a n c h e s , t i t l e d " R o c k s l i d e s a n d A v a l a n c h e s " . A f t e r t h e s e c o n d v o l u m e w a s r e l e a s e d i n 1 9 8 0 , t h e w o r k b e c a m e a b e n c h m a r k i n s t u d y i n g a v a l a n c h e s a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f m a s s m o v e m e n t . A m o n t h p r i o r t o t h e 1 9 8 0 e r u p t i o n o f M o u n t S t . H e l e n s , V o i g h t w a s c o n t a c t e d b y R o c k y C r a n d e l l , a U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ( U S G S ) e m p l o y e e w o r k i n g i n t h e V a n c o u v e r o f f i c e n e a r t h e m o u n t a i n . C r a n d e l l s o u g h t V o i g h t ' s e x p e r t i s e i n l a n d s l i d e s , h o p i n g V o i g h t w o u l d o p i n e o n a g r o w i n g b u l g e , l o n g , w h i c h h a d e m e r g e d o n t h e m o u n t a i n ' s n o r t h f a c e . I n h i s r e p o r t i n g t o C r a n d e l l a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s , V o i g h t s a i d t h a t t h e b u l g e c o u l d f a i l a n d c o l l a p s e t h e v o l c a n o ' s e n t i r e n o r t h s e c t o r . H e s u g g e s t e d t h e y b e g i n m o n i t o r i n g t h e r a t e o f m o v e m e n t o f t h e b u l g e , w o r r i e d t h a t t h e c o l l a p s e c o u l d t r i g g e r a n e r u p t i o n . H e a l s o a d v i s e d h i r i n g a l o c a l s u r v e y o r t o t a k e m e a s u r e m e n t s , o f f e n d i n g s e v e r a l o f t h e g e o l o g i s t s . S h o r t l y a f t e r , V o i g h t l e f t t h e m o u n t a i n a n d r e t u r n e d t o t e a c h i n g c l a s s e s a t P e n n S t a t e . B e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n , h e h a d s e n t h i s f u l l r e p o r t t o t h e U S G S , s u m m a r i z i n g h i s p r e d i c t i o n s , d e p i c t i n g t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e b u l g e a n d t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e m o u n t a i n ' s n o r t h s i d e f o l l o w e d b y a v i o l e n t e r u p t i o n . A f t e r a m a g n i t u d e 5 . 1 e a r t h q u a k e c e n t e r e d d i r e c t l y b e l o w t h e n o r t h s l o p e c a u s e d t h a t p a r t o f t h e v o l c a n o t o s l i d e , M o u n t S t . H e l e n s e r u p t e d , c a u s i n g $ 1 . 1 b i l l i o n i n d a m a g e a n d k i l l i n g 5 7 p e o p l e . A f t e r t h e e r u p t i o n , V o i g h t a c c e p t e d a p o s i t i o n a s a c o n s u l t a n t f o r t h e U S G S . H e l e d t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e v o l c a n o d e b r i s a v a l a n c h e w h i c h h a d o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e e r u p t i o n , g u i d i n g o t h e r v o l c a n o l o g i s t s i n c l u d i n g H a r r y G l i c k e n , w h o b u i l t u p o n V o i g h t ' s p r e l i m i n a r y r e s e a r c h t o c r e a t e h i s r e p o r t " R o c k s l i d e - D e b r i s A v a l a n c h e o f M a y 1 8 , 1 9 8 0 , M o u n t S t . H e l e n s V o l c a n o , W a s h i n g t o n " ( 1 9 9 6 ) . V o i g h t ' s w o r k w o n h i m i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e n o w n , a n d h e l a t e r c i t e d h i s e x p e r i e n c e s t h e r e a s " c a r e e r - c h a n g i n g " . A l t h o u g h V o i g h t a l r e a d y h a d a b u r g e o n i n g i n t e r e s t i n v o l c a n o l o g y , t h e e r u p t i o n a t M o u n t S t . H e l e n s p r o p e l l e d h i m t o d e d i c a t e h i m s e l f t o t h e f i e l d . H i s w o r k h e l p e d r e i n v i g o r a t e w i d e s p r e a d i n t e r e s t i n l a n d s l i d e s a n d o t h e r p h e n o m e n a a t v o l c a n o e s t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y p o s e a t h r e a t t o l i f e . A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g h i s r e s e a r c h a t M o u n t S t . H e l e n s , V o i g h t b e g a n a n a l y z i n g t h e v o l c a n i c h a z a r d s f r o m s e v e r a l o t h e r a c t i v e v o l c a n o e s . I n 1 9 8 5 , V o i g h t b l a m e d h u m a n e r r o r f o r t h e A r m e r o t r a g e d y i n C o l o m b i a , w h e r e m o r e t h a n 2 3 , 0 0 0 d i e d f r o m a n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e N e v a d o d e l R u i z v o l c a n o . H e s t a t e d t h a t w h i l e c a t e g o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s o f v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s w e r e i m p o s s i b l e , u n p r e p a r e d n e s s f o r t h e d i s a s t e r e x a c e r b a t e d t h e d e a t h t o l l . I n J a n u a r y 1 9 8 6 , V o i g h t v i s i t e d N e v a d o d e l R u i z r e s p o n d i n g t o c o n c e r n s f r o m t h e C o l o m b i a n g o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n s e c t i o n o f t h e v o l c a n o m i g h t c a v e i n , c a u s i n g a n o t h e r e r u p t i o n . H e e s t a b l i s h e d a m o n i t o r i n g n e t w o r k o f r e f l e c t o r s a n d u s e d l a s e r r a n g i n g t o t r a c k h o w t h e d i s t a n c e s t o t h e s e r e f l e c t o r s c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e . W h e n o n e r e f l e c t o r i n d i c a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t m o v e m e n t , a n d l a r g e c r a c k s b e c a m e v i s i b l e f r o m t h e a i r , V o i g h t c o n t e m p l a t e d i n i t i a t i n g a n e v a c u a t i o n , b u t w a i t e d . B y M a r c h 1 9 8 6 , h e r e a l i z e d t h e w i d e n i n g c r a c k s w e r e c a u s e d b y t h e c r e e p , o r g r a d u a l s h i f t i n g , o f o n e o f t h e v o l c a n o ' s g l a c i e r s , r a t h e r t h a n r o c k m o v e m e n t . A f t e r l e a v i n g C o l o m b i a , V o i g h t c o m p i l e d t h e 1 4 - p a g e r e p o r t " C o u n t d o w n t o C a t a s t r o p h e " ( 1 9 8 8 ) , w h i c h a n a l y z e d h o w v o l c a n i c h a z a r d m a n a g e m e n t h a d f a i l e d a t A r m e r o . W h e n V o i g h t b e g a n r e s e a r c h a t M o u n t M e r a p i i n J a v a , I n d o n e s i a , i n 1 9 8 8 , i t w a s l a r g e l y u n k n o w n t o v o l c a n o l o g i s t s . I t h a d b e e n o m i t t e d i n t h e S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n ' s 1 9 8 1 p u b l i c a t i o n " V o l c a n o e s o f t h e W o r l d " , d e s p i t e b e i n g d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d , h a v i n g c l o s e t o a m i l l i o n p e o p l e o n i t s s l o p e s a s o f 1 9 9 6 . V o i g h t s e t u p m e t e r s t o r e c o r d m o v e m e n t w i t h i n t h e v o l c a n o , a n d e d u c a t e d l o c a l s c i e n t i s t s o n v o l c a n i c m o n i t o r i n g . I n J u l y 1 9 8 9 , h e o b t a i n e d a $ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 g r a n t f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n ' s D i v i s i o n o f N a t u r a l a n d M a n m a d e H a z a r d M i t i g a t i o n f o r h i s p r o p o s a l t o p r e d i c t e r u p t i o n s a t M e r a p i . A f t e r h i s f u n d i n g r a n o u t , h e t e m p o r a r i l y a b a n d o n e d h i s r e s e a r c h . A n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e v o l c a n o i n 1 9 9 4 p r o d u c e d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s t h a t k i l l e d 6 3 p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g g u e s t s a t a w e d d i n g c e r e m o n y . R e t u r n i n g t o M e r a p i t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , V o i g h t c o m p a r e d d a t a f r o m t h e d e a d a n d s u r v i v o r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r b u r n a r e a s , c l o t h i n g w o r n , a n d l u n g d a m a g e . H e c o n c l u d e d t h a t p r o t e c t i v e , l o n g - s l e e v e d c l o t h i n g a n d m a s k s e n h a n c e c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l w h e n e x p o s e d t o e r u p t i v e a c t i v i t y . I n A p r i l 1 9 8 9 , V o i g h t r e t u r n e d t o C o l o m b i a t o t h e v o l c a n o G a l e r a s a f t e r b e i n g c o n t a c t e d b y t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s D i s a s t e r R e l i e f O r g a n i z a t i o n . P e o p l e i n P a s t o , l o c a t e d a t t h e f o o t o f t h e v o l c a n o , h a d b e c o m e a l a r m e d b y n o i s e s a n d s h a k i n g f r o m G a l e r a s . W h i l e G a l e r a s p r o v e d f a r e a s i e r t o c l i m b t h a n N e v a d o d e l R u i z , l a n d m i n e s p l a n t e d t o h i n d e r g u e r r i l l a f o r c e s d o t t e d t h e s l o p e s o f t h e m o u n t a i n . W i t h U S G S g e o l o g i s t D i c k J a n d a , V o i g h t d r e w a h a z a r d m a p t h a t i n c l u d e d s e v e r a l p o p u l a t e d a r e a s w i t h i n t h e d a n g e r z o n e . B e f o r e V o i g h t l e f t G a l e r a s , t h e v o l c a n o u n d e r w e n t a n u n e x p e c t e d p h r e a t i c e r u p t i o n , w h i c h V o i g h t a n d h i s t e a m f a i l e d t o p r e d i c t . A l t h o u g h P a s t o w a s u n a f f e c t e d , s i x s c i e n t i s t s a t t e n d i n g a U n i t e d N a t i o n s w o r k s h o p f o r n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r r e l i e f w e r e k i l l e d . A f t e r r e v i e w i n g d e f o r m a t i o n d a t a f r o m t h e d a y b e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n , V o i g h t d i s c o v e r e d t h a t n o a c c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e d e f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s h a d o c c u r r e d . H e s u r m i s e d t h a t p h r e a t i c e r u p t i o n s d o n o t e x h i b i t a n a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d e f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e t a k i n g p l a c e a n d l e f t a f t e r c o n f i r m i n g t h a t t h e v o l c a n o ' s m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m f u n c t i o n e d p r o p e r l y . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s , V o i g h t p e r f o r m e d v o l c a n i c h a z a r d a s s e s s m e n t s a t C o t o p a x i i n E c u a d o r a n d a t N e v a d o d e l H u i l a i n C o l o m b i a , w h e r e h i s r e s e a r c h w a s i m p e d e d b y g u e r r i l l a f a c t i o n s a n d d r u g c a r t e l o p e r a t i o n s . H e a l s o a s s i s t e d w i t h a s s e s s m e n t a c t i v i t y a t M o u n t P i n a t u b o i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , M o u n t R e d o u b t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , M o u n t B a n d a i , M o u n t U n z e n , a n d M o u n t O n t a k e i n J a p a n , a n d B e z y m i a n n y a n d S h i v e l u c h i n t h e K a m c h a t k a P e n i n s u l a , R u s s i a . V o i g h t ' s s u c c e s s f u l p r e d i c t i o n t h a t a n a v a l a n c h e a t S t . H e l e n s c o u l d p r o v o k e a l a t e r a l e r u p t i o n , a n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e v o l c a n o ' s f l a n k r a t h e r t h a n i t s s u m m i t , a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f M o n t s e r r a t i n M a r c h 1 9 9 6 . W o r r i e d a b o u t a n e x p a n d i n g l a v a d o m e a t t h e S o u f r i è r e H i l l s v o l c a n o , t h e i s l a n d ' s g o v e r n m e n t a s k e d V o i g h t t o a s s e s s i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r a n a v a l a n c h e t h a t c o u l d g e n e r a t e a n e r u p t i o n . V o i g h t t h o u g h t i t w a s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e c r a t e r w o u l d c o l l a p s e , b u t e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n o v e r a p o s s i b l e p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w t h a t c o u l d r e a c h t h e c i t y o f P l y m o u t h i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e m i n u t e s . T h e c i t y a n d a v i l l a g e o n t h e m o u n t a i n w e r e e v a c u a t e d , a n d w i t h i n t h r e e y e a r s , p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s o v e r t o o k t h e a b a n d o n e d s i t e s . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e e r u p t i o n s , V o i g h t s e r v e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e R i s k A s s e s s m e n t P a n e l t h a t a d v i s e d M o n t s e r r a t ' s g o v e r n m e n t , a n d h e c o - e s t a b l i s h e d t h e C a r i b b e a n A n d e s i t e L a v a I s l a n d P r e c i s i o n S e i s m o - g e o d e t i c O b s e r v a t o r y ( C A L I P S O ) w i t h a t e a m o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i s t s . H e c o n t i n u e d r e s e a r c h a t t h e i s l a n d w i t h S t e v e n S p a r k s , a g e o s c i e n t i s t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i s t o l , e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e S E A - C A L I P S O s y s t e m t o a n a l y z e S o u f r i è r e H i l l s b y u s i n g s e i s m i c w a v e s a n d e x p l o s i o n s i n t h e o c e a n . A m o n g o t h e r f i n d i n g s , t h i s e f f o r t d e t e c t e d a m a j o r f a u l t t r e n d i n g n o r t h - t o - w e s t u n d e r M o n t s e r r a t ' s w e s t e r n s i d e . V o i g h t s t i l l o v e r s e e s h a z a r d a s s e s s m e n t s a t t h e v o l c a n o , p r o v i d i n g h i s i n p u t d u r i n g e r u p t i v e p e r i o d s i n 2 0 0 6 a n d 2 0 1 0 . W i t h h i s s t u d e n t s , V o i g h t h a s a n a l y z e d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s , v o l c a n i c a l l y i n d u c e d s e i s m i c i t y , v o l c a n i c d e b r i s a v a l a n c h e s , a n d v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n p r e d i c t i o n . V o i g h t h a s a l s o s e r v e d a s a c o n s u l t a n t g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r f o r d a m s , t u n n e l s , a n d n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s , h e l p i n g p l a n e n g i n e e r i n g p r o j e c t s i n F r a n c e , I n d i a , I r e l a n d , S o m a l i a , P a p u a N e w G u i n e a , C a n a d a , a n d T u r k e y , a s w e l l a s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . V o i g h t ' s r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n l a v a d o m e c o l l a p s e s , s t r a t o v o l c a n o e s , m o n i t o r i n g o f a c t i v e v o l c a n o e s , a n d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s h a v e b r o u g h t h i m t o I c e l a n d , I n d o n e s i a , t h e W e s t I n d i e s , I t a l y , a n d C h i l e . C o m b i n i n g h i s k n o w l e d g e o f e n g i n e e r i n g a n d g e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s , V o i g h t d e v e l o p e d t h e w i d e l y u s e d a n e l a s t i c s t r a i n r e c o v e r y ( A S R ) m e t h o d f o r m e a s u r i n g s t r e s s o n d e e p r o c k . W i t h a t e a m o f g e o l o g i s t s , h e a l s o d e r i v e d t h e m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e f o r e c a s t m e t h o d ( F F M ) , w h i c h p r e d i c t s e r u p t i o n t i m e s f o r v o l c a n o e s b a s e d o n c h a n g e s i n t h e m o u n t a i n ' s s u r r o u n d i n g s e i s m i c a n d d e f o r m a t i o n d a t a . H e c u r r e n t l y s e r v e s a s a m e m b e r o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ' s V o l c a n o H a z a r d s R e s p o n s e T e a m , a n d h a s r e s p o n d e d t o p o t e n t i a l l y e r u p t i v e v o l c a n o e s i n J a p a n , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , I n d o n e s i a , a n d C h i l e . T h r o u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r , V o i g h t h a s r e c e i v e d m u l t i p l e a c c o l a d e s a n d c i t a t i o n s f o r h i s r e s e a r c h a s a p r o f e s s o r a n d f o r h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k a s a g e o l o g i s t a n d v o l c a n o l o g i s t . I n 1 9 8 4 , t h e I n s t i t u t i o n o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s a w a r d e d h i m t h e G e o r g e S t e p h e n s o n M e d a l , r e c o g n i z i n g o n e o f h i s a r t i c l e s a s a m o n g " t h e b e s t w o r k p u b l i s h e d i n [ t h e i r ] j o u r n a l s " . T h e s a m e y e a r , V o i g h t e a r n e d a n a w a r d f o r " s i g n i f i c a n t o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o r e s e a r c h i n r o c k m e c h a n i c s " f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o n R o c k M e c h a n i c s . F o r h i s h e l p m o n i t o r i n g t h e M a y o n V o l c a n o i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n 1 9 8 5 , h e w a s g r a n t e d a k e y t o L e g a z p i , A l b a y , w h i c h h a d b e e n t h r e a t e n e d b y M a y o n ' s i m p e n d i n g e r u p t i o n . 1 9 8 9 s a w a n o t h e r m a j o r y e a r o f h o n o r s f o r V o i g h t , a s h e w a s n a m e d a M a c Q u a r i e R e s e a r c h S c h o l a r a n d a g a i n g a r n e r e d a n a w a r d f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o n R o c k M e c h a n i c s f o r h i s o r i g i n a l f i n d i n g s . V o i g h t h a s a p p e a r e d a s a d i s t i n g u i s h e d l e c t u r e r s e v e r a l t i m e s , i n c l u d i n g a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h ' s C o l l e g e o f M i n i n g E n g i n e e r i n g ( 1 9 9 0 ) , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a ( 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l & E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g i s t s ( 1 9 9 2 ) . F o r h i s s e r v i c e a s a p r o f e s s o r a t P e n n S t a t e , V o i g h t h a s b e e n g i v e n t w o a w a r d s , s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r h i s r e s e a r c h . I n 1 9 9 0 , h e r e c e i v e d t h e W i l s o n R e s e a r c h A w a r d f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f E a r t h a n d M i n e r a l S c i e n c e s f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n r e s e a r c h . I n 1 9 9 1 , h e g a i n e d a F a c u l t y S c h o l a r M e d a l f o r " O u t s t a n d i n g A c h i e v e m e n t i n t h e P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s a n d E n g i n e e r i n g " . I n 2 0 0 8 , V o i g h t w a s a p p o i n t e d a U n i o n F e l l o w o f t h e A m e r i c a n G e o p h y s i c a l U n i o n f o r " f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f v o l c a n o d e f o r m a t i o n , a s s e s s m e n t o f v o l c a n o h a z a r d s , a n d f o r e c a s t i n g " , a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , h e w a s a w a r d e d t h e S c h u s t e r M e d a l b y t h e C a n a d i a n G e o t e c h n i c a l S o c i e t y f o r " o u t s t a n d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t s i n r e s e a r c h o n g e o l o g i c h a z a r d s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a " . F o r " h i s r e s e a r c h , t e a c h i n g a n d c o n s u l t i n g w o r k " , t h e E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g y D i v i s i o n o f t h e G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y o f A m e r i c a p r e s e n t e d h i m w i t h t h e i r 2 0 1 0 D i s t i n g u i s h e d P r a c t i c e A w a r d . V o i g h t r e c e i v e d t h e T h o r a r i n s s o n M e d a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f V o l c a n o l o g y a n d C h e m i s t r y o f t h e E a r t h ' s I n t e r i o r i n 2 0 1 3 , g r a n t e d t o a " s c i e n t i s t o f o u t s t a n d i n g d i s t i n c t i o n w h o h a s m a d e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o r e s e a r c h i n v o l c a n o l o g y " , a n d i n 2 0 1 7 h e w a s e l e c t e d a s a M e m b e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y o f E n g i n e e r i n g f o r " c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d m i t i g a t i o n o f g e o l o g i c h a z a r d s . " R e c a l l i n g a c o n f e r e n c e w h e r e V o i g h t a p p e a r e d , B i l l M c G u i r e , E m e r i t u s P r o f e s s o r o f G e o p h y s i c a l & C l i m a t e H a z a r d s a t U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e L o n d o n , d e s c r i b e d h i m a s " a n i l l u s t r i o u s e x p e r t o n v o l c a n o i n s t a b i l i t y a n d l a n d s l i d e s " . C i t i n g V o i g h t f o r h i s D i s t i n g u i s h e d P r a c t i c e A w a r d , c o l l e a g u e R i c h a r d G r a y n a m e d h i m a m o n g h i s " p r o f e s s i o n ' s b r i g h t e s t a n d p r o d u c t i v e m e m b e r s " . W h e n V o i g h t p u b l i s h e d h i s f a i l u r e f o r e c a s t p r e d i c t i o n m e c h a n i s m , U S G S g e o l o g i s t R o b e r t I . T i l l i n g p r a i s e d i t a s " a s i g n i f i c a n t r e f i n e m e n t i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m o n i t o r i n g d a t a " . A c c o r d i n g t o V o i g h t ' s c u r r i c u l u m v i t a e f r o m P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , h e h a s p u b l i s h e d m o r e t h a n 4 0 0 p a p e r s o r a b s t r a c t s a n d e d i t e d 1 5 b o o k s , a n d h i s w o r k s h a v e b e e n c i t e d m o r e t h a n 9 , 0 0 0 t i m e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s , V o i g h t h a s w r i t t e n o r h e l p e d w r i t e a t l e a s t 2 1 b o o k s a n d m o n o g r a p h s s i n c e 1 9 6 5 ; h i s c o - a u t h o r s i n c l u d e R . S . J . S p a r k s , A . N e r i , D . E l s w o r t h , A . B e l o u s o v , a n d G . M a t t i o l i . H i s m o s t r e c e n t b o o k , " T h e E r u p t i o n o f S o u f r i è r e H i l l s V o l c a n o , M o n t s e r r a t f r o m 2 0 0 0 t o 2 0 1 0 " , w a s p u b l i s h e d i n 2 0 1 4 . H e c o n t i n u e s t o p u b l i s h a r t i c l e s , a c c o r d i n g t o h i s G o o g l e S c h o l a r p r o f i l e .

Volcanological work and research ; Later studies

Voight is a renowned volcanologist who has made significant contributions to the field through his research and publications. He has worked on various volcanic projects around the world, including Mount St. Helens, Mount Merapi, and Soufrière Hills. His work focuses on volcanic hazard management, landslide risk assessment, and eruption prediction. He has developed methods such as the anelastic strain recovery (ASR) method and the material failure forecast method (FFM). Voight has received numerous awards and honors for his research and has published over 400 papers and edited 15 books.

Still an emeritus professor at Penn State, he initiated an endowment under his name to contribute to the education of volcanic hazard specialists from developing countries. Voight performed work in 1971–1973 for the United States Bureau of Mines. In 1978, he published the first volume of a treatise on avalanches, titled "Rockslides and Avalanches". After the second volume was released in 1980, the work became a benchmark in studying avalanches and other forms of mass movement. A month prior to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, Voight was contacted by Rocky Crandell, a United States Geological Survey (USGS) employee working in the Vancouver office near the mountain. Crandell sought Voight's expertise in landslides, hoping Voight would opine on a growing bulge, long, which had emerged on the contemplated initiating an evacuation, but waited. By March 1986, he realized the widening cracks were caused by the creep, or gradual shifting, of one of the volcano's glaciers, rather than rock movement. After leaving Colombia, Voight compiled the 14-page report "Countdown to Catastrophe" (1988), which analyzed how volcanic hazard management had failed at Armero. When Voight began research at Mount Merapi in Java, Indonesia, in 1988, it was largely unknown to volcanologists. It had been omitted in the Smithsonian Institution's 1981 publication "Volcanoes of the World", despite being densely populated, having close to a million people on its slopes as of 1996. Voight set up meters to record movement within the volcano, and educated local scientists on volcanic monitoring. In July 1989, he obtained a $250,000 grant from the National Science Foundation's Division of Natural and Manmade Hazard Mitigation for his proposal to predict eruptions at Merapi. After his funding ran out, he temporarily abandoned his research. An eruption from the volcano in 1994 produced pyroclastic flows that killed 63 people, including guests at a wedding ceremony. Returning to Merapi the following year, Voight compared data from the dead and survivors, including the extent of their burn areas, clothing worn, and lung damage. He concluded that protective, long-sleeved clothing and masks enhance chances of survival when exposed to eruptive activity. In April 1989, Voight returned to Colombia to the volcano Galeras after being contacted by the United Nations Disaster Relief Organization. People in Pasto, located at the foot of the volcano, had become alarmed by noises that could generate an eruption. Voight thought it was unlikely that the crater would collapse, but expressed concern over a possible pyroclastic flow that could reach the city of Plymouth in approximately three minutes. The city and a village on the mountain were evacuated, and within three years, pyroclastic flows overtook the abandoned sites. Following these eruptions, Voight served as a member of the Risk Assessment Panel that advised Montserrat's government, and he co-established the Caribbean Andesite Lava Island Precision Seismo-geodetic Observatory (CALIPSO) with a team of international scientists. He continued research at the island with Steven Sparks, a geoscientist at the University of Bristol, establishing the SEA-CALIPSO system to analyze Soufrière Hills by using seismic waves and explosions in the ocean. Among other findings, this effort detected a major fault trending north-to-west under Montserrat's western side. Voight still oversees hazard assessments at the volcano, providing his input during eruptive periods in 2006 and 2010. With his students, Voight has analyzed pyroclastic flows, volcanically induced seismicity, volcanic debris avalanches, and volcanic eruption prediction. Voight has also served as a consultant geotechnical engineer for dams, tunnels, and nuclear power plants, helping plan engineering projects in France, India, Ireland, Somalia, Papua New Guinea, Canada, and Turkey, as well as in the United States. Voight's research interests in lava dome collapses, stratovolcanoes, monitoring of active volcanoes, and pyroclastic flows have brought him to Iceland, Indonesia, the West Indies, Italy, and Chile. Combining his knowledge of engineering and geological concepts, Voight developed the widely used anelastic strain recovery (ASR) method for measuring stress on deep rock. With a team of geologists, he also derived the material failure forecast method (FFM), which predicts eruption times for volcanoes based on changes in the mountain's surrounding seismic and deformation data. He currently serves as a member of the United States Geological Survey's Volcano Hazards Response Team, and has responded to potentially eruptive volcanoes in Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Chile. Throughout his career, Voight has received multiple accolades and citations for his research as a professor and for his professional work as a geologist and volcanologist. In 1984, the Institution of Civil Engineers awarded him the George Stephenson Medal, recognizing one of his articles as among "the best work published in [their] journals". The same year, Voight earned an award for given two awards, specifically for his research. In 1990, he received the Wilson Research Award from the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences for excellence in research. In 1991, he gained a Faculty Scholar Medal for "Outstanding Achievement in the Physical Sciences and Engineering". In 2008, Voight was appointed a Union Fellow of the American Geophysical Union for "fundamental contributions to the understanding of volcano deformation, assessment of volcano hazards, and forecasting", and the following year, he was awarded the Schuster Medal by the Canadian Geotechnical Society for "outstanding achievements in research on geologic hazards in North America". For "his research, teaching and consulting work", the Engineering Geology Division of the Geological Society of America presented him with their 2010 Distinguished Practice Award. Voight received the Thorarinsson Medal of monitoring data". According to Voight's curriculum vitae from Pennsylvania State University, he has published more than 400 papers or abstracts and edited 15 books, and his works have been cited more than 9,000 times. In addition to journal articles, Voight has written or helped write at least 21 books and monographs since 1965; his co-authors include R.S.J. Sparks, A. Neri, D. Elsworth, A. Belousov, and G. Mattioli. His most recent book, "The Eruption of Soufrière Hills Volcano, Montserrat from 2000 to 2010", was published in 2014. He continues to publish articles, according to his Google Scholar profile.

Barry Voight

B o r n i n 1 9 3 7 , V o i g h t g r e w u p i n Y o n k e r s , N e w Y o r k . H i s b r o t h e r s a r e a c t o r J o n V o i g h t a n d s o n g w r i t e r C h i p T a y l o r , a c t r e s s A n g e l i n a J o l i e i s h i s n i e c e , a n d m u s i c i a n J a m e s H a v e n i s h i s n e p h e w . B a r r y a n d h i s w i f e M a r y A n n e ( n é e V e r d i s c o ) h a v e t w o d a u g h t e r s , L i s a a n d B a r b a r a . V o i g h t ' s f a t h e r w a s p r o f e s s i o n a l g o l f p l a y e r E l m e r " E l m o " V o i g h t ( 1 9 0 9 – 1 9 7 3 ) , a l e a d e r i n t h e e f f o r t t o b r e a k t h e c o l o r b a r r i e r i n g o l f , a n d h i s m o t h e r B a r b a r a ( 1 9 1 0 – 1 9 9 5 ) w a s a t e a c h e r a n d s w i m i n s t r u c t o r . V o i g h t a n d h i s b r o t h e r s g r e w u p p l a y i n g g o l f , a n d B a r r y a l s o d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e r e s t i n s w i m m i n g . V o i g h t g r a d u a t e d f r o m A r c h b i s h o p S t e p i n a c H i g h S c h o o l i n 1 9 5 5 . A f t e r h i g h s c h o o l , V o i g h t p u r s u e d a 5 - y e a r i n t e n s i v e d u a l - d e g r e e p r o g r a m a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e , s t u d y i n g l a n d s l i p s a l o n g L a k e M i c h i g a n a n d r e c e i v i n g u n d e r g r a d u a t e d e g r e e s i n g e o l o g y i n 1 9 5 9 a n d i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g i n 1 9 6 0 . H e e a r n e d h i s m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g f r o m N o t r e D a m e i n 1 9 6 1 . V o i g h t a t t r i b u t e s h i s i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n c e t o h i s m e n t o r s a t N o t r e D a m e , p r o f e s s o r s R a y G u t s c h i c k a n d E r h a r d W i n k l e r . A f t e r s p e n d i n g o n e y e a r s t u d y i n g a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , V o i g h t t r a n s f e r r e d t o C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , w h e r e h e g r a d u a t e d w i t h a P h . D . i n g e o l o g y i n 1 9 6 5 , s t u d y i n g r o c k m e c h a n i c s a n d s t r u c t u r a l g e o l o g y u n d e r F r e d D o n a t h . W h i l e a t C o l u m b i a , V o i g h t w a s n a m e d a P r e s i d e n t ' s F e l l o w , a n d t a u g h t a l e c t u r e c o u r s e c a l l e d " G e o l o g y f o r E n g i n e e r s " . V o i g h t b e g a n t e a c h i n g i n 1 9 6 1 , s e r v i n g a s a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e D a m e w h i l e p u r s u i n g h i s m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g . F r o m 1 9 6 1 t o 1 9 6 3 , h e s e r v e d a s a t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t a t C o r n e l l a n d C o l u m b i a . I n 1 9 6 4 , h e j o i n e d t h e f a c u l t y a t P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ( P e n n S t a t e ) a s a n a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r o f g e o l o g y , b e c o m i n g a f u l l p r o f e s s o r o f g e o l o g y a n d g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g i n 1 9 7 8 . V o i g h t t a u g h t a t P e n n S t a t e f o r m o r e t h a n f o u r d e c a d e s , r e t i r i n g f r o m t e a c h i n g i n J u n e 2 0 0 5 b u t c o n t i n u i n g h i s r e s e a r c h . W h i l e a t P e n n S t a t e , V o i g h t h a d a j o i n t a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h t h e s c h o o l ' s D e p a r t m e n t o f M i n e r a l E n g i n e e r i n g a n d t a u g h t c o u r s e s i n p h y s i c a l g e o l o g y , m e c h a n i c s o f g e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s , a n d v o l c a n o l o g y . D u r i n g h i s c a r e e r , h e a l s o l e c t u r e d a s a g u e s t p r o f e s s o r a t t h e D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h n o l o g y i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s i n 1 9 7 2 , w o r k i n g u n d e r J a c q u e s D o z y , a n d s e r v e d a s a v i s i t i n g p r o f e s s o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o i n 1 9 7 3 a n d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a , i n 1 9 8 1 . S t i l l a n e m e r i t u s p r o f e s s o r a t P e n n S t a t e , h e i n i t i a t e d a n e n d o w m e n t u n d e r h i s n a m e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e d u c a t i o n o f v o l c a n i c h a z a r d s p e c i a l i s t s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . V o i g h t p e r f o r m e d w o r k i n 1 9 7 1 – 1 9 7 3 f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s B u r e a u o f M i n e s . I n 1 9 7 8 , h e p u b l i s h e d t h e f i r s t v o l u m e o f a t r e a t i s e o n a v a l a n c h e s , t i t l e d " R o c k s l i d e s a n d A v a l a n c h e s " . A f t e r t h e s e c o n d v o l u m e w a s r e l e a s e d i n 1 9 8 0 , t h e w o r k b e c a m e a b e n c h m a r k i n s t u d y i n g a v a l a n c h e s a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f m a s s m o v e m e n t . A m o n t h p r i o r t o t h e 1 9 8 0 e r u p t i o n o f M o u n t S t . H e l e n s , V o i g h t w a s c o n t a c t e d b y R o c k y C r a n d e l l , a U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ( U S G S ) e m p l o y e e w o r k i n g i n t h e V a n c o u v e r o f f i c e n e a r t h e m o u n t a i n . C r a n d e l l s o u g h t V o i g h t ' s e x p e r t i s e i n l a n d s l i d e s , h o p i n g V o i g h t w o u l d o p i n e o n a g r o w i n g b u l g e , l o n g , w h i c h h a d e m e r g e d o n t h e m o u n t a i n ' s n o r t h f a c e . I n h i s r e p o r t i n g t o C r a n d e l l a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s , V o i g h t s a i d t h a t t h e b u l g e c o u l d f a i l a n d c o l l a p s e t h e v o l c a n o ' s e n t i r e n o r t h s e c t o r . H e s u g g e s t e d t h e y b e g i n m o n i t o r i n g t h e r a t e o f m o v e m e n t o f t h e b u l g e , w o r r i e d t h a t t h e c o l l a p s e c o u l d t r i g g e r a n e r u p t i o n . H e a l s o a d v i s e d h i r i n g a l o c a l s u r v e y o r t o t a k e m e a s u r e m e n t s , o f f e n d i n g s e v e r a l o f t h e g e o l o g i s t s . S h o r t l y a f t e r , V o i g h t l e f t t h e m o u n t a i n a n d r e t u r n e d t o t e a c h i n g c l a s s e s a t P e n n S t a t e . B e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n , h e h a d s e n t h i s f u l l r e p o r t t o t h e U S G S , s u m m a r i z i n g h i s p r e d i c t i o n s , d e p i c t i n g t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e b u l g e a n d t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e m o u n t a i n ' s n o r t h s i d e f o l l o w e d b y a v i o l e n t e r u p t i o n . A f t e r a m a g n i t u d e 5 . 1 e a r t h q u a k e c e n t e r e d d i r e c t l y b e l o w t h e n o r t h s l o p e c a u s e d t h a t p a r t o f t h e v o l c a n o t o s l i d e , M o u n t S t . H e l e n s e r u p t e d , c a u s i n g $ 1 . 1 b i l l i o n i n d a m a g e a n d k i l l i n g 5 7 p e o p l e . A f t e r t h e e r u p t i o n , V o i g h t a c c e p t e d a p o s i t i o n a s a c o n s u l t a n t f o r t h e U S G S . H e l e d t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e v o l c a n o d e b r i s a v a l a n c h e w h i c h h a d o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e e r u p t i o n , g u i d i n g o t h e r v o l c a n o l o g i s t s i n c l u d i n g H a r r y G l i c k e n , w h o b u i l t u p o n V o i g h t ' s p r e l i m i n a r y r e s e a r c h t o c r e a t e h i s r e p o r t " R o c k s l i d e - D e b r i s A v a l a n c h e o f M a y 1 8 , 1 9 8 0 , M o u n t S t . H e l e n s V o l c a n o , W a s h i n g t o n " ( 1 9 9 6 ) . V o i g h t ' s w o r k w o n h i m i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e n o w n , a n d h e l a t e r c i t e d h i s e x p e r i e n c e s t h e r e a s " c a r e e r - c h a n g i n g " . A l t h o u g h V o i g h t a l r e a d y h a d a b u r g e o n i n g i n t e r e s t i n v o l c a n o l o g y , t h e e r u p t i o n a t M o u n t S t . H e l e n s p r o p e l l e d h i m t o d e d i c a t e h i m s e l f t o t h e f i e l d . H i s w o r k h e l p e d r e i n v i g o r a t e w i d e s p r e a d i n t e r e s t i n l a n d s l i d e s a n d o t h e r p h e n o m e n a a t v o l c a n o e s t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y p o s e a t h r e a t t o l i f e . A f t e r c o m p l e t i n g h i s r e s e a r c h a t M o u n t S t . H e l e n s , V o i g h t b e g a n a n a l y z i n g t h e v o l c a n i c h a z a r d s f r o m s e v e r a l o t h e r a c t i v e v o l c a n o e s . I n 1 9 8 5 , V o i g h t b l a m e d h u m a n e r r o r f o r t h e A r m e r o t r a g e d y i n C o l o m b i a , w h e r e m o r e t h a n 2 3 , 0 0 0 d i e d f r o m a n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e N e v a d o d e l R u i z v o l c a n o . H e s t a t e d t h a t w h i l e c a t e g o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s o f v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s w e r e i m p o s s i b l e , u n p r e p a r e d n e s s f o r t h e d i s a s t e r e x a c e r b a t e d t h e d e a t h t o l l . I n J a n u a r y 1 9 8 6 , V o i g h t v i s i t e d N e v a d o d e l R u i z r e s p o n d i n g t o c o n c e r n s f r o m t h e C o l o m b i a n g o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n s e c t i o n o f t h e v o l c a n o m i g h t c a v e i n , c a u s i n g a n o t h e r e r u p t i o n . H e e s t a b l i s h e d a m o n i t o r i n g n e t w o r k o f r e f l e c t o r s a n d u s e d l a s e r r a n g i n g t o t r a c k h o w t h e d i s t a n c e s t o t h e s e r e f l e c t o r s c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e . W h e n o n e r e f l e c t o r i n d i c a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t m o v e m e n t , a n d l a r g e c r a c k s b e c a m e v i s i b l e f r o m t h e a i r , V o i g h t c o n t e m p l a t e d i n i t i a t i n g a n e v a c u a t i o n , b u t w a i t e d . B y M a r c h 1 9 8 6 , h e r e a l i z e d t h e w i d e n i n g c r a c k s w e r e c a u s e d b y t h e c r e e p , o r g r a d u a l s h i f t i n g , o f o n e o f t h e v o l c a n o ' s g l a c i e r s , r a t h e r t h a n r o c k m o v e m e n t . A f t e r l e a v i n g C o l o m b i a , V o i g h t c o m p i l e d t h e 1 4 - p a g e r e p o r t " C o u n t d o w n t o C a t a s t r o p h e " ( 1 9 8 8 ) , w h i c h a n a l y z e d h o w v o l c a n i c h a z a r d m a n a g e m e n t h a d f a i l e d a t A r m e r o . W h e n V o i g h t b e g a n r e s e a r c h a t M o u n t M e r a p i i n J a v a , I n d o n e s i a , i n 1 9 8 8 , i t w a s l a r g e l y u n k n o w n t o v o l c a n o l o g i s t s . I t h a d b e e n o m i t t e d i n t h e S m i t h s o n i a n I n s t i t u t i o n ' s 1 9 8 1 p u b l i c a t i o n " V o l c a n o e s o f t h e W o r l d " , d e s p i t e b e i n g d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d , h a v i n g c l o s e t o a m i l l i o n p e o p l e o n i t s s l o p e s a s o f 1 9 9 6 . V o i g h t s e t u p m e t e r s t o r e c o r d m o v e m e n t w i t h i n t h e v o l c a n o , a n d e d u c a t e d l o c a l s c i e n t i s t s o n v o l c a n i c m o n i t o r i n g . I n J u l y 1 9 8 9 , h e o b t a i n e d a $ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 g r a n t f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n ' s D i v i s i o n o f N a t u r a l a n d M a n m a d e H a z a r d M i t i g a t i o n f o r h i s p r o p o s a l t o p r e d i c t e r u p t i o n s a t M e r a p i . A f t e r h i s f u n d i n g r a n o u t , h e t e m p o r a r i l y a b a n d o n e d h i s r e s e a r c h . A n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e v o l c a n o i n 1 9 9 4 p r o d u c e d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s t h a t k i l l e d 6 3 p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g g u e s t s a t a w e d d i n g c e r e m o n y . R e t u r n i n g t o M e r a p i t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , V o i g h t c o m p a r e d d a t a f r o m t h e d e a d a n d s u r v i v o r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r b u r n a r e a s , c l o t h i n g w o r n , a n d l u n g d a m a g e . H e c o n c l u d e d t h a t p r o t e c t i v e , l o n g - s l e e v e d c l o t h i n g a n d m a s k s e n h a n c e c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l w h e n e x p o s e d t o e r u p t i v e a c t i v i t y . I n A p r i l 1 9 8 9 , V o i g h t r e t u r n e d t o C o l o m b i a t o t h e v o l c a n o G a l e r a s a f t e r b e i n g c o n t a c t e d b y t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s D i s a s t e r R e l i e f O r g a n i z a t i o n . P e o p l e i n P a s t o , l o c a t e d a t t h e f o o t o f t h e v o l c a n o , h a d b e c o m e a l a r m e d b y n o i s e s a n d s h a k i n g f r o m G a l e r a s . W h i l e G a l e r a s p r o v e d f a r e a s i e r t o c l i m b t h a n N e v a d o d e l R u i z , l a n d m i n e s p l a n t e d t o h i n d e r g u e r r i l l a f o r c e s d o t t e d t h e s l o p e s o f t h e m o u n t a i n . W i t h U S G S g e o l o g i s t D i c k J a n d a , V o i g h t d r e w a h a z a r d m a p t h a t i n c l u d e d s e v e r a l p o p u l a t e d a r e a s w i t h i n t h e d a n g e r z o n e . B e f o r e V o i g h t l e f t G a l e r a s , t h e v o l c a n o u n d e r w e n t a n u n e x p e c t e d p h r e a t i c e r u p t i o n , w h i c h V o i g h t a n d h i s t e a m f a i l e d t o p r e d i c t . A l t h o u g h P a s t o w a s u n a f f e c t e d , s i x s c i e n t i s t s a t t e n d i n g a U n i t e d N a t i o n s w o r k s h o p f o r n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r r e l i e f w e r e k i l l e d . A f t e r r e v i e w i n g d e f o r m a t i o n d a t a f r o m t h e d a y b e f o r e t h e e r u p t i o n , V o i g h t d i s c o v e r e d t h a t n o a c c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e d e f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s h a d o c c u r r e d . H e s u r m i s e d t h a t p h r e a t i c e r u p t i o n s d o n o t e x h i b i t a n a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d e f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e t a k i n g p l a c e a n d l e f t a f t e r c o n f i r m i n g t h a t t h e v o l c a n o ' s m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m f u n c t i o n e d p r o p e r l y . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s , V o i g h t p e r f o r m e d v o l c a n i c h a z a r d a s s e s s m e n t s a t C o t o p a x i i n E c u a d o r a n d a t N e v a d o d e l H u i l a i n C o l o m b i a , w h e r e h i s r e s e a r c h w a s i m p e d e d b y g u e r r i l l a f a c t i o n s a n d d r u g c a r t e l o p e r a t i o n s . H e a l s o a s s i s t e d w i t h a s s e s s m e n t a c t i v i t y a t M o u n t P i n a t u b o i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , M o u n t R e d o u b t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , M o u n t B a n d a i , M o u n t U n z e n , a n d M o u n t O n t a k e i n J a p a n , a n d B e z y m i a n n y a n d S h i v e l u c h i n t h e K a m c h a t k a P e n i n s u l a , R u s s i a . V o i g h t ' s s u c c e s s f u l p r e d i c t i o n t h a t a n a v a l a n c h e a t S t . H e l e n s c o u l d p r o v o k e a l a t e r a l e r u p t i o n , a n e r u p t i o n f r o m t h e v o l c a n o ' s f l a n k r a t h e r t h a n i t s s u m m i t , a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f M o n t s e r r a t i n M a r c h 1 9 9 6 . W o r r i e d a b o u t a n e x p a n d i n g l a v a d o m e a t t h e S o u f r i è r e H i l l s v o l c a n o , t h e i s l a n d ' s g o v e r n m e n t a s k e d V o i g h t t o a s s e s s i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r a n a v a l a n c h e t h a t c o u l d g e n e r a t e a n e r u p t i o n . V o i g h t t h o u g h t i t w a s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e c r a t e r w o u l d c o l l a p s e , b u t e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n o v e r a p o s s i b l e p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w t h a t c o u l d r e a c h t h e c i t y o f P l y m o u t h i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e m i n u t e s . T h e c i t y a n d a v i l l a g e o n t h e m o u n t a i n w e r e e v a c u a t e d , a n d w i t h i n t h r e e y e a r s , p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s o v e r t o o k t h e a b a n d o n e d s i t e s . F o l l o w i n g t h e s e e r u p t i o n s , V o i g h t s e r v e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e R i s k A s s e s s m e n t P a n e l t h a t a d v i s e d M o n t s e r r a t ' s g o v e r n m e n t , a n d h e c o - e s t a b l i s h e d t h e C a r i b b e a n A n d e s i t e L a v a I s l a n d P r e c i s i o n S e i s m o - g e o d e t i c O b s e r v a t o r y ( C A L I P S O ) w i t h a t e a m o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i s t s . H e c o n t i n u e d r e s e a r c h a t t h e i s l a n d w i t h S t e v e n S p a r k s , a g e o s c i e n t i s t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i s t o l , e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e S E A - C A L I P S O s y s t e m t o a n a l y z e S o u f r i è r e H i l l s b y u s i n g s e i s m i c w a v e s a n d e x p l o s i o n s i n t h e o c e a n . A m o n g o t h e r f i n d i n g s , t h i s e f f o r t d e t e c t e d a m a j o r f a u l t t r e n d i n g n o r t h - t o - w e s t u n d e r M o n t s e r r a t ' s w e s t e r n s i d e . V o i g h t s t i l l o v e r s e e s h a z a r d a s s e s s m e n t s a t t h e v o l c a n o , p r o v i d i n g h i s i n p u t d u r i n g e r u p t i v e p e r i o d s i n 2 0 0 6 a n d 2 0 1 0 . W i t h h i s s t u d e n t s , V o i g h t h a s a n a l y z e d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s , v o l c a n i c a l l y i n d u c e d s e i s m i c i t y , v o l c a n i c d e b r i s a v a l a n c h e s , a n d v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n p r e d i c t i o n . V o i g h t h a s a l s o s e r v e d a s a c o n s u l t a n t g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r f o r d a m s , t u n n e l s , a n d n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s , h e l p i n g p l a n e n g i n e e r i n g p r o j e c t s i n F r a n c e , I n d i a , I r e l a n d , S o m a l i a , P a p u a N e w G u i n e a , C a n a d a , a n d T u r k e y , a s w e l l a s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . V o i g h t ' s r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s i n l a v a d o m e c o l l a p s e s , s t r a t o v o l c a n o e s , m o n i t o r i n g o f a c t i v e v o l c a n o e s , a n d p y r o c l a s t i c f l o w s h a v e b r o u g h t h i m t o I c e l a n d , I n d o n e s i a , t h e W e s t I n d i e s , I t a l y , a n d C h i l e . C o m b i n i n g h i s k n o w l e d g e o f e n g i n e e r i n g a n d g e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s , V o i g h t d e v e l o p e d t h e w i d e l y u s e d a n e l a s t i c s t r a i n r e c o v e r y ( A S R ) m e t h o d f o r m e a s u r i n g s t r e s s o n d e e p r o c k . W i t h a t e a m o f g e o l o g i s t s , h e a l s o d e r i v e d t h e m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e f o r e c a s t m e t h o d ( F F M ) , w h i c h p r e d i c t s e r u p t i o n t i m e s f o r v o l c a n o e s b a s e d o n c h a n g e s i n t h e m o u n t a i n ' s s u r r o u n d i n g s e i s m i c a n d d e f o r m a t i o n d a t a . H e c u r r e n t l y s e r v e s a s a m e m b e r o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y ' s V o l c a n o H a z a r d s R e s p o n s e T e a m , a n d h a s r e s p o n d e d t o p o t e n t i a l l y e r u p t i v e v o l c a n o e s i n J a p a n , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , I n d o n e s i a , a n d C h i l e . T h r o u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r , V o i g h t h a s r e c e i v e d m u l t i p l e a c c o l a d e s a n d c i t a t i o n s f o r h i s r e s e a r c h a s a p r o f e s s o r a n d f o r h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k a s a g e o l o g i s t a n d v o l c a n o l o g i s t . I n 1 9 8 4 , t h e I n s t i t u t i o n o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s a w a r d e d h i m t h e G e o r g e S t e p h e n s o n M e d a l , r e c o g n i z i n g o n e o f h i s a r t i c l e s a s a m o n g " t h e b e s t w o r k p u b l i s h e d i n [ t h e i r ] j o u r n a l s " . T h e s a m e y e a r , V o i g h t e a r n e d a n a w a r d f o r " s i g n i f i c a n t o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o r e s e a r c h i n r o c k m e c h a n i c s " f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o n R o c k M e c h a n i c s . F o r h i s h e l p m o n i t o r i n g t h e M a y o n V o l c a n o i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n 1 9 8 5 , h e w a s g r a n t e d a k e y t o L e g a z p i , A l b a y , w h i c h h a d b e e n t h r e a t e n e d b y M a y o n ' s i m p e n d i n g e r u p t i o n . 1 9 8 9 s a w a n o t h e r m a j o r y e a r o f h o n o r s f o r V o i g h t , a s h e w a s n a m e d a M a c Q u a r i e R e s e a r c h S c h o l a r a n d a g a i n g a r n e r e d a n a w a r d f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e o n R o c k M e c h a n i c s f o r h i s o r i g i n a l f i n d i n g s . V o i g h t h a s a p p e a r e d a s a d i s t i n g u i s h e d l e c t u r e r s e v e r a l t i m e s , i n c l u d i n g a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U t a h ' s C o l l e g e o f M i n i n g E n g i n e e r i n g ( 1 9 9 0 ) , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , S a n t a B a r b a r a ( 1 9 9 2 ) , a n d t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l & E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g i s t s ( 1 9 9 2 ) . F o r h i s s e r v i c e a s a p r o f e s s o r a t P e n n S t a t e , V o i g h t h a s b e e n g i v e n t w o a w a r d s , s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r h i s r e s e a r c h . I n 1 9 9 0 , h e r e c e i v e d t h e W i l s o n R e s e a r c h A w a r d f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f E a r t h a n d M i n e r a l S c i e n c e s f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n r e s e a r c h . I n 1 9 9 1 , h e g a i n e d a F a c u l t y S c h o l a r M e d a l f o r " O u t s t a n d i n g A c h i e v e m e n t i n t h e P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s a n d E n g i n e e r i n g " . I n 2 0 0 8 , V o i g h t w a s a p p o i n t e d a U n i o n F e l l o w o f t h e A m e r i c a n G e o p h y s i c a l U n i o n f o r " f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f v o l c a n o d e f o r m a t i o n , a s s e s s m e n t o f v o l c a n o h a z a r d s , a n d f o r e c a s t i n g " , a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , h e w a s a w a r d e d t h e S c h u s t e r M e d a l b y t h e C a n a d i a n G e o t e c h n i c a l S o c i e t y f o r " o u t s t a n d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t s i n r e s e a r c h o n g e o l o g i c h a z a r d s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a " . F o r " h i s r e s e a r c h , t e a c h i n g a n d c o n s u l t i n g w o r k " , t h e E n g i n e e r i n g G e o l o g y D i v i s i o n o f t h e G e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y o f A m e r i c a p r e s e n t e d h i m w i t h t h e i r 2 0 1 0 D i s t i n g u i s h e d P r a c t i c e A w a r d . V o i g h t r e c e i v e d t h e T h o r a r i n s s o n M e d a l o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f V o l c a n o l o g y a n d C h e m i s t r y o f t h e E a r t h ' s I n t e r i o r i n 2 0 1 3 , g r a n t e d t o a " s c i e n t i s t o f o u t s t a n d i n g d i s t i n c t i o n w h o h a s m a d e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o r e s e a r c h i n v o l c a n o l o g y " , a n d i n 2 0 1 7 h e w a s e l e c t e d a s a M e m b e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y o f E n g i n e e r i n g f o r " c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d m i t i g a t i o n o f g e o l o g i c h a z a r d s . " R e c a l l i n g a c o n f e r e n c e w h e r e V o i g h t a p p e a r e d , B i l l M c G u i r e , E m e r i t u s P r o f e s s o r o f G e o p h y s i c a l & C l i m a t e H a z a r d s a t U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e L o n d o n , d e s c r i b e d h i m a s " a n i l l u s t r i o u s e x p e r t o n v o l c a n o i n s t a b i l i t y a n d l a n d s l i d e s " . C i t i n g V o i g h t f o r h i s D i s t i n g u i s h e d P r a c t i c e A w a r d , c o l l e a g u e R i c h a r d G r a y n a m e d h i m a m o n g h i s " p r o f e s s i o n ' s b r i g h t e s t a n d p r o d u c t i v e m e m b e r s " . W h e n V o i g h t p u b l i s h e d h i s f a i l u r e f o r e c a s t p r e d i c t i o n m e c h a n i s m , U S G S g e o l o g i s t R o b e r t I . T i l l i n g p r a i s e d i t a s " a s i g n i f i c a n t r e f i n e m e n t i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m o n i t o r i n g d a t a " . A c c o r d i n g t o V o i g h t ' s c u r r i c u l u m v i t a e f r o m P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , h e h a s p u b l i s h e d m o r e t h a n 4 0 0 p a p e r s o r a b s t r a c t s a n d e d i t e d 1 5 b o o k s , a n d h i s w o r k s h a v e b e e n c i t e d m o r e t h a n 9 , 0 0 0 t i m e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s , V o i g h t h a s w r i t t e n o r h e l p e d w r i t e a t l e a s t 2 1 b o o k s a n d m o n o g r a p h s s i n c e 1 9 6 5 ; h i s c o - a u t h o r s i n c l u d e R . S . J . S p a r k s , A . N e r i , D . E l s w o r t h , A . B e l o u s o v , a n d G . M a t t i o l i . H i s m o s t r e c e n t b o o k , " T h e E r u p t i o n o f S o u f r i è r e H i l l s V o l c a n o , M o n t s e r r a t f r o m 2 0 0 0 t o 2 0 1 0 " , w a s p u b l i s h e d i n 2 0 1 4 . H e c o n t i n u e s t o p u b l i s h a r t i c l e s , a c c o r d i n g t o h i s G o o g l e S c h o l a r p r o f i l e .

Recognition and legacy

Barry Voight is a renowned geologist and volcanologist who has made significant contributions to the field of volcanology. He holds undergraduate degrees in geology and civil engineering, a master's degree in civil engineering, and a Ph.D. in geology. Voight has worked on various volcanoes around the world, including Merapi, Galeras, and Montserrat, and has developed methods for predicting volcanic eruptions. He has received numerous awards and honors for his research and professional work, including the George Stephenson Medal, the MacQuarie Research Scholar award, and the Thorarinsson Medal. Voight is a respected figure in his field, known for his expertise in volcano instability and landslides.

undergraduate degrees in geology in 1959 and in civil engineering in 1960. He earned his master's degree in civil engineering from Notre Dame in 1961. Voight attributes his interest in science to his mentors at Notre Dame, professors Ray Gutschick and Erhard Winkler. After spending one year studying at Cornell University, Voight transferred to Columbia University, where he graduated with a Ph.D. in geology in 1965, studying rock mechanics and structural geology under Fred Donath. While at Columbia, Voight was named a President's Fellow, and taught a lecture course called "Geology for Engineers". Voight began teaching in 1961, serving as a teaching assistant at the University of Notre Dame while pursuing his master's degree in civil engineering. From 1961 to 1963, he served as a teaching assistant at the National Science Foundation's Division of Natural and Manmade Hazard Mitigation for his proposal to predict eruptions at Merapi. After his funding ran out, he temporarily abandoned his research. An eruption from the volcano in 1994 produced pyroclastic flows that killed 63 people, including guests at a wedding ceremony. Returning to Merapi the following year, Voight compared data from the dead and survivors, including the extent of their burn areas, clothing worn, and lung damage. He concluded that protective, long-sleeved clothing and masks enhance chances of survival when exposed to eruptive activity. In April 1989, Voight returned to Colombia to the volcano Galeras after being contacted by the United Nations Disaster Relief Organization. People in Pasto, located at the foot of the volcano, had become alarmed by noises and shaking from Galeras. While Galeras proved far easier to climb than Nevado del Ruiz, land mines planted to hinder guerrilla forces dotted the slopes of the mountain. With USGS geologist Dick Janda, Voight drew a hazard map that included several populated areas within the danger zone. Before Voight left Galeras, the volcano underwent an unexpected phreatic eruption, which Voight and his team failed to predict. Although Pasto was unaffected, six scientists attending a United Nations workshop for natural disaster relief were killed. After reviewing deformation data from the day before the eruption, Voight discovered that no acceleration in the deformation process had occurred. He surmised that phreatic eruptions do not exhibit an acceleration in deformation before taking place and left after confirming that the volcano's monitoring system a major fault trending north-to-west under Montserrat's western side. Voight still oversees hazard assessments at the volcano, providing his input during eruptive periods in 2006 and 2010. With his students, Voight has analyzed pyroclastic flows, volcanically induced seismicity, volcanic debris avalanches, and volcanic eruption prediction. Voight has also served as a consultant geotechnical engineer for dams, tunnels, and nuclear power plants, helping plan engineering projects in France, India, Ireland, Somalia, Papua New Guinea, Canada, and Turkey, as well as in the United States. Voight's research interests in lava dome collapses, stratovolcanoes, monitoring of active volcanoes, and pyroclastic flows have brought him to Iceland, Indonesia, the West Indies, Italy, and Chile. Combining his knowledge of engineering and geological concepts, Voight developed the widely used anelastic strain recovery (ASR) method for measuring stress on deep rock. With a team of geologists, he also derived the material failure forecast method (FFM), which predicts eruption times for volcanoes based on changes in the mountain's surrounding seismic and deformation data. He currently serves as a member of the United States Geological Survey's Volcano Hazards Response Team, and has responded to potentially eruptive volcanoes in Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Chile. Throughout his career, Voight has received multiple accolades and citations for his research as a professor and for his professional work as a geologist and volcanologist. In 1984, the Institution of Civil Engineers awarded him the George Stephenson Medal, recognizing one of his articles as among "the best work published in [their] journals". The same year, Voight earned an award for "significant original contribution to research in rock mechanics" from the United States National Committee on Rock Mechanics. For his help monitoring the Mayon Volcano in the Philippines in 1985, he was granted a key to Legazpi, Albay, which had been threatened by Mayon's impending eruption. 1989 saw another major year of honors for Voight, as he was named a MacQuarie Research Scholar and again garnered an award from the United States National Committee on Rock Mechanics for his original findings. Voight has appeared as a distinguished lecturer several times, including at the University of Utah's College of Mining Engineering (1990), the University of California, Santa Barbara (1992), and the Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists (1992). For his service as a professor at Penn State, Voight has been given two awards, specifically for his research. In 1990, he received the Wilson Research Award from the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences for excellence in research. In 1991, he gained a Faculty Scholar Medal for "Outstanding Achievement in the Physical Sciences and Engineering". In 2008, Voight was appointed a Union Fellow of the American Geophysical Union for "fundamental contributions to the understanding of volcano deformation, assessment of volcano hazards, and forecasting", and the following year, he was awarded the Schuster Medal by the Canadian Geotechnical Society for "outstanding achievements in research on geologic hazards in North America". For "his research, teaching and consulting work", the Engineering Geology Division of the Geological Society of America presented him with their 2010 Distinguished Practice Award. Voight received the Thorarinsson Medal of the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior in 2013, granted to a "scientist of outstanding distinction who has made fundamental contributions to research in volcanology", and in 2017 he was elected as a Member of the National Academy of Engineering for "contributions to the understanding, management, and mitigation of geologic hazards. " Recalling a conference where Voight appeared, Bill McGuire, Emeritus Professor of Geophysical & Climate Hazards at University College London, described him as "an illustrious expert on volcano instability and landslides". Citing Voight for his Distinguished Practice Award, colleague Richard Gray named him among his "profession's brightest and productive members". When Voight published his failure forecast prediction mechanism, USGS geologist Robert I. Tilling praised it as "a significant refinement in the interpretation

Society of Canadian Painter-Etchers and Engravers

T h e S o c i e t y o f C a n a d i a n P a i n t e r - E t c h e r s a n d E n g r a v e r s ( C P E ) w a s f o u n d e d i n 1 9 1 6 a s a s u c c e s s o r t o t h e s h o r t - l i v e d A s s o c i a t i o n o f C a n a d i a n E t c h e r s , f o u n d e d i n 1 8 8 5 . W i l l i a m W . A l e x a n d e r w a s a f o u n d i n g m e m b e r . H e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e S o c i e t y ' s e x h i b i t i o n s w i t h b o o k p l a t e s b a s e d o n h i s s k e t c h e s a n d w a t e r c o l o r s f r o m n o r t h e r n c a n o e t r i p s . T h e C P E w a s r e l a t i v e l y c o n s e r v a t i v e . I t f a v o r e d i n t a g l i o a n d i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e a r t i s t s h o u l d b e i n v o l v e d i n e a c h s t a g e o f p r o d u c t i o n i n c l u d i n g d r a w i n g , e n g r a v i n g o r e t c h i n g , a n d p r i n t i n g t h e b l o c k o r p l a t e . T h e S o c i e t y b e g a n h o l d i n g a n n u a l e x h i b i t i o n s i n 1 9 1 9 a t t h e A r t G a l l e r y o f T o r o n t o . U s u a l l y t h e s e w e r e p a r t o f l a r g e r e x h i b i t i o n s . T h e S o c i e t y h e l d e x h i b i t i o n s i n o t h e r l o c a t i o n s i n T o r o n t o f r o m 1 9 3 3 t o 1 9 5 9 . T h e S o c i e t y w a s f o r m a l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d o n 1 9 3 5 . F r o m 1 9 4 3 t o 1 9 5 9 i t e x h i b i t e d a t t h e R o y a l O n t a r i o M u s e u m . T h e C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y o f G r a p h i c A r t ( C S G A ) w a s e x h i b i t i n g s e r i g r a p h s b y t h e m i d - 1 9 3 0 . H o w e v e r , t h e C P E w o u l d n o t a c c e p t s i l k s c r e e n p r i n t s u n t i l 1 9 4 6 . E v e n t h e n , i t w a s c a r e f u l t o e x c l u d e c o m m e r c i a l m e t h o d s o f s i l k s c r e e n p r i n t i n g . B e t w e e n 1 9 6 0 a n d 1 9 7 4 t h e S o c i e t y ' s a n n u a l e x h i b i t i o n s w e r e e a c h h e l d i n a d i f f e r e n t c i t y i n O n t a r i o . J o M a n n i n g , w h o m a d e p r i n t s b e t w e e n 1 9 6 0 a n d 1 9 8 0 , w a s a n e x e c u t i v e m e m b e r o f t h e C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y o f G r a p h i c A r t a n d a m e m b e r o f t h e C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y o f P a i n t e r - e t c h e r s a n d E n g r a v e r s . I n J u n e – A u g u s t 1 9 7 1 t h e S o c i e t y h e l d a j o i n t e x h i b i t i o n a t t h e M o n t r e a l M u s e u m o f F i n e A r t s w i t h t h e C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y o f G r a p h i c A r t . T h e S o c i e t y m e r g e d w i t h t h e C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y o f G r a p h i c A r t i n 1 9 7 6 t o f o r m t h e P r i n t a n d D r a w i n g C o u n c i l o f C a n a d a . J o M a n n i n g w a s a f o u n d i n g m e m b e r o f t h e n e w C o u n c i l .

History

The Society of Canadian Painter-Etchers and Engravers (CPE) was established in 1916, succeeding the Association of Canadian Etchers founded in 1885. The society promoted traditional printmaking techniques like intaglio and emphasized artist involvement throughout the process. They held annual exhibitions in Toronto and later expanded to other cities in Ontario. The CPE initially resisted modern techniques like serigraphy but eventually accepted them. In 1976, the society merged with the Canadian Society of Graphic Art to form the Print and Drawing Council of Canada.

The Society of Canadian Painter-Etchers and Engravers (CPE) was founded in 1916 as a successor to the short-lived Association of Canadian Etchers, founded in 1885. William W. Alexander was a founding member. He participated in the Society's exhibitions with bookplates based on his sketches and watercolors from northern canoe trips. The CPE was relatively conservative. It favored intaglio and insisted that the artist should be involved in each stage of production including drawing, engraving or etching, and printing the block or plate. The Society began holding annual exhibitions in 1919 at the Art Gallery of Toronto. Usually these were part of larger exhibitions. The Society held exhibitions in other locations in Toronto from 1933 to 1959. The Society was formally incorporated on 1935. From 1943 to 1959 it exhibited at the Royal Ontario Museum. The Canadian Society of Graphic Art (CSGA) was exhibiting serigraphs by the mid-1930. However, the CPE would not accept silkscreen prints until 1946. Even then, it was careful to exclude commercial methods of silkscreen printing. Between 1960 and 1974 the Society's annual exhibitions were each held in a different city in Ontario. Jo Manning, who made prints between 1960 and 1980, was an executive member of the Canadian Society of Graphic Art and a member of the Canadian Society of Painter-etchers and Engravers. In June–August 1971 the Society held a joint exhibition at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts with the Canadian Society of Graphic Art. The Society merged with the Canadian Society of Graphic Art in 1976 to form the Print and Drawing Council of Canada. Jo Manning was a founding member of the new Council.

Xanthophryne

" X a n t h o p h r y n e " a r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l t o a d s : a d u l t m a l e s m e a s u r e a n d f e m a l e s i n s n o u t – v e n t l e n g t h . T h e y h a v e l i g h t b r o w n d o r s u m w i t h a s u f f u s i o n o f d u l l c h r o m e - y e l l o w ; f l a n k s a n d s i d e s o f t h e a b d o m e n h a v e c h r o m e - y e l l o w p a t c h e s , s o m e t i m e s a f e w c o n t i n u o u s b a n d s . T h e t y m p a n u m i s i n d i s t i n c t . T h e r e i s n o w e b b i n g b e t w e e n t h e t o e s a n d f i n g e r s . E g g s a r e l a i d i n c l u t c h e s . T h e r e a r e t w o s p e c i e s i n t h i s g e n u s :

Description

Xanthophryne toads are small, measuring 2-3 cm in length, with light brown and yellow coloring, and lack webbing between their toes and fingers.

"Xanthophryne" are relatively small toads: adult males measure and females in snout–vent length. They have light brown dorsum with a suffusion of dull chrome-yellow; flanks and sides of the abdomen have chrome-yellow patches, sometimes a few continuous bands. The tympanum is indistinct. There is no webbing between the toes and fingers. Eggs are laid in clutches. There are two species in this genus:

Charles P. Bailey (pilot)

B a i l e y w a s b o r n o n N o v e m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 1 8 , i n P u n t a G o r d a , F l o r i d a . K n o w n t o h i s f a m i l y a n d f r i e n d s a s " P h i l l i p " , B a i l e y w a s t h e s o n o f A r c h i e B a i l e y a n d J o s e p h i n e B a i l e y . B a i l e y g r e w u p i n a h o m e o n t h e c o r n e r o f P u n t a G o r d a ' s E a s t V i r g i n i a A v e n u e a n d W o o d S t r e e t w i t h h i s e i g h t s i b l i n g s . A s a c h i l d , C h a r l e s P . B a i l e y d e l i v e r e d P u n t a G o r d a , F l o r i d a ' s l o c a l C h a r l o t t e H e r a l d n e w s p a p e r i n h i s n e i g h b o r h o o d . D u r i n g r a m p a n t r a c i a l s e g r e g a t i o n i n t h e A m e r i c a n S o u t h a n d i n D e l a n d , B a i l e y a t t e n d e d e l e m e n t a r y a n d m i d d l e s c h o o l a t P u n t a G o r d a , F l o r i d a ' s B a k e r A c a d e m y . S i n c e P u n t a G o r g a d i d n o t a l l o w A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s t o a t t e n d i t s h i g h s c h o o l , B a i l e y m o v e d w i t h f a m i l y o u t o f t o w n t o a t t e n d h i g h s c h o o l a t t h e a l l - A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n H o w a r d A c a d e m y i n O c a l a , F l o r i d a w h e r e h e e x c e l l e d i n a c a d e m i c s a n d f o o t b a l l . A f t e r g r a d u a t i o n , B a i l e y a t t e n d e d t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y b l a c k u n i v e r s i t y B e t h u n e - C o o k m a n i n D a y t o n a B e a c h , F l o r i d a , w h e r e h e p l a y e d f o o t b a l l o n a f u l l s c h o l a r s h i p . T h o u g h B a i l e y w a s i n t e r e s t e d i n b e c o m i n g a p i l o t , B e t h u n e - C o o k m a n U n i v e r s i t y d i d n o t h a v e i t s o w n c i v i l a v i a t i o n p i l o t p r o g r a m l i k e f e l l o w H B C U s T u s k e g e e I n s t i t u t e , W e s t V i r g i n i a S t a t e C o l l e g e , H o w a r d U n i v e r s i t y , H a m p t o n U n i v e r s i t y , D e l a w a r e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , a n d V i r g i n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . F o r t u n a t e l y , B a i l e y h a d t h e a t t e n t i v e e a r o f B e t h u n e - C o o k m a n U n i v e r s i t y ' s f o u n d e r M a r y M c L e o d B e t h u n e , a c o n f i d a n t e o f F i r s t L a d y o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s E l e a n o r R o o s e v e l t , P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s F r a n k l i n D . R o o s e v e l t ' s a c t i v i s t w i f e . B e t h u n e a r r a n g e d f o r B a i l e y t o t r a n s f e r t o T u s k e g e e I n s t i t u t e t o e n r o l l i n T u s k e g e e ' s s t e l l a r a v i a t i o n p r o g r a m . I n A u g u s t 1 9 4 2 , B a i l e y e n l i s t e d i n t h e U . S . A r m y . O n A p r i l 2 9 , 1 9 4 3 , B a i l e y g r a d u a t e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e S i n g l e E n g i n e S e c t i o n C a d e t C l a s s S E - 4 3 - D , r e c e i v i n g h i s s i l v e r w i n g s a n d c o m m i s s i o n a s a 2 n d L i e u t e n a n t . T h e U . S . A r m y A i r C o r p s a s s i g n e d B a i l e y t o t h e 3 3 2 n d F i g h t e r G r o u p ' s 9 9 t h F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n . H i s c l a s s m a t e i n c l u d e d W i l s o n V a s h o n " S w a m p y " E a g l e s o n I I ( F e b r u a r y 1 , 1 9 2 0 - A p r i l 1 6 , 2 0 0 6 ) , o n e o f t h e T u s k e g e e A i r m e n ' s m o s t p r o l i f i c c o m b a t f i g h t e r p i l o t s c r e d i t e d w i t h t w o c o n f i r m e d e n e m y G e r m a n a e r i a l k i l l s a n d t w o p r o b a b l e a e r i a l k i l l s . I n F a l l 1 9 4 3 , t h e U . S . A r m y A i r C o r p s a s s i g n e d B a i l e y t o t h e 9 9 t h F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n a s a r e p l a c e m e n t p i l o t i n N o r t h A f r i c a ' s C a s a b l a n c a . H e f l e w 1 3 3 c o m b a t m i s s i o n s t h r o u g h o u t C e n t r a l E u r o p e , G e r m a n y , S i c i l y , I t a l y , F r a n c e , a n d t h e R h i n e l a n d . F l y i n g h i s b e l o v e d P - 4 0 W a r h a w k “ J o s e p h i n e " a i r c r a f t n a m e d a f t e r h i s m o t h e r , B a i l e y s h o t d o w n t w o F o c k e - W u l f F w 1 9 0 G e r m a n f i g h t e r s . B a i l e y a l s o f l e w a P - 5 1 a i r c r a f t n a m e d “ M y B u d d y " i n h o n o r o f h i s f a t h e r . D u r i n g o n e o f h i s a e r i a l m i s s i o n s o v e r t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , B a i l e y w a s p h y s i c a l l y s t r u c k n e a r h i s h e a r t b y s h r a p n e l ; f o r t u n a t e l y , a B i b l e B a i l e y k e p t i n h i s f l i g h t j a c k e t p o c k e t d e f l e c t e d t h e b l o w , p r o t e c t i n g B a i l e y . I n 1 9 4 7 , B a i l e y l e f t t h e m i l i t a r y w i t h t h e r a n k o f 1 s t L i e u t e n a n t . B a i l e y r e e n r o l l e d a t B e t h u n e - C o o k m a n C o l l e g e , g r a d u a t i n g w i t h a b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e i n E l e m e n t a r y E d u c a t i o n . H e b e c a m e a s c h o o l t e a c h e r i n D e L a n d , F l o r i d a b e f o r e e v e n t u a l l y r e t i r i n g a f t e r a f e w d e c a d e s i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n , r e t u r n i n g t o s c h o o l t o s t u d y m o r t u a r y s c i e n c e a t t h e C i n c i n n a t i C o l l e g e o f E m b a l m i n g . H e l a t e r o p e n e d t h e C h a r l e s P . B a i l e y F u n e r a l H o m e w h i c h s e r v e d t h e D e l a n d , F l o r i d a c o m m u n i t y f o r d e c a d e s u n t i l B a i l e y ' s c h i l d r e n m e r g e d t h e f u n e r a l h o m e w i t h l o c a l D e l a n d , F l o r i d a ' s J . E . C u s a c k M o r t u a r y o n O c t o b e r 1 7 , 2 0 1 4 . I n 1 9 9 5 , d o c t o r s d i a g n o s e d B a i l e y w i t h A l z h e i m e r ' s d i s e a s e . I n 2 0 0 0 , B a i l e y w e n t m i s s i n g a f t e r w a n d e r i n g f r o m h i s h o m e i n D e l a n d , F l o r i d a . I n i t i a l l y , a s e a r c h t e a m w a s u n a b l e t o l o c a t e h i m . W h e n o n e o f t h e s e a r c h c r e w m e m b e r s s h o u t e d " D o y o u k n o w a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e T u s k e g e e A i r m e n ? ” a h u n g r y , d e h y d r a t e d B a i l e y s u d d e n l y r e s p o n d e d " Y e s . ” B a i l e y a n d h i s s i x m a l e s i b l i n g s h a v e b e e n c a l l e d t h e " F i g h t i n g B a i l e y B r o t h e r s " , a s t h e m e n , a l o n g w i t h t h e i r t w o s i s t e r s , a l l s e r v e d i n t h e U . S . m i l i t a r y d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I , t h e K o r e a n W a r a n d / o r t h e V i e t n a m W a r . I n 1 9 4 6 , B a i l e y m a r r i e d B e s s i e L . F i t c h B a i l e y ( J u n e 2 5 , 1 9 1 5 - D e c e m b e r 6 , 2 0 0 8 ) , a P u n t a G o r d a , F l o r i d a n a t i v e a n d B a i l e y ' s c l a s s m a t e a t B e t h u n e - C o o k m a n U n i v e r s i t y w h o s e r v e d 2 5 y e a r s a s E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y f o r R i c h a r d V . M o o r e , f o r m e r B e t h u n e - C o o k m a n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s i d e n t . B e s s i e p r e v i o u s l y s e r v e d a s e d u c a t o r M a r y M c L e o d B e t h u n e ' s p e r s o n a l s e c r e t a r y f o r 2 0 y e a r s a t t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f N e g r o W o m e n H e a d q u a r t e r s i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . B a i l e y a n d h i s w i f e h a d t w o s o n s , C h a r l e s B a i l e y J r . a n d J a m e s A . B a i l e y . B a i l e y p a s s e d a w a y o n O c t o b e r 1 4 , 2 0 0 1 , i n D e L a n d , F l o r i d a . H e w a s i n t e r r e d a t G r e e n w o o d C e m e t e r y i n D a y t o n a B e a c h , F l o r i d a .

Early life

Born on November 25, 1918, in Punta Gorda, Florida, Charles P. Bailey grew up in a large family with eight siblings. Despite racial segregation, Bailey attended elementary and middle school at Baker Academy in Punta Gorda and later moved to Ocala, Florida to attend high school at Howard Academy. He then attended Bethune-Cookman University on a full football scholarship, but transferred to Tuskegee Institute to pursue his dream of becoming a pilot.

Bailey was born on November 25, 1918, in Punta Gorda, Florida. Known to his family and friends as "Phillip", Bailey was the son of Archie Bailey and Josephine Bailey. Bailey grew up in a home on the corner of Punta Gorda's East Virginia Avenue and Wood Street with his eight siblings. As a child, Charles P. Bailey delivered Punta Gorda, Florida's local Charlotte Herald newspaper in his neighborhood. During rampant racial segregation in the American South and in Deland, Bailey attended elementary and middle school at Punta Gorda, Florida's Baker Academy. Since Punta Gorga did not allow African Americans to attend its high school, Bailey moved with family out of town to attend high school at the all-African American Howard Academy in Ocala, Florida where he excelled in academics and football. After graduation, Bailey attended the historically black university Bethune-Cookman in Daytona Beach, Florida, where he played football on a full scholarship. Though Bailey was interested in becoming a pilot, Bethune-Cookman University did not have its own civil aviation pilot program like fellow HBCUs Tuskegee Institute, West Virginia State College, Howard University, Hampton University, Delaware State University, and Virginia State University. Fortunately, Bailey had the attentive ear of Bethune-Cookman University's founder Mary McLeod Bethune, a confidante of First Lady of the United States Eleanor Roosevelt, President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt's activist wife. Bethune arranged for Bailey to transfer to Tuskegee Institute to enroll in Tuskegee's stellar aviation program. In August 1942, Bailey enlisted in the U.S. Army. On April 29, 1943, Bailey graduated as a member of the Single Engine Section Cadet Class SE-43-D, receiving his silver wings and commission as a 2nd Lieutenant. The U.S. Army Air Corps assigned Bailey to the 332nd Fighter Group's 99th Fighter Squadron. His classmate included Wilson Vashon "Swampy" Eagleson II (February 1, 1920 - April 16, 2006), one of the Tuskegee Airmen's most prolific combat fighter pilots credited with two confirmed enemy German aerial kills and two probable aerial kills. In Fall 1943, the U.S. Army Air Corps assigned Bailey to the 99th Fighter Squadron as a replacement pilot in North Africa's Casablanca. He flew 133 combat missions throughout Central Europe, Germany, Sicily, Italy, France, and the Rhineland. Flying his beloved P-40 Warhawk “Josephine" aircraft named after his mother, Bailey shot down two Focke-Wulf Fw 190 German fighters. Bailey also flew a P-51 aircraft named “My Buddy" in honor of his father. During one of his aerial missions over the Mediterranean, Bailey was physically struck near his heart by shrapnel; fortunately, a Bible Bailey kept in his flight jacket pocket deflected the blow, protecting Bailey. In 1947, Bailey left the military with the rank of 1st Lieutenant. Bailey reenrolled at Bethune-Cookman College, graduating with a bachelor's degree in Elementary Education. He became a school teacher in DeLand, Florida before eventually retiring after a few decades in the profession, returning to school to study mortuary science at the Cincinnati College of Embalming. He later opened the Charles P. Bailey Funeral Home which served the Deland, Florida community for decades until Bailey's children merged the funeral home with local Deland, Florida's J. E. Cusack Mortuary on October 17, 2014. In 1995, doctors diagnosed Bailey with Alzheimer's disease. In 2000, Bailey went missing after wandering from his home in Deland, Florida. Initially, a search team was unable to locate him. When one of the search crew members shouted "Do you know anything about the Tuskegee Airmen?” a hungry, dehydrated Bailey suddenly responded "Yes.” Bailey and his six male siblings have been called the "Fighting Bailey Brothers", as the men, along with their two sisters, all served in the U.S. military during World War II, the Korean War and/or the Vietnam War. In 1946, Bailey married Bessie L. Fitch Bailey (June 25, 1915 - December 6, 2008), a Punta Gorda, Florida native and Bailey's classmate at Bethune-Cookman University who served 25 years as Executive Secretary for Richard V. Moore, former Bethune-Cookman University President. Bessie previously served as educator Mary McLeod Bethune's personal secretary for 20 years at the National Council of Negro Women Headquarters in Washington, D.C. Bailey and his wife had two sons, Charles Bailey Jr. and James A. Bailey. Bailey passed away on October 14, 2001, in DeLand, Florida. He was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Daytona Beach, Florida.

Charles P. Bailey (pilot)

B a i l e y w a s b o r n o n N o v e m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 1 8 , i n P u n t a G o r d a , F l o r i d a . K n o w n t o h i s f a m i l y a n d f r i e n d s a s " P h i l l i p " , B a i l e y w a s t h e s o n o f A r c h i e B a i l e y a n d J o s e p h i n e B a i l e y . B a i l e y g r e w u p i n a h o m e o n t h e c o r n e r o f P u n t a G o r d a ' s E a s t V i r g i n i a A v e n u e a n d W o o d S t r e e t w i t h h i s e i g h t s i b l i n g s . A s a c h i l d , C h a r l e s P . B a i l e y d e l i v e r e d P u n t a G o r d a , F l o r i d a ' s l o c a l C h a r l o t t e H e r a l d n e w s p a p e r i n h i s n e i g h b o r h o o d . D u r i n g r a m p a n t r a c i a l s e g r e g a t i o n i n t h e A m e r i c a n S o u t h a n d i n D e l a n d , B a i l e y a t t e n d e d e l e m e n t a r y a n d m i d d l e s c h o o l a t P u n t a G o r d a , F l o r i d a ' s B a k e r A c a d e m y . S i n c e P u n t a G o r g a d i d n o t a l l o w A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s t o a t t e n d i t s h i g h s c h o o l , B a i l e y m o v e d w i t h f a m i l y o u t o f t o w n t o a t t e n d h i g h s c h o o l a t t h e a l l - A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n H o w a r d A c a d e m y i n O c a l a , F l o r i d a w h e r e h e e x c e l l e d i n a c a d e m i c s a n d f o o t b a l l . A f t e r g r a d u a t i o n , B a i l e y a t t e n d e d t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y b l a c k u n i v e r s i t y B e t h u n e - C o o k m a n i n D a y t o n a B e a c h , F l o r i d a , w h e r e h e p l a y e d f o o t b a l l o n a f u l l s c h o l a r s h i p . T h o u g h B a i l e y w a s i n t e r e s t e d i n b e c o m i n g a p i l o t , B e t h u n e - C o o k m a n U n i v e r s i t y d i d n o t h a v e i t s o w n c i v i l a v i a t i o n p i l o t p r o g r a m l i k e f e l l o w H B C U s T u s k e g e e I n s t i t u t e , W e s t V i r g i n i a S t a t e C o l l e g e , H o w a r d U n i v e r s i t y , H a m p t o n U n i v e r s i t y , D e l a w a r e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , a n d V i r g i n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . F o r t u n a t e l y , B a i l e y h a d t h e a t t e n t i v e e a r o f B e t h u n e - C o o k m a n U n i v e r s i t y ' s f o u n d e r M a r y M c L e o d B e t h u n e , a c o n f i d a n t e o f F i r s t L a d y o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s E l e a n o r R o o s e v e l t , P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s F r a n k l i n D . R o o s e v e l t ' s a c t i v i s t w i f e . B e t h u n e a r r a n g e d f o r B a i l e y t o t r a n s f e r t o T u s k e g e e I n s t i t u t e t o e n r o l l i n T u s k e g e e ' s s t e l l a r a v i a t i o n p r o g r a m . I n A u g u s t 1 9 4 2 , B a i l e y e n l i s t e d i n t h e U . S . A r m y . O n A p r i l 2 9 , 1 9 4 3 , B a i l e y g r a d u a t e d a s a m e m b e r o f t h e S i n g l e E n g i n e S e c t i o n C a d e t C l a s s S E - 4 3 - D , r e c e i v i n g h i s s i l v e r w i n g s a n d c o m m i s s i o n a s a 2 n d L i e u t e n a n t . T h e U . S . A r m y A i r C o r p s a s s i g n e d B a i l e y t o t h e 3 3 2 n d F i g h t e r G r o u p ' s 9 9 t h F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n . H i s c l a s s m a t e i n c l u d e d W i l s o n V a s h o n " S w a m p y " E a g l e s o n I I ( F e b r u a r y 1 , 1 9 2 0 - A p r i l 1 6 , 2 0 0 6 ) , o n e o f t h e T u s k e g e e A i r m e n ' s m o s t p r o l i f i c c o m b a t f i g h t e r p i l o t s c r e d i t e d w i t h t w o c o n f i r m e d e n e m y G e r m a n a e r i a l k i l l s a n d t w o p r o b a b l e a e r i a l k i l l s . I n F a l l 1 9 4 3 , t h e U . S . A r m y A i r C o r p s a s s i g n e d B a i l e y t o t h e 9 9 t h F i g h t e r S q u a d r o n a s a r e p l a c e m e n t p i l o t i n N o r t h A f r i c a ' s C a s a b l a n c a . H e f l e w 1 3 3 c o m b a t m i s s i o n s t h r o u g h o u t C e n t r a l E u r o p e , G e r m a n y , S i c i l y , I t a l y , F r a n c e , a n d t h e R h i n e l a n d . F l y i n g h i s b e l o v e d P - 4 0 W a r h a w k “ J o s e p h i n e " a i r c r a f t n a m e d a f t e r h i s m o t h e r , B a i l e y s h o t d o w n t w o F o c k e - W u l f F w 1 9 0 G e r m a n f i g h t e r s . B a i l e y a l s o f l e w a P - 5 1 a i r c r a f t n a m e d “ M y B u d d y " i n h o n o r o f h i s f a t h e r . D u r i n g o n e o f h i s a e r i a l m i s s i o n s o v e r t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , B a i l e y w a s p h y s i c a l l y s t r u c k n e a r h i s h e a r t b y s h r a p n e l ; f o r t u n a t e l y , a B i b l e B a i l e y k e p t i n h i s f l i g h t j a c k e t p o c k e t d e f l e c t e d t h e b l o w , p r o t e c t i n g B a i l e y . I n 1 9 4 7 , B a i l e y l e f t t h e m i l i t a r y w i t h t h e r a n k o f 1 s t L i e u t e n a n t . B a i l e y r e e n r o l l e d a t B e t h u n e - C o o k m a n C o l l e g e , g r a d u a t i n g w i t h a b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e i n E l e m e n t a r y E d u c a t i o n . H e b e c a m e a s c h o o l t e a c h e r i n D e L a n d , F l o r i d a b e f o r e e v e n t u a l l y r e t i r i n g a f t e r a f e w d e c a d e s i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n , r e t u r n i n g t o s c h o o l t o s t u d y m o r t u a r y s c i e n c e a t t h e C i n c i n n a t i C o l l e g e o f E m b a l m i n g . H e l a t e r o p e n e d t h e C h a r l e s P . B a i l e y F u n e r a l H o m e w h i c h s e r v e d t h e D e l a n d , F l o r i d a c o m m u n i t y f o r d e c a d e s u n t i l B a i l e y ' s c h i l d r e n m e r g e d t h e f u n e r a l h o m e w i t h l o c a l D e l a n d , F l o r i d a ' s J . E . C u s a c k M o r t u a r y o n O c t o b e r 1 7 , 2 0 1 4 . I n 1 9 9 5 , d o c t o r s d i a g n o s e d B a i l e y w i t h A l z h e i m e r ' s d i s e a s e . I n 2 0 0 0 , B a i l e y w e n t m i s s i n g a f t e r w a n d e r i n g f r o m h i s h o m e i n D e l a n d , F l o r i d a . I n i t i a l l y , a s e a r c h t e a m w a s u n a b l e t o l o c a t e h i m . W h e n o n e o f t h e s e a r c h c r e w m e m b e r s s h o u t e d " D o y o u k n o w a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e T u s k e g e e A i r m e n ? ” a h u n g r y , d e h y d r a t e d B a i l e y s u d d e n l y r e s p o n d e d " Y e s . ” B a i l e y a n d h i s s i x m a l e s i b l i n g s h a v e b e e n c a l l e d t h e " F i g h t i n g B a i l e y B r o t h e r s " , a s t h e m e n , a l o n g w i t h t h e i r t w o s i s t e r s , a l l s e r v e d i n t h e U . S . m i l i t a r y d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I , t h e K o r e a n W a r a n d / o r t h e V i e t n a m W a r . I n 1 9 4 6 , B a i l e y m a r r i e d B e s s i e L . F i t c h B a i l e y ( J u n e 2 5 , 1 9 1 5 - D e c e m b e r 6 , 2 0 0 8 ) , a P u n t a G o r d a , F l o r i d a n a t i v e a n d B a i l e y ' s c l a s s m a t e a t B e t h u n e - C o o k m a n U n i v e r s i t y w h o s e r v e d 2 5 y e a r s a s E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y f o r R i c h a r d V . M o o r e , f o r m e r B e t h u n e - C o o k m a n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s i d e n t . B e s s i e p r e v i o u s l y s e r v e d a s e d u c a t o r M a r y M c L e o d B e t h u n e ' s p e r s o n a l s e c r e t a r y f o r 2 0 y e a r s a t t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f N e g r o W o m e n H e a d q u a r t e r s i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . B a i l e y a n d h i s w i f e h a d t w o s o n s , C h a r l e s B a i l e y J r . a n d J a m e s A . B a i l e y . B a i l e y p a s s e d a w a y o n O c t o b e r 1 4 , 2 0 0 1 , i n D e L a n d , F l o r i d a . H e w a s i n t e r r e d a t G r e e n w o o d C e m e t e r y i n D a y t o n a B e a c h , F l o r i d a .

Military career

Charles P. Bailey was a Tuskegee Airman who enlisted in the US Army in 1942. He graduated from Tuskegee Institute's aviation program and received his commission as a 2nd Lieutenant. Bailey flew 133 combat missions, shooting down two German Fw 190 fighters. He left the military in 1947 with the rank of 1st Lieutenant.

Bailey was born on November 25, 1918, in Punta Gorda, Florida. Known to his family and friends as "Phillip", Bailey was the son of Archie Bailey and Josephine Bailey. Bailey grew up in a home on the corner of Punta Gorda's East Virginia Avenue and Wood Street with his eight siblings. As a child, Charles P. Bailey delivered Punta Gorda, Florida's local Charlotte Herald newspaper in his neighborhood. During rampant racial segregation in the American South and in Deland, Bailey attended elementary and middle school at Punta Gorda, Florida's Baker Academy. Since Punta Gorga did not allow African Americans to attend its high school, Bailey moved with family out of town to attend high school at the all-African American Howard Academy in Ocala, Florida where he excelled in academics and football. After graduation, Bailey attended the historically black university Bethune-Cookman in Daytona Beach, Florida, where he played football on a full scholarship. Though Bailey was interested in becoming a pilot, Bethune-Cookman University did not have its own civil aviation pilot program like fellow HBCUs Tuskegee Institute, West Virginia State College, Howard University, Hampton University, Delaware State University, and Virginia State University. Fortunately, Bailey had the attentive ear of Bethune-Cookman University's founder Mary McLeod Bethune, a confidante of First Lady of the United States Eleanor Roosevelt, President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt's activist wife. Bethune arranged for Bailey to transfer to Tuskegee Institute to enroll in Tuskegee's stellar aviation program. In August 1942, Bailey enlisted in the U.S. Army. On April 29, 1943, Bailey graduated as a member of the Single Engine Section Cadet Class SE-43-D, receiving his silver wings and commission as a 2nd Lieutenant. The U.S. Army Air Corps assigned Bailey to the 332nd Fighter Group's 99th Fighter Squadron. His classmate included Wilson Vashon "Swampy" Eagleson II (February 1, 1920 - April 16, 2006), one of the Tuskegee Airmen's most prolific combat fighter pilots credited with two confirmed enemy German aerial kills and two probable aerial kills. In Fall 1943, the U.S. Army Air Corps assigned Bailey to the 99th Fighter Squadron as a replacement pilot in North Africa's Casablanca. He flew 133 combat missions throughout Central Europe, Germany, Sicily, Italy, France, and the Rhineland. Flying his beloved P-40 Warhawk “Josephine" aircraft named after his mother, Bailey shot down two Focke-Wulf Fw 190 German fighters. Bailey also flew a P-51 aircraft named “My Buddy" in honor of his father. During one of his aerial missions over the Mediterranean, Bailey was physically struck near his heart by shrapnel; fortunately, a Bible Bailey kept in his flight jacket pocket deflected the blow, protecting Bailey. In 1947, Bailey left the military with the rank of 1st Lieutenant. Bailey reenrolled at Bethune-Cookman College, graduating with a bachelor's degree in Elementary Education. He became a school teacher in DeLand, Florida before eventually retiring after a few decades in the profession, returning to school to study mortuary science at the Cincinnati College of Embalming. He later opened the Charles P. Bailey Funeral Home which served the Deland, Florida community for decades until Bailey's children merged the funeral home with local Deland, Florida's J. E. Cusack Mortuary on October 17, 2014. In 1995, doctors diagnosed Bailey with Alzheimer's disease. In 2000, Bailey went missing after wandering from his home in Deland, Florida. Initially, a search team was unable to locate him. When one of the search crew members shouted "Do you know anything about the Tuskegee Airmen?” a hungry, dehydrated Bailey suddenly responded "Yes.” Bailey and his six male siblings have been called the "Fighting Bailey Brothers", as the men, along with their two sisters, all served in the U.S. military during World War II, the Korean War and/or the Vietnam War. In 1946, Bailey married Bessie L. Fitch Bailey (June 25, 1915 - December 6, 2008), a Punta Gorda, Florida native and Bailey's classmate at Bethune-Cookman University who served 25 years as Executive Secretary for Richard V. Moore, former Bethune-Cookman University President. Bessie previously served as educator Mary McLeod Bethune's personal secretary for 20 years at the National Council of Negro Women Headquarters in Washington, D.C. Bailey and his wife had two sons, Charles Bailey Jr. and James A. Bailey. Bailey passed away on October 14, 2001, in DeLand, Florida. He was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Daytona Beach, Florida.

The Peacemaker (newspaper)

I n 1 9 3 9 F r a n k C o a l d r a k e ( 1 9 1 2 – 7 0 ) w a s a c o m m u n i t y w o r k e r w i t h t h e B r o t h e r h o o d o f S t L a u r e n c e i n t h e i n n e r - M e l b o u r n e s u b u r b o f F i t z r o y . I n 1 9 3 8 - 3 9 h e h a d b e e n t h e t r a v e l l i n g s e c r e t a r y o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n S t u d e n t C h r i s t i a n M o v e m e n t , a n d d u r i n g t h i s t i m e h e h a d b e c o m e a c o n v i n c e d p a c i f i s t . T h r e e w e e k s a f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f w a r i n 1 9 3 9 , h e f o u n d e d " T h e P e a c e m a k e r " , a m o n t h l y p a p e r t o i n f o r m a n d a s s i s t t h o s e w h o c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y o b j e c t e d t o m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . A l t h o u g h " T h e P e a c e m a k e r " w a s n o t i o n a l l y a m o n t h l y p u b l i c a t i o n , t h e a c t u a l p u b l i c a t i o n h i s t o r y w a s m o r e e r r a t i c t h a n t h a t s u g g e s t s . C o a l d r a k e w a s p r e s i d e n t o f t h e F e d e r a l P a c i f i s t C o u n c i l o f A u s t r a l i a f r o m 1 9 4 3 t o 1 9 4 6 . H e o f f e r e d t o s e r v e a s a m i s s i o n a r y i n J a p a n , i n i t i a l l y i n 1 9 4 3 a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e w a r t o D r H . V . E v a t t , t h e M i n i s t e r f o r E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s a n d w h i c h w a s d e c l i n e d , b u t w h i c h w a s a c c e p t e d b y B i s h o p G e o r g e C r a n s w i c k , C h a i r m a n o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n B o a r d o f M i s s i o n s i n 1 9 4 6 . H e l e f t M e l b o u r n e a t t h e e n d o f 1 9 4 6 t o s p e n d 1 5 m o n t h s s t u d y i n g J a p a n e s e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S y d n e y . A t t h i s p o i n t t h e F e d e r a l P a c i f i s t C o u n c i l ( w h i c h w a s t h e A u s t r a l i a n s e c t i o n o f W a r R e s i s t e r s ' I n t e r n a t i o n a l ) t o o k o v e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f " T h e P e a c e m a k e r " . D u r i n g t h i s t i m e " T h e P e a c e m a k e r " w a s a s t r o n g c a m p a i g n e r f o r t h o s e w h o o b j e c t e d t o p e r f o r m i n g n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e . T h e l a s t i s s u e f e a t u r e d a c o v e r p h o t o o f t h e a n t i - w a r a c t i v i s t a n d c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t o r M i c h a e l M a t t e s o n w h i l s t o n t h e r u n f r o m p o l i c e . " T h e P e a c e m a k e r " c e a s e d p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1 9 7 1 .

History

Frank Coaldrake, a community worker and pacifist, founded "The Peacemaker" in 1939 to support conscientious objectors to military service. As president of the Federal Pacifist Council of Australia (1943-1946), he advocated for peace and later became a missionary in Japan. The publication continued until 1971, campaigning for those who refused national service.

In 1939 Frank Coaldrake (1912–70) was a community worker with the Brotherhood of St Laurence in the inner-Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy. In 1938-39 he had been the travelling secretary of the Australian Student Christian Movement, and during this time he had become a convinced pacifist. Three weeks after the declaration of war in 1939, he founded "The Peacemaker", a monthly paper to inform and assist those who conscientiously objected to military service. Although "The Peacemaker" was notionally a monthly publication, the actual publication history was more erratic than that suggests. Coaldrake was president of the Federal Pacifist Council of Australia from 1943 to 1946. He offered to serve as a missionary in Japan, initially in 1943 at the height of the war to Dr H. V. Evatt, the Minister for External Affairs and which was declined, but which was accepted by Bishop George Cranswick, Chairman of the Australian Board of Missions in 1946. He left Melbourne at the end of 1946 to spend 15 months studying Japanese at the University of Sydney. At this point the Federal Pacifist Council (which was the Australian section of War Resisters' International) took over responsibility for publication of "The Peacemaker". During this time "The Peacemaker" was a strong campaigner for those who objected to performing national service. The last issue featured a cover photo of the anti-war activist and conscientious objector Michael Matteson whilst on the run from police. "The Peacemaker" ceased publication in 1971.

Luca Comai

C o m a i r e c e i v e d h i s b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l s c i e n c e s f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B o l o g n a i n 1 9 7 6 a n d h i s M a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n t h e f i e l d o f p l a n t p a t h o l o g y i n 1 9 7 8 f r o m W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . H e t h e n w e n t o n t o e a r n h i s P h . D . i n p l a n t p a t h o l o g y f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , D a v i s a n d c o m p l e t e d a p o s t d o c a t t h e s a m e u n i v e r s i t y . H i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s w a s o n t h e s u b j e c t o f h o w I n d o l e - 3 - a c e t i c a c i d ( I A A ) i s p r o d u c e d i n b a c t e r i a a n d h o w t h i s g e n e t i c f u n c t i o n w a s h o m o l o g o u s t o t h e p l a n t h o r m o n e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s a m e n a m e i n p l a n t s t h a t i s e n c o d e d i n t h e g e n o m e a s T - D N A f r o m A g r o b a c t e r i u m . C o m a i f i r s t a p p l i e d f o r a t e a c h i n g p o s i t i o n a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , R i v e r s i d e i n J a n u a r y 1 9 8 1 . B u t w h e n t h i s p o s i t i o n w a s n ' t o f f e r e d t o h i m , h e i n s t e a d j o i n e d t h e b i o t e c h c o m p a n y C a l g e n e i n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f 1 9 8 1 d u r i n g i t s i n i t i a l o p e n i n g p e r i o d . W h i l e h e h a d b e e n a t t e m p t i n g t o g e t s u p p o r t a m o n g t h e R i v e r s i d e f a c u l t y f o r h i s a p p l i c a t i o n , h e h a d b e e n i n f o r m e d o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f g l y p h o s a t e a n d i t s s p e c i f i c t a r g e t i n g o f t h e E P S P s y n t h a s e e n z y m e . H e p r o p o s e d t o C a l g e n e ' s s c i e n c e b o a r d t h a t t h e y t r y t o d e v e l o p a p l a n t g e n e m u t a t i o n t h a t c h a n g e d t h e s h a p e o f E P S P s y n t h a s e s o t h a t g l y p h o s a t e w o u l d b e u n a b l e t o b i n d t o i t . H i s s u g g e s t i o n w a s r e j e c t e d d u e t o g l y p h o s a t e b e i n g a p r o d u c t p r o d u c e d b y a n o t h e r c o m p a n y , b u t h e d e c i d e d t o w o r k o n t h e g e n e m u t a t i o n o n h i s o w n t i m e . U s i n g " S a l m o n e l l a " , h e u s e d r a n d o m m u t a g e n e s i s a n d s u b s e q u e n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f g l y p h o s a t e t o t r y a n d s t u m b l e a c r o s s t h e E P S P s y n t h a s e m u t a t i o n h e w a s s e e k i n g a n d h e s u c c e e d e d . I n 1 9 8 2 , C o m a i p r e s e n t e d h i s g l y p h o s a t e t o l e r a n c e m u t a t i o n t o a f e l l o w s c i e n t i s t , S t e v e R o g e r s , w h o w o r k e d a t M o n s a n t o a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t h e h a d m a d e a s u p e r i o r f o r m o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e g e n e t h a n t h e o n e M o n s a n t o h a d b e e n w o r k i n g o n . T h o u g h i t w a s s t i l l n o t g o o d e n o u g h f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d C o m a i c o n t i n u e d h i s i n d e p e n d e n t w o r k . H e p u b l i s h e d a p a p e r i n t h e j o u r n a l " N a t u r e " i n O c t o b e r 1 9 8 5 d e s c r i b i n g h o w h e a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s a t C a l g e n e h a d c r e a t e d g l y p h o s a t e - r e s i s t a n t p l a n t s u s i n g t h e g e n e m u t a t i o n C o m a i h a d f o u n d y e a r s e a r l i e r . T h i s o u t c o m p e t i n g o f M o n s a n t o ' s f l a g s h i p p r o d u c t c r e a t e d a s t r o n g s e n s e o f r i v a l r y w i t h C a l g e n e a n d s u b s e q u e n t l a y o f f s a t M o n s a n t o a t t h e e n d o f 1 9 8 5 . F i r s t b e c o m i n g a p r o f e s s o r a t W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n 1 9 9 0 , C o m a i ' s l a b f o c u s e d o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i m p r o v e d a g r i c u l t u r a l g e n e t i c t r a i t s b y u s i n g t h e m o d e l o r g a n i s m " A r a b i d o p s i s t h a l i a n a " t o c o - d e v e l o p w h a t w a s r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l . T h i s s y s t e m i n c l u d e d d e v e l o p i n g g e n e m o d e l s a n d i n b r e d l i n e s , i n c l u d i n g a n e x p a n d e d E c o T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l d e v e l o p e d i n 2 0 0 4 , t o c o m p a r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s e p l a n t l i n e s t o t h e r e f e r e n c e g e n o m e a n d i s o l a t e n e w m u t a t i o n s a n d t r a i t s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . H e w o u l d l a t e r l e a d t h e T I L L I N G C o r e S e r v i c e F a c i l i t y a t U C D a v i s t h a t c o n t i n u e d d e v e l o p i n g a g e n e t i c a n a l y s i s p l a t f o r m c a l l e d " T I L L I N G - b y - S e q u e n c i n g " t h a t w o u l d b e u s e d o n n o t j u s t A r a b i d o p s i s , b u t w a s e x p a n d e d t o a l s o i n c l u d e C a m e l i n a , t o m a t o , r i c e , a n d w h e a t . A n a w a r d s p o n s o r s h i p o f $ 4 8 9 , 0 0 0 w a s g i v e n t o C o m a i ' s l a b i n 2 0 1 4 f r o m a j o i n t d o n a t i o n o f t h r e e c o m p a n i e s i n o r d e r t o s p o n s o r t h e f u r t h e r u s e o f T I L L I N G i n c u r r e n t t o m a t o c u l t i v a r p o p u l a t i o n s . C o m a i j o i n e d U C D a v i s i n 2 0 0 6 w i t h h i s l a b ' s r e s e a r c h f o c u s i n g o n g l y p h o s a t e r e s i s t a n c e , f u n c t i o n a l g e n o m i c s , a n d e p i g e n e t i c s , a l o n g w i t h g e n e r a l m u t a t i o n a l t r a i t r e s e a r c h . H e i s a l s o w e l l k n o w n f o r h i s w o r k a s a t e a c h e r o f t h e " B I S 1 0 1 " u n d e r g r a d u a t e g e n e t i c s c o u r s e a n d h i s u s e o f w h i t e b o a r d w r i t i n g a n d h i s c o - p r o d u c e d v i d e o s e r i e s a l o n g s i d e t h e u n i v e r s i t y . A c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n C o m a i ' s l a b a n d K y o t o U n i v e r s i t y i n 2 0 1 4 o n t h e g e n e t i c s e x r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e p e r s i m m o n s p e c i e s " D i o s p y r o s l o t u s " f o u n d t h r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e g e n o m e s o f s e v e r a l d o z e n m a l e a n d f e m a l e p l a n t s t h e s p e c i f i c g e n e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e i r s e x d e t e r m i n a t i o n . A s t h e s e p e r s i m m o n s a r e a m o n g t h e f e w p l a n t s e x h i b i t i n g d i o e c y , t h i s d i s c o v e r y o p e n e d u p a g r i c u l t u r a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t r a i t i m p r o v e m e n t a n d t h e r e s e a r c h r e c e i v e d s i g n i f i c a n t m e d i a i n t e r e s t . C o m a i w a s n a m e d a F e l l o w o f t h e ( A A A S ) i n 2 0 1 2 . T h e D i s t i n g u i s h e d R e s e a r c h A w a r d w a s g i v e n t o C o m a i i n 2 0 1 5 f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s a t U C D a v i s t h a n k s t o h i s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s i n t h e T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l . I n 2 0 1 6 , C o m a i w a s a w a r d e d w i t h a I n s t i t u t e H o n o r a r y F e l l o w s h i p f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B o l o g n a f o r h i s w o r k o n t h e g e n e t i c i m p r o v e m e n t o f p l a n t s . H e w a s a l s o g i v e n a F a c u l t y T e a c h i n g A w a r d f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s a t U C D a v i s i n 2 0 1 7 f o r h i s i n n o v a t i o n s i n t e a c h i n g a n d h i s e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f h i g h m o t i v a t i o n a m o n g h i s s t u d e n t s . T h e 2 0 1 7 " I n n o v a t i o n P r i z e f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l T e c h n o l o g y " f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f P l a n t B i o l o g i s t s w a s p r e s e n t e d t o C o m a i f o r h i s w o r k o n T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l s a n d p l a n t t r a i t d e v e l o p m e n t .

Career

Luca Comai earned degrees in agricultural sciences and plant pathology from the University of Bologna and Washington State University. He holds a PhD in plant pathology from the University of California, Davis. After completing a postdoc, Comai joined Calgene, where he developed a glyphosate-tolerant plant gene mutation. He became a professor at Washington State University in 1990 and later led the TILLING Core Service Facility at UC Davis. Comai's research focuses on glyphosate resistance, functional genomics, and epigenetics. He has received numerous awards, including the AAAS Fellowship, Distinguished Research Award, and Innovation Prize for Agricultural Technology.

Comai received his bachelor's degree in agricultural sciences from the University of Bologna in 1976 and his Master's degree in the field of plant pathology in 1978 from Washington State University. He then went on to earn his Ph.D. in plant pathology from the University of California, Davis and completed a postdoc at the same university. His doctoral thesis was on the subject of how Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is produced in bacteria and how this genetic function was homologous to the plant hormone production of the same name in plants that is encoded in the genome as T-DNA from Agrobacterium. Comai first applied for a teaching position at the University of California, Riverside in January 1981. But when this position wasn't offered to him, he instead joined the biotech company Calgene in the latter half of 1981 during its initial opening period. While he had been attempting to get support among the Riverside faculty for his application, he had been informed of the properties of glyphosate and its specific targeting of the EPSP synthase enzyme. He proposed to Calgene's science board that they try to develop a plant gene mutation that changed the shape of EPSP synthase so that glyphosate would be unable to bind to it. His suggestion was rejected due to glyphosate being a product produced by another company, but he decided to work on the gene mutation on his own time. Using "Salmonella", he used random mutagenesis and subsequent application of glyphosate to try and stumble across the EPSP synthase mutation he was seeking and he succeeded. In 1982, Comai presented his glyphosate tolerance mutation to a fellow scientist, Steve Rogers, who worked at Monsanto and demonstrated that he had made a superior form of the resistance gene than the one Monsanto had been working on. Though it was still not good enough for agricultural production and Comai continued his independent work. He published a paper in the journal "Nature" in October 1985 describing how he and his colleagues at Calgene had created glyphosate-resistant plants using the gene mutation Comai had found years earlier. This outcompeting of Monsanto's flagship product created a strong sense of rivalry with Calgene and subsequent layoffs at Monsanto at the end of 1985. First becoming a professor at Washington State University in 1990, Comai's lab focused on the development of improved agricultural genetic traits by using the model organism "Arabidopsis thaliana" to co-develop what was referred to as the TILLING protocol. This system included developing gene models and inbred lines, including an expanded EcoTILLING protocol developed in 2004, to compare differences in these plant lines to the reference genome and isolate new mutations and traits for further research. He would later lead the TILLING Core Service Facility at UC Davis that continued developing a genetic analysis platform called "TILLING-by-Sequencing" that would be used on not just Arabidopsis, but was expanded to also include Camelina, tomato, rice, and wheat. An award sponsorship of $489,000 was given to Comai's lab in 2014 from a joint donation of three companies in order to sponsor the further use of TILLING in current tomato cultivar populations. Comai joined UC Davis in 2006 with his lab's research focusing on glyphosate resistance, functional genomics, and epigenetics, along with general mutational trait research. He is also well known for his work as a teacher of the "BIS 101" undergraduate genetics course and his use of whiteboard writing and his co-produced video series alongside the university. A collaboration between Comai's lab and Kyoto University in 2014 on the genetic sex reproduction of the persimmon species "Diospyros lotus" found through investigating the genomes of several dozen male and female plants the specific genes involved in their sex determination. As these persimmons are among the few plants exhibiting dioecy, this discovery opened up agricultural opportunities for trait improvement and the research received significant media interest. Comai was named a Fellow of the (AAAS) in 2012. The Distinguished Research Award was given to Comai in 2015 from the College of Biological Sciences at UC Davis thanks to his accomplishments in the TILLING protocol. In 2016, Comai was awarded with a Institute Honorary Fellowship from the University of Bologna for his work on the genetic improvement of plants. He was also given a Faculty Teaching Award from the College of Biological Sciences at UC Davis in 2017 for his innovations in teaching and his encouragement of high motivation among his students. The 2017 "Innovation Prize for Agricultural Technology" from the American Society of Plant Biologists was presented to Comai for his work on TILLING protocols and plant trait development.

Luca Comai

C o m a i r e c e i v e d h i s b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l s c i e n c e s f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B o l o g n a i n 1 9 7 6 a n d h i s M a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n t h e f i e l d o f p l a n t p a t h o l o g y i n 1 9 7 8 f r o m W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . H e t h e n w e n t o n t o e a r n h i s P h . D . i n p l a n t p a t h o l o g y f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , D a v i s a n d c o m p l e t e d a p o s t d o c a t t h e s a m e u n i v e r s i t y . H i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s w a s o n t h e s u b j e c t o f h o w I n d o l e - 3 - a c e t i c a c i d ( I A A ) i s p r o d u c e d i n b a c t e r i a a n d h o w t h i s g e n e t i c f u n c t i o n w a s h o m o l o g o u s t o t h e p l a n t h o r m o n e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s a m e n a m e i n p l a n t s t h a t i s e n c o d e d i n t h e g e n o m e a s T - D N A f r o m A g r o b a c t e r i u m . C o m a i f i r s t a p p l i e d f o r a t e a c h i n g p o s i t i o n a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , R i v e r s i d e i n J a n u a r y 1 9 8 1 . B u t w h e n t h i s p o s i t i o n w a s n ' t o f f e r e d t o h i m , h e i n s t e a d j o i n e d t h e b i o t e c h c o m p a n y C a l g e n e i n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f 1 9 8 1 d u r i n g i t s i n i t i a l o p e n i n g p e r i o d . W h i l e h e h a d b e e n a t t e m p t i n g t o g e t s u p p o r t a m o n g t h e R i v e r s i d e f a c u l t y f o r h i s a p p l i c a t i o n , h e h a d b e e n i n f o r m e d o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f g l y p h o s a t e a n d i t s s p e c i f i c t a r g e t i n g o f t h e E P S P s y n t h a s e e n z y m e . H e p r o p o s e d t o C a l g e n e ' s s c i e n c e b o a r d t h a t t h e y t r y t o d e v e l o p a p l a n t g e n e m u t a t i o n t h a t c h a n g e d t h e s h a p e o f E P S P s y n t h a s e s o t h a t g l y p h o s a t e w o u l d b e u n a b l e t o b i n d t o i t . H i s s u g g e s t i o n w a s r e j e c t e d d u e t o g l y p h o s a t e b e i n g a p r o d u c t p r o d u c e d b y a n o t h e r c o m p a n y , b u t h e d e c i d e d t o w o r k o n t h e g e n e m u t a t i o n o n h i s o w n t i m e . U s i n g " S a l m o n e l l a " , h e u s e d r a n d o m m u t a g e n e s i s a n d s u b s e q u e n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f g l y p h o s a t e t o t r y a n d s t u m b l e a c r o s s t h e E P S P s y n t h a s e m u t a t i o n h e w a s s e e k i n g a n d h e s u c c e e d e d . I n 1 9 8 2 , C o m a i p r e s e n t e d h i s g l y p h o s a t e t o l e r a n c e m u t a t i o n t o a f e l l o w s c i e n t i s t , S t e v e R o g e r s , w h o w o r k e d a t M o n s a n t o a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t h e h a d m a d e a s u p e r i o r f o r m o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e g e n e t h a n t h e o n e M o n s a n t o h a d b e e n w o r k i n g o n . T h o u g h i t w a s s t i l l n o t g o o d e n o u g h f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d C o m a i c o n t i n u e d h i s i n d e p e n d e n t w o r k . H e p u b l i s h e d a p a p e r i n t h e j o u r n a l " N a t u r e " i n O c t o b e r 1 9 8 5 d e s c r i b i n g h o w h e a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s a t C a l g e n e h a d c r e a t e d g l y p h o s a t e - r e s i s t a n t p l a n t s u s i n g t h e g e n e m u t a t i o n C o m a i h a d f o u n d y e a r s e a r l i e r . T h i s o u t c o m p e t i n g o f M o n s a n t o ' s f l a g s h i p p r o d u c t c r e a t e d a s t r o n g s e n s e o f r i v a l r y w i t h C a l g e n e a n d s u b s e q u e n t l a y o f f s a t M o n s a n t o a t t h e e n d o f 1 9 8 5 . F i r s t b e c o m i n g a p r o f e s s o r a t W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n 1 9 9 0 , C o m a i ' s l a b f o c u s e d o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i m p r o v e d a g r i c u l t u r a l g e n e t i c t r a i t s b y u s i n g t h e m o d e l o r g a n i s m " A r a b i d o p s i s t h a l i a n a " t o c o - d e v e l o p w h a t w a s r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l . T h i s s y s t e m i n c l u d e d d e v e l o p i n g g e n e m o d e l s a n d i n b r e d l i n e s , i n c l u d i n g a n e x p a n d e d E c o T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l d e v e l o p e d i n 2 0 0 4 , t o c o m p a r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s e p l a n t l i n e s t o t h e r e f e r e n c e g e n o m e a n d i s o l a t e n e w m u t a t i o n s a n d t r a i t s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . H e w o u l d l a t e r l e a d t h e T I L L I N G C o r e S e r v i c e F a c i l i t y a t U C D a v i s t h a t c o n t i n u e d d e v e l o p i n g a g e n e t i c a n a l y s i s p l a t f o r m c a l l e d " T I L L I N G - b y - S e q u e n c i n g " t h a t w o u l d b e u s e d o n n o t j u s t A r a b i d o p s i s , b u t w a s e x p a n d e d t o a l s o i n c l u d e C a m e l i n a , t o m a t o , r i c e , a n d w h e a t . A n a w a r d s p o n s o r s h i p o f $ 4 8 9 , 0 0 0 w a s g i v e n t o C o m a i ' s l a b i n 2 0 1 4 f r o m a j o i n t d o n a t i o n o f t h r e e c o m p a n i e s i n o r d e r t o s p o n s o r t h e f u r t h e r u s e o f T I L L I N G i n c u r r e n t t o m a t o c u l t i v a r p o p u l a t i o n s . C o m a i j o i n e d U C D a v i s i n 2 0 0 6 w i t h h i s l a b ' s r e s e a r c h f o c u s i n g o n g l y p h o s a t e r e s i s t a n c e , f u n c t i o n a l g e n o m i c s , a n d e p i g e n e t i c s , a l o n g w i t h g e n e r a l m u t a t i o n a l t r a i t r e s e a r c h . H e i s a l s o w e l l k n o w n f o r h i s w o r k a s a t e a c h e r o f t h e " B I S 1 0 1 " u n d e r g r a d u a t e g e n e t i c s c o u r s e a n d h i s u s e o f w h i t e b o a r d w r i t i n g a n d h i s c o - p r o d u c e d v i d e o s e r i e s a l o n g s i d e t h e u n i v e r s i t y . A c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n C o m a i ' s l a b a n d K y o t o U n i v e r s i t y i n 2 0 1 4 o n t h e g e n e t i c s e x r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e p e r s i m m o n s p e c i e s " D i o s p y r o s l o t u s " f o u n d t h r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e g e n o m e s o f s e v e r a l d o z e n m a l e a n d f e m a l e p l a n t s t h e s p e c i f i c g e n e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e i r s e x d e t e r m i n a t i o n . A s t h e s e p e r s i m m o n s a r e a m o n g t h e f e w p l a n t s e x h i b i t i n g d i o e c y , t h i s d i s c o v e r y o p e n e d u p a g r i c u l t u r a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t r a i t i m p r o v e m e n t a n d t h e r e s e a r c h r e c e i v e d s i g n i f i c a n t m e d i a i n t e r e s t . C o m a i w a s n a m e d a F e l l o w o f t h e ( A A A S ) i n 2 0 1 2 . T h e D i s t i n g u i s h e d R e s e a r c h A w a r d w a s g i v e n t o C o m a i i n 2 0 1 5 f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s a t U C D a v i s t h a n k s t o h i s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s i n t h e T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l . I n 2 0 1 6 , C o m a i w a s a w a r d e d w i t h a I n s t i t u t e H o n o r a r y F e l l o w s h i p f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B o l o g n a f o r h i s w o r k o n t h e g e n e t i c i m p r o v e m e n t o f p l a n t s . H e w a s a l s o g i v e n a F a c u l t y T e a c h i n g A w a r d f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s a t U C D a v i s i n 2 0 1 7 f o r h i s i n n o v a t i o n s i n t e a c h i n g a n d h i s e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f h i g h m o t i v a t i o n a m o n g h i s s t u d e n t s . T h e 2 0 1 7 " I n n o v a t i o n P r i z e f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l T e c h n o l o g y " f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f P l a n t B i o l o g i s t s w a s p r e s e n t e d t o C o m a i f o r h i s w o r k o n T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l s a n d p l a n t t r a i t d e v e l o p m e n t .

Career ; Calgene researcher

Luca Comai is a renowned researcher and academician who has made significant contributions to the field of plant genetics and biotechnology. After completing his education, he joined Calgene, where he developed a glyphosate-tolerant plant gene mutation. He later became a professor at Washington State University and led the development of the TILLING protocol, a genetic analysis platform used to identify new mutations and traits in plants. Comai has received numerous awards and honors for his work, including being named a Fellow of the AAAS, receiving the Distinguished Research Award, and winning the Innovation Prize for Agricultural Technology.

Comai received his bachelor's degree in agricultural sciences from the University of Bologna in 1976 and his Master's degree in the field of plant pathology in 1978 from Washington State University. He then went on to earn his Ph.D. in plant pathology from the University of California, Davis and completed a postdoc at the same university. His doctoral thesis was on the subject of how Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is produced in bacteria and how this genetic function was homologous to the plant hormone production of the same name in plants that is encoded in the genome as T-DNA from Agrobacterium. Comai first applied for a teaching position at the University of California, Riverside in January 1981. But when this position wasn't offered to him, he instead joined the biotech company Calgene in the latter half of 1981 during its initial opening period. While he had been attempting to get support among the Riverside faculty for his application, he had been informed of the properties of glyphosate and its specific targeting of the EPSP synthase enzyme. He proposed to Calgene's science board that they try to develop a plant gene mutation that changed the shape of EPSP synthase so that glyphosate would be unable to bind to it. His suggestion was rejected due to glyphosate being a product produced by another company, but he decided to work on the gene mutation on his own time. Using "Salmonella", he used random mutagenesis and subsequent application of glyphosate to try and stumble across the EPSP synthase mutation he was seeking and he succeeded. In 1982, Comai presented his glyphosate tolerance mutation to a fellow scientist, Steve Rogers, who worked at Monsanto and demonstrated that he had made a superior form of the resistance gene than the one Monsanto had been working on. Though it was still not good enough for agricultural production and Comai continued his independent work. He published a paper in the journal "Nature" in October 1985 describing how he and his colleagues at Calgene had created glyphosate-resistant plants using the gene mutation Comai had found years earlier. This outcompeting of Monsanto's flagship product created a strong sense of rivalry with Calgene and subsequent layoffs at Monsanto at the end of 1985. First becoming a professor at Washington State University in 1990, Comai's lab focused on the development of improved agricultural genetic traits by using the model organism "Arabidopsis thaliana" to co-develop what was referred to as the TILLING protocol. This system included developing gene models and inbred lines, including an expanded EcoTILLING protocol developed in 2004, to compare differences in these plant lines to the reference genome and isolate new mutations and traits for further research. He would later lead the TILLING Core Service Facility at UC Davis that continued developing a genetic analysis platform called "TILLING-by-Sequencing" that would be used on not just Arabidopsis, but was expanded to also include Camelina, tomato, rice, and wheat. An award sponsorship of $489,000 was given to Comai's lab in 2014 from a joint donation of three companies in order to sponsor the further use of TILLING in current tomato cultivar populations. Comai joined UC Davis in 2006 with his lab's research focusing on glyphosate resistance, functional genomics, and epigenetics, along with general mutational trait research. He is also well known for his work as a teacher of the "BIS 101" undergraduate genetics course and his use of whiteboard writing and his co-produced video series alongside the university. A collaboration between Comai's lab and Kyoto University in 2014 on the genetic sex reproduction of the persimmon species "Diospyros lotus" found through investigating the genomes of several dozen male and female plants the specific genes involved in their sex determination. As these persimmons are among the few plants exhibiting dioecy, this discovery opened up agricultural opportunities for trait improvement and the research received significant media interest. Comai was named a Fellow of the (AAAS) in 2012. The Distinguished Research Award was given to Comai in 2015 from the College of Biological Sciences at UC Davis thanks to his accomplishments in the TILLING protocol. In 2016, Comai was awarded with a Institute Honorary Fellowship from the University of Bologna for his work on the genetic improvement of plants. He was also given a Faculty Teaching Award from the College of Biological Sciences at UC Davis in 2017 for his innovations in teaching and his encouragement of high motivation among his students. The 2017 "Innovation Prize for Agricultural Technology" from the American Society of Plant Biologists was presented to Comai for his work on TILLING protocols and plant trait development.

Luca Comai

C o m a i r e c e i v e d h i s b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l s c i e n c e s f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B o l o g n a i n 1 9 7 6 a n d h i s M a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n t h e f i e l d o f p l a n t p a t h o l o g y i n 1 9 7 8 f r o m W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . H e t h e n w e n t o n t o e a r n h i s P h . D . i n p l a n t p a t h o l o g y f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , D a v i s a n d c o m p l e t e d a p o s t d o c a t t h e s a m e u n i v e r s i t y . H i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s w a s o n t h e s u b j e c t o f h o w I n d o l e - 3 - a c e t i c a c i d ( I A A ) i s p r o d u c e d i n b a c t e r i a a n d h o w t h i s g e n e t i c f u n c t i o n w a s h o m o l o g o u s t o t h e p l a n t h o r m o n e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s a m e n a m e i n p l a n t s t h a t i s e n c o d e d i n t h e g e n o m e a s T - D N A f r o m A g r o b a c t e r i u m . C o m a i f i r s t a p p l i e d f o r a t e a c h i n g p o s i t i o n a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , R i v e r s i d e i n J a n u a r y 1 9 8 1 . B u t w h e n t h i s p o s i t i o n w a s n ' t o f f e r e d t o h i m , h e i n s t e a d j o i n e d t h e b i o t e c h c o m p a n y C a l g e n e i n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f 1 9 8 1 d u r i n g i t s i n i t i a l o p e n i n g p e r i o d . W h i l e h e h a d b e e n a t t e m p t i n g t o g e t s u p p o r t a m o n g t h e R i v e r s i d e f a c u l t y f o r h i s a p p l i c a t i o n , h e h a d b e e n i n f o r m e d o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f g l y p h o s a t e a n d i t s s p e c i f i c t a r g e t i n g o f t h e E P S P s y n t h a s e e n z y m e . H e p r o p o s e d t o C a l g e n e ' s s c i e n c e b o a r d t h a t t h e y t r y t o d e v e l o p a p l a n t g e n e m u t a t i o n t h a t c h a n g e d t h e s h a p e o f E P S P s y n t h a s e s o t h a t g l y p h o s a t e w o u l d b e u n a b l e t o b i n d t o i t . H i s s u g g e s t i o n w a s r e j e c t e d d u e t o g l y p h o s a t e b e i n g a p r o d u c t p r o d u c e d b y a n o t h e r c o m p a n y , b u t h e d e c i d e d t o w o r k o n t h e g e n e m u t a t i o n o n h i s o w n t i m e . U s i n g " S a l m o n e l l a " , h e u s e d r a n d o m m u t a g e n e s i s a n d s u b s e q u e n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f g l y p h o s a t e t o t r y a n d s t u m b l e a c r o s s t h e E P S P s y n t h a s e m u t a t i o n h e w a s s e e k i n g a n d h e s u c c e e d e d . I n 1 9 8 2 , C o m a i p r e s e n t e d h i s g l y p h o s a t e t o l e r a n c e m u t a t i o n t o a f e l l o w s c i e n t i s t , S t e v e R o g e r s , w h o w o r k e d a t M o n s a n t o a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t h e h a d m a d e a s u p e r i o r f o r m o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e g e n e t h a n t h e o n e M o n s a n t o h a d b e e n w o r k i n g o n . T h o u g h i t w a s s t i l l n o t g o o d e n o u g h f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d C o m a i c o n t i n u e d h i s i n d e p e n d e n t w o r k . H e p u b l i s h e d a p a p e r i n t h e j o u r n a l " N a t u r e " i n O c t o b e r 1 9 8 5 d e s c r i b i n g h o w h e a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s a t C a l g e n e h a d c r e a t e d g l y p h o s a t e - r e s i s t a n t p l a n t s u s i n g t h e g e n e m u t a t i o n C o m a i h a d f o u n d y e a r s e a r l i e r . T h i s o u t c o m p e t i n g o f M o n s a n t o ' s f l a g s h i p p r o d u c t c r e a t e d a s t r o n g s e n s e o f r i v a l r y w i t h C a l g e n e a n d s u b s e q u e n t l a y o f f s a t M o n s a n t o a t t h e e n d o f 1 9 8 5 . F i r s t b e c o m i n g a p r o f e s s o r a t W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n 1 9 9 0 , C o m a i ' s l a b f o c u s e d o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i m p r o v e d a g r i c u l t u r a l g e n e t i c t r a i t s b y u s i n g t h e m o d e l o r g a n i s m " A r a b i d o p s i s t h a l i a n a " t o c o - d e v e l o p w h a t w a s r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l . T h i s s y s t e m i n c l u d e d d e v e l o p i n g g e n e m o d e l s a n d i n b r e d l i n e s , i n c l u d i n g a n e x p a n d e d E c o T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l d e v e l o p e d i n 2 0 0 4 , t o c o m p a r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s e p l a n t l i n e s t o t h e r e f e r e n c e g e n o m e a n d i s o l a t e n e w m u t a t i o n s a n d t r a i t s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . H e w o u l d l a t e r l e a d t h e T I L L I N G C o r e S e r v i c e F a c i l i t y a t U C D a v i s t h a t c o n t i n u e d d e v e l o p i n g a g e n e t i c a n a l y s i s p l a t f o r m c a l l e d " T I L L I N G - b y - S e q u e n c i n g " t h a t w o u l d b e u s e d o n n o t j u s t A r a b i d o p s i s , b u t w a s e x p a n d e d t o a l s o i n c l u d e C a m e l i n a , t o m a t o , r i c e , a n d w h e a t . A n a w a r d s p o n s o r s h i p o f $ 4 8 9 , 0 0 0 w a s g i v e n t o C o m a i ' s l a b i n 2 0 1 4 f r o m a j o i n t d o n a t i o n o f t h r e e c o m p a n i e s i n o r d e r t o s p o n s o r t h e f u r t h e r u s e o f T I L L I N G i n c u r r e n t t o m a t o c u l t i v a r p o p u l a t i o n s . C o m a i j o i n e d U C D a v i s i n 2 0 0 6 w i t h h i s l a b ' s r e s e a r c h f o c u s i n g o n g l y p h o s a t e r e s i s t a n c e , f u n c t i o n a l g e n o m i c s , a n d e p i g e n e t i c s , a l o n g w i t h g e n e r a l m u t a t i o n a l t r a i t r e s e a r c h . H e i s a l s o w e l l k n o w n f o r h i s w o r k a s a t e a c h e r o f t h e " B I S 1 0 1 " u n d e r g r a d u a t e g e n e t i c s c o u r s e a n d h i s u s e o f w h i t e b o a r d w r i t i n g a n d h i s c o - p r o d u c e d v i d e o s e r i e s a l o n g s i d e t h e u n i v e r s i t y . A c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n C o m a i ' s l a b a n d K y o t o U n i v e r s i t y i n 2 0 1 4 o n t h e g e n e t i c s e x r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e p e r s i m m o n s p e c i e s " D i o s p y r o s l o t u s " f o u n d t h r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e g e n o m e s o f s e v e r a l d o z e n m a l e a n d f e m a l e p l a n t s t h e s p e c i f i c g e n e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e i r s e x d e t e r m i n a t i o n . A s t h e s e p e r s i m m o n s a r e a m o n g t h e f e w p l a n t s e x h i b i t i n g d i o e c y , t h i s d i s c o v e r y o p e n e d u p a g r i c u l t u r a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t r a i t i m p r o v e m e n t a n d t h e r e s e a r c h r e c e i v e d s i g n i f i c a n t m e d i a i n t e r e s t . C o m a i w a s n a m e d a F e l l o w o f t h e ( A A A S ) i n 2 0 1 2 . T h e D i s t i n g u i s h e d R e s e a r c h A w a r d w a s g i v e n t o C o m a i i n 2 0 1 5 f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s a t U C D a v i s t h a n k s t o h i s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s i n t h e T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l . I n 2 0 1 6 , C o m a i w a s a w a r d e d w i t h a I n s t i t u t e H o n o r a r y F e l l o w s h i p f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B o l o g n a f o r h i s w o r k o n t h e g e n e t i c i m p r o v e m e n t o f p l a n t s . H e w a s a l s o g i v e n a F a c u l t y T e a c h i n g A w a r d f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s a t U C D a v i s i n 2 0 1 7 f o r h i s i n n o v a t i o n s i n t e a c h i n g a n d h i s e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f h i g h m o t i v a t i o n a m o n g h i s s t u d e n t s . T h e 2 0 1 7 " I n n o v a t i o n P r i z e f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l T e c h n o l o g y " f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f P l a n t B i o l o g i s t s w a s p r e s e n t e d t o C o m a i f o r h i s w o r k o n T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l s a n d p l a n t t r a i t d e v e l o p m e n t .

Career ; Washington State and UC Davis professor

Luca Comai is a renowned professor and researcher in plant genetics and biotechnology. He earned his degrees from the University of Bologna, Washington State University, and UC Davis. Comai developed a glyphosate-tolerant gene mutation while working at Calgene, which led to a rivalry with Monsanto. He became a professor at Washington State University and later at UC Davis, where he developed the TILLING protocol for improving agricultural genetic traits. Comai has received numerous awards for his contributions to plant genetics, including the AAAS Fellowship, Distinguished Research Award, and Innovation Prize for Agricultural Technology.

Comai received his bachelor's degree in agricultural sciences from the University of Bologna in 1976 and his Master's degree in the field of plant pathology in 1978 from Washington State University. He then went on to earn his Ph.D. in plant pathology from the University of California, Davis and completed a postdoc at the same university. His doctoral thesis was on the subject of how Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is produced in bacteria and how this genetic function was homologous to the plant hormone production of the same name in plants that is encoded in the genome as T-DNA from Agrobacterium. Comai first applied for a teaching position at the University of California, Riverside in January 1981. But when this position wasn't offered to him, he instead joined the biotech company Calgene in the latter half of 1981 during its initial opening period. While he had been attempting to get support among the Riverside faculty for his application, he had been informed of the properties of glyphosate and its specific targeting of the EPSP synthase enzyme. He proposed to Calgene's science board that they try to develop a plant gene mutation that changed the shape of EPSP synthase so that glyphosate would be unable to bind to it. His suggestion was rejected due to glyphosate being a product produced by another company, but he decided to work on the gene mutation on his own time. Using "Salmonella", he used random mutagenesis and subsequent application of glyphosate to try and stumble across the EPSP synthase mutation he was seeking and he succeeded. In 1982, Comai presented his glyphosate tolerance mutation to a fellow scientist, Steve Rogers, who worked at Monsanto and demonstrated that he had made a superior form of the resistance gene than the one Monsanto had been working on. Though it was still not good enough for agricultural production and Comai continued his independent work. He published a paper in the journal "Nature" in October 1985 describing how he and his colleagues at Calgene had created glyphosate-resistant plants using the gene mutation Comai had found years earlier. This outcompeting of Monsanto's flagship product created a strong sense of rivalry with Calgene and subsequent layoffs at Monsanto at the end of 1985. First becoming a professor at Washington State University in 1990, Comai's lab focused on the development of improved agricultural genetic traits by using the model organism "Arabidopsis thaliana" to co-develop what was referred to as the TILLING protocol. This system included developing gene models and inbred lines, including an expanded EcoTILLING protocol developed in 2004, to compare differences in these plant lines to the reference genome and isolate new mutations and traits for further research. He would later lead the TILLING Core Service Facility at UC Davis that continued developing a genetic analysis platform called "TILLING-by-Sequencing" that would be used on not just Arabidopsis, but was expanded to also include Camelina, tomato, rice, and wheat. An award sponsorship of $489,000 was given to Comai's lab in 2014 from a joint donation of three companies in order to sponsor the further use of TILLING in current tomato cultivar populations. Comai joined UC Davis in 2006 with his lab's research focusing on glyphosate resistance, functional genomics, and epigenetics, along with general mutational trait research. He is also well known for his work as a teacher of the "BIS 101" undergraduate genetics course and his use of whiteboard writing and his co-produced video series alongside the university. A collaboration between Comai's lab and Kyoto University in 2014 on the genetic sex reproduction of the persimmon species "Diospyros lotus" found through investigating the genomes of several dozen male and female plants the specific genes involved in their sex determination. As these persimmons are among the few plants exhibiting dioecy, this discovery opened up agricultural opportunities for trait improvement and the research received significant media interest. Comai was named a Fellow of the (AAAS) in 2012. The Distinguished Research Award was given to Comai in 2015 from the College of Biological Sciences at UC Davis thanks to his accomplishments in the TILLING protocol. In 2016, Comai was awarded with a Institute Honorary Fellowship from the University of Bologna for his work on the genetic improvement of plants. He was also given a Faculty Teaching Award from the College of Biological Sciences at UC Davis in 2017 for his innovations in teaching and his encouragement of high motivation among his students. The 2017 "Innovation Prize for Agricultural Technology" from the American Society of Plant Biologists was presented to Comai for his work on TILLING protocols and plant trait development.

Luca Comai

C o m a i r e c e i v e d h i s b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l s c i e n c e s f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B o l o g n a i n 1 9 7 6 a n d h i s M a s t e r ' s d e g r e e i n t h e f i e l d o f p l a n t p a t h o l o g y i n 1 9 7 8 f r o m W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . H e t h e n w e n t o n t o e a r n h i s P h . D . i n p l a n t p a t h o l o g y f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , D a v i s a n d c o m p l e t e d a p o s t d o c a t t h e s a m e u n i v e r s i t y . H i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s w a s o n t h e s u b j e c t o f h o w I n d o l e - 3 - a c e t i c a c i d ( I A A ) i s p r o d u c e d i n b a c t e r i a a n d h o w t h i s g e n e t i c f u n c t i o n w a s h o m o l o g o u s t o t h e p l a n t h o r m o n e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s a m e n a m e i n p l a n t s t h a t i s e n c o d e d i n t h e g e n o m e a s T - D N A f r o m A g r o b a c t e r i u m . C o m a i f i r s t a p p l i e d f o r a t e a c h i n g p o s i t i o n a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , R i v e r s i d e i n J a n u a r y 1 9 8 1 . B u t w h e n t h i s p o s i t i o n w a s n ' t o f f e r e d t o h i m , h e i n s t e a d j o i n e d t h e b i o t e c h c o m p a n y C a l g e n e i n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f 1 9 8 1 d u r i n g i t s i n i t i a l o p e n i n g p e r i o d . W h i l e h e h a d b e e n a t t e m p t i n g t o g e t s u p p o r t a m o n g t h e R i v e r s i d e f a c u l t y f o r h i s a p p l i c a t i o n , h e h a d b e e n i n f o r m e d o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f g l y p h o s a t e a n d i t s s p e c i f i c t a r g e t i n g o f t h e E P S P s y n t h a s e e n z y m e . H e p r o p o s e d t o C a l g e n e ' s s c i e n c e b o a r d t h a t t h e y t r y t o d e v e l o p a p l a n t g e n e m u t a t i o n t h a t c h a n g e d t h e s h a p e o f E P S P s y n t h a s e s o t h a t g l y p h o s a t e w o u l d b e u n a b l e t o b i n d t o i t . H i s s u g g e s t i o n w a s r e j e c t e d d u e t o g l y p h o s a t e b e i n g a p r o d u c t p r o d u c e d b y a n o t h e r c o m p a n y , b u t h e d e c i d e d t o w o r k o n t h e g e n e m u t a t i o n o n h i s o w n t i m e . U s i n g " S a l m o n e l l a " , h e u s e d r a n d o m m u t a g e n e s i s a n d s u b s e q u e n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f g l y p h o s a t e t o t r y a n d s t u m b l e a c r o s s t h e E P S P s y n t h a s e m u t a t i o n h e w a s s e e k i n g a n d h e s u c c e e d e d . I n 1 9 8 2 , C o m a i p r e s e n t e d h i s g l y p h o s a t e t o l e r a n c e m u t a t i o n t o a f e l l o w s c i e n t i s t , S t e v e R o g e r s , w h o w o r k e d a t M o n s a n t o a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t h e h a d m a d e a s u p e r i o r f o r m o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e g e n e t h a n t h e o n e M o n s a n t o h a d b e e n w o r k i n g o n . T h o u g h i t w a s s t i l l n o t g o o d e n o u g h f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d C o m a i c o n t i n u e d h i s i n d e p e n d e n t w o r k . H e p u b l i s h e d a p a p e r i n t h e j o u r n a l " N a t u r e " i n O c t o b e r 1 9 8 5 d e s c r i b i n g h o w h e a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s a t C a l g e n e h a d c r e a t e d g l y p h o s a t e - r e s i s t a n t p l a n t s u s i n g t h e g e n e m u t a t i o n C o m a i h a d f o u n d y e a r s e a r l i e r . T h i s o u t c o m p e t i n g o f M o n s a n t o ' s f l a g s h i p p r o d u c t c r e a t e d a s t r o n g s e n s e o f r i v a l r y w i t h C a l g e n e a n d s u b s e q u e n t l a y o f f s a t M o n s a n t o a t t h e e n d o f 1 9 8 5 . F i r s t b e c o m i n g a p r o f e s s o r a t W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n 1 9 9 0 , C o m a i ' s l a b f o c u s e d o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i m p r o v e d a g r i c u l t u r a l g e n e t i c t r a i t s b y u s i n g t h e m o d e l o r g a n i s m " A r a b i d o p s i s t h a l i a n a " t o c o - d e v e l o p w h a t w a s r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l . T h i s s y s t e m i n c l u d e d d e v e l o p i n g g e n e m o d e l s a n d i n b r e d l i n e s , i n c l u d i n g a n e x p a n d e d E c o T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l d e v e l o p e d i n 2 0 0 4 , t o c o m p a r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s e p l a n t l i n e s t o t h e r e f e r e n c e g e n o m e a n d i s o l a t e n e w m u t a t i o n s a n d t r a i t s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . H e w o u l d l a t e r l e a d t h e T I L L I N G C o r e S e r v i c e F a c i l i t y a t U C D a v i s t h a t c o n t i n u e d d e v e l o p i n g a g e n e t i c a n a l y s i s p l a t f o r m c a l l e d " T I L L I N G - b y - S e q u e n c i n g " t h a t w o u l d b e u s e d o n n o t j u s t A r a b i d o p s i s , b u t w a s e x p a n d e d t o a l s o i n c l u d e C a m e l i n a , t o m a t o , r i c e , a n d w h e a t . A n a w a r d s p o n s o r s h i p o f $ 4 8 9 , 0 0 0 w a s g i v e n t o C o m a i ' s l a b i n 2 0 1 4 f r o m a j o i n t d o n a t i o n o f t h r e e c o m p a n i e s i n o r d e r t o s p o n s o r t h e f u r t h e r u s e o f T I L L I N G i n c u r r e n t t o m a t o c u l t i v a r p o p u l a t i o n s . C o m a i j o i n e d U C D a v i s i n 2 0 0 6 w i t h h i s l a b ' s r e s e a r c h f o c u s i n g o n g l y p h o s a t e r e s i s t a n c e , f u n c t i o n a l g e n o m i c s , a n d e p i g e n e t i c s , a l o n g w i t h g e n e r a l m u t a t i o n a l t r a i t r e s e a r c h . H e i s a l s o w e l l k n o w n f o r h i s w o r k a s a t e a c h e r o f t h e " B I S 1 0 1 " u n d e r g r a d u a t e g e n e t i c s c o u r s e a n d h i s u s e o f w h i t e b o a r d w r i t i n g a n d h i s c o - p r o d u c e d v i d e o s e r i e s a l o n g s i d e t h e u n i v e r s i t y . A c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n C o m a i ' s l a b a n d K y o t o U n i v e r s i t y i n 2 0 1 4 o n t h e g e n e t i c s e x r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e p e r s i m m o n s p e c i e s " D i o s p y r o s l o t u s " f o u n d t h r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e g e n o m e s o f s e v e r a l d o z e n m a l e a n d f e m a l e p l a n t s t h e s p e c i f i c g e n e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e i r s e x d e t e r m i n a t i o n . A s t h e s e p e r s i m m o n s a r e a m o n g t h e f e w p l a n t s e x h i b i t i n g d i o e c y , t h i s d i s c o v e r y o p e n e d u p a g r i c u l t u r a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t r a i t i m p r o v e m e n t a n d t h e r e s e a r c h r e c e i v e d s i g n i f i c a n t m e d i a i n t e r e s t . C o m a i w a s n a m e d a F e l l o w o f t h e ( A A A S ) i n 2 0 1 2 . T h e D i s t i n g u i s h e d R e s e a r c h A w a r d w a s g i v e n t o C o m a i i n 2 0 1 5 f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s a t U C D a v i s t h a n k s t o h i s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s i n t h e T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l . I n 2 0 1 6 , C o m a i w a s a w a r d e d w i t h a I n s t i t u t e H o n o r a r y F e l l o w s h i p f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B o l o g n a f o r h i s w o r k o n t h e g e n e t i c i m p r o v e m e n t o f p l a n t s . H e w a s a l s o g i v e n a F a c u l t y T e a c h i n g A w a r d f r o m t h e C o l l e g e o f B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s a t U C D a v i s i n 2 0 1 7 f o r h i s i n n o v a t i o n s i n t e a c h i n g a n d h i s e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f h i g h m o t i v a t i o n a m o n g h i s s t u d e n t s . T h e 2 0 1 7 " I n n o v a t i o n P r i z e f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l T e c h n o l o g y " f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f P l a n t B i o l o g i s t s w a s p r e s e n t e d t o C o m a i f o r h i s w o r k o n T I L L I N G p r o t o c o l s a n d p l a n t t r a i t d e v e l o p m e n t .

Awards and honors

Luca Comai has received numerous awards and honors for his contributions to plant genetics and agriculture. These include being named a Fellow of the AAAS in 2012, receiving the Distinguished Research Award from the College of Biological Sciences at UC Davis in 2015, an Institute Honorary Fellowship from the University of Bologna in 2016, a Faculty Teaching Award from the College of Biological Sciences at UC Davis in 2017, and the Innovation Prize for Agricultural Technology from the American Society of Plant Biologists in 2017.

Comai received his bachelor's degree in agricultural sciences from the University of Bologna in 1976 and his Master's degree in the field of plant pathology in 1978 from Washington State University. He then went on to earn his Ph.D. in plant pathology from the University of California, Davis and completed a postdoc at the same university. His doctoral thesis was on the subject of how Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is produced in bacteria and how this genetic function was homologous to the plant hormone production of the same name in plants that is encoded in the genome as T-DNA from Agrobacterium. Comai first applied for a teaching position at the University of California, Riverside in January 1981. But when this position wasn't offered to him, he instead joined the biotech company Calgene in the latter half of 1981 during its initial opening period. While he had been attempting to get support among the Riverside faculty for his application, he had been informed of the properties of glyphosate and its specific targeting of the EPSP synthase enzyme. He proposed to Calgene's science board that they try to develop a plant gene mutation that changed the shape of EPSP synthase so that glyphosate would be unable to bind to it. His suggestion was rejected due to glyphosate being a product produced by another company, but he decided to work on the gene mutation on his own time. Using "Salmonella", he used random mutagenesis and subsequent application of glyphosate to try and stumble across the EPSP synthase mutation he was seeking and he succeeded. In 1982, Comai presented his glyphosate tolerance mutation to a fellow scientist, Steve Rogers, who worked at Monsanto and demonstrated that he had made a superior form of the resistance gene than the one Monsanto had been working on. Though it was still not good enough for agricultural production and Comai continued his independent work. He published a paper in the journal "Nature" in October 1985 describing how he and his colleagues at Calgene had created glyphosate-resistant plants using the gene mutation Comai had found years earlier. This outcompeting of Monsanto's flagship product created a strong sense of rivalry with Calgene and subsequent layoffs at Monsanto at the end of 1985. First becoming a professor at Washington State University in 1990, Comai's lab focused on the development of improved agricultural genetic traits by using the model organism "Arabidopsis thaliana" to co-develop what was referred to as the TILLING protocol. This system included developing gene models and inbred lines, including an expanded EcoTILLING protocol developed in 2004, to compare differences in these plant lines to the reference genome and isolate new mutations and traits for further research. He would later lead the TILLING Core Service Facility at UC Davis that continued developing a genetic analysis platform called "TILLING-by-Sequencing" that would be used on not just Arabidopsis, but was expanded to also include Camelina, tomato, rice, and wheat. An award sponsorship of $489,000 was given to Comai's lab in 2014 from a joint donation of three companies in order to sponsor the further use of TILLING in current tomato cultivar populations. Comai joined UC Davis in 2006 with his lab's research focusing on glyphosate resistance, functional genomics, and epigenetics, along with general mutational trait research. He is also well known for his work as a teacher of the "BIS 101" undergraduate genetics course and his use of whiteboard writing and his co-produced video series alongside the university. A collaboration between Comai's lab and Kyoto University in 2014 on the genetic sex reproduction of the persimmon species "Diospyros lotus" found through investigating the genomes of several dozen male and female plants the specific genes involved in their sex determination. As these persimmons are among the few plants exhibiting dioecy, this discovery opened up agricultural opportunities for trait improvement and the research received significant media interest. Comai was named a Fellow of the (AAAS) in 2012. The Distinguished Research Award was given to Comai in 2015 from the College of Biological Sciences at UC Davis thanks to his accomplishments in the TILLING protocol. In 2016, Comai was awarded with a Institute Honorary Fellowship from the University of Bologna for his work on the genetic improvement of plants. He was also given a Faculty Teaching Award from the College of Biological Sciences at UC Davis in 2017 for his innovations in teaching and his encouragement of high motivation among his students. The 2017 "Innovation Prize for Agricultural Technology" from the American Society of Plant Biologists was presented to Comai for his work on TILLING protocols and plant trait development.

Louise Heims Beck

B o r n L o u i s e P a y t o n H e i m s i n O s c e o l a , P e n n s y l v a n i a , s h e g r a d u a t e d i n 1 9 1 1 f r o m t h e D r e x e l I n s t i t u t e o f A r t , S c i e n c e a n d I n d u s t r y ( n o w D r e x e l U n i v e r s i t y ) w i t h a d e g r e e i n L i b r a r y S c i e n c e . W h i l e a s t u d e n t a t D r e x e l s h e w o r k e d a s a n a s s i s t a n t l i b r a r i a n . I n 1 9 1 1 s h e b e c a m e t h e f i r s t l i b r a r i a n a t W a k e F o r e s t C o l l e g e ; a p o s t s h e h e l d f o r f o u r y e a r s . I n 1 9 1 5 s h e r e l o c a t e d t o N e w Y o r k C i t y a n d a s s u m e d a p o s i t i o n a s a l i b r a r i a n w i t h t h e N e w Y o r k P u b l i c L i b r a r y . S h e l e f t t h a t p o s t a f t e r s u c c e s s f u l l y a u d i t i o n i n g a s a s i n g e r f o r M a r c u s L o e w ; w h o b o o k e d h e r f o r t h r e e p e r f o r m a n c e s a d a y i n h i s v a u d e v i l l e c i r c u i t . H e r u n c l e w a s M o r r i s M e y e r f e l d J r . , a t h e a t r e e n t r e p r e n e u r w h o w a s t h e f i n a n c i a l b a c k e r b e h i n d t h e f a m o u s O r p h e u m C i r c u i t . H e e m p l o y e d i m p r e s a r i o M a r t i n B e c k t o h i r e t h e t a l e n t f o r h i s t h e a t e r s . I n 1 9 2 0 s h e m a r r i e d M a r t i n B e c k a f t e r m e e t i n g h i m w h i l e t o u r i n g i n v a u d e v i l l e . T h e y h a d t w o d a u g h t e r s t o g e t h e r . P r i o r t o t h e i r m a r r i a g e , h e r h u s b a n d h a d f o u n d e d B r o a d w a y ' s P a l a c e T h e a t r e i n T i m e s S q u a r e i n 1 9 1 2 . I n 1 9 2 4 h e e s t a b l i s h e d a s e c o n d t h e a t r e , t h e M a r t i n B e c k T h e a t r e . H e i m s B e c k b e c a m e a c l o s e p a r t n e r t o h e r h u s b a n d i n h i s t h e a t r i c a l e n d e a v o r s , a d v i s i n g h e r h u s b a n d o n p r o d u c t i o n s a n d r e v i e w i n g p o t e n t i a l s c r i p t s f o r u s e i n h i s t h e a t r e s . A f t e r h i s d e a t h i n 1 9 4 0 , s h e c o n t i n u e d t o m a n a g e t h e M a r t i n B e c k T h e a t r e w i t h L o u i s A . L o t i t o . I n 1 9 4 0 H e i m s B e c k c o - f o u n d e d t h e A m e r i c a n T h e a t r e W i n g ( A T W ) w i t h A n t o i n e t t e P e r r y , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e T o n y A w a r d s . I n i t i a l l y t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n w a s e s t a b l i s h e d t o r a i s e f u n d s a n d s u p p l i e s , s u c h a s c l o t h i n g a n d m e d i c a l i t e m s , t o a i d A m e r i c a n a n d B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l i n n e e d d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I ( W W I I ) . S h e w a s o n e o f t h e A T W ' s d i r e c t o r s f r o m 1 9 4 0 u n t i l 1 9 4 6 w h e n P e r r y d i e d ; s e r v i n g a s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s f i r s t V i c e P r e s i d e n t . S h e p l a y e d a n i n t e g r a l r o l e i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f b o t h t h e S t a g e D o o r C a n t e e n d u r i n g W W I I a n d t h e T o n y A w a r d s i n 1 9 4 7 . S h e w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r o v e r s e e i n g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e 1 s t T o n y A w a r d s . I n h e r r o l e a s c h a i r m a n o f t h e A T W i n 1 9 5 0 – 1 9 5 1 , s h e s e r v e d a s o n e o f t h e m a i n p r e s e n t e r s a t t h e 4 t h a n d 5 t h T o n y A w a r d s . I n a d d i t i o n t o h e r w o r k w i t h t h e A T W , H e i m s B e c k w a s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e A c t o r s F u n d o f A m e r i c a ; s e r v i n g f i r s t a s a t r u s t e e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d t h e n c h a i r m a n o f i t s g o v e r n i n g e x e c u t i v e c o m m i t t e e f r o m 1 9 6 0 u n t i l h e r d e a t h e i g h t e e n y e a r s l a t e r . S h e c o n c u r r e n t l y s e r v e d a s t h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e P e r c y G . W i l l i a m s H o m e ; a r e t i r e m e n t h o m e f o r i m p o v e r i s h e d e l d e r l y a c t o r s . I n 1 9 5 8 s h e w a s t h e r e c i p i e n t o f a S p e c i a l T o n y A w a r d f o r h e r s e r v i c e t o t h e t h e a t r e c o m m u n i t y . S h e w a s a l s o t h e r e c i p i e n t o f a n h o n o r a r y d o c t o r a t e f r o m D r e x e l U n i v e r s i t y i n 1 9 7 7 . I n 1 9 7 7 s h e w a s g i v e n t h e A c t o r s F u n d M e d a l o f H o n o r o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f h e r 8 8 t h b i r t h d a y . L o u i s e H e i m s B e c k d i e d a t L e n o x H i l l H o s p i t a l i n M a n h a t t a n o n M a r c h 1 6 , 1 9 7 8 , a t t h e a g e o f 8 9 .

Life and career

Louise Heims Beck was a pioneering librarian-turned-vaudevillian who leveraged her connections to become a prominent figure in the American theater scene. Born in 1889, she graduated from Drexel University with a degree in Library Science and went on to work as a librarian before pursuing a career in singing and acting. She married Martin Beck, a renowned theater entrepreneur, and became a key advisor and partner in his business ventures. After his death, she managed the Martin Beck Theatre and co-founded the American Theatre Wing with Antoinette Perry, playing a crucial role in establishing the Tony Awards. Throughout her life, she remained dedicated to the theater community, serving as a trustee and chairman of various organizations, including the Actors Fund of America.

Born Louise Payton Heims in Osceola, Pennsylvania, she graduated in 1911 from the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry (now Drexel University) with a degree in Library Science. While a student at Drexel she worked as an assistant librarian. In 1911 she became the first librarian at Wake Forest College; a post she held for four years. In 1915 she relocated to New York City and assumed a position as a librarian with the New York Public Library. She left that post after successfully auditioning as a singer for Marcus Loew; who booked her for three performances a day in his vaudeville circuit. Her uncle was Morris Meyerfeld Jr., a theatre entrepreneur who was the financial backer behind the famous Orpheum Circuit. He employed impresario Martin Beck to hire the talent for his theaters. In 1920 she married Martin Beck after meeting him while touring in vaudeville. They had two daughters together. Prior to their marriage, her husband had founded Broadway's Palace Theatre in Times Square in 1912. In 1924 he established a second theatre, the Martin Beck Theatre. Heims Beck became a close partner to her husband in his theatrical endeavors, advising her husband on productions and reviewing potential scripts for use in his theatres. After his death in 1940, she continued to manage the Martin Beck Theatre with Louis A. Lotito. In 1940 Heims Beck co-founded the American Theatre Wing (ATW) with Antoinette Perry, the organization responsible for the Tony Awards. Initially the organization was established to raise funds and supplies, such as clothing and medical items, to aid American and British military personnel in need during World War II (WWII). She was one of the ATW's directors from 1940 until 1946 when Perry died; serving as the organization's first Vice President. She played an integral role in the establishment of both the Stage Door Canteen during WWII and the Tony Awards in 1947. She was responsible for overseeing the organization of the 1st Tony Awards. In her role as chairman of the ATW in 1950–1951, she served as one of the main presenters at the 4th and 5th Tony Awards. In addition to her work with the ATW, Heims Beck was dedicated to the Actors Fund of America; serving first as a trustee of the organization and then chairman of its governing executive committee from 1960 until her death eighteen years later. She concurrently served as the director of the Percy G. Williams Home; a retirement home for impoverished elderly actors. In 1958 she was the recipient of a Special Tony Award for her service to the theatre community. She was also the recipient of an honorary doctorate from Drexel University in 1977. In 1977 she was given the Actors Fund Medal of Honor on the occasion of her 88th birthday. Louise Heims Beck died at Lenox Hill Hospital in Manhattan on March 16, 1978, at the age of 89.

Abdulla Al Mandous

A s t h e p r e s i d e n t o f R e g i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A s i a , t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s a n d l a r g e s t r e g i o n o f W M O , t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n p r e s e n t e d a p a r t i c u l a r c h a l l e n g e t o A l M a n d o u s t o b r i n g t h e c o m m u n i t y t o g e t h e r . F o l l o w i n g h i s e l e c t i o n , A l M a n d o u s o u t l i n e d h i s s t r a t e g y t o a d d r e s s t h i s c h a l l e n g e b y s a y i n g : " T h e f i r s t t h i n g I w a n t t o d o i s c r e a t e a n e f f i c i e n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n k b e t w e e n t h e p e r m a n e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n A s i a s o t h a t w e h a v e a n e t w o r k t h a t s h a r e s i n f o r m a t i o n t o g e t h e r o n a d a i l y b a s i s " . T o a c h i e v e t h i s g o a l , A l M a n d o u s d i r e c t e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t w o s p e c i a l i z e d w e b c o m m u n i c a t i o n p o r t a l s t o a s s i s t A s i a n M e m b e r s : W M O - R e g i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n I I - A s i a P o r t a l a n d G C C P e r m a n e n t C o m m i t t e e o f M e t e o r o l o g y P o r t a l , h o s t e d b y N a t i o n a l C e n t e r o f M e t e o r o l o g y . S i n c e a s s u m i n g t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f W M O R e g i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n I I ( A s i a ) , A l M a n d o u s h a s c h a i r e d s e v e r a l s e s s i o n s o f t h e W M O ’ s R e g i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f A S I A a n d g u i d e d a n d c o o r d i n a t e d t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n a n d i t s w o r k i n g g r o u p s . H e p r e s e n t e d t h e v i e w s o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n t o W M O C o n g r e s s a n d E x e c u t i v e C o u n c i l o n r e g i o n a l c h a l l e n g e s a n d p r i o r i t i e s i n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f m e t e o r o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t i e s . A l M a n d o u s i s a l s o t h e c u r r e n t E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r o f t h e N a t i o n a l C e n t e r o f M e t e o r o l o g y ( N C M ) a n d t h e P e r m a n e n t R e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e U A E t o W M O s i n c e 2 0 0 8 . U n d e r h i s l e a d e r s h i p , N C M u n d e r t o o k a l a r g e - s c a l e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f i t s i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d e n h a n c e m e n t o f t h e U A E ’ s n a t i o n a l m e t e o r o l o g i c a l a n d s e i s m o l o g i c a l n e t w o r k s . H e a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f A r a b i a n P e n i n s u l a I n t e g r a t e d R a d a r O b s e r v i n g S y s t e m a n d l e d N C M ’ s e f f o r t s t o s e t u p T h e U A E R e s e a r c h P r o g r a m f o r R a i n E n h a n c e m e n t S c i e n c e , w h i c h w a s l a u n c h e d u n d e r t h e p a t r o n a g e o f H i s H i g h n e s s S h e i k h M a n s o u r b i n Z a y e d A l N a h y a n , U A E D e p u t y P r i m e M i n i s t e r a n d M i n i s t e r o f P r e s i d e n t i a l A f f a i r s i n 2 0 1 5 . T h e p r o g r a m a i m s t o a t t r a c t n e w r e s e a r c h e r s , t e c h n o l o g i s t s a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r s t o f u r t h e r d e v e l o p l o c a l a n d g l o b a l c a p a c i t y i n r a i n e n h a n c e m e n t t o a d d r e s s t h e m o s t p r e s s i n g w a t e r - s e c u r i t y c h a l l e n g e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , A l M a n d o u s p l a y e d a n i n s t r u m e n t a l r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f N a t i o n a l I n t e g r a t e d O b s e r v i n g S y s t e m a n d S e i s m i c D a t a & I n f o r m a t i o n N e t w o r k C e n t e r i n t h e U A E . H e s u p e r v i s e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I n t e g r a t e d R a d a r O b s e r v i n g S y s t e m a t s u b r e g i o n a l l e v e l c o n t r i b u t i n g t o d i s a s t e r m a n a g e m e n t , w a t e r s e c u r i t y a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l C i v i l A v i a t i o n O r g a n i z a t i o n ’ s G l o b a l A i r N a v i g a t i o n P l a n 2 0 1 3 - 2 0 2 8 . I n d o i n g s o , A l M a n d o u s l e d t h e e f f o r t s t o u n i f y t h e s e i s m i c e n g i n e e r i n g s e r v i c e s a n d e x c h a n g i n g d a t a r e l a t e d t o e a r t h q u a k e a n d s e i s m i c a c t i v i t i e s a t t h e r e g i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l s I n J u l y 2 0 2 1 , N C M l a u n c h e d u n d e r t h e d i r e c t s u p e r v i s i o n o f A l M a n d o u s t h e S c i e n c e D o m e , a h i g h - t e c h 4 D d o m e t o v i s u a l i s e r e a l - t i m e a n d s i m u l a t e w e a t h e r d a t a t o h e l p v i s i t o r s u n d e r s t a n d t h e d e t a i l s o f m e t e o r o l o g y , g e o p h y s i c s a n d c l o u d s e e d i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n a n i n n o v a t i v e w a y . P r i o r t o h i s c u r r e n t r o l e s , h e h e l d s e v e r a l l e a d e r s h i p p o s i t i o n s s p a n n i n g n e a r l y t w o d e c a d e s a t s e v e r a l t o p g o v e r n m e n t a l b o d i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a t m o s p h e r i c a n d s e i s m o g r a p h i c m o n i t o r i n g a n d w a t e r r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t i n c l u d i n g A t m o s p h e r i c S t u d i e s C e n t e r , W a t e r R e s o u r c e s S t u d i e s D e p a r t m e n t , N a t i o n a l P r o j e c t o f U N D P f o r W a t e r S o u r c e s S t u d i e s , P r e c i p i t a t i o n E n h a n c e m e n t P r o g r a m , a m o n g o t h e r s . A l M a n d o u s s e r v e s o n n u m e r o u s l o c a l , r e g i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o a r d s , p r o v i d i n g a d v i c e o n i s s u e s r e l a t e d t o w e a t h e r m o n i t o r i n g a n d f o r e c a s t i n g , w a t e r r e s o u r c e m a n a g e m e n t , c r i s i s m a n a g e m e n t , a m o n g o t h e r s . S o m e o f t h e s e b o a r d s i n c l u d e : A l M a n d o u s s t u d i e d m e t e o r o l o g y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S a i n t L o u i s i n U S A a n d e a r n e d a B a c h e l o r o f S c i e n c e d e g r e e i n 1 9 8 9 . L a t e r , h e p u r s u e d p o s t - g r a d u a t e s t u d i e s i n m e t e o r o l o g y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W i t w a t e r s r a n d i n S o u t h A f r i c a a n d e a r n e d a M a s t e r o f S c i e n c e d e g r e e i n 2 0 0 5 . H e w a s a w a r d e d a P h D i n M e t e o r o l o g y b y T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B e l g r a d e , S e r b i a i n 2 0 1 2 .

Career

Al Mandous is a renowned meteorologist who has made significant contributions to the field of meteorology and seismology. As the President of the Regional Association for Asia, he has worked tirelessly to bring the community together through effective communication links. He has also served as the Executive Director of the National Center of Meteorology and the Permanent Representative of the UAE to WMO since 2008. Under his leadership, NCM has undergone significant modernization and enhancement of its infrastructure. He has also contributed to the development of various initiatives such as the Arabian Peninsula Integrated Radar Observing System and the UAE Research Program for Rain Enhancement Science.

As the president of Regional Association for Asia, the most populous and largest region of WMO, the leadership of the association presented a particular challenge to Al Mandous to bring the community together. Following his election, Al Mandous outlined his strategy to address this challenge by saying: "The first thing I want to do is create an efficient communication link between the permanent representatives in Asia so that we have a network that shares information together on a daily basis". To achieve this goal, Al Mandous directed the establishment of two specialized web communication portals to assist Asian Members: WMO - Regional Association II - Asia Portal and GCC Permanent Committee of Meteorology Portal, hosted by National Center of Meteorology. Since assuming the leadership of WMO Regional Association II (Asia), Al Mandous has chaired several sessions of the WMO’s Regional Association of ASIA and guided and coordinated the activities of the association and its working groups. He presented the views of the Association to WMO Congress and Executive Council on regional challenges and priorities in the implementation of meteorological activities. Al Mandous is also the current Executive Director of the National Center of Meteorology (NCM) and the Permanent Representative of the UAE to WMO since 2008. Under his leadership, NCM undertook a large-scale modernization of its infrastructure and enhancement of the UAE’s national meteorological and seismological networks. He also contributed to the development of Arabian Peninsula Integrated Radar Observing System and led NCM’s efforts to set up The UAE Research Program for Rain Enhancement Science, which was launched under the patronage of His Highness Sheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan, UAE Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Presidential Affairs in 2015. The program aims to attract new researchers, technologists and entrepreneurs to further develop local and global capacity in rain enhancement to address the most pressing water-security challenges. Furthermore, Al Mandous played an instrumental role in the development of National Integrated Observing System and Seismic Data & Information Network Center in the UAE. He supervised the development of the Integrated Radar Observing System at sub regional level contributing to disaster management, water security and International Civil Aviation Organization’s Global Air Navigation Plan 2013-2028. In doing so, Al Mandous led the efforts to unify the seismic engineering services and exchanging data related to earthquake and seismic activities at the regional and international levels In July 2021, NCM launched under the direct supervision of Al Mandous the Science Dome, a high-tech 4D dome to visualise real-time and simulate weather data to help visitors understand the details of meteorology, geophysics and cloud seeding operations in an innovative way. Prior to his current roles, he held several leadership positions spanning nearly two decades at several top governmental bodies responsible for atmospheric and seismographic monitoring and water resource management including Atmospheric Studies Center, Water Resources Studies Department, National Project of UNDP for Water Sources Studies, Precipitation Enhancement Program, among others. Al Mandous serves on numerous local, regional and international boards, providing advice on issues related to weather monitoring and forecasting, water resource management, crisis management, among others. Some of these boards include: Al Mandous studied meteorology at the University of Saint Louis in USA and earned a Bachelor of Science degree in 1989. Later, he pursued post-graduate studies in meteorology at the University of Witwatersrand in South Africa and earned a Master of Science degree in 2005. He was awarded a PhD in Meteorology by The University of Belgrade, Serbia in 2012.

Haruki Arai

A r a i m a d e h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l d e b u t f o r C e r e z o O s a k a i n a n E m p e r o r ' s C u p w i n a g a i n s t A l b i r e x N i i g a t a o n 4 A u g u s t 2 0 2 1 . F i v e d a y s l a t e r , h e m a d e h i s J 1 L e a g u e d e b u t , p l a y i n g 4 5 m i n u t e s a g a i n s t V e g a l t a S e n d a i . F r o m t h e r e t o t h e e n d o f t h e s e a s o n , h e w a s s e l e c t e d t o p l a y j u s t a n o t h e r t w o m a t c h e s f o r C e r e z o , w h i c h w e r e a t t h e J . L e a g u e C u p . H i s d e b u t a t t h e 2 0 2 2 s e a s o n f o r C e r e z o c a m e i n t h e s a m e c o m p e t i t i o n , w h e r e h e g o t a n a s s i s t a g a i n s t G a m b a O s a k a , i n t h e t e a m ' s s e c o n d m a t c h o f t h e s e a s o n . H e p l a y e d m o r e t w o m a t c h e s i n M a r c h , b e i n g i t t h e l a s t m o n t h w h e r e h e e a r n e d g a m e t i m e w i t h C e r e z o . D e s p i t e n o t p l a y i n g t o o m a n y m i n u t e s o f f o o t b a l l a c r o s s t h e t w o s e a s o n s , i t c a u g h t t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e 1 . H N L c l u b H N K S i b e n i k . H e t h e n l e f t C e r e z o t o s i g n f o r t h e c r o a t i a n c l u b o n a l o a n t r a n s f e r u n t i l 1 J u l y 2 0 2 3 , b e i n g l o a n e d b y F C T I A M O H i r a k a t a , f r o m t h e J a p a n F o o t b a l l L e a g u e , t h e 4 t h d i v i s i o n i n t h e i r l e a g u e s y s t e m .

Club career

Arai debuted for Cerezo Osaka in 2021, making sporadic appearances in the J1 League and J.League Cup. In 2022, he had limited game time before joining Croatian club HNK Sibenik on loan from FC TIAMO Hirakata until July 2023.

Arai made his professional debut for Cerezo Osaka in an Emperor's Cup win against Albirex Niigata on 4 August 2021. Five days later, he made his J1 League debut, playing 45 minutes against Vegalta Sendai. From there to the end of the season, he was selected to play just another two matches for Cerezo, which were at the J.League Cup. His debut at the 2022 season for Cerezo came in the same competition, where he got an assist against Gamba Osaka, in the team's second match of the season. He played more two matches in March, being it the last month where he earned game time with Cerezo. Despite not playing too many minutes of football across the two seasons, it caught the attention of the 1.HNL club HNK Sibenik. He then left Cerezo to sign for the croatian club on a loan transfer until 1 July 2023, being loaned by FC TIAMO Hirakata, from the Japan Football League, the 4th division in their league system.

Neptune Frost

T h e f i l m i s a n A f r o f u t u r i s t s t o r y s e t i n a v i l l a g e i n R w a n d a m a d e o f c o m p u t e r p a r t s , a n d c e n t e r s o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n N e p t u n e ( E l v i s N g a b o a n d C h e r y l I s h e j a ) , a n i n t e r s e x r u n a w a y , a n d M a t a l u s a ( K a y a F r e e ) , a c o l t a n m i n e r , w h o s e l o v e l e a d s a h a c k e r c o l l e c t i v e . T h e p r o j e c t w a s o r i g i n a l l y c o n c e i v e d b y S a u l W i l l i a m s a s a g r a p h i c n o v e l a n d s t a g e m u s i c a l . I n 2 0 1 8 , W i l l i a m s l a u n c h e d a K i c k s t a r t e r c a m p a i g n t o f u n d t h e f i l m , w i t h L i n - M a n u e l M i r a n d a j o i n i n g a s a n e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 2 0 , i t w a s a n n o u n c e d E z r a M i l l e r a n d S t e p h e n H e n d e l w e r e s e t t o p r o d u c e t h e f i l m , w i t h p r i n c i p a l p h o t o g r a p h y c o m m e n c i n g . P r o d u c t i o n t o o k p l a c e o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f 2 7 d a y s i n R w a n d a . T h e f i l m h a d i t s w o r l d p r e m i e r e o n J u l y 8 , 2 0 2 1 . a t t h e D i r e c t o r s ' F o r t n i g h t s e c t i o n a t t h e 2 0 2 1 C a n n e s F i l m F e s t i v a l , w h e r e i t w a s a n o m i n e e f o r t h e Q u e e r P a l m . I t h a d i t s N o r t h A m e r i c a n p r e m i e r e i n t h e W a v e l e n g t h s p r o g r a m a t t h e 2 0 2 1 T o r o n t o I n t e r n a t i o n a l F i l m F e s t i v a l o n S e p t e m b e r 1 0 , 2 0 2 1 . I t a l s o s c r e e n e d a t t h e N e w Y o r k F i l m F e s t i v a l o n O c t o b e r 2 , 2 0 2 1 . a n d t h e 2 0 2 2 S u n d a n c e F i l m F e s t i v a l o n J a n u a r y 2 1 , 2 0 2 2 . I n D e c e m b e r 2 0 2 1 , K i n o L o r b e r a c q u i r e d d i s t r i b u t i o n r i g h t s t o t h e f i l m . I t w a s r e l e a s e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n a l i m i t e d r e l e a s e o n J u n e 3 , 2 0 2 2 .

Plot

In an Afrofuturist Rwandan village built from computer parts, Neptune, an intersex runaway, falls in love with Matalusa, a coltan miner, sparking a rebellion led by a hacker collective.

The film is an Afrofuturist story set in a village in Rwanda made of computer parts, and centers on the relationship between Neptune (Elvis Ngabo and Cheryl Isheja), an intersex runaway, and Matalusa (Kaya Free), a coltan miner, whose love leads a hacker collective. The project was originally conceived by Saul Williams as a graphic novel and stage musical. In 2018, Williams launched a Kickstarter campaign to fund the film, with Lin-Manuel Miranda joining as an executive producer. In February 2020, it was announced Ezra Miller and Stephen Hendel were set to produce the film, with principal photography commencing. Production took place over the course of 27 days in Rwanda. The film had its world premiere on July 8, 2021. at the Directors' Fortnight section at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival, where it was a nominee for the Queer Palm. It had its North American premiere in the Wavelengths program at the 2021 Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 2021. It also screened at the New York Film Festival on October 2, 2021. and the 2022 Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 2022. In December 2021, Kino Lorber acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released in the United States in a limited release on June 3, 2022.

Neptune Frost

T h e f i l m i s a n A f r o f u t u r i s t s t o r y s e t i n a v i l l a g e i n R w a n d a m a d e o f c o m p u t e r p a r t s , a n d c e n t e r s o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n N e p t u n e ( E l v i s N g a b o a n d C h e r y l I s h e j a ) , a n i n t e r s e x r u n a w a y , a n d M a t a l u s a ( K a y a F r e e ) , a c o l t a n m i n e r , w h o s e l o v e l e a d s a h a c k e r c o l l e c t i v e . T h e p r o j e c t w a s o r i g i n a l l y c o n c e i v e d b y S a u l W i l l i a m s a s a g r a p h i c n o v e l a n d s t a g e m u s i c a l . I n 2 0 1 8 , W i l l i a m s l a u n c h e d a K i c k s t a r t e r c a m p a i g n t o f u n d t h e f i l m , w i t h L i n - M a n u e l M i r a n d a j o i n i n g a s a n e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 2 0 , i t w a s a n n o u n c e d E z r a M i l l e r a n d S t e p h e n H e n d e l w e r e s e t t o p r o d u c e t h e f i l m , w i t h p r i n c i p a l p h o t o g r a p h y c o m m e n c i n g . P r o d u c t i o n t o o k p l a c e o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f 2 7 d a y s i n R w a n d a . T h e f i l m h a d i t s w o r l d p r e m i e r e o n J u l y 8 , 2 0 2 1 . a t t h e D i r e c t o r s ' F o r t n i g h t s e c t i o n a t t h e 2 0 2 1 C a n n e s F i l m F e s t i v a l , w h e r e i t w a s a n o m i n e e f o r t h e Q u e e r P a l m . I t h a d i t s N o r t h A m e r i c a n p r e m i e r e i n t h e W a v e l e n g t h s p r o g r a m a t t h e 2 0 2 1 T o r o n t o I n t e r n a t i o n a l F i l m F e s t i v a l o n S e p t e m b e r 1 0 , 2 0 2 1 . I t a l s o s c r e e n e d a t t h e N e w Y o r k F i l m F e s t i v a l o n O c t o b e r 2 , 2 0 2 1 . a n d t h e 2 0 2 2 S u n d a n c e F i l m F e s t i v a l o n J a n u a r y 2 1 , 2 0 2 2 . I n D e c e m b e r 2 0 2 1 , K i n o L o r b e r a c q u i r e d d i s t r i b u t i o n r i g h t s t o t h e f i l m . I t w a s r e l e a s e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n a l i m i t e d r e l e a s e o n J u n e 3 , 2 0 2 2 .

Production

"Neptune Frost" is an Afrofuturist film produced through a Kickstarter campaign led by Saul Williams, with Lin-Manuel Miranda as an executive producer. Filming took place in Rwanda over 27 days, premiering at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival and later screening at various festivals before its US release on June 3, 2022.

The film is an Afrofuturist story set in a village in Rwanda made of computer parts, and centers on the relationship between Neptune (Elvis Ngabo and Cheryl Isheja), an intersex runaway, and Matalusa (Kaya Free), a coltan miner, whose love leads a hacker collective. The project was originally conceived by Saul Williams as a graphic novel and stage musical. In 2018, Williams launched a Kickstarter campaign to fund the film, with Lin-Manuel Miranda joining as an executive producer. In February 2020, it was announced Ezra Miller and Stephen Hendel were set to produce the film, with principal photography commencing. Production took place over the course of 27 days in Rwanda. The film had its world premiere on July 8, 2021. at the Directors' Fortnight section at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival, where it was a nominee for the Queer Palm. It had its North American premiere in the Wavelengths program at the 2021 Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 2021. It also screened at the New York Film Festival on October 2, 2021. and the 2022 Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 2022. In December 2021, Kino Lorber acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released in the United States in a limited release on June 3, 2022.

Neptune Frost

T h e f i l m i s a n A f r o f u t u r i s t s t o r y s e t i n a v i l l a g e i n R w a n d a m a d e o f c o m p u t e r p a r t s , a n d c e n t e r s o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n N e p t u n e ( E l v i s N g a b o a n d C h e r y l I s h e j a ) , a n i n t e r s e x r u n a w a y , a n d M a t a l u s a ( K a y a F r e e ) , a c o l t a n m i n e r , w h o s e l o v e l e a d s a h a c k e r c o l l e c t i v e . T h e p r o j e c t w a s o r i g i n a l l y c o n c e i v e d b y S a u l W i l l i a m s a s a g r a p h i c n o v e l a n d s t a g e m u s i c a l . I n 2 0 1 8 , W i l l i a m s l a u n c h e d a K i c k s t a r t e r c a m p a i g n t o f u n d t h e f i l m , w i t h L i n - M a n u e l M i r a n d a j o i n i n g a s a n e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r . I n F e b r u a r y 2 0 2 0 , i t w a s a n n o u n c e d E z r a M i l l e r a n d S t e p h e n H e n d e l w e r e s e t t o p r o d u c e t h e f i l m , w i t h p r i n c i p a l p h o t o g r a p h y c o m m e n c i n g . P r o d u c t i o n t o o k p l a c e o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f 2 7 d a y s i n R w a n d a . T h e f i l m h a d i t s w o r l d p r e m i e r e o n J u l y 8 , 2 0 2 1 . a t t h e D i r e c t o r s ' F o r t n i g h t s e c t i o n a t t h e 2 0 2 1 C a n n e s F i l m F e s t i v a l , w h e r e i t w a s a n o m i n e e f o r t h e Q u e e r P a l m . I t h a d i t s N o r t h A m e r i c a n p r e m i e r e i n t h e W a v e l e n g t h s p r o g r a m a t t h e 2 0 2 1 T o r o n t o I n t e r n a t i o n a l F i l m F e s t i v a l o n S e p t e m b e r 1 0 , 2 0 2 1 . I t a l s o s c r e e n e d a t t h e N e w Y o r k F i l m F e s t i v a l o n O c t o b e r 2 , 2 0 2 1 . a n d t h e 2 0 2 2 S u n d a n c e F i l m F e s t i v a l o n J a n u a r y 2 1 , 2 0 2 2 . I n D e c e m b e r 2 0 2 1 , K i n o L o r b e r a c q u i r e d d i s t r i b u t i o n r i g h t s t o t h e f i l m . I t w a s r e l e a s e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n a l i m i t e d r e l e a s e o n J u n e 3 , 2 0 2 2 .

Release

"Neptune Frost" is an Afrofuturist film that tells the story of an intersex runaway and a coltan miner who fall in love and lead a hacker collective. The film premiered at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival and has since screened at various festivals, including TIFF and Sundance. It was released in the US on June 3, 2022.

The film is an Afrofuturist story set in a village in Rwanda made of computer parts, and centers on the relationship between Neptune (Elvis Ngabo and Cheryl Isheja), an intersex runaway, and Matalusa (Kaya Free), a coltan miner, whose love leads a hacker collective. The project was originally conceived by Saul Williams as a graphic novel and stage musical. In 2018, Williams launched a Kickstarter campaign to fund the film, with Lin-Manuel Miranda joining as an executive producer. In February 2020, it was announced Ezra Miller and Stephen Hendel were set to produce the film, with principal photography commencing. Production took place over the course of 27 days in Rwanda. The film had its world premiere on July 8, 2021. at the Directors' Fortnight section at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival, where it was a nominee for the Queer Palm. It had its North American premiere in the Wavelengths program at the 2021 Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 2021. It also screened at the New York Film Festival on October 2, 2021. and the 2022 Sundance Film Festival on January 21, 2022. In December 2021, Kino Lorber acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released in the United States in a limited release on June 3, 2022.

Whitetail Clean Energy

T h e p o w e r s t a t i o n , w h i c h i s a j o i n t v e n t u r e b e t w e e n 8 R i v e r s C a p i t a l a n d S e m b c o r p ( U K ) , i s e x p e c t e d t o c r e a t e 2 , 0 0 0 j o b s i n t h e b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s , w i t h a f u r t h e r 2 0 0 t o r u n t h e p l a n t o n a d a y - t o - d a y b a s i s . T h e p l a n t w o u l d c o m b u s t p u r e o x y g e n w i t h n a t u r a l g a s , u s i n g a h i g h p r e s s u r e c a r b o n d i o x i d e ( C O 2 ) s t r e a m ( s u p e r c r i t i c a l c a r b o n d i o x i d e ) , r a t h e r t h a n s t e a m t o r o t a t e a t u r b i n e , w h i c h w o u l d g e n e r a t e t h e e l e c t r i c i t y . T h e C O 2 s t r e a m w o u l d t h e n b e f e d t h r o u g h a h e a t e x c h a n g e r a n d t h e n c o o l e d . E x c e s s o f a r o u n d 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s p e r y e a r w o u l d b e c a p t u r e d a n d s t o r e d u n d e r t h e N o r t h S e a . W h i l s t t h e A l l a m - F e t v e d t C y c l e w a s n o t s u c c e s s f u l l y t e s t e d u n t i l 2 0 1 8 , t h e U K g o v e r n m e n t h a d b e e n s u p p o r t i n g a z e r o C O 2 p r o j e c t o n T e e s s i d e s i n c e 2 0 1 2 . T h e p l a n t w a s d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m ' s f i r s t " n e t z e r o " p o w e r s t a t i o n , a n d t h e f i r s t t o u s e t h e c a r b o n c a p t u r e a n d s t o r a g e t e c h n o l o g y . W h i l s t t h e p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n p r o c e s s d o e s n o t e m i t a n y C O 2 , i t d o e s p r o d u c e i t i n t h e c l o s e d l o o p s y s t e m . T h e e x c e s s g a s i s i n t e n d e d t o b e s t o r e , b u t c a n a l s o b e u t i l i s e d f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s . T h e p o w e r p l a n t w o u l d b e l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e T e e s s i d e F r e e p o r t Z o n e a n d s u b j e c t t o r e g u l a t o r y a p p r o v a l , t h e s c h e m e c o u l d b e u p a n d r u n n i n g b y 2 0 2 5 . 8 R i v e r s C a p i t a l s t a t e d t h a t i t h a d c o m p l e t e d a p r e - F E E D ( f r o n t e n d e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n ) s t u d y i n e a r l y 2 0 2 1 , w h i c h w a s p a r t l y f u n d e d b y t h e U K D e p a r t m e n t f o r B u s i n e s s , E n e r g y & I n d u s t r i a l S t r a t e g y . T h e U K g o v e r n m e n t M i n i s t e r o f S t a t e f o r B u s i n e s s , E n e r g y a n d C l e a n G r o w t h , A n n e - M a r i e T r e v e l y a n , s t a t e d t h a t t h e p r o j e c t w a s a " . . r e a l g a m e - c h a n g e r [ a n d w o u l d ] r e v i t a l i s e t h i s k e y i n d u s t r i a l h e a r t l a n d . " T h e l a b o u r M P f o r S t o c k t o n N o r t h , A l e x C u n n i n g h a m , d e s c r i b e d t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t a s " g r e a t n e w s " , b u t w a n t e d a s s u r a n c e s t h a t j o b s a t t h e p l a n t w o u l d g o t o l o c a l p e o p l e . T h e p l a n t w i l l a l s o b e p a r t o f t h e " N e t Z e r o T e e s s i d e " p r o j e c t , w h i c h p l a n s t o b e t h e f i r s t d e c a r b o n i s e d i n d u s t r i a l c l u s t e r i n t h e w o r l d . T h i s p r o j e c t a i m s t o e n a b l e t h e h e a v y i n d u s t r y o n T e e s s i d e s o m e w h e r e t o s t o r e t h e c a r b o n p r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e i r p r o c e s s e s , r a t h e r t h a n e m i t t i n g t h e m i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e .

Proposal

A new power station in Teesside, UK, is proposed to generate electricity while capturing and storing excess CO2 emissions. The plant, a joint venture between 8 Rivers Capital and Sembcorp (UK), will create 2,000 construction jobs and 200 operational jobs. Using the Allam-Fetvedt Cycle, the plant will combust natural gas with pure oxygen, producing a high-pressure CO2 stream that will be cooled and stored under the North Sea. The project, supported by the UK government, aims to be operational by 2025 and will contribute to the "Net Zero Teesside" initiative, a decarbonized industrial cluster.

The power station, which is a joint venture between 8 Rivers Capital and Sembcorp (UK), is expected to create 2,000 jobs in the building process, with a further 200 to run the plant on a day-to-day basis. The plant would combust pure oxygen with natural gas, using a high pressure carbon dioxide (CO2) stream (supercritical carbon dioxide), rather than steam to rotate a turbine, which would generate the electricity. The CO2 stream would then be fed through a heat exchanger and then cooled. Excess of around 800,000 tons per year would be captured and stored under the North Sea. Whilst the Allam-Fetvedt Cycle was not successfully tested until 2018, the UK government had been supporting a zero CO2 project on Teesside since 2012. The plant was described as being the United Kingdom's first "net zero" power station, and the first to use the carbon capture and storage technology. Whilst the power generation process does not emit any CO2, it does produce it in the closed loop system. The excess gas is intended to be store, but can also be utilised for other purposes. The power plant would be located within the Teesside Freeport Zone and subject to regulatory approval, the scheme could be up and running by 2025. 8 Rivers Capital stated that it had completed a pre-FEED (front end engineering design) study in early 2021, which was partly funded by the UK Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy. The UK government Minister of State for Business, Energy and Clean Growth, Anne-Marie Trevelyan, stated that the project was a "..real game-changer [and would] revitalise this key industrial heartland." The labour MP for Stockton North, Alex Cunningham, described the announcement as "great news", but wanted assurances that jobs at the plant would go to local people. The plant will also be part of the "Net Zero Teesside" project, which plans to be the first decarbonised industrial cluster in the world. This project aims to enable the heavy industry on Teesside somewhere to store the carbon produced during their processes, rather than emitting them into the atmosphere.

148th Siege Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery

O n t h e o u t b r e a k o f w a r i n A u g u s t 1 9 1 4 , u n i t s o f t h e p a r t - t i m e T e r r i t o r i a l F o r c e ( T F ) w e r e i n v i t e d t o v o l u n t e e r f o r O v e r s e a s S e r v i c e a n d t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e E s s e x a n d S u f f o l k R o y a l G a r r i s o n A r t i l l e r y d i d s o . T h i s u n i t h a d m o b i l i s e d a s p a r t o f N o 1 4 ( E s s e x & S u f f o l k ) C o a s t a l F i r e C o m m a n d a t L a n d g u a r d F o r t , c h a r g e d w i t h d e f e n d i n g t h e H a v e n p o r t s o f H a r w i c h , F e l i x s t o w e a n d I p s w i c h a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d n a v a l b a s e . B y O c t o b e r 1 9 1 4 , t h e c a m p a i g n o n t h e W e s t e r n F r o n t w a s b o g g i n g d o w n i n t o T r e n c h w a r f a r e a n d t h e r e w a s a n u r g e n t n e e d f o r b a t t e r i e s o f s i e g e a r t i l l e r y t o b e s e n t t o F r a n c e . T h e W O d e c i d e d t h a t t h e T F c o a s t a l g u n n e r s w e r e w e l l e n o u g h t r a i n e d t o t a k e o v e r m a n y o f t h e d u t i e s i n t h e c o a s t a l d e f e n c e s , r e l e a s i n g R e g u l a r R G A g u n n e r s f o r s e r v i c e i n t h e f i e l d . S o o n t h e T F R G A c o m p a n i e s t h a t h a d v o l u n t e e r e d f o r o v e r s e a s s e r v i c e w e r e a l s o s u p p l y i n g t r a i n e d g u n n e r s t o R G A u n i t s s e r v i n g o v e r s e a s a n d p r o v i d i n g c a d r e s t o f o r m c o m p l e t e n e w u n i t s . I n A u g u s t 1 9 1 5 H a r w i c h w a s c h o s e n a s o n e o f t h e d e p o t s f o r f o r m i n g t h e s e u n i t s , u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f M a j o r G . W . H o r s f i e l d o f t h e E s s e x & S u f f o l k R G A . T h e r e s t o f t h e p e r s o n n e l w e r e r e t u r n i n g w o u n d e d R e g u l a r s , m e n o f t h e S p e c i a l R e s e r v e , ' K i t c h e n e r ' s A r m y ' v o l u n t e e r s a n d ' L o r d D e r b y m e n ' . 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B a t t e r y , R G A , w a s r a i s e d a t H a r w i c h u n d e r A r m y C o u n c i l I n s t r u c t i o n 1 0 9 1 o f 2 9 M a y 1 9 1 6 w i t h a c a d r e o f 4 o f f i c e r s a n d 7 8 o t h e r r a n k s ( O R s ) – a p p r o x i m a t e l y a T F R G A c o m p a n y – f r o m t h e E s s e x & S u f f o l k R G A . T h e b a t t e r y w e n t o u t t o t h e W e s t e r n F r o n t i n A u g u s t 1 9 1 6 , m a n n i n g f o u r 9 . 2 - i n c h h o w i t z e r s , a n d i n i t i a l l y j o i n e d X I I I C o r p s ' H e a v y A r t i l l e r y . X I I I C o r p s h a d b e e n h e a v i l y e n g a g e d i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e B a t t l e o f t h e S o m m e a n d w a s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e i n g r e l i e v e d , s o t h e b a t t e r y w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o 3 3 r d H A G u n d e r F o u r t h A r m y H Q . X I V C o r p s t o o k o v e r t h e l i n e f r o m X I I I C o r p s , a n d c o n t i n u e d t h e B a t t l e o f D e l v i l l e W o o d w i t h a c a r e f u l l y - p l a n n e d a t t a c k t o w a r d s G u i l l e m o n t . Z e r o h o u r w a s f i x e d f o r 1 4 . 4 5 o n 1 8 A u g u s t a n d w a s p r e c e d e d b y a 3 6 - h o u r m e t h o d i c a l b o m b a r d m e n t ; t h e r a t e o f f i r e w a s n o t t o q u i c k e n b e f o r e t h e a s s a u l t s o t h a t t h e e n e m y w o u l d r e c e i v e n o w a r n i n g . T h e i n f a n t r y w e r e t h e n t o a d v a n c e t o t h e f i r s t o b j e c t i v e b e h i n d a c u r t a i n o f f i r e p r o v i d e d b y t h e l i g h t e r f i e l d a r t i l l e r y . T h e r e w a s t h e n t o b e a 2 - h o u r p a u s e f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n w h i l e a f r e s h b o m b a r d m e n t w a s f i r e d a t t h e s e c o n d o b j e c t i v e . T h e r i g h t a t t a c k w a s h e l d u p , b u t g o o d p r o g r e s s w a s m a d e o n t h e l e f t , w h e r e W a t e r l o t F a r m a n d L o n e l y T r e n c h w e r e c a p t u r e d a n d c o n s o l i d a t e d . F i g h t i n g c o n t i n u e d i n D e l v i l l e W o o d , w i t h X I V C o r p s m a k i n g a f r e s h a t t a c k s o n 3 S e p t e m b e r ( t h e G u i l l e m o n t ) f o r w h i c h t h e b o m b a r d m e n t h a d b e g u n a t 0 8 . 0 0 t h e p r e v i o u s d a y . I n t h e c e n t r e t h e G e r m a n p o s i t i o n s h a d s u f f e r e d b a d l y f r o m t h e b o m b a r d m e n t a n d w e r e q u i c k l y t a k e n , b u t t h e r i g h t a t t a c k w a s a d i s a s t e r . T h e a t t a c k w a s r e n e w e d n e x t m o r n i n g a n d b y 6 S e p t e m b e r G u i l l e m o n t a n d m o s t o f t h e o t h e r o b j e c t i v e s h a d b e e n c a p t u r e d . X I V C o r p s t h e n p r e p a r e d t o c a p t u r e G i n c h y o n 9 S e p t e m b e r . T h e b o m b a r d m e n t b e g a n a t 0 7 . 0 0 w i t h n o i n c r e a s e i n i n t e n s i t y b e f o r e Z e r o a t 1 6 . 4 5 t o d e c e i v e t h e G e r m a n s a s t o t h e t i m e o f t h e a t t a c k a n d t o d e n y t h e m a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o u n t e r - a t t a c k b e f o r e d a r k . T h e v i l l a g e w a s t a k e n a f t e r h e a v y f i g h t i n g , a n d t r e n c h f i g h t i n g c o n t i n u e d i n f r o n t o f t h e v i l l a g e f o r s e v e r a l d a y s . F o u r t h A r m y ' s h e a v y a r t i l l e r y w a s m a s s e d f o r t h e B a t t l e o f F l e r s – C o u r c e l e t t e b e g i n n i n g o n 1 5 S e p t e m b e r , b u t t h e r e w a s n o s p a c e t o m o v e t h e h e a v i e s f o r w a r d . T h e b o m b a r d m e n t b e g a n o n 1 2 S e p t e m b e r , w i t h d a i l y f i r i n g f r o m 0 6 . 0 0 t o 1 8 . 3 0 e m p h a s i s i n g C o u n t e r - b a t t e r y ( C B ) f i r e , a n d h a r a s s i n g f i r e ( H F ) a t n i g h t . E a c h m o r n i n g t h e b o m b a r d m e n t b e g a n w i t h a ' b r i s k ' h a l f h o u r , a n d Z d a y w a s n o d i f f e r e n t , t o m a i n t a i n a n e l e m e n t o f s u r p r i s e . X I V C o r p s ' i n f a n t r y c r o s s e d t h e C o m b l e s R a v i n e , b u t d i d n o t g e t b e y o n d t h e i r f i r s t o r s e c o n d o b j e c t i v e s a n d f a i l e d t o t a k e t h e Q u a d r i l a t e r a l , a s t r o n g p o i n t o n a r e v e r s e s l o p e t h a t t h e b o m b a r d m e n t h a d m i s s e d . O v e r f o l l o w i n g d a y s t h e h e a v y a r t i l l e r y c o n t i n u e d t o p o u n d t h e o b j e c t i v e s t h a t h a d n o t y e t b e e n t a k e n – t h e Q u a d r i l a t e r a l f e l l o n 1 8 S e p t e m b e r a f t e r a n a c c u r a t e b o m b a r d m e n t – a n d m i n o r o p e r a t i o n s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t t o p r e p a r e f o r t h e n e x t m a j o r a t t a c k ( t h e B a t t l e o f M o r v a l ) . P o o r v i s i b i l i t y h i n d e r e d a r t i l l e r y o b s e r v a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r C B f i r e , b u t t h e a t t a c k o n 2 5 S e p t e m b e r w a s w e l l s e r v e d b y t h e g u n s . T h e i n f a n t r y a d v a n c e d m e t h o d i c a l l y a n d c a p t u r e d M o r v a l a n d L e s b œ u f s , f o l l o w e d b y C o m b l e s n e x t d a y . O n 1 O c t o b e r a d e l i b e r a t e b o m b a r d m e n t w a s o p e n e d a l o n g t h e w h o l e F o u r t h A r m y f r o n t a t 0 7 . 0 0 , w h i c h c o n t i n u e d w i t h o u t i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e o f f i r e u n t i l Z e r o ( 1 5 . 1 5 ) w h e n t h e B a t t l e o f t h e T r a n s l o y R i d g e s w a s l a u n c h e d . X I V C o r p s p l a y e d a m i n o r p a r t i n t h e a t t a c k , b u t t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h e h o u r ' s i n t e n s i v e b o m b a r d m e n t f r o m 1 5 . 1 5 t o m a k e s o m e m i n o r a d v a n c e s . B u t h e a v y r a i n a n d m u d m a d e i t d i f f i c u l t t o s e r v e t h e g u n s a s t h e b a t t l e c o n t i n u e d . 3 1 s t H A G H Q m o v e d i n o n 5 O c t o b e r t o t a k e o v e r c o m m a n d o f a g r o u p o f s i e g e b a t t e r i e s i n c l u d i n g 1 4 8 t h a s t h e f i g h t i n g c o n t i n u e d o n t h e T r a n s l o y R i d g e s . T h e b o m b a r d m e n t s a n d C B w o r k c o n t i n u e d , w i t h f r e q u e n t b r e a k d o w n s t o t h e w o r n g u n s . 3 1 s t H A G ' s b a t t e r i e s b o m b a r d e d L e T r a n s l o y v i l l a g e f o r t h e a t t a c k o n 2 3 O c t o b e r , b u t t h e i n f a n t r y f o r m a t i o n s w e r e v e r y w e a k a n d m a d e o n l y m i n o r g a i n s . Z e n i t h T r e n c h w a s c a p t u r e d o n 2 9 O c t o b e r a f t e r i t w a s b o m b a r d e d b y 1 4 8 t h a n d o t h e r b a t t e r i e s . T h e e n d o f t h e f i g h t i n g o n t h e T r a n s l o y R i d g e s a l s o m a r k e d t h e e n d o f X I V C o r p s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e S o m m e O f f e n s i v e . 3 1 s t H A G H Q l e f t a t t h e e n d o f t h e m o n t h a n d 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o 4 9 t h H A G o n 2 9 O c t o b e r . A t t h e t i m e , t h e b a t t e r y w a s a t G u i l l e m o n t . T h e b a t t e r y c o m m a n d e r , M a j o r G e o r g e H u g h - J o n e s ( o r i g i n a l l y o f t h e E s s e x & S u f f o l k R G A ) , w a s w o u n d e d o n 4 N o v e m b e r a n d C a p t A . N . S t r e e t t o o k c o m m a n d . 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y c a m e u n d e r 2 8 t h H A G o n 2 D e c e m b e r . T h e r e w a s s o m e f i r i n g o n m o s t d a y s , w h e n w e a t h e r p e r m i t t e d o b s e r v a t i o n . T h e b a t t e r y ' s r e g u l a r t a r g e t s i n c l u d e d S u n k e n T r e n c h a n d h o s t i l e b a t t e r i e s a n d s t r o n g p o i n t s a r o u n d L e T r a n s l o y . I t w a s t e m p o r a r i l y a t t a c h e d t o 6 4 t h H A G w h i l e 2 8 t h H A G H Q a n d s e v e r a l o f t h e o t h e r b a t t e r i e s w e n t t o a r e s t c a m p i n J a n u a r y 1 9 1 7 . R o u t i n e C B a n d H F f i r e c o n t i n u e d i n t h e n e w y e a r , w i t h a n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f s h o r t d e s t r u c t i v e b o m b a r d m e n t s o f s p e c i f i c t r e n c h e s . T h e L e f t h a l f - b a t t e r y o f 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y p u l l e d o u t o n 1 4 M a r c h 1 9 1 7 f o r a m o v e n o r t h , t h e r e s t f o l l o w i n g o n 2 3 M a r c h . I t o f f i c i a l l y j o i n e d 5 3 r d H A G w i t h F i r s t A r m y o n 2 1 M a r c h . F i r s t A r m y w a s p r e p a r i n g f o r t h e A r r a s O f f e n s i v e , w i t h 5 3 r d H A G d e p l o y e d a t M o n t - S a i n t - É l o i s u p p o r t i n g C a n a d i a n C o r p s i n t h e o p e n i n g B a t t l e o f V i m y R i d g e . L e f t h a l f b a t t e r y w a s i n a c t i o n o n 2 9 M a r c h a n d t h e w h o l e o f 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y w a s i n p o s i t i o n b y 1 A p r i l t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n s . I t s t a r g e t s i n c l u d e d t h e E c o l e C o m m u n e , S p a n d a u H o u s e , T h é l u s , F a r b u s a n d V i m y v i l l a g e , a s w e l l a s s p e c i f i c t r e n c h e s a n d d u g o u t s . T h e a t t a c k w e n t i n a t 0 5 . 3 0 o n 9 A p r i l b e h i n d a h e a v y b a r r a g e : 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y l a i d a b a r r a g e o n B l o a t e r T r e n c h a n d t h e r o a d s b e h i n d t h e E c o l e C o m m u n e . T h e C a n a d i a n s o v e r r a n t h r e e l i n e s o f G e r m a n t r e n c h e s a n d s e i z e d t h e c r e s t o f t h e r i d g e . T h a t a f t e r n o o n t h e b a t t e r y w a s a b l e t o f i r e a t e n e m y i n f a n t r y o n t h e m o v e a n d a g a i n s t a h o s t i l e b a t t e r y t o p r e v e n t t h e m i n t e r f e r i n g . F i r i n g c o n t i n u e d u n t i l 1 4 A p r i l a s t h e C a n a d i a n s c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e c a p t u r e d g r o u n d a n d c a r r i e d o u t a l i m i t e d e x p l o i t a t i o n . O n 1 5 A p r i l t h e b a t t e r y o f f i c i a l l y c a m e u n d e r 6 4 t h H A G , b u t t h e r e w a s n o f i r i n g . O n 2 4 A p r i l t h e R i g h t h a l f - b a t t e r y t o o k u p n e w p o s i t i o n s o n t h e L e n s – A r r a s r o a d , t a r g e t i n g A r l e u x f o r t h e n e x t p h a s e o f t h e o f f e n s i v e ( t h e B a t t l e o f A r l e u x ) a n d a l s o c a r r y i n g o u t w i r e - c u t t i n g f o r t h e i n f a n t r y . T h e a s s a u l t w e n t i n o n 2 8 A p r i l b u t w a s n o t a s s u c c e s s f u l a s t h e e a r l i e r a t t a c k s . T h e b a t t e r y t h e n s w i t c h e d t o t a r g e t s a t F r e s n o y a n d A c h e v i l l e f o r t h e T h i r d B a t t l e o f t h e S c a r p e o n 3 M a y . A f t e r t h e i n i t i a l b a r r a g e , t h e b a t t e r y f i r e d a t G e r m a n i n f a n t r y m o v i n g u p t o c o u n t e r - a t t a c k , c a u s i n g m a n y c a s u a l t i e s . O n 5 M a y t h e b a t t e r y w a s f i r i n g a t O p p y v i l l a g e w h e n a G e r m a n s h e l l h i t o n e o f t h e a m m u n i t i o n d u m p s a t t h e b a t t e r y p o s i t i o n , d e s t r o y i n g a l a r g e n u m b e r o f c a r t r i d g e s . F i g h t i n g o n t h i s s e c t o r o f t h e o f f e n s i v e d i e d a w a y t h e r e a f t e r , b u t t h e b a t t e r y r e m a i n e d a c t i v e , f i r i n g a t A c h e v i l l e C h u r c h , t h e b r e w e r y , a n d v a r i o u s t r e n c h e s a n d m a c h i n e g u n p o s t s , a s w e l l a s f e i n t b a r r a g e s a n d a t t a r g e t s o f o p p o r t u n i t y . B y n o w t h e g u n s w e r e b a d l y w o r n a n d n e e d e d r e c a l i b r a t i o n , w h i l e o n e w a s s e n t t o t h e w o r k s h o p s a n d t h e b a t t e r y t e m p o r a r i l y t o o k o v e r a g u n o f 1 s t C a n a d i a n S i e g e B t y . B y 1 2 M a y t h r e e o f t h e f o u r g u n s w e r e i n t h e w o r k s h o p s , a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g o n e w a s p u t o u t o f a c t i o n b y e n e m y C B f i r e t h a t d a m a g e d t h e g u n c r a d l e a n d d e s t r o y e d a g r e a t d e a l o f a m m u n i t i o n . O n l y t h e C a n a d i a n g u n c o u l d n o w b e u s e d , w h i l e t h e r e s t o f t h e b a t t e r y w a s p u l l e d o u t . O n 1 7 M a y t h e b a t t e r y r e v e r t e d t o 5 3 r d H A G , n o w u n d e r I X C o r p s , a n d m o v e d t o n e w p o s i t i o n s a t L o k e r , s o u t h - w e s t o f Y p r e s , w h e r e S e c o n d A r m y w a s g a t h e r i n g a r t i l l e r y f o r t h e B a t t l e o f M e s s i n e s . F r o m 2 7 M a y R i g h t h a l f - b a t t e r y o f 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y b e g a n r e g i s t e r i n g i t s g u n s o n B o g a e r t F a r m a n d H u n s F a r m n e a r W y t s c h a e t e a n d o n d u g o u t s ; L e f t h a l f - b a t t e r y j o i n e d i n o n 3 1 M a y a g a i n s t B o x H o u s e . B y 3 J u n e t h e b a t t e r i e s w e r e f i r i n g p r a c t i c e b a r r a g e s a n d d e m o n s t r a t i o n s t o c o n f u s e t h e e n e m y . T h e b o m b a r d m e n t c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e a s s a u l t w e n t i n o n 7 J u n e , f o l l o w i n g t h e e x p l o s i o n o f h u g e m i n e s . T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e l i m i t e d a t t a c k w e r e s p e c t a c u l a r , w i t h t h e w h o l e M e s s i n e s – W y t s c h a e t e R i d g e b e i n g c a p t u r e d . I n t h e I X C o r p s a r e a , t h e 3 6 t h ( U l s t e r ) D i v i s i o n c a p t u r e d t h e w r e c k a g e o f t w o w o o d s a n d B o g a e r t F a r m i n b e t w e e n , f i n d i n g t h a t ' t h e g r o u n d a b o u t t h e s t r o n g p o i n t s h a d b e e n l i t e r a l l y p l o u g h e d u p b y t h e b u r s t s o f t h e h i g h - e x p l o s i v e s h e l l s d u r i n g t h e b o m b a r d m e n t ; t h e b a r b e d w i r e e n t a n g l e m e n t s w h i c h h a d p r o t e c t e d t h i s a r e b e l o w t h e c r e s t l a y p i l e d i n t w i s t e d h e a p s , a n d e v e r y w h e r e w a s t h e w r e c k a g e o f o n c e s o l i d l y b u i l t d u g o u t s a n d s h e l t e r s ' . T h e B r i t i s h a r t i l l e r y w a s r e p o s i t i o n e d a f t e r t h e b a t t l e , 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y p u l l i n g o u t o n 1 0 J u n e t o j o i n I I C o r p s i n t h e D i k k e b u s a r e a w i t h F i f t h A r m y , w h e r e i t j o i n e d 6 6 t h H A G o n 1 7 J u n e . O n 2 2 J u n e 3 5 6 t h S i e g e B a t t e r y j o i n e d I I C o r p s . T h i s b a t t e r y h a d b e e n r a i s e d a t H a r w i c h f r o m a n u c l e u s p r o v i d e d b y d e t a i l s o f t h e E s s e x & S u f f o l k R G A . I t a r r i v e d w i t h f o u r n e w M a r k I I 9 . 2 - i n c h h o w i t z e r s , w h i c h i t w a s o r d e r e d t o h a n d o v e r t o 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y . 3 5 6 t h S i e g e B t y w a s t h e n s p l i t u p t o r e i n f o r c e o t h e r b a t t e r i e s , i n c l u d i n g 7 6 t h S i e g e B t y , a l s o f o r m e d b y t h e E s s e x & S u f f o l k R G A . F i f t h A r m y H Q h a d b e e n b r o u g h t t o t h e Y p r e s S a l i e n t t o c a r r y o u t t h e p l a n n e d F l a n d e r s o f f e n s i v e ( t h e T h i r d B a t t l e o f Y p r e s ) . A l t h o u g h t h e p r e l i m i n a r y b o m b a r d m e n t h a d b e g u n o n 1 2 J u n e , t h e G e r m a n s h a d a i r s u p e r i o r i t y a n d b e t t e r O P s , a n d t h e B r i t i s h a r t i l l e r y i n t h e S a l i e n t r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e C B f i r e . H o w e v e r , t h e B r i t i s h b u i l d - u p c o n t i n u e d a n d a s t i m e w e n t b y t h e g u n s b e g a n t o g e t t h e u p p e r h a n d , w i t h t h e f u l l a r t i l l e r y p r e p a r a t i o n b e g i n n i n g o n 1 6 J u l y . T h e d e l a y e d a t t a c k ( t h e B a t t l e o f P i l c k e m R i d g e ) w a s l a u n c h e d o n 3 1 J u l y . I I C o r p s h a d t h e h a r d e s t t a s k , a n d i t r e c e i v e d t h e h e a v i e s t G e r m a n r e t a l i a t o r y f i r e ; i t s d i v i s i o n s m a d e l i t t l e p r o g r e s s t h r o u g h t h e s h a t t e r e d w o o d s o n t o t h e p l a t e a u i n f r o n t o f t h e m . D e a d l o c k e d , t h e c o r p s w a s u n a b l e t o c o n t i n u e t o w a r d s i t s s e c o n d a n d t h i r d o b j e c t i v e s . H e a v y r a i n i n t h e e v e n i n g h a l t e d a n y f u r t h e r m o v e s . D u r i n g A u g u s t t h e b a t t e r i e s o f 6 6 t h H A G c o n t i n u e d C B w o r k f o r I I C o r p s a s t h e m a s s e d g u n s p r e p a r e d t h e w a y f o r t h e n e x t a s s a u l t ( t h e B a t t l e o f L a n g e m a r c k ) o n 1 6 A u g u s t . T h i s w a s a f a i l u r e a n d r e s u l t e d i n h e a v y c a s u a l t i e s . A s t h e Y p r e s o f f e n s i v e b o g g e d d o w n , S e c o n d A r m y t o o k o v e r i t s d i r e c t i o n i n S e p t e m b e r . 6 6 t h H A G c o n t i n u e d C B w o r k , n o w a s a d o u b l e g r o u p w i t h 3 5 t h H A G . T h e a t t a c k o n G l e n c o r s e W o o d a n d N o n n e B o s c h e n W o o d b y 1 s t A u s t r a l i a n D i v i s i o n o n 2 0 S e p t e m b e r s u p p o r t e d b y 6 6 t h H A G d u r i n g t h e B a t t l e o f t h e M e n i n R o a d R i d g e w a s s u c c e s s f u l b e c a u s e t h e o b j e c t i v e s w e r e l i m i t e d a n d t h e h e a v y a r t i l l e r y s u p p o r t w a s o v e r w h e l m i n g . 6 6 t h H A G ' s b a t t e r i e s c o n t i n u e d t h e i r C B f i r e f o r I A N Z A C C o r p s ' a t t a c k o n G h e l u v e l t o n 4 O c t o b e r ( t h e B a t t l e o f B r o o d s e i n d e ) . B u t a s t h e o f f e n s i v e c o n t i n u e d w i t h t h e B a t t l e o f P o e l c a p p e l l e a n d F i r s t a n d S e c o n d B a t t l e s o f P a s s c h e n d a e l e , t h e t a b l e s w e r e t u r n e d : B r i t i s h b a t t e r i e s w e r e c l e a r l y o b s e r v a b l e f r o m t h e P a s s c h e n d a e l e R i d g e a n d w e r e s u b j e c t e d t o h o s t i l e C B f i r e , w h i l e t h e i r o w n g u n s s a n k i n t o t h e m u d a n d b e c a m e d i f f i c u l t t o m o v e a n d f i r e . T o b e a b l e t o s u p p l y t h e m w i t h a m m u n i t i o n t h e h e a v y g u n s h a d t o s t a y s t r u n g o u t o n e b e h i n d t h e o t h e r a l o n g t h e f e w a v a i l a b l e r o a d s , m a k i n g t h e m a n e a s y t a r g e t . T h e h e a v y a r t i l l e r y w a s r e o r g a n i s e d o n 1 7 O c t o b e r , 6 6 t h H A G g o i n g t o a n o t h e r c o r p s , a n d 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y c o m i n g u n d e r 2 2 n d H A G . C B s h o o t s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h o b s e r v a t i o n a i r c r a f t c o n t i n u e d u n t i l 2 2 N o v e m b e r w h e n 2 2 n d H A G w a s r e o r g a n i s e d a s a b o m b a r d m e n t g r o u p . 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y ( b y n o w a t r e s t f o l l o w i n g t h e e n d o f t h e o f f e n s i v e ) t r a n s f e r r e d b a c k t o 2 8 t h H A G u n d e r I I A N Z A C C o r p s . D e s p i t e t h e a p p a l l i n g c o n d i t i o n s , C o r p s H Q o r d e r e d 2 8 t h H A G t o m o v e u p a n d m a i n t a i n a s m a n y g u n s a s p o s s i b l e i n a c t i o n f o r C B t a s k s , t h o u g h a s t h e G e r m a n a c t i v i t y w a s l o w e r t h a n n o r m a l t h e r e w e r e f e w c a l l s t o n e u t r a l i s e e n e m y b a t t e r i e s . H o w e v e r , 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y t o o k s e v e r a l d a y s t o r e m o u n t o n e o f i t s 9 . 2 s a t B e l l e w a a r d e L a k e , b e i n g i m p e d e d b y f i r e f r o m a n e n e m y 5 . 9 - i n c h h o w i t z e r , w h i c h d a m a g e d t h e g u n ' s b a s e p l a t e a n d c a r r i a g e o n 2 6 N o v e m b e r a n d d a m a g e d i t a g a i n t w o d a y s l a t e r . D e c e m b e r w a s q u i e t , a p a r t f r o m a f e w m i n o r o p e r a t i o n s o n t h e f r o n t . B y n o w H A G a l l o c a t i o n s w e r e b e c o m i n g m o r e f i x e d , a n d t h e y w e r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o p e r m a n e n t R G A b r i g a d e s . 2 8 t h B r i g a d e , w h i c h c h a n g e d i t s d e s i g n a t i o n o n 2 3 D e c e m b e r 1 9 1 7 , w a s d e f i n e d a s a M i x e d B r i g a d e , w i t h g u n s a n d h o w i t z e r s o f s e v e r a l s i z e s . 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y r e m a i n e d w i t h t h i s b r i g a d e u n t i l t h e A r m i s t i c e . T h e G e r m a n S p r i n g O f f e n s i v e w a s l a u n c h e d a g a i n s t T h i r d a n d F i f t h A r m i e s o n 2 1 M a r c h 1 9 1 8 . S e c o n d A r m y d e s p a t c h e d r e i n f o r c e m e n t s t o h e l p , i n c l u d i n g 2 8 t h B d e , b u t t h e 9 . 2 s w e r e d e e m e d t o o s l o w : 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y t o o k o v e r t h e g u n s o f 1 8 8 t h S i e g e B t y a n d w a s t h e n l e f t a t Y p r e s u n d e r I I C o r p s i n t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t p a r t o f t h e Y p r e s S a l i e n t w h i l e t h e r e s t o f t h e b a t t e r i e s m o v e d o u t b y r o a d . T h e s e c o n d p h a s e o f t h e G e r m a n o f f e n s i v e ( t h e B a t t l e o f t h e L y s w a s l a u n c h e d i n e a r l y A p r i l a n d 2 8 t h B d e w a s i n v o l v e d i n t h e f i g h t i n g w i t h s o m e o f i t s b a t t e r i e s u n d e r t h e t a c t i c a l c o m m a n d o f 5 1 s t ( H i g h l a n d ) D i v i s i o n . 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y p r o b a b l y r e j o i n e d a t t h i s t i m e , b e c a u s e a n u m b e r o f c a s u a l t i e s f r o m t h e b a t t e r y k i l l e d o n 2 8 A p r i l a r e b u r i e d i n L a K r e u l e M i l i t a r y C e m e t e r y a t H a z e b r o u c k . I t w a s n o t u n t i l t h e s u m m e r , a f t e r t h e G e r m a n o f f e n s i v e s h a d b e e n h a l t e d , t h a t 2 8 t h B d e f u l l l y r e - a s s e m b l e d o n 3 1 J u l y , w i t h i t s b a t t e r i e s d e p l o y e d i n t h e F o r ê t d e N i e p p e u n d e r c o m m a n d o f X I C o r p s i n t h e r e c o n s t i t u t e d F i f t h A r m y . O n 7 A u g u s t , t h e d a y b e f o r e t h e A l l i e s b e g a n t h e i r f i n a l H u n d r e d D a y s O f f e n s i v e w i t h t h e B a t t l e o f A m i e n s , t h e G e r m a n m a d e a w i t h d r a w a l i n f r o n t o f X I C o r p s . 2 8 t h B r i g a d e c a r r i e d o u t n u m e r o u s h a r a s s i n g f i r e ( H F ) t a s k s a n d e s t a b l i s h e d f o r w a r d o b s e r v a t i o n p o s t s ( O P s ) . O n 9 A u g u s t a s e c t i o n o f 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y m o v e d f o r w a r d . B y 1 8 A u g u s t t h e r e w e r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e G e r m a n s i n t e n d e d a s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h d r a w a l o n t h e L y s s e c t o r , a n d 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y m o v e d f o r w a r d a g a i n , i n f r o n t o f t h e f o r e s t . B y t h e e n d o f A u g u s t t h e G e r m a n s h a d r e t i r e d t o E s t a i r e s , a n d t h e n i n S e p t e m b e r w e n t b a c k t o t h e A u b e r s R i d g e w h e r e t h e y s o l i d i f i e d t h e i r p o s i t i o n . 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y c a r r i e d o u t s o m e t r a i n i n g , a n d t h e n o n 9 S e p t e m b e r w a s s e n t t o s u p p o r t X I I I C o r p s . F i f t h A r m y b e g a n m o v i n g f o r w a r d s a g a i n i n e a r l y O c t o b e r a f t e r t h e b a t t l e s o f t h e C a n a l d u N o r d a n d S t Q u e n t i n C a n a l . D u r i n g t h i s a d v a n c e t h e ' h e a v i e s ' w e r e m a i n l y u s e d f o r H F t a s k s o n t h e e n e m y ' s r o a d s a n d t r a c k s , a n d f o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o n h e a d q u a r t e r s a n d t h e e x i t s o f v i l l a g e s . T h e e n e m y w i t h d r e w t o t h e E s c a u t i n m i d - O c t o b e r . B y n o w t h e o f f e n s i v e h a d t u r n e d i n t o a p u r s u i t , a n d m a n y o f t h e h e a v y b a t t e r i e s h a d t o b e l e f t b e h i n d w a i t i n g f o r r o a d s a n d b r i d g e s t o b e r e b u i l t . F i f t h A r m y p r e p a r e d t o m a k e a n a s s a u l t o n t h e E s c a u t o n 1 1 N o v e m b e r , b u t t h e G e r m a n s r e t r e a t e d o u t o f r e a c h o n 8 N o v e m b e r . H o s t i l i t i e s w e r e e n d e d o n 1 1 N o v e m b e r b y t h e A r m i s t i c e w i t h G e r m a n y . 2 8 t h B r i g a d e w a s s t i l l w i t h F i f t h A r m y a t t h e t i m e o f t h e A r m i s t i c e . 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y c a u g h t u p w i t h i t a t T e m p l e u v e o n 1 3 N o v e m b e r . I t t h e n m o v e d t o B e u g i n , a n d e d u c a t i o n c o u r s e s b e g a n f o r m e n a w a i t i n g d e m o b i l i s a t i o n . 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y w a s d e s i g n a t e d 1 1 6 t h B t y i n 2 9 t h B d e R G A i n t h e i n t e r i m o r d e r o f b a t t l e p u b l i s h e d o n 2 1 M a y 1 9 1 9 , b u t t h i s w a s s c r a p p e d a f t e r t h e s i g n a t u r e o f t h e T r e a t y o f V e r s a i l l e s i n J u n e a n d t h e b a t t e r y w a s o f f i c i a l l y d i s b a n d e d . T h e C o m m o n w e a l t h W a r G r a v e s C o m m i s s i o n r e c o r d s 1 9 d e a d f r o m 1 4 8 t h S i e g e B t y ( t h e r e m a y b e o t h e r s w h e r e t h e b a t t e r y i s n o t s p e c i f i e d ) .

Western Front

The Essex and Suffolk Royal Garrison Artillery, a part-time Territorial Force unit, volunteered for overseas service in August 1914. They were initially stationed at Landguard Fort, defending the Haven ports of Harwich, Felixstowe, and Ipswich. In August 1916, they were sent to the Western Front, joining XIII Corps' Heavy Artillery. They participated in several battles, including the Battle of Delville Wood, the Battle of Guillemont, and the Battle of Arleux. They also fought in the Battle of the Scarpe, the Battle of Langemarck, and the Battle of the Menin Road Ridge. In 1918, they were involved in the German Spring Offensive and the Battle of the Lys. They eventually became part of 28th Brigade, a Mixed Brigade, and played a role in the final Hundred Days Offensive, supporting XIII Corps and participating in the battles of the Canal du Nord and the Aubers Ridge.

On the outbreak of war in August 1914, units of the part-time Territorial Force (TF) were invited to volunteer for Overseas Service and the majority of the Essex and Suffolk Royal Garrison Artillery did so. This unit had mobilised as part of No 14 (Essex & Suffolk) Coastal Fire Command at Landguard Fort, charged with defending the Haven ports of Harwich, Felixstowe and Ipswich and the associated naval base. By October 1914, the campaign on the Western Front was bogging down into Trench warfare and there was an urgent need for batteries of siege artillery to be sent to France. The WO decided that the TF coastal gunners were well enough trained to take over many of the duties in the coastal defences, releasing Regular RGA gunners for Western Front in August 1916, manning four 9.2-inch howitzers, and initially joined XIII Corps' Heavy Artillery. XIII Corps had been heavily engaged in the early part of the Battle of the Somme and was in the process of being relieved, so the battery was transferred to 33rd HAG under Fourth Army HQ. XIV Corps took over the line from XIII Corps, and continued the Battle of Delville Wood with a carefully-planned attack towards Guillemont. Zero hour was fixed for 14.45 on 18 August and was preceded by a 36-hour methodical bombardment; the rate of fire was not to quicken before the assault so that the enemy would receive no warning. The infantry were then to advance to the first objective behind a curtain of fire provided by the lighter field artillery. There was then to be a 2-hour pause for consolidation while a fresh bombardment was fired at the second objective. The right attack was held up, but good progress was made on the left, where Waterlot Farm and Lonely Trench were captured and consolidated. Fighting continued in Delville Wood, with XIV Corps making a fresh attacks on 3 September (the Guillemont) for which the bombardment had begun at 08.00 the previous day. In the centre the German positions had suffered badly from the bombardment and were quickly taken, but the right attack was a disaster. The attack was renewed next morning and by 6 September Guillemont and most of the other objectives had been captured. XIV Corps then prepared to capture Ginchy on 9 September. new positions on the Lens–Arras road, targeting Arleux for the next phase of the offensive (the Battle of Arleux) and also carrying out wire-cutting for the infantry. The assault went in on 28 April but was not as successful as the earlier attacks. The battery then switched to targets at Fresnoy and Acheville for the Third Battle of the Scarpe on 3 May. After the initial barrage, the battery fired at German infantry moving up to counter-attack, causing many casualties. On 5 May the battery was firing at Oppy village when a German shell hit one of the ammunition dumps at the battery position, destroying a large number of cartridges. Fighting on this sector of the offensive died away thereafter, but the battery remained active, firing at Acheville in front of them. Deadlocked, the corps was unable to continue towards its second and third objectives. Heavy rain in the evening halted any further moves. During August the batteries of 66th HAG continued CB work for II Corps as the massed guns prepared the way for the next assault (the Battle of Langemarck) on 16 August. This was a failure and resulted in heavy casualties. As the Ypres offensive bogged down, Second Army took over its direction in September. 66th HAG continued CB work, now as a double group with 35th HAG. The attack on Glencorse Wood and Nonne Boschen Wood by 1st Australian Division on 20 September supported by 66th HAG during the Battle of the Menin Road Ridge was successful because the objectives were limited later. December was quiet, apart from a few minor operations on the front. By now HAG allocations were becoming more fixed, and they were converted into permanent RGA brigades. 28th Brigade, which changed its designation on 23 December 1917, was defined as a Mixed Brigade, with guns and howitzers of several sizes. 148th Siege Bty remained with this brigade until the Armistice. The German Spring Offensive was launched against Third and Fifth Armies on 21 March 1918. Second Army despatched reinforcements to help, including 28th Bde, but the 9.2s were deemed too slow: 148th Siege Bty took over the guns of 188th Siege Bty and was then left at Ypres under II Corps in the northernmost part of the Ypres Salient while the rest of the batteries moved out by road. The second phase of the German offensive (the Battle of the Lys was launched in early April and 28th Bde was involved in the fighting with some of its batteries under the tactical command of 51st (Highland) Division. 148th Siege Bty probably rejoined at this time, because a number of casualties from the battery killed on 28 April are buried in La Kreule Military Cemetery at Hazebrouck. It was not until the summer, after the German offensives had been halted, that 28th Bde fullly re-assembled on 31 July, with its batteries deployed in the Forêt de Nieppe under command of XI Corps in the reconstituted Fifth Army. On 7 August, the day before the Allies began their final Hundred Days Offensive with the Battle of Amiens, the German made a withdrawal in front of XI Corps. 28th Brigade carried out numerous harassing fire (HF) tasks and established forward observation posts (OPs). On 9 August a section of 148th Siege Bty moved forward. By 18 August there were indications that the Germans intended a significant withdrawal on the Lys sector, and 148th Siege Bty moved forward again, in front of the forest. By the end of August the Germans had retired to Estaires, and then in September went back to the Aubers Ridge where they solidified their position. 148th Siege Bty carried out some training, and then on 9 September was sent to support XIII Corps. Fifth Army began moving forwards again in early October after the battles of the Canal du Nord and

Tubulophilinopsis gardineri

" T u b u l o p h i l i n o p s i s g a r d i n e r i " i s n a m e d a f t e r c o l l e c t o r o f t h e t y p e s e r i e s , ( J o h n ) S t a n l e y G a r d i n e r . " T u b u l o p h i l i n o p s i s g a r d i n e r i " i s a m o d e r a t e l y l a r g e s e a s l u g , g r o w i n g t o a l e n g t h o f a b o u t . I t i s r e l a t i v e l y b r o a d c o m p a r e d t o i t s l e n g t h , a n d h a s a b r o a d h e a d s h i e l d w i t h a p r o n o u n c e d h u m p . T h i s h a s a p o i n t e d p o s t e r i o r e n d , b u t t h i s c a n a p p e a r n e a r l y s t r a i g h t w h e n t h e a n i m a l i s m o v i n g a r o u n d . T h e h e a d s h i e l d i s u s e d f o r d i g g i n g a n d b u r r o w i n g i n t o t h e s u b s t r a t e . B e h i n d t h e h e a d s h i e l d i s a b o d y s h i e l d w h i c h c o n t a i n s t h e r e m n a n t s o f a t h i n s h e l l , a n d b e a r s t w o , r o u n d e d l o b e s a t t h e b a c k . O n e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e b o d y a r e l a t e r a l o u t g r o w t h s k n o w n a s p a r a p o d i a w h i c h c u r v e i n t o w a r d s t h e c e n t r e o f t h e b o d y . T h e c o l o u r o f t h i s s e a s l u g i s v e r y d i s t i n c t i v e , b e i n g d a r k b r o w n o r b l a c k , w i t h a t h i n , b r i g h t b l u e m a r g i n t o t h e s h i e l d s , p o s t e r i o r l o b e s a n d p a r a p o d i a . T h e r e a r e s o m e t i m e s a f e w w h i t e o r y e l l o w l i n e s o n t h e d o r s a l s u r f a c e o f t h e b o d y . T h i s s e a s l u g c o u l d b e c o n f u s e d w i t h " C h e l i d o n u r a v a r i a n s " w h i c h h a s v e r y s i m i l a r c o l o u r i n g , b u t h a s t h e l o b e s a t t h e b a c k o f t h e b o d y s h i e l d d r a w n o u t i n t o l o n g p o i n t e d t i p s , t h e l e f t o n e a l w a y s b e i n g l o n g e r t h a n t h e r i g h t . A n o t h e r s i m i l a r s p e c i e s i s " P h i l i n o p s i s s p e c i o s a " , b u t i t l a c k s t h e d i s t i n c t i v e h u m p o n t h e h e a d , a n d h a s a n o t a b l e p o i n t e d e x t e n s i o n a t t h e b a c k o f i t s h e a d s h i e l d . " T u b u l o p h i l i n o p s i s g a r d i n e r i " i s n a t i v e t o s h a l l o w w a t e r i n t h e I n d o - P a c i f i c r e g i o n , i t s r a n g e e x t e n d i n g f r o m S o u t h A f r i c a a n d T a n z a n i a , t o J a p a n a n d F i j i . I t o c c u r s o n s a n d y o r m u d d y s u b s t r a t e s a n d i t s d e p t h r a n g e i s d o w n t o a b o u t . A l l t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e f a m i l y A g l a j i d a e a r e p r e d a t o r s ; " T u b u l o p h i l i n o p s i s g a r d i n e r i " i s d i u r n a l a n d p r o b a b l y f e e d s o n p o l y c h a e t e w o r m s a n d o t h e r s e a s l u g s . I t c a n m o v e q u i t e r a p i d l y , a n d c a n f o l l o w t h e m u c u s t r a i l l e f t b y a s e a s l u g , d e t e c t i n g i t b y m e a n s o f s e n s o r y h a i r s b e s i d e i t s m o u t h . I t h a s n o r a d u l a , b u t m a y e v e r t i t s m o u t h c a v i t y a n d s u c k u p i t s p r e y ; i t i s t h i s p a r t o f t h e g u t t h a t f o r m s t h e h u m p o n t h e h e a d w h e n r e t r a c t e d . L i k e o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e f a m i l y A g l a j i d a e , t h i s s e a s l u g i s a h e r m a p h r o d i t e ; h a v i n g e n c o u n t e r e d e a c h o t h e r , t w o i n d i v i d u a l s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t r a n s f e r s p e r m t o e a c h o t h e r . T h e e g g m a s s e s c o n t a i n 5 , 0 0 0 t o 7 0 , 0 0 0 e g g s i n s t r a n d s , c l u m p e d t o g e t h e r t o f o r m a b a l l o o n - s h a p e d m a s s w h i c h i s a n c h o r e d t o t h e s u b s t r a t e b y a m u c u s f i l a m e n t . T h e e g g s h a t c h a f t e r f o u r t o t e n d a y s .

Distribution and habitat

Tubulophilinopsis gardineri is a moderately sized sea slug found in shallow waters of the Indo-Pacific region, specifically on sandy or muddy substrates. Its distribution ranges from South Africa and Tanzania to Japan and Fiji, with a depth range of up to 20 meters.

"Tubulophilinopsis gardineri" is named after collector of the type series, (John) Stanley Gardiner. "Tubulophilinopsis gardineri" is a moderately large sea slug, growing to a length of about . It is relatively broad compared to its length, and has a broad headshield with a pronounced hump. This has a pointed posterior end, but this can appear nearly straight when the animal is moving around. The headshield is used for digging and burrowing into the substrate. Behind the headshield is a body shield which contains the remnants of a thin shell, and bears two, rounded lobes at the back. On either side of the body are lateral outgrowths known as parapodia which curve in towards the centre of the body. The colour of this sea slug is very distinctive, being dark brown or black, with a thin, bright blue margin to the shields, posterior lobes and parapodia. There are sometimes a few white or yellow lines on the dorsal surface of the body. This sea slug could be confused with "Chelidonura varians" which has very similar colouring, but has the lobes at the back of the body shield drawn out into long pointed tips, the left one always being longer than the right. Another similar species is "Philinopsis speciosa", but it lacks the distinctive hump on the head, and has a notable pointed extension at the back of its headshield. "Tubulophilinopsis gardineri" is native to shallow water in the Indo-Pacific region, its range extending from South Africa and Tanzania, to Japan and Fiji. It occurs on sandy or muddy substrates and its depth range is down to about . All the members of the family Aglajidae are predators; "Tubulophilinopsis gardineri" is diurnal and probably feeds on polychaete worms and other sea slugs. It can move quite rapidly, and can follow the mucus trail left by a sea slug, detecting it by means of sensory hairs beside its mouth. It has no radula, but may evert its mouth cavity and suck up its prey; it is this part of the gut that forms the hump on the head when retracted. Like other members of the family Aglajidae, this sea slug is a hermaphrodite; having encountered each other, two individuals simultaneously transfer sperm to each other. The egg masses contain 5,000 to 70,000 eggs in strands, clumped together to form a balloon-shaped mass which is anchored to the substrate by a mucus filament. The eggs hatch after four to ten days.